WWildernessilderness aandnd BBackcountryackcountry AcknowledgmentsSSiteite RRestorationestoration GGuideuide

Cover—This highly visible site at Snow Lake in the Lisa Therrell popular Alpine Lakes Wilderness, WA, is recovering USDA Forest Service Okanagan-Wenatchee remarkably well just 5 years after treatment. Site National Forest preparation consisted of scarifying the soil and adding locally collected topsoil and organic material. Wilder- David Cole ness Manager Bill Sobieralski directed a crew that Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute planted the site with seedlings grown in the greenhouse and seeded it with fresh local seed. An erosion control Victor Claassen blanket made from aspen shavings helped retain soil University of California, Davis moisture and signaled to hikers that something was going on here. Hikers still can enjoy lakeshore views Chris Ryan when they rest on the rocky slab by the site. USDA Forest Service, Northern Region Mary Ann Davies The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), has developed this information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating Federal and USDA Forest Service State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone except its own employees. The use of trade, fi rm, or corporation names in this document is for Missoula Technology and Development Center the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the Department of any product or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. USDA Forest Service The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, Technology and Development Program marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public Missoula, MT assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). September 2006 To fi le a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Offi ce of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 0623–2815–MTDC i Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

ii Acknowledgments

lanning a well-crafted restoration project in wilder- For allowing the use of text or illustrations from their ness is like putting together a complicated jigsaw own publications or writings: puzzle—after all the pieces from several puzzles have Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National PbeenP jumbled together and several of the pieces have been Forest lost in the couch or sucked up in the vacuum cleaner. Writing Jill S. Cremer, formerly USDA Forest Service, Angeles this guide has been an exercise in furnishing all the puzzle National Forest pieces for a successful restoration project—or at least enough Ellen Eubanks and Dexter Meadows, USDA Forest Service, San Dimas Technology and Development Center of them that any holes left in the puzzle won’t create a big Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and problem. Wenatchee National Forests With a deep sense of gratitude, the authors wish to thank Marin County Resource Conservation District others who assisted in the preparation or review of this guide. Laura Potash, USDA Forest Service, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie For answering questions and providing invaluable National Forest support and encouragement: University of Washington Press Matthew Albright, U.S. Department of the Interior National For help with the project and review of the draft Park Service, Olympic National Park publication: Tom Carlson, Arthur Carhart National Wilderness Training Carol Aubry, Ph.D., USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Center Forest Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and Jayne Belnap, Ph.D., U.S. Geological Survey Wenatchee National Forests Terry Carlson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Bitterroot Joyce Lapp, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park National Forest Service, Glacier National Park Efrén Cázares, Ph.D., Oregon State University Liza Prunuske, Prunuske Chatham, Inc. Joy Juelson, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and Regina Rochefort, Ph.D., U.S. Department of the Interior Wenatchee National Forests National Park Service, North Cascades National Park Lisa Lewis, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest Ruth Scott, U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Karl Lillquist, Ph.D., Central Washington University Service, Olympic National Park Robin Shoal, USDA Forest Service, Olympic National Forest Brian Vachowski, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technol- For compiling much of appendix B: ogy and Development Center Amy Carlson, Bear Run Antics, Leavenworth, WA Victor Vankus, USDA Forest Service, National Tree Seed For contributing case studies: Laboratory Fredric Ybright, USDA Forest Service, Dixie National Forest Sarah Walker, USDA Forest Service, Clearwater National Jennifer Ebert, USDA Forest Service, Eldorado National Forest Forest (retired) Liese Dean, USDA Forest Service, Sawtooth National Forest Technical support staff from the various USDA Natural Re- Rich Haydon, M.S., USDA Forest Service, Okanogan and sources Conservation Service Plant Materials Centers Wenatchee National Forests

A special thanks to the many researchers and restoration practitioners who have taken the time to share what they have learned so that we all might benefit.

iii Contents Acknowledgments

iv Contents

Acknowledgments______ii

Contents______iv

Introduction______xii Purpose of This Guide______1 Special Wilderness Considerations______2 Goals of This Guide______3 Target Audiences______3 Nomenclature______3

