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Motor Gasolines Technical Review Motor Gasolines Technical Review Chevron Products Company fold Motor Gasolines Technical Review Motor Gasolines Technical Review Technical Gasolines Motor Chevron Products Company Products Chevron Chevron Products Company 6001 Bollinger Canyon Road San Ramon, CA 94583 www.chevron.com/products/ourfuels/prodserv/fuels/ technical_safety_bulletins/ Chevron Products Company is a division of a wholly owned subsidiary of Chevron Corporation. © 2009 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. Chevron is a trademark of Chevron Corporation. Recycled/RecyclableRecycled/recyclable paper paper 10M IDC 69083 06/09 MS-9889 (06-09) center The products and processes referred to in this document are trademarks, registered trademarks, or service marks of their respective companies or markholders. Motor Gasolines Technical Review Written, edited, and designed by employees and contractors of Chevron Corporation: Lew Gibbs, Bob Anderson, Kevin Barnes, Greg Engeler, John Freel, Jerry Horn, Mike Ingham, David Kohler, David Lesnini, Rory MacArthur, Mieke Mortier, Dick Peyla, Brian Taniguchi, Andrea Tiedemann, Steve Welstand, David Bernhardt, Karilyn Collini, Andrea Farr, Jacqueline Jones, John Lind, and Claire Tom. Chapter 5 prepared by Jack Benson of AFE Consulting Services. Motor Gasolines Technical Review (FTR-1) © 2009 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. center The products and processes referred to in this document are trademarks, registered trademarks, or service marks of their respective companies or markholders. Motor Gasolines Technical Review Written, edited, and designed by employees and contractors of Chevron Corporation: Lew Gibbs, Bob Anderson, Kevin Barnes, Greg Engeler, John Freel, Jerry Horn, Mike Ingham, David Kohler, David Lesnini, Rory MacArthur, Mieke Mortier, Dick Peyla, Brian Taniguchi, Andrea Tiedemann, Steve Welstand, David Bernhardt, Karilyn Collini, Andrea Farr, Jacqueline Jones, John Lind, and Claire Tom. Chapter 5 prepared by Jack Benson of AFE Consulting Services. Motor Gasolines Technical Review (FTR-1) © 2009 Chevron Corporation. All rights reserved. Table of Contents Introduction . .i 5 • Gasoline Engines and Selected Systems . 61 Conventional Engine Technology 1 • Gasoline and Driving Performance . 1 Combustion Cycle Volatility Engine Structure Vapor Pressure Air System Distillation Profile Intake Air Pressurizing Vapor-Liquid Ratio Positive Crankcase Ventilation Vapor Lock Index Fuel System Driveability Index Carburetors Volatility Specifications Injectors Antiknock Performance Storage Octane Number Requirement Exhaust System Power Catalytic Converter Fuel Economy Exhaust Gas Recirculation Factors Affecting Fuel Economy Control Systems Fuel Economy Road Test Fuel Control Other Performance Factors Spark Control On-board Diagnostics 2 • Gasoline and Air Quality . 13 Advanced Engine Technology Progress in the United States Conventional Engine Modifications Legislation Direct Injection Administration/Regulation Variable Valve Timing Air Quality Standards Cylinder Deactivation Air Pollutants Variable Compression Ratio Origin of Vehicle Emissions Controlled Autoignition Combustion Vehicle Emissions: Limits Alternative Engine Technology Inspection and Maintenance Hybrid Gasoline-Electric Vehicle Emissions: Gasoline Effects Fuel Cell Electric Reformulated Gasolines European Union 6 • Gasoline Vehicles — Deposit Control . 77 Japan Engine Deposits and Performance Historical Development of Deposit Control Additives 3 • Gasoline Refining and Testing . 31 No Harm and Compatibility Composition Emissions About Hydrocarbons Required Additive Use Refining TOP TIER Detergent Gasoline Raw Material Aftermarket Additives Refining Processes The Modern Refinery Handling Gasoline Safely . 83 Processing Changes Required by Air Pollution Regulations Questions and Answers . .89 Blending Contamination and Adulteration Sources of More Information . .95 Gasoline Additives Specifications Abbreviations . .99 4 • Oxygenated Gasoline . .53 Index . 103 Chemistry Use Sources Specifications Performance Issues Introduction In May 1876, Nicolaus Otto built the first practical four-stroke-cycle internal combustion engine powered by a liquid fuel. By 1884, he concluded development of his engine with the invention of the first magneto ignition system for low-voltage ignition. The liquid fuel used by Otto became known as gasoline in the United States; elsewhere it may be known as gasolina, petrol, essence, or benzin (not to be confused with the chemical compound benzene). Although the U.S. petroleum industry was almost 50 years old when the first Model T rolled off Henry Ford’s production line in 1908, gasoline and the automobile grew up together. The industry was born in August 1859 near Titusville, Pa., when a drilling effort financed by