Bull. Hist. Chem. 2 (1998) 1

1995 DEXTER AWARD ADDRESS THE CHEMICAL ORIGINS OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Wll . r, Unvrt f tr

I hld l t thn th xtr Crprtn ll In ft, n hlr hv pntd t drn th Chr nd br f th xtr Ard C th lt dd r , th dpln f ph tt, bth prnt nd bnt, fr th hnr. I fl n t td nl rd t lt n th nntnth prd t jn th rtr f ln ln f dtnhd ntr, rfltd b th ft tht bth th rth nd htrn trtn th lph Opr n 6 nd t pll rn t jn th lt f n UK hldr f th hnr tht bn th hn d nd h n ldd h lltr n l MK, J. . rtntn, ph dh, nd r rntl h frnd rvr Wll, M. . Crlnd, brt Andrn, nd Cln ll. h ltr ddtd t th r f th lt Sdn Edltn. Aprt fr rt nd , ht dtnh n, dn, nd nnrn fr ll thr fr f vtnl trnn th lbrtrrhp l tn n hh t t pl. In th ppr I l t th rltn btn nntnthntr ph nd h tr nd ndr th dvlpnt f prtl ph thn n th UK nd USA. I hv tn tt rr ttrbtd t nn b Sr nr : "En Chr dr n hr t, t r nht" — ht h nt l pht n ht (. Althh drn ph t ht ll ntr th nfrtn tht h tr rl prt f ph, ht ll pt t n th prt tht nn ntndd, nl tht h t hld b ntrl phlphr th brdr pr William H. Brock ptv nd nd thn tht f r nlt h t xpln phl ll hl prprt, rnh hl St r fndd n th 80 nd t d tht th t nd rp nd th prn (2. fr thn, ph (r, trtl pn, prt pl f tht nd ph. l ph ppd t thtl ph hh 2 ll. t. Ch. 2 (8

dd hv t n tn vr h prt f h rn f th ph lbrtr — fr undergradu- tr, rl nntnthntr txtb nfr. ates and certificated students ppd t lbr h lt 86, th xtn ntnt f hn Crll tr p l hn n Gl nd Mxll rh hrtlvd Laboratory rfr ll t h t Cbrd n hh dvnd (ptrdt tdnt l p, nt phl n. r nrd t hlp prfr th rrh t nthr , th pndrbl bd f ht, prbl (6. h pnr hr r ndbtdl t lht nd ltrt rnd prt f htr ntl b frr ht, Gr Cr tr nd rdr d thn th npt f nr nd ltrn Gthr, th n t Unvrt Cll ndn, th thr t n th 80 nd 860. It nt rprn, thr t th l Shl f Mn (r rl Shl f S fr, tht n nntnthntr ht h n t b n Sth Knntn. nd h pltl flld nn ltr phr n thr r dd th t n trn d fr prn rr n rh tvt, hn n fr r ltr dplnr rn htr fr nrtn n n ph th prptv f ph, r l pht thn n? t xn h n n trn nd l fr n ht. rd th t bv , nd thr n thrd. l AndréMr Apr, nr nlt, Gtv Mn, nd h Andr l prn t nd. GEOGE CAEY OSE (8 ( ll nn r th f ht h x pltd thr prtl lbrtr ll t rt th A h, nrv n nd n f nhr l n prr n ph t th vr t hn th b prntr, tr ndbtdl d dbt fr h rr jt rn n tn dpln n th t th rt thrtl ht f th 840 nd 80, 80. A Gr Cr tr rnd n 4, "th Alxndr Wll Wlln, th h tr td trnfrtn ..., fr ht nt pht d htr bfr brfl tn h prnl frl n phnnn...(" h prn tnt fr 8 t 88. In 88 Wlln pd pll bt t f th httrnd pht. tr ff t th ntnnt t td th Klé t Ghnt, th 60 nd 0, th 860 nd 80 r l n n r (nfntl rfr f xpr ldn fr n lbrtr nd d bld ntl ph t th Srbnn h h ntr n n Grt rtn (4. In 866 Cr tr bn t td n ltrl prbl, nd th n rvtdznt, th prtl ph t Unvrt Cll — t b fl Gr Qn, t dlbr — ppl f nn h ld thr r ltr b W. G. Ad t rvl Kn t pnd lft dvtd t rn nd l Cll. tn 8 nd 84 th Cvndh ph ltn dt n th prprt nd ntnt f trl l lbrtr pnd t th Unvrt f C (8. brd, th fttn dnd b Clr Mxll r th xprn tr rtrnd t rtn bd pn th xprn f th Clrndn lbrtr n 860 nt nl au fait th Klé trtrl thr, t Oxfrd nd f Wll hn lbrtr t bt th dft hnd n rnh nd Grn xprn Gl. In 84 lbrtr r pnd t th n tl ph. tn 8 nd 86 fnd tr l vl Cll t Grnh, nd n ll ddrn th rth Atn n rn nn r pnd t rtl nd d. In 88 Alfrd ltr (..,h rndd th tr l t n Wtrh th Unvrt Cll pnd n dt dffrn f H2 n rbn r, n th nl vrpl, th t xtrrdnr trd hl lb f Grhrdt homologous fr dffrn f C 2, rtr dnd b Cpbll rn Shffld nd n "rnt prr n rn htr." l rpndd th rth Cll n 8 nd th dd rt p h Ghnt r th Klé n hppr nd ndd n 880 th th pnn f Mn Cll n ppr d. On h rtrn Wlln hd fnd rnh nd th bnnn f th n Ct & Gld ptn fr tr n th prvt ndn lbrtr f f ndn Inttt bt bldn prr fr At Mtthn (nthr ppl f nn h thnl dtn — pltd n 884 nbr rtd t rtn n 8 hr tr prdd hnl Cll n th t f ndn nd n 88, t thnll xllnt r n th ntttn f th l Sth Knntn, th Wtrh lnt Qn ld nrtn. Anntl Cntrl Intttn (. Mnhl, n 862, n d t Wlln nd A pld, lthh th bl f th bldn t h Stth ntt, tr ppntd t hr tvt dvtd t pnn lrr nd bttr fl t Andrn Cll n Gl, nt hvr n h ttd htr lbrtr, th dd l th tr, bt n ntrl phlph. rfr, thrfr, tr bltd t ltr n th pt f ph