Chapter 1: The Context for Wilderness Restoration______4 1.1 Wilderness Restoration in the Past, Present, and Future______5 1.1.1 The Past______6 1.1.2 The Present______7 1.1.2a Practical Methods of Restoration______7 1.1.2b How Restoration Fits With Wilderness Management______8 1.1.3 The Future______9 1.1.3a Skills Development______9 1.1.3b Holistic Planning______10 1.2 Impacts of Recreation and Similar Small-Scale Disturbances______10 1.2.1 What Are the Impacts of Recreational Use?______11 1.2.1a Trampling______11 1.2.1b Trampling Damage to Ecosystem Components______12 1.2.1c Campfire-Related Impacts______13 1.2.1d Damage to Standing Trees______13 1.2.1e Trail Impacts______13 1.2.2 Which Impacts Should Be Considered Problems?______14 1.2.3 Alternative Management Techniques______16 1.2.4 Incorporating Restoration Into Management______17 1.3 Overview of Plant and Soil Ecology______18 1.3.1 Environmental Components______19 1.3.1a Soil______19 1.3.1b Plants______22 1.3.1c The Life Stages of a Plant______22 1.3.1d Plant Characteristics That Influence Restoration______23 1.3.1e Genetic Considerations______24 1.3.1f Microclimate______25

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1.3.1g Animals______26 1.3.2 Ecosystem Processes______26 1.3.2a Hydrologic Processes______26 1.3.2b Succession______27 1.3.2c Biotic Interactions______28 1.3.2d Plant-Plant Interactions______28 1.3.2e Plant-Soil Interactions______28 1.4 Concluding Thoughts______29

Chapter 2: Planning for Restoration of Small Sites in Wilderness______30 2.1 Gathering the Information To Formulate a Plan______34 2.1.1 Using Your Land Management Plan and NEPA______35 2.1.2 Using the Minimum Requirements Decision Process______35 2.1.3 Planning Scale and Priorities______36 2.1.4 Forming an Interdisciplinary Team______37 2.1.5 Developing a Site Assessment______37 2.1.6 Assessing Historical Human Influences______37 2.1.7 Assessing Current Human Influences______38 2.1.8 Problem Statements______41 2.1.9 Scoping the Proposed Action______41 2.1.10 Selecting Management Actions To Meet Standards______42 2.1.11 The Minimum Tool ______42 2.1.12 Types of Management Actions______43 2.1.12a Reducing Recreational Use______44 2.1.12b Changing Visitor Behavior With Information and Education______44 2.1.12c Intensive Site Management______45 2.1.12d Regulations and Enforcement______45 2.1.12e Regulations To Reduce Use Directly______46 2.1.12f Regulations To Reduce High-Impact Behaviors______47 2.1.13 Passive Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation______49 2.1.14 Active Restoration of Damaged Soil and Vegetation______51 2.1.15 Adjusting Management Actions: A Tale of Two Lake Basins______51 2.2 Putting It All Together—Developing a Restoration Plan______54 2.2.1 Considering the Time Required for Plant Propagation______57 2.2.2 Research Opportunities______58 2.2.3 Identifying Research Needs______60 2.3 Concluding Thoughts______61 vi Contents

Chapter 3: The Art and Science of Restoration______62 3.1 Developing Site Prescriptions Based on a Reference Site______63 3.1.1 Determining Reference Sites______64 3.1.1a Choosing a Reference Site______65 3.1.1b Identifying Undisturbed Reference Sites______65 3.1.1c Identifying Disturbed-But-Revegetated Reference Sites______67 3.1.2 Comparing the Reference Site and the Restoration Site______69 3.1.3 Evaluating the Surface Condition of Impacted Sites______78 3.1.3a Visual Clues for Evaluating Erosion______79 3.1.3b Evaluating Physical Soil Crusts ______83 3.1.3c Evaluating Biological Soil Crusts______84 3.1.4 Soil-Water Relations______85 3.1.4a Soil Texture and Pore Size ______85 3.1.4b Available Water-Holding Capacity______86 3.1.4c Determining Water-Holding Capacity______87 3.1.5 Determining Soil Texture ______87 3.1.6 Evaluating Soil Compaction______88 3.1.6a Measuring Bulk Density______89 3.1.6b Interpreting Bulk Density______90 3.1.6c Evaluating Water Infiltration______90 3.2 Making Site Amendments Based on Site Evaluations______92 3.2.1 Soil Organic Matter and Mulch______92 3.2.2 Soil Nutrients, pH, and Salts______92 3.2.3 Rebuilding Damaged Soils______94 3.2.3a Scarification______94 3.2.3b Rebuilding Missing Layers of Soil______95 3.2.3c Amending Altered or Depleted Soils______97 3.2.3d Evaluating Soil Nutrients and Chemical Conditions______99 3.2.4 Application of Fertilizers or Soil Amendments______107 3.2.5 Restoring Soil Biota______109 3.2.5a Types of Mycorrhizal Fungi______110 3.2.5b Inoculating Plants With Mycorrhizal Fungi______113 3.2.5c Soil Bacteria______114 3.2.5d Restoring Soil Crusts______115 3.2.6 Solarization of Weedy Soils______116 3.3 Concluding Thoughts on Soil______117 3.4 Site Stabilization, Preparation, and Delineation______117 3.4.1 Reestablishing Site Contours______119

