Scalar Fields and Vector fields Definition
• A scalar field is an assignment of a scalar to each point in region in the space. E.g. the temperature at a point on the earth is a scalar field. • A vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point in a region in the space. e.g. the velocity field of a moving fluid is a vector field as it associates a velocity vector to each point in the fluid. Definition
• A scalar field is a map from D to ℜ, where D is a subset of ℜn. • A vector field is a map from D to ℜn, where D is a subset of ℜn. • For n=2: vector field in plane, • for n=3: vector field in space • Example: Gradient field
Line integral
• Line integral in a scalar field • Line integral in a vector field LINE INTEGRAL IN A SCALAR FIELD
MOTIVATION
A rescue team follows a path in a danger area where for each position the degree of radiation is defined. Compute the total amount of radiation gathered by the rescue team along the path .
RESCUE BASE Piecewise Smooth Curves Piecewise Smooth Curves
A classic property of gravitational fields is that, subject to certain physical constraints, the work done by gravity on an object moving between two points in the field is independent of the path taken by the object. One of the constraints is that the path must be a piecewise smooth curve. Recall that a plane curve C given by
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, a ≤ t ≤ b is smooth if are continuous on [ a, b] and not simultaneously 0 on ( a, b). Piecewise Smooth Curves
Similarly, a space curve C given by
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b is smooth if
are continuous on [ a, b] and not simultaneously 0 on ( a, b).
A curve C is piecewise smooth if the interval [ a, b] can be partitioned into a finite number of subintervals, on each of which C is smooth. Example 1 – Finding a Piecewise Smooth Parametrization
Find a piecewise smooth parametrization of the graph of C shown in Figure. Example 1 – Solution
Because C consists of three line segments C1, C2, and C3, you can construct a smooth parametrization for each segment and piece them together by making the last t value in Ci correspond to the first t value in Ci + 1 , as follows. Example 1 – Solution
So, C is given by
Because C1, C2, and C3 are smooth, it follows that C is piecewise smooth. Piecewise Smooth Curves
Parametrization of a curve induces an orientation to the curve.
For instance, in Example 1, the curve is oriented such that the positive direction is from (0, 0, 0), following the curve to (1, 2, 1). Line Integrals
You will study a new type of integral called a line integral for which you integrate over a piecewise smooth curve C.
To introduce the concept of a line integral, consider the mass of a wire of finite length, given by a curve C in space.
The density (mass per unit length) of the wire at the point (x, y, z) is given by f(x, y, z). Line Integrals
Partition the curve C by the points
P0, P1, …, Pn producing n subarcs , as shown in Figure. Line Integrals
The length of the ith subarc is given by ∆si.
Next, choose a point (xi, yi, zi) in each subarc. If the length of each subarc is small, the total mass of the wire can be approximated by the sum
If you let ||∆|| denote the length of the longest subarc and let ||∆|| approach 0, it seems reasonable that the limit of this sum approaches the mass of the wire. Line Integrals Line Integrals
To evaluate a line integral over a plane curve C given by r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, use the fact that
A similar formula holds for a space curve. Line Integrals
Note that if f(x, y, z) = 1, the line integral gives the arc length of the curve C. That is, Example 2 – Evaluating a Line Integral
Evaluate where C is the line segment shown in Figure. Example 2 – Solution
Begin by writing a parametric form of the equation of the line segment: x = t, y = 2t, and z = t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Therefore, x'(t) = 1, y'(t) = 2, and z'(t) = 1, which implies that Example 2 – Solution
So, the line integral takes the following form. Line Integrals
For parametrizations given by r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, it is helpful to remember the form of ds as • Just as for an ordinary single integral, we can interpret the line integral of a positive function as an area. In fact, if f(x, y) ≥ 0, f() x, y ds represents • ∫C the area of one side of the “fence” or “curtain” shown here, whose:
– Base is C.
– Height above the point (x, y) is f(x, y). • Now, let C be a piecewise-smooth curve.
– That is, C is a union of a finite number of smooth
curves C1, C2, …, Cn, where the initial point of Ci+1 is the terminal point of Ci. • Then, we define the integral of f along C as the sum of the integrals of f along each of the smooth pieces of C:
f( x, y) ds ∫C =f()() xyds, + f xyds , ∫C1 ∫ C 2 +... + f() x , y ds ∫C n LINE INTEGRAL IN A VECTOR FIELD
MOTIVATION
A ship sails from an island to another one along a fixed route. Knowing all the sea currents, how much fuel will be needed ? One of the most important physical applications of line integrals is that of finding the work done on an object moving in a force field. For example, Figure shows an inverse square force field similar to the gravitational field of the sun. Line Integrals of Vector Fields
To see how a line integral can be used to find work done in a force field F, consider an object moving along a path C in the field, as shown in Figure.
Figure15.13 Line Integrals of Vector Fields
To determine the work done by the force, you need consider only that part of the force that is acting in the same direction as that in which the object is moving. This means that at each point on C, you can consider the projection F T of the force vector F onto the unit tangent vector T.