ll. t. Ch. 2 (8

tht h bt n fr h trnn th Wlln Cll rtd th Cr tr h brtr tht ht, nd n nd Qn pht, dtrd n th 4 r, nd nld tht nl ht nd ltrt. h r bth bjt h hd trnd Enlnd nxt nrtn f pht tht h ntrbtd rtl n t nr Wtt Dictio- h Wll Artn, Olvr d, nd Abr nary of Chemistry n 86. (Indntll, h n f ln. tr rtrd n 88, nl t b d rn hv ntd th nfn f th pbltn hh pl (rvt f th Cll, hr h pld ldn hld b Wll Cr n th Chemical News rl n th nttn tht ld n 00 t th rnt n t pltn n fv vl n 868 "th rt ttn f th Unvrt f ndn bth thn t r hh Énlnd h vr prdd n h nd xnn bd. tr, [ndd] n f th rtt h h prdd n On ppl rlld (: n bjt (?" nrv nnr prvntd Cr tr vr b Whl tr n Stlnd, nd bldn n th n d ltrr, nd h flr n th rpt b f th ntrdtn f th S dr thn n d, n ddtn, t nntn tht d dn Unvrt, Wlln nd thr nr prfr t dfflt fr h t b ntnt th pl tt t Unvrt Cll prdd th drpt rfr nt tht h n t b nl n pprxt xpr f trl hlph, njn ttr, t t rl n f trth, nd t th t d h rl rtrnt. h trl hlph hr thn d tnt t dpt th tr thd f lltrtn vdd nt hr f thtl ph (rdd t phl l b th f pl, lthh ntrl th tr, h Arhr rt nd xprntl nr, xprntl dt. In pl f th, h ph, hh nt t tr n Otbr 86. A Kth lltrtn ld ftn nt f th tl rlt f lbrtr rnt, nd th nr t r h ntd n rvrd th (0, t th t, n dnt, nl th r f rthr xptnl tp, 86, Wlln htr llb, hh hd hth r pt t l bth ttntn nd ntrt n th d rt ntnd d dl f lntr ht, ltr tl f lbr pttn. t, nd pt, n b lt pltl h l b th bjt r n t b tht b ptn n hn tdnt h t ndt thr tr. h f thn ph prtl fr xprnt ftn nvlvd h tn vr pltl. htr hd bn n rtn bprdt f n hrtr nt nndl bt hrdl d dn ht fl pn t t n d p b Olvr d n th phr: " fr fr r rdd b th Unvrt f ndn. Cndn flnt, nd h nnt bt xprn tll, f r, h hn l rld vlbl hlf rrtl tht t h fld t xpr t fr th rpdl nrn nld f rn hlf t ll (4." htr tht ht l Wlln ntd t th (. EEICK GUIE (8 886 ( W nd nt fll tr ptl dfflt n If Gthr rbrd t ll b htrn f n thn ph f ntttv prn. Sff t nd dtn, t th trrbl prtrt f h pntd tht ntll h hd t d th r dj b . G. Wll n h Autobiography ( tht t nt t th ltr thtr bfr nn pl f n th nd. Wll trnd t b ndr hl rhplbrtr p n th bnt f Unvr n thr t th rl Shl f Sn t Sth t Cll. Undr th rpd ndtn, nd Knntn n 88. Aftr prn xl bl rn fr th rth Atn Ctt n l r fr t bdn ntrt, Wll rt (6: trl tndrd, n 82 h trnfrd th Whttn brd nt prn ntrnt ll nn n rt rfr Gthr, th rfr f h, n th Cr tr rd. It prtnt t nt n f vr dffrnt txtr fr th n. tht b pprt xpnv, tr nd h pprd dll, l, dtrht, hvlbrdd n th nrl fft f nvr hvn fll hn (Wll Grnt ftn dnd nd d thr nd t th nvr bt h. n pnt. In th80 tr pnd fr ph th Wtn nflttrn prtrt f lnd rnln n n hl, rt nd dtd txt, nd n th880 n The Double Helix, Wll , I thn, trn t v rd trnl fr th prtn f prtl ph n hnt prn f h fln n t nd th vl f rt rnt fndtn dnt frt r rlr h dt tht h nl lrnd fr rrh (2. rrd n 8 hn th ltr tht Gthr ffrn fr thrt nr t ll. t. Ch. 2 (8