vii Contents

3.4.2 Stabilizing Gullies______120 3.4.3 Stabilizing Headcuts______121 3.4.4 Stabilizing Downcutting______121 3.4.5 Stabilizing Lateral Erosion Into Gully Banks______122 3.4.6 Surface Erosion Control______122 3.4.7 Subsurface Erosion Control______124 3.4.8 Nonliving Siltbars and Checkdams______125 3.4.8a Materials Used To Construct Siltbars and Checkdams______125 3.4.8b Installation of Checkdams______125 3.4.8c Crimping______131 3.4.9 Bioengineering Applications______131 3.4.9a Selecting and Installing Bioengineered Structures______133 3.5 Using Soil Binders______148 3.6 Using Icebergs______149 3.7 Site Delineation______151 3.7.1 Barriers______151 3.7.2 String Fences______152 3.8 Blending Restoration Projects Into Wilderness______153 3.9 Common Wilderness Campsite and Trail Problems______154 3.10 Plant Selection, Collection, and Propagation Techniques______156 3.10.1 Genetic Considerations for Restoration Projects______157 3.10.1a Determining a Local Collection Area______158 3.10.1b Preventing Unintentional Selection______159 3.10.1c Additional Information on Genetic Considerations______161 3.10.1d Nonnative Plants, Agronomic Varieties, or Native Cultivars______161 3.10.2 Plant Selection for Restoration Projects______163 3.10.2a Using the Reference Sites To Develop Plant Prescriptions______165 3.10.2b Additional Limiting Factors and Design Considerations______167 3.10.3 Determining Propagation Methods for Your Site and Species______169 3.10.3a Seed-Increase Programs______170 3.10.3b Propagation Methods and Stock Types______171 3.10.3c Noxious Weeds and Other Nonnative Invaders______173 3.10.4 Concluding Thoughts on Plant Selection______174 3.10.5 Comparison of Propagation Methods______174 3.10.6 Plant Collection Principles______178 3.10.7 Preventing Further Damage to the Project Area______178 3.10.8 Working With Seed______179 3.10.8a Seed Collection______179 viii Contents

3.10.8b Initial Processing of Seed______180 3.10.8c Hand-Processing Seed______181 3.10.8d Seed Storage______182 3.10.8e Seed Testing______182 3.10.8f Breaking Dormancy______183 3.10.8g Onsite Seeding Techniques______184 3.10.8h Seeding Rates______187 3.10.9 Working With Cuttings______187 3.10.9a Collecting and Handling Cuttings______188 3.10.9b Semihardwood Stem Cuttings______188 3.10.9c Hardwood Cuttings______188 3.10.9d Softwood and Herbaceous Cuttings______189 3.10.9e Root Cuttings______189 3.10.9f Leaf Cuttings______190 3.10.9g Leaf-Bud Cuttings______190 3.10.10 Divisions______190 3.10.11 Layering______190 3.10.11a Simple Layering______191 3.10.11b Mound Layering______191 3.10.11c Tip Layering______192 3.10.12 Transplanting Wildlings______192 3.11 Transplanting, Protecting, and Establishing Native Plantings______194 3.11.1 Timing of Transplanting______194 3.11.2 Transporting Nursery-Grown Plants to the Project Location______195 3.11.2a Jelly Rolls for Protecting Bareroot Stock______195 3.11.2b Moving Plants in Containers______196 3.11.2c Moving Container-Grown Plants Without the Container______196 3.11.2d Protecting Fragile Foliage______197 3.11.2e Moving Plants With Helicopters or Other Vehicles______197 3.11.2f Handling Plants After They Arrive at the Project Location______197 3.11.3 Transplanting Techniques______197 3.11.4 Salvaged Materials______200 3.12 Plant Protection and Establishment______201 3.12.1 Mulching______201 3.12.1a Advantages and Disadvantages of Mulching______201 3.12.1b Selecting a Mulch______202 3.12.1c Comparison of Different Types of Mulch______203 3.12.2 Irrigation______207 3.12.2a Water Delivery Systems______208 ix Contents