On a small subarc of length ∆si, the increment of work is ∆Wi = (force)(distance)
≈ [F(xi, yi, zi) T(xi, yi, zi)] ∆si where (xi, yi, zi) is a point in the ith subarc. Line Integrals of Vector Fields Consequently, the total work done is given by the following integral.
This line integral appears in other contexts and is the basis of the following definition of the line integral of a vector field. Note in the definition that Line Integrals of Vector Fields Example – Work Done by a Force
Find the work done by the force field
on a particle as it moves along the helix given by
from the point (1, 0, 0) to (–1, 0, 3 π), as shown in Figure. Example – Solution
Because r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k = cos ti + sin tj + tk it follows that x(t) = cos t, y(t) = sin t, and z(t) = t.
So, the force field can be written as Example – Solution
To find the work done by the force field in moving a particle along the curve C, use the fact that r'(t) = –sin ti + cos tj + k and write the following. Line Integrals of Vector Fields
For line integrals of vector functions, the orientation of the curve C is important.
If the orientation of the curve is reversed, the unit tangent vector T(t) is changed to –T(t), and you obtain Line Integrals in Differential Form Line Integrals in Differential Form
A second commonly used form of line integrals is derived from the vector field notation used in the preceding section. If F is a vector field of the form F(x, y) = Mi + Nj, and C is given by r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j, then F • dr is often written as M dx + N dy . Line Integrals in Differential Form
This differential form can be extended to three variables. The parentheses are often omitted, as follows. Example – Evaluating a Line Integral in Differential Form
Let C be the circle of radius 3 given by r(t) = 3 cos ti + 3 sin tj, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π as shown in Figure. Evaluate the line integral Example – Solution
Because x = 3 cos t and y = 3 sin t, you have dx = –3 sin t dt and dy = 3 cos t dt . So, the line integral is Example – Solution Suppose instead of being a force field, suppose that F represents the velocity field of a fluid flowing through a region in space. Under these circumstances, the integral of F .T along a curve in the region gives the fluid’s flow along the curve. EXAMPLE: Finding Circulation Around a Circle Flux Across a Plane Curve To find the rate at which a fluid is entering or leaving a region enclosed by a smooth curve C in the xy-plane, we calculate the line integral over C of F.n, the scalar component of the fluid’s velocity field in the direction of the curve’s outward-pointing normal vector. Notice the difference between flux and circulation: Flux is the integral of the normal component of F; circulation is the integral of the tangential component of F. How to evaluate Flux of F across C we choose a smooth parameterization
that traces the curve C exactly once as t increases from a to b. We can find the outward unit normal vector n by crossing the curve’s unit tangent vector T with the vector k. • If the motion is clockwise, k×T points outward; • if the motion is counterclockwise, T×k points outward
We choose: n = T × k Now,
Here the circle on the integral shows that the integration around the closed curve C is to be in the counterclockwise direction. EXAMPLE: Finding Flux Across a Circle
Note that the flux of F across the circle is positive, implies the net flow across the curve is outward. A net inward flow would have given a negative flux. Path Independence
Under differentiability conditions, a field F is conservative iff it is the gradient field of a scalar function ƒ; i.e., iff for some ƒ. The function ƒ then has a special name. once we have found a potential function ƒ for a field F, we can evaluate all the work integrals in the domain of F over any path between A and B by Connectivity and Simple Connectivity
• All curves are piecewise smooth, that is, made up of finitely many smooth pieces connected end to end. • The components of F have continuous first partial derivatives implies that when this continuity requirement guarantees that the mixed second derivatives of the potential function ƒ are equal. Simple curve: A curve that doesn’t intersect itself anywhere between its endpoints.
r(a) = r(b) for a simple closed curve
But r(a) ≠ r(b) when a < t 1 < t 2 < b Simply-connected region: A simply-connected region in the plane is a connected region D such that every simple closed curve in D encloses only points that are in D.
Intuitively speaking, a simply-connected region contains no hole and can’t consist of two separate pieces .
An open connected region means that every point can be connected to every other point by a smooth curve that lies in the region. Note that connectivity and simple connectivity are not the same, and neither implies the other. Think of connected regions as being in “one piece” and simply connected regions as not having any “holes that catch loops.” INDEPENDENCE OF PATH
Suppose C 1 and C 2 are two piecewise-smooth curves (which are called paths) that have the same initial point A and terminal point B. We have
Note: F is conservative on D is equivalent to saying that the integral of F around every closed path in D is zero. In other words, the line integral of a conservative vector field depends only on the initial point and terminal point of a curve.
EXAMPLE: Finding Work Done by a Conservative Field Proof that Part 1 Part 2
If we have two paths from A to B, one of them can be reversed to make a loop. Finding Potentials for Conservative Fields EXAMPLE: Finding a Potential Function Integrating first equation w.r.t. ‘x’
Differentiating it w.r.t. ‘ y’ and equating with the
Computing ‘ g’ as a function of ‘ y’ gives
Further differentiating ‘f’ w.r.t. to ‘ z’ and equating it with
Integrating, we have
EXAMPLE: Showing That a Differential Form Is Exact