Bunsen at dlbr, nd thn ndr Klb t Mrbr, hh h drbd t h frnd nr (h h hd t t Unvrt Cll ndn "th drr vll f dltn (" , hvr, t hv t n th Klb vr ll, th lttr drbn h " lldtd n ... vr ndtr .. nd x trl n (20." Wht Gthr d f Klb n fl f h t tr t rft Wlln thr f thrftn ltrltll ld b ntrtn t n. h dtrt rnd fll n 86 fr n xprntl td f th lt nd tr d rvd fr l thr nd ld n t ht ppr n rn htr, nldn th frt prprtn f trd n 860. In v f tr r n nr tn, t ntrn t nt tht Gthr th frt ht t pnt t th thrpt tn f l n trt (th ntr d tr f l lhl, thh t vdltr n hrt d nt prvn ntl th r f th phrlt, h dr rntn, n 86. rntn td r drtl n prd b th f Alxndr Cr rn, th succes- Frederick Guthrie, courtesy Oesper Collection, sor t n lfr t th Unvrt f Ednbrh. University of Cincinnati Gthr hd td lfr n Ednbrh btn 8 nd 86, ftr rvn n lr pt th th t f th prn n 88 bt nl Wtn, rnlnd t On Cll, Mnhtr fr 86 t Wll, hl dttn tht h hd bn n nrl nd 8. Evrthn d t pnt Gthr trd nprnpld tdnt, was nfrvn. Gthr n fl rr n htr. r hd nl "rtl nhnd th ldn tphr vr, n 86 Gthr d n xtrrdnr f h thn .....Qt prt fr tht, h nt n rr v, nprd, prhp, b h brthr r nprn thr... t pt t plnl, [Gthr] ndrd n thr n Sth Afr (21). Along dt llrhlld ft. nvr d nthn tht with Walter nt, th ftr nvlt nd ltrr rt, nt t b fnd n txtb (." Gthr b rfr f trl hlph t d th h brllnt dltn jb (bt nt th l Cll n Mrt. h frr Il d tht Wll fld h Athp, htrn hv bn rn, Mrt hd b n Enlh ln ftr rltnt t pt tht Gthr, ln th h ll 8 rlt f th pln Wr. Whn rn t Sth Knntn . . xl nd Edrd vtd th lnd n M 86 h fnd ltvtd fld, rnlnd, nd ltr nr Artrn, Wll Artn, r n plnttn, bhp, pr h, nd nd hn rr, n f th rt nnvtr f trrd rd th nfrd b nt who writes trn n thn. Wht r t f f t bn " nd bl pl" hr th pr Gthr ddtn, rrdd b d (8: dntd (22. nt rt f Gthr (23): There was a time when Guthrie lived a curious life; ...a man of infinite good qualities. He was my most he would not leave his laboratory, even at night. He intimate friend from our first meeting in 1861 to his had a hammock rigged up, and used to live in the death in 1886. It is difficult to speak of him in terms laboratory. adequate. He was a humorist in an odd, indescrib- able way; he did strange things gravely; he was a Gthr, h prbbl f Stth ntr, th delightful donkey in money matters; when he drew n f ndn tlr. r ldr thn tr, his salary — £50 a month -- he prepaid his mess ex- l h h dtd t Unvrt Cll Shl penses, and then stuffed the rest in his pocket and nd th Cll bfr tdn htr th Gr gave it to whoever asked for it, or they took it. Hence h nd Wlln, ll nr Wtt, h hd he was popular with the broken down Englishmen of bn h prvt ttr ntl th f tlv. shady antecedents who hung about Port Louis. He tr, Gthr hd n t Grn n 84 t r th never had any money; never saved any; always Bull. Hist. Chem. 21 (1998) 5