3.12.2b Obtaining Water______209 3.12.2c Superabsorbent Polymers______209 3.12.3 Preventing Animals From Damaging Plants______210 3.12.3a Protective Coverings______210 3.12.3b Reduced Fertilization and Irrigation______210 3.12.3c Animal Repellants______210 3.12.4 Signs______210 3.12.5 Regulations______212 3.13 Documentation, Monitoring, and Adaptive Management______212 3.13.1 Adaptive Management______212 3.13.2 Determining Levels of Monitoring______213 3.13.3 Establishing Monitoring Procedures for a Project______215 3.13.4 Incorporating Monitoring Into a Project______216 3.14 Project Maintenance______220 3.14.1 Site Management______220 3.14.1a Irrigation______220 3.14.1b Mulching______220 3.14.1c Soil Amendments______220 3.14.1d Stabilizing Erosion______221 3.14.1e Wildlife Damage______221 3.14.1f Frost Heave______221 3.14.1g Interplanting or Replanting______221 3.14.1h Exotic Species______221 3.14.2 People Management______222 3.14.2a Signs______222 3.14.2b Barriers______222 3.14.2c Replacing Structures That Fail______222 3.14.2d Maintaining Social Trails______222 3.14.2e New Impacts Caused by Displaced Use______222 3.14.3 Scheduling Maintenance______223 3.14.4 Concluding Thoughts on Maintenance______223

Chapter 4: Restoration Program Development and Support______224 4.1 Funding, Workforce, and Partnerships______225 4.1.1 Funding______225 4.1.1a Forest Service Sources of Funding______225 4.1.1b Other Funding Sources______226 4.1.2 Budgeting______226 4.1.3 Workforce______228  Contents

4.1.4 Partnerships______229 4.1.5 National Sources for Recruiting Wilderness Volunteers______230 4.1.6 Using Professional Services______232 4.1.7 Learning From Others______232 4.2 Options for Growing Plants______332 4.2.1 Forest Service Nurseries______232 4.2.2 Plant Material Centers______233 4.2.3 Other Agency Nurseries______233 4.2.4 Contract Growers______233 4.2.5 School Horticulture Programs______233 4.2.6 Working With Contractors______234 4.2.7 General Principles for Successful Contracting______234

Chapter 5: Tools of the Trade and Other Resources______236 5.1 Software______237 5.2 Government Web Sites______237 5.3 Organizational Web Sites______238 5.4 Restoration Tools and Products______239 5.4.1 Pick Hoes or Miniature Plowshares______239 5.4.2 U-Bar Diggers______239 5.4.3 Balanced Watering Cans______240 5.4.4 Systemic Repellants______240 5.4.5 Restoration Signs______240 5.4.6 Erosion-Control Blankets______240

References______246

Appendixes______256 Appendix A–Treatments To Manage Factors Limiting Restoration______257 Appendix B–Propagation and Establishment Requirements for Selected Plant Species_____263 Appendix C–Detailed Propagation Methods for Beargrass, Heather, Huckleberry, and Partridgefoot______327 Appendix D–Case Studies______337 Appendix E–Forms______359

xi Introduction Contents

xii Introduction

or the past two decades, resource managers have Purpose of This Guide attempted to address the impacts caused by human This guide was developed to provide managers with actions in backcountry and wilderness areas. In some information that could help them decide whether to attempt Fwildernesses, wilderness study areas, and national parks, F restoration and, if so, how to go about it appropriately in these impacts are quite extensive: large areas denuded of wilderness. This guide will help managers share information vegetation, compacted soils, braided trails, and tree roots ex- and exchange ideas. posed after horses have been tied to trees. For many reasons, This guide is: including water quality, soil stability, and esthetics, managers • Focused exclusively on restoration of small- would like to prevent further impacts and help the existing scale impacts caused by human actions, such as impacts heal. recreation use or removal of administrative or Wilderness management plans have addressed impacts special provisional structures (structures by establishing desired conditions, indicators, and standards. exempted under “Special Provisions” in section Indicators such as vegetation loss, tree roots exposed, and 4(d) of the Wilderness Act). Use of the word the number of social trails are monitored to keep track of “site” in this publication refers to any number of changes to the resource. Standards set limits on the amount small-scale disturbances—not necessarily a of change that will be accepted before management action. In campsite. some wilderness areas, standards were not being met when • Based on the assumption that projects are in the management plan was signed. In such situations, actions wilderness or backcountry settings (figure 1). must be taken to prevent further resource degradation and to bring the resource back into compliance with standards. A number of actions are possible, one of which is physical restoration of the site. Although restoration is not necessarily the best choice in many situations, restoration can be very effective if it is done properly. Managers across the Nation have had varying degrees of success with restoration. Some areas, such as the North Cascades National Park in Washington, have had successful restoration programs for years. The North Cascades program includes a greenhouse operation where plants are grown from seed or from cuttings that are collected on the site, carried into the backcountry, and planted. Other areas with fewer resources and less precipitation have not been as successful. There is no textbook answer that guarantees success in backcountry site restoration. Much restoration knowledge is learned by trial and error. Many, many different techniques have been tried in one area or another, although information about these techniques may not have been passed along. This guide has been developed to facilitate information exchange. Figure 1—Dinosaur National Monument, UT. It is a compilation of the best information available from researchers and practitioners. 1 Introduction