Edwin Drake hit crude oil at a depth of 70 feet (21 meters). The major product in the early years wasn’t gasoline; it was lamp oil, called coal oil or kerosene.1 People were reading more and wanted better light than that provided by candles and whale oil lamps. The natural gasoline in crude oil was a surplus byproduct. Being too volatile to use in lamps, it was burned at refineries, dumped, or converted to a gaseous fuel for gas lights. The development of the electric light and the astonishing popularity of the automobile in the first decades of the 20th century turned the petroleum industry’s focus from kerosene to gasoline. In 1911, gasoline sales exceeded kerosene sales for the first time. The simple engines in the first cars ran on almost any liquid that burned. As the demand for power increased and engines became more sophisticated, gasoline was recognized as the right fuel for the spark-ignition internal combustion engine.2 Drivers can obtain the performance they expect only when the characteristics of the fuel they use match the fuel requirements of the engines in their cars. As a result of this correlation, the gasoline engine and its fuel matured as mutually dependent partners. An engine was not designed without considering the gasolines available in the marketplace. In turn, gasoline was not made without considering the requirements of the engines that would burn it. The partnership became a triumvirate in the last decades of the 20th century as environmental considerations began to change both engine design and gasoline characteristics. This review collects information about all three members of the triumvirate in one place. The major focus is gasoline – its performance, characteristics, refining and testing, and safe use. Significant space is also devoted to the operation of modern engines and to the impact of environmental regulations on both engines and fuels. Numerous cross-references emphasize how interconnected these topics are. We hope readers will find the review a source of valuable information, whether they read it from cover to cover or focus on an area of interest. Please note: The information in this review may be superseded by new regulations or advances in fuel or engine technology. 1 Both the names coal oil and kerosene were holdovers from the previous decades when lamp oil was distilled from coal. Kerosene, a corruption of the Greek words for wax and oil, was one American company’s brand name for coal oil. 2 Petroleum Panorama, The Oil and Gas Journal, 57 (5), January 28, 1959. i 1 • Gasoline and Driving Performance When drivers think about gasoline, their thoughts rarely go beyond filling up or checking prices. Because gasoline almost always performs well, drivers forget what a sophisticated product it is. More thought would reveal a demanding set of performance expectations: • An engine that starts easily when cold, warms up rapidly, and runs smoothly under all conditions. • An engine that delivers adequate power without knocking. • A vehicle that provides good fuel economy and generates low emissions. • A gasoline that does not add to engine deposits or contaminate or corrode a vehicle’s fuel system. Although proper vehicle design and maintenance are necessary, gasoline plays an important role in meeting these expectations. This chapter discusses how gasoline’s characteristics affect driving performance. VOLATILITY Driveability describes how an engine starts, warms up, and runs. It is the assessment of a vehicle’s response to the use of its accelerator relative to what a driver expects. Driveability problems include hard starting, backfiring, rough idling, poor throttle response, and stalling (at idle, under load, or when decelerating). The key gasoline characteristic for good driveability is volatility – a gasoline’s tendency to vaporize. Volatility is important because liquids and solids don’t burn; only vapors burn. When a liquid appears to be burning, actually it is the invisible vapor above its surface that is burning. This rule holds true in the combustion chamber of an engine; gasoline must be vaporized before it can burn. For winter weather, gasoline blenders formulate gasoline to vaporize easily. Gasoline that vaporizes easily allows a cold engine to start quickly and warm up smoothly. Warm-weather gasoline is blended to vaporize less easily to prevent engine vapor lock and other hot fuel handling problems and to control evaporative emissions that contribute to air pollution. It is important to note that there is no single best volatility for gasoline. Volatility must be adjusted for the altitude and seasonal temperature of the location where the gasoline will be used. Later, this chapter will explain how gasoline specifications address this requirement. Three properties are used to measure gasoline volatility in the United States:
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