muddled it away. Like many such men, he was not unhappy with the Principal, an ex-Austrian army officer satisfied with his scientific reputation; he wanted to who continually upset the local French population. be a poet. He published two [pseudonymous] vol- Eventually Besant complained to the island's Governor, umes of poetry, both with the same result. He was who carried out a Commission of Inquiry. Although the also clever as a modeller, but he neglected this gift. Principal was eventually removed, his reinstatement in He did some good work in the colony in connection 1867 brought about Besant's and Guthrie's resignation with the chemistry of sugar cane. in 1867 and their return to England. Guthrie's two poetic attempts are not without interest, Back in England, Guthrie landed on his feet teach- for their subject matter on both occasions was the out- ing science at Clifton College, Bristol, the proprietary sider: the Jew and the Gypsy. They were both pub- school which was also later to have John Perry, Arthur lished under the pseudonym of Frederick Cerny; whether Worthington, and William Shenstone on its staff, and the choice of name was significant, we cannot say. The Eric Holmyard in the twentieth century. Here he pol- Jew (1863), a Miltonesque and Dante-esque meditation ished off a paper on heat which he sent to John Tyndall, on the problem of evil, seen through the eyes of a Jew who arranged for publication, and who saw to it that who offered no solace to Christ on the march to Cal- Guthrie succeeded him at the in vary, is not without fine moments, and may be inter- Piccadilly, London a year later. In 1872 the School was preted as a defense of "seeking knowledge" in order to to move to South Kensington, where Huxley, Frankland, improve a sinful and intransigent world. A decade later, and Guthrie had improved laboratory facilities for teach- drawing upon one of the stories in George Borrow's ing practical biology, chemistry, and physics. At this Gypsies of Spain, Guthrie published an illustrated two- Normal School of Science, Guthrie and his colleagues act metric drama, Logroño (1877). This passionate story not only trained would-be science teachers like H. G. of a scholar, a gypsy, and a lascivious count, surrounded Wells, but under the sponsorship of the Department of by a chorus of courtiers, burghers, gypsies, peasants, Science and Art they were able to set up annual summer and flower girls, reads like the libretto of a tragic opera. schools to improve the practical teaching skills of exist- One cannot help regretting that Verdi or Puccini never ing teachers. came across the script As Jensen noted some years ago in Chemistry in Besant's reference to Guthrie's carelessness over Britain, Guthrie joined the Chemical Society in April, money is interesting. Like the Anglo-German chemist, 1868, and promptly described a voltastat to deliver a A. W. Hofmann, Guthrie married four times (three of constant voltage from a battery, and offered an intrigu- his wives appear to have died in childbirth), and his ing paper "On graphic formulae." The latter suggested widow and her three step-children were left in penury the replacement of Crum Brown's recently introduced in 1886. Huxley launched an appeal in Nature and she graphic formulae by pictorial geometrical symbols which evidently received a pension from the civil list (24). indicated combining power. At the meeting Guthrie's It is Besant who also informs us that already in suggestion was treated with derision by William Odling Mauritius, Guthrie was a confirmed agnostic, "who and it led to some correspondence in Chemical News thought it his duty to learn such of the secrets of nature and, amusingly, to some buffoonry at the B-Club to as he could, and not trouble himself about speculations which both Foster and Odling belonged (28). as to the secrets of life, either before the cradle or after In reply, Guthrie showed his sense of humor in re- the grave (25)." This does much to explain how Guthrie torting that Odling's own dash valency notation was in got on so well later with Tyndall, Frankland, and Huxley reality a system of graphic formulae (29): at South Kensington. Guthrie was one of the new sci- Dr. Odling appeared shocked at the idea of an atom ence professionals, convinced that science, not religion, of nitrogen supporting three "sticks" one in each hand, was the key to human progress and happiness (26). Like and one on its head. Strange objection from one who Tyndall and Huxley, he lectured regularly to working- years ago trained his atom of nitrogen the much more class men (27). difficult acrobatic feat of balancing simultaneously Examinations for The Royal College in Mauritius three sticks on the tip of its nose, — N"' were administered by the University of London, but in on the subject of Guthrie's sense of humor and the absence of a proper chemical laboratory there, While geniality even when under attack, let me mention two Guthrie was thrown upon his own resources, investigat- other examples that seem to confirm that Wells unfortu- ing the physics of droplets and bubbles, analyzing local nately completely misinterpreted his teacher's person- river water and commenting upon sugar cane. As Besant makes clear in his autobiography, the professoriate was ality. 6 Bull. Hist. Chem. 2 (1998)

First, in the Christmas issue of Nature in 1879, writ- picked upon the way Guthrie formulated a variation of ing under the pseudonym A. von Nudeln (i.e., Mr Maca- Hooke's law concerning the elongation of a wire, so that roni), Guthrie humorously ridicules a recent spate of if a length m is extended to become n, the original di- German writings on geometry and mathematical phys- ameter becomes d° m/n. The formula is correct, so pre- ics with a letter entitled "On the Potential Dimensions sumably Maxwell thought it odd for Guthrie to say it is of Differentiated Energy"(30): true if one assumes "the volume of the metal remains approximately unchanged." Guthrie's revenge was a In his great work, which appears to be but little known splendid verse in Éngland, Ueber die stille Bewegung hypotetischer a la Maxwell and in Scots dialect (35). Körper,Professor Hans points out that the dimen- sions of 'ideal' matter may not only differ in degree, "Remonstrance to a Respected Daddie anent his but also in kind. He deduces by means of implicit loss of temper" reasoning from his three primitive 'stations,' that not only must there be space of 4, 5 ,6 , etc. dimensions, WORRY, through duties Academic, but also that there must be space of -l, -3, -5, etc. and It might ha' e been that there may be space of -2, -4, -6 &c dimensions. That made ye write your last polemic Pursuing Hans's train of thought further, Lobwirmski Sae unco keen: has quite recently interpreted space of 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 Or intellectual indigestion &c dimensions...the same philosopher has also con- clusively shown that space of n.-1 exists [with] all O' mental meat, the properties of angular magnitude; like all partly Striving to solve some question bounded infinities (theilweise begränzte Fro' "Maxwell's Heat". Unendlichkeiten), it is unmagnifiable. Mayhap that mighty brain, in gliding Fro' space tae space, This piece of drollery ends with an obscure proof that Met wi' anither, an' collidin', the moon is, indeed, made of cheese. Guthrie's mixture Not face tae face. of simplicity and wisdom, kindliness dashed with a pun- But rather crookedly, in fallin' gent, but never caustic, humor, led one anonymous friend Wi' gentle list, (perhaps Besant) to compare him with the Uncle Toby Gat what there is nae help fo' callin' immortalised by Laurence Sterne in Tristram Shandy An ugly twist. (31). It 'twas your "demon" led ye blindly, This spoof probably supports Foster's contention Ye should na thank him, in an obituary that Guthrie, though trained by Augustus But gripe him by the lug and kindly De Morgan in mathematics, "was somewhat apt to un- But soundly spank him. derrate the scientific importance of the work of math- Sae, stern but patronising daddie! ematical physicists in comparison with that of pure ex- Don't ta'e't amiss, perimentalists (32)." His concentration on the physics If a puir castigated laddie of real things like drops and bubbles; thermal conduc- Observes just this: — tivity of liquids; salt solutions; the discovery of Ye've gat a braw new Lab'ratory "cryohydrates;" and the melting points of eutectic mix- Wi' a' the gears, tures, and his use of a very informal, homespun lan- Fro' which, the warld is unco sorry, guage to describe nature – all of this seems to have been 'Maist naught appears. anathema to James Clerk Maxwell (33). Although A weel-bred dog, yoursel' must feel, Guthrie was elected to the Royal Society in 1873, as a Should seldom bark. referee Maxwell continually found fault with papers that Just put your fore paws tae the wheel, Guthrie submitted to the Royal Society; and this was An' do some Wark. d° m/n undoubtedly the principal reason why Guthrie founded the Physical Society at the end of 1873 (34). Gooday has argued that following the 1867 Paris Exhi- It is again a remarkable example of Guthrie's abil- bition and the success of the electric telegraph, the sci- ity to deflect criticism that in 1878 he was able to reply entific community was able to promote the teaching of jokingly to Maxwell's pretty intemperate review of his precision measurement in physics laboratories on the textbook, Practical Physics, Molecular Physics and assumption that "hands-on" experience was better than Sound (35). Maxwell's particular gripe seems to have teacher demonstration if precision were to be achieved. been Guthrie's language of exposition. For example, he Bull. Hist. Chem. 21 (1998) 7

In th frt pl, th ld h d fr nrn (. A nd vl, lrl dvtd t ltrt — rtnl nd rt rnn thn lbrl dtn " bjt bttr dptd thn n thr t th lbr nd n th nd, t ld b ntf ltrntv t tr t" — pprd n 86 nd nldd n p "rl f thb" thd f ndtrl pprnthp, pndx hh ffrd dv n th plnnn f ph th nd fr hh th ltr tlrph hd xpd l lbrtr. (6. h prbl h t pt th nt fft. hr t rprnl n v f th ft tht rn r thr n ltn pt nt prt n th txt rvd n rn r Nature(40), 80 (. r v pblt t th MI prr n th Sxth In th frt, htr dl: vr tdnt ld prt f th vnhr Cn n Sntf In hv hd lr lltn f pprt. Whl th trtn, f hh h Srtr (4. Knld rd hpl nd ll n htr, hr prtl f rn thd f ltpl xprnt r dpndd n lttl r thn t f tt tb, pd p t l n rtn, prbbl fr bth fltr nd lt ppr, nd bnh t f tn th Nature rv nd fr th vnhr C drd hl, t ld hv bn xpnv t hv n. r xpl, n n n th thn f ph th l n lntr ph thn, hr pblhd b tr n th Educational Times, h rltvl xpnv ptl nd ltrl pprt r rfrrd pprvnl t th "Arn" thd f l nr. ltrntv ltn t th prbl f tpl lr xprnt (42. xpn r thrfr trd drn th 80: n It lr, thn, tht fr nn plnnn t ntd fr th Mhtt Inttt f hnl dvlp n ph thn lbrtr n th 80, nd prd t Erp th thr dvlpd b th prvn xprn f th MI lbrtr ld hv Gthr t Sth Knntn. bn d dl t p. h ft tht Wll Artn, On f th r rrbl rdt f MI n th ltrl nnr, lft ndn t th t th l 86 Edrd Chrl rn (846, Ennrn Cll n n 8, nl f rdt fr th rn Sn Shl t rvrd. nth ftr th pprn n tn f th frt vl Wll rtn r, MI rnpl, h thht f rn trt, tv. r t n tht th rn Shl tn th rn pprh pn tht Artn nd h hnl nnrn nd t n thn, nd blvn tht Ar dpr thtl ll, hn rr, pt th ltpl tl ndd prtl trnr nd pht rthr xprnt dl f thn nt rt fft. On thr thn nnr, ppntd rn t MI th th rtrn t ndn, th d th thd f prtl pf ntntn f ntrdn prtl ph th ntrtn f t th nbr hnl Cll, n nt th rrl. Enrd b r, n th fr hr t dptd b th Cvndh br fll f 868 rn fttd p tdnt lbrtr t tr nd thr ph thn ntttn (4. tn. Wth n Erpn dl t dr pn, nd Althh th thd f ntrtn dtnd nrn n hl prdnt, rn dvd h t b nvrl nd t th d th prfrrd n t f ph xprnt, pprt, nd ntr thd f thn prtl ph, thr ld hv tn fr tdnt t fll. bn ntll hh trtp t. Indd, ntl h t In rn t f ntrtn, hh l ntrnt r r rd p t n trd, ttl hp t prt nd dtnd t b n hp bt rlbl Whttn brd, lvntr, vrll dptd n hl nd nvrt, tdnt ln t, t., Gthr ltrntv pprh t rd nl r n pr t dffrnt xprnt, nd hv d nn. prdd n rttn fr n xprntl tbl t In Gthr t, dttd b . G. Wll, bt th nxt. Onl n t f xprntl pprt h drd b rtr n Nature, tdnt r r thrfr ndd pr tdnt pr. At h bnh pnt rd t thr n pprt, bfr nplt tdnt rvd rttn ntrtn n ht t d, n t xprntll (44. Gthr v ln nt rrd, nd ntrprt. h xprnt n thn f th thd nd th dtnl phlph bhnd t f rnt, th prprt f , nd, th n h Cntr tr t th St f Art n 88 hn f ld, nd th ntr f lht (nldn (4. A dd rlr, n 8, thr h r Wll phtrph, hvn bn ttd t t MI fr rrtt nfrd Nature's rdr f th thd d thr r fr r, r pblhd b rn n 8 tnl dvnt (46. Elements of Physical Manipulation (8. thn h Stdnt ntd t npltn fnd t thr bl t dr pn th nflntl Grn txt n tnhnt, hn th bn, tht ll thr fnr hv nvrt lbrtr ph b rdrh Khlrh 8 Bull. Hist. Chem. 21 (1998) turned into thumbs, and they are amazed at their clum- dents either witnessed or conducted a definite number siness and stupidity. Very soon, however, fingers begin of experiments (50), so did Guthrie. In 1881 Guthrie's to reappear, and the very first successful piece of appa- Outline of experiments and description of apparatus and ratus that is made gives them a confidence in themselves material suitable for illustrating elementary instruction which they had thought impossible to attain. The plea- in sound, light, heat, magnetism, and electricity was sure of having made an instrument is increased a hun- published by the Department of Science and Art for sci- dredfold when it is found that by their own handiwork ence teachers. These recommendations not only influ- they may verify some of the more important laws of enced physics teaching in Britain but also in Japan and physics. America. Kannosuke Yoshioka, the Japanese translator Since the final examination depended entirely upon of Guthrie's Practical Physics (1877), incorporated the accuracy and reliability of the apparatus constructed Guthrie's recommendations and also arranged for a set by the student, there was additional incentive to ma- of apparatus to be displayed at the Tokyo Education nipulate with care and exactitude (47). Museum from 1895 (51). It appears, then, that Guthrie It must not be thought that students were literally played a significant posthumous role in rendering Japa- expected to make apparatus from scratch. Guthrie's pur- nese science teaching less didactic and more practical. pose was certainly not to train and produce instrument In America, there was little "hands-on" experimen- makers. Apart from needing their own set of tools — a tal work by high school students until the 1890s. Dr hammer, nails, and other basic tools — in practice they Alfred Gage, who opened an English (sic) High School received a kit which Guthrie's workman had already in Boston in 1880 and who published a practical text, prepared and which they individually assembled by fol- Elements of Physics, in 1882, significantly abandoned lowing printed instructions (48): teaching in order to make and supply scientific instru- ments for school use. In the same decade, Frank [h tdnt] rv th d nd tl ... t n Wigglesworth Clarke's report on the state of physics and p f th rht z. t hv t r chemistry teaching in American city schools showed that lttl ll n bndn nd bln l, nd n th f th ldrn rn. t ht hn bn less than ten percent possessed laboratories (52). This hld b tht th? situation began to change during the 1880s when Charles William Eliot, President of Harvard University, and him- The cost of materials for making the apparatus was some self a trained chemist, deliberately placed physics on £2, compared with the cost of purchasing a set from a the list of matriculation requirements. This led Edwin supplier for about £15 — a saving to the Department of H. Hall, Professor of Physics at Harvard, to draw up the Science and Art of £13. Moreover, the student (49): influential Harvard Descriptive List of Elementary finds himself at the end of the course with a set of appa- Physical Experiments in 1886. By 1902, Hall. was able ratus made by himself, and fully tested by himself; and to claim that practical physics teaching in American high he finds himself in possession of verifications of many schools was in advance of anything to be found in Eu- of the great generalisations of physics, which rope (53). generalisations, having been thus acquired by the simul- Initially, in 1886, Harvard allowed two alternatives: taneous working of brain and hand, he is slow to forget. either a written examination based upon designated text- Although Guthrie did not mention it, the method books of astronomy and physics; or a practical demon- also had an advantage over Pickering's system insofar stration based upon the matriculant's school experience as a newly-certificated science teacher from South of Hall's "course of experiments in the subject of me- Kensington could bring his own set of apparatus with chanics, sound, light, heat, and electricity, not less than him to his new school teaching post. This would have 40 in number (54)." Although these 40 experiments were been important where finances were tight and a new chosen from American texts like Pickering's Physical teacher had first to consolidate his position in a school Manipulation, they were also considerably influenced before he could argue for the purchase of apparatus from by British sources such as Guthrie's Practical Physics instrument suppliers. and A. M. Worthington's Physical Laboratory Practice Finally, we should note the wider influence of (1886). By the 1890s, Harvard insisted upon practical Guthrie on physics teaching in his capacity as examiner experience of physics for its entrants to science courses. for Department of Science and Arts examinations in heat, We may, therefore, conclude that, directly or indirectly, light, sound, electricity, and magnetism. Just as Edward Guthrie also influenced the rise of the elementary phys- Frankland exploited his examination position to lay ics laboratory in America. down a chemistry syllabus and to demand that all stu- Bull. Hist. Chem. 21 (1998)

By way of conclusion, I draw attention to the or- . d rtl td n f. 4, Sph rn ganic chemist Henry Edward Armstrong who, writing nd Gr Gd, "A fnd bl f bld in 1933, a year before Wells's cruel portrait of Guthrie n. vrt nd Advrt n th dvlpnt f l appeared in his autobiography, gave a Huxley Memo- l rhttr nd ntf dtn n thn History of Universities, 1994, rial Lecture in South Kensington. In this Armstrong tr Sth Knntn," 13, 2. suddenly makes an aside (55): 6. E.g., hn tdnt hlpn th Atlnt tlrph Gd th tp flr [xl], t bn prbl, r Mxll hlpn th ltr tndrd btn, dn bl n th bnt, b th ht r fr th rth Atn fr th Advnnt trndpht, Gthr, h dvlpd ll, f Sn. Gnrll, . Svdr, "h r f prtl r, n lfhlp ln, f xtrrdnr phl lbrtr n rtn," Hist.Studies Physical vl—ln n n th rphp, I fr, vn t Sceinces, 1976, , 406. t tht Svdr nf fnl t b th llprvv ltrn. It lttl th 80 Édtn At th th rtn f th prt hrt f hfl tht Sth Knntn h lt th nt f Sn nd Art. S l dpt btn rr b th brd – nrrdd. l rthl ph nd d vr th rl f nbr Cll n th th ftdpprn rt. Cnnt n b fnd t n f ph, Nature, 1908-1909, 79, 4, 28, . rvr th r, f nl t pt t n n . r btr, O. d, Proc.Roy.Soc., 1920, 96, th rth M, nnt f frr rt xvxv. nd Philos. Mag., 1919, [6137, 20 A. . n. n ( ppl nd A. W. Wlln nnl, Trans, Chem. Soc., 1919, 115, 442 d l prbbl Perhaps this essay goes some way towards satisfying rt Nature, 1918-1919, 102, 480 l . . Armstrong's hope. By recalling Bunsen's aphorism and llt, University College London, 1826-1926, Unvr by resurrecting Foster and Guthrie from the scrapheap t Cll, ndn. 2, pp. . r tr of history it has been possible to reveal something of ppr, Roy. Soc. Catalogue of Scientific Papers, their and other chemists' roles in the establishment of vl., MSO nd CU, ndn nd Cbrd, 86 practical physics teaching. 2, rt. 8. Wlln hlf hd tdd prtl ph th EEECES A OES nrh ff hl h tdnt n b lbr tr n Gn. . prf th rr b n tht nn "n 9. Chem. News, l , 868, pp. 80. tntl prd pn ll h ppl th nt fr 0. r, f. 2, pp. 26 nd 2. ht f thrh trnn n tht nd h . S . S. . Crdll, The Organisation of Science in tr." . E. , nn Mrl tr, n England, rv. d., nnn, ndn, 2, Ch. 4 nd Chem. Soc. Memorial Lectures 1893-1900, Chl . rt, The University of London 1836-1986, Athln St, ndn, 00, p. 4. r, ndn, 86, pp. 0. 2. K. A. r, h Érn f h n ntnth 2. S d btr f tr, f. nd tr, In Cntr rtn Sll Ornzd Ctr f trdtn t Adlf . Wnhld, Introduction to Ex- Knld. rlnr Std. h. h, rvrd perimental Physics. Theoretical and Practical includ- Unvrt, . Ml, "dpl nd fr: ing Directions for Constructing Physical Apparatus and pt f th prfnlztn f rth ph, for making Experiments, nn, Grn, ndn, 80," Social Studies of Science, 1977, 42 8. 446 G. Gd, "rn rnt nd th n . S n btr f tr, f. , p. 424. f ph thn lbrtr n trn rt 4. d, f. , p. xv. n," Brit. . Hist. Sci., 1990, 23, 2 M. . Crlnd . Obtr nld: C. tr, Nature, 1886-1887, 35, nd C. Sth, "h trnn f ph fr rn 80, nd Proc. Phys. Soc., 1887, 8, Proc. Geol. t rtn, 1800-1840,"Historical Studies in the Physi- Soc., 1887, 43, 48. Intrnl, nl tr, Gthr cal Sciences, 1978, , l6 M. Crlnd, In the Shadow h n ntr n Dictionary of National Biography , bt of Lavoisier. The Annales de Chimie and the Establish- h nrd b th Chl St dpt hvn ment of a New Science, rt. S. t. S. Mnrph bn fll n 868. r Gthr ppr, . , rndn, Oxn, 4, Ch. nd 8. Roy. Soc. Catalogue of Scientific Papers, f. , r . "Intrdtn t th rt Gthr tr," Trans. Phys. t. Soc., 1914, 26, 84. 6. . G. Wll, Experiment in Autobiography, l. l, 4. h prrph tn fr "h lbrtr f Gllnz, ndn, 4, p. 20. nbr hnl Cll" n . A. . . , Ed., . f. 6., p. 2. The Development of the Laboratory, Mlln, 8. d t th bl f th hl St 24, bnd nt, 8, Ch. , p. . n pl f Proc. Phys. Soc., 1924, p. .

10 Bull. Hist. Chem. 21 (1998)

. Ctd b A. . , The Quiet Revolution, Unvrt 8. E. C. rn, Elements of Physical Manipulation, l. Clfrn r, rl, , p. .20. , htn Mffln, tn, 8 l. 2, htn f. ., p. 2. Mffln, tn, 86. h nd vl nldd 2. Gthr brthr, rn (8, rd tht xprnt n ltrt, ht, trl nd nd l t Unvrt Cll ndn bfr bn trn. h vl r ddtd t r, "th rfr f Mtht t Grf nt Cll n frt t prp phl lbrtr." h frt vl SthAfr n 86. Crdtd td th pnr r pblhd b Mlln n ndn n 84, th n th 4lr prbl, h b rfr f Mth th nd pprn n 86. Mlln l pblhd t t Cp n Cll (prnt Unvrt f th xth nltrd Arn dtn n 886. Cp n n 88. l dtnhd bt . . W. G. Khlrh, Leitfaden der praktischen Physik, nt. S . . M. Iln, "Gthr, rn" n Dic- . G. bnr, pz, 80 trnltd An Introduc- tionary of South African Biography, tnl Cnl tion to Physical Measurements, . nd A. Chrhll, n fr Sl rh, Cp n, 2, l. 2, pp. 2 dn, 8. 80. 40. A rv b r, Nature, 10, l , 84, I60. 22. C. rn, Journal of Researches (made on] H.M.S. 4. Sxth prt f th vnhr Cn, Parliamen- Beagle, hn Mrr, ndn, 8,Evrn d. nt, tary Papers, 8 [C.2] III, p. ndn, 06, p. 46 l Autobiography of Sir Walter 42. Educational Times, brr l, 82, td b th Besant, thnn, ndn, 02, Ch. . rn hd vnhr Cn, rf. 4, p. 42. rd rndn d Sntrrptrl r 4. W. H. r, "h pn Cnnxn: Ennrn n n t n th lnd, Paul et Virginie, nn, 88 , ndn nd Gl t th nd f th nntnth Én. trn., Paul & Virginia and the Indian Cottage, W. ntr," Br. J. Hist. Sci., 1981, 14, 224, rprntd n S. Orr, ndn, 8. rhp th nvl nprd W. . r, Science for Allrr, Aldrht, 6 Gthr. W. . r, "ldn Enlnd frt thnl l 2. nt, f. 22, pp. I20. l: h lbrtr f nbr hnl Cll, 24. "Gthr Mrl nd," Chem. News, 1886, 54, 28 8826," n , f. 4. l Dictionary of National Biography ntr. 44. Wll, f. 6 Nature, 12, l 2, 8, 244. 2. f. 22, p. . 4. . Gthr, Cntr ltr, "Sn thn." J. Soc. 26. S . M. rnr, Between Science and Religion, Yl Arts, 1886, 34, "Sn n lnt n dtn," Unvrt r, vn, 4. 664 "On tff nd thn," 64660 nd "h 27. E.g., "On ht," Chem. News, 1873, 28, 284. n ph," 666. 28. Chem. News, Aprl 24, 868, pp 204 M 8, 46. Nature, 1875, 12, 24. 868, pp. 228 W. . nn, "Chl tr nd 4. f. 4, p. 66. thr," Chem.Brit., 1979, 15, 2. 48. f. 4. 29. Chem. News, M 8, 868, p. 22. 4. f. 4, p. 662. 0. "On th ptntl dnn f dffrnttd nr," 0. W. . r, The Norton History of Chemistry, rtn, Nature, 1879-1880, 21, 8. tr ntd h, hn Yr, , pp. 408. S C. A. ll, Ed- dlvrn ltr, "Gthr nnr t ward Frankland. Chemistry, Controversy and Con- lt prtntl ln, bt n rlt h fll spiracy in Victorian England, Cbrd Unvrt f drbl hr," Trans. Phys. Soc., 1914, 26, 84. r, Cbrd nd Yr, 6, Ch. 0. 31. Proc. Geol. Soc., 1886-1887, p. 48. Gthr hd bn . Yh trnltn f Gthr pprd n 8. r ll f th St. pn pprh t Gthr n 886, Gthr, 2. G. C. tr, "Gthr," Nature, 1886-1887, 35, . f. 4, p. 6. S . r nd W. . r, "h . hr d dn f th n G. Gd, r ntrdtn f hr nt pn," Hist. Educ., 1978, n Mrnt nd th Gn f h hn , 44, t pp. 8. brtr n trn rtn, h.. h, Unvr 2. h nd th flln prrph dr n Sdn t f Knt t Cntrbr,8. n, A History of Science Teaching in the American 4. On th fndtn f th hl St, r Public High School, tprpt, Unvrt f Illn, td n f. 2, pll tht f Gd. Urbn, 60. I nlr hthr th nrph , . C. Mxll, "Gthr h," Nature, 1879, 19, vr pblhd. t n "A tr f th 2 fr Gthr pt rpl, p. 84. h brtr n th Arn bl h 6, G. Gd, Br. J. Hist. Sci., rtl, f. 2 l Shl," Am. J. Phys., 1954, 22, 4204. tr ntrdtn t Wnhld, f. 2, pp.vx. r . A, Sth nd É. . ll, The Teaching of Chemistry hl hh dptd th txt, th fr f & and Physics in the Secondary School, nn, Grn, hrntht ffrd tl, trl nd pprt. Yr, 02, p. 0 td b Sr rn pprd, . h r dd b W. . rrtt, "rtl h "h n 00," n . pprd, Ed., Twentieth-Cen- ," Nature, l 2, 8, pp. 24. ll. t, Ch. 2 (8

tury Physics, , London, 1996, Vol. l, ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ch. l, p. 9. 54. Rosen, Ref. 52, typescript, p. 35. Wll (ll . r t rl rtrnt fr th 55. H. É. Armstrong, Our Need to Honour Huxley's Will, a Unvrt f tr UK, n Sptbr, , fl Huxley Memorial Lecture delivered May 4,1933, ln r thn th htr f science. He Macmillan, London, 1933; partly reproduced in W. H. th thr f th Norton History of Chemistry (New Brock, Ed., H. E. Armstrong and the Teaching of Sci- Yr, . Sn rvn th xtr Ard h has ence, 1880-1930, CUP, Cambridge, 1973, pp. 55-73. pblhd Justus von Liebig, The Chemical Gatekeeper (Cbrd Unvrt r, Yr.

IOSY O SCIECE ASSOCIAIO 16th BIENNIAL MEETING October 21 -15, 1998 Kn Ct, MO

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