• Based primarily on examples from the Western regarded as a form of manipulation or “tram- United States—from the Rocky Mountains meling.” Many large-scale applications need to westward (figure 2). Many of the techniques be designed to meet regulations and engineer- and procedures apply to any environment. ing specifications that this guide does not address. • A guide on fire suppression rehabilitation or burned area emergency rehabilitation (BAER). • A guide to motorized tools or mechanized transportation, although these methods may be mentioned.

Special Wilderness Considerations The Wilderness Act of 1964 set aside lands in the United States “to secure for the American people of present and future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of wilderness” to be “administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such a manner as will leave them [the lands] unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilder- ness….” Congress further defined wilderness “as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” Wilder- ness “is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s Figure 2—Henry M. Jackson Wilderness, WA. work substantially unnoticeable….” The Wilderness Act also includes special provisions This guide is not: allowing certain uses primarily because they existed before • A guide to large-scale ecological restoration. lands were designated as wilderness. These uses include Human-caused disturbances, such as mining grazing and mining. and grazing, have occurred in wilderness at a The Wilderness Act’s mandate can pose interesting landscape scale. Large-scale ecosystem challenges for a wilderness manager who needs to manage restoration is a complex topic. Philosophical for recreation, mining, grazing, and other activities, while questions could be raised about such large-scale keeping “man’s work substantially unnoticeable.” In some restoration in wilderness, where it might be cases, impacts that occurred before lands became wilderness

2 Introduction threaten the integrity of the wilderness. Impacts may include • To provide the latest information on site- vegetation and soil loss, unnecessary structures, and invasive specific restoration techniques, including site plant populations. Where these impacts exist, managers feel preparation, soil amendments, planting, an obligation to do something. Frequently, restoration is the mulching, and so forth. solution that comes to mind. • To explore the various methods of plant Agency policies require that wilderness be managed to propagation both on and off the site. allow natural ecological processes to operate freely. Manage- • To inform managers of the documentation and ment actions should be the minimum necessary to preserve monitoring required before undertaking a and protect wilderness. The Wilderness Act specifies that project and for ongoing progress reports. wilderness be untrammeled by man. It’s appropriate to ask questions such as: • Is active revegetation of a disturbed site too manipulative? • Is this action the minimum necessary? Target Audiences • Do our actions interrupt the natural ecological The target audiences for this guide include anyone who processes? plans or implements site restoration in backcountry or wilder- Before a wilderness manager begins planning for a res- ness areas or who would like to do so, including wilderness toration project in wilderness, it is critical for the manager to rangers, wilderness managers, resource specialists, recre- think about the answers to these questions. Restoration does ation planners, or trail crew members. Anyone who reviews not consist simply of scarifying a site, sticking plants in the restoration plans or advises anyone who implements the plans ground, and going away for the summer. would benefit from reading this guide. Restoration is a manipulative action that deserves a great deal of thought and planning, both to minimize the impacts to wilderness and to increase the likelihood of success. In many situations, the solution is simply to eliminate use at the site and allow the natural process of healing to occur. It is Nomenclature important to question your actions continually to be confident Not only common names, but also the scientific names that they are the minimum necessary. of many plant species have been changing in recent years. An attempt has been made to determine current usage, to determine which of the species discussed in this book has a new name, and to determine whether any name used is authoritative. Goals of This Guide One of the easiest sources for help in sorting out com- • To provide guidance on developing a plan that mon and scientific names is the U.S. Department of Agricul- thoroughly addresses the question of whether ture (USDA) PLANTS database on the Internet at http:// site restoration is the best management action plants.usda.gov, although this database may not be up to date and, if so, how to develop a site-specific for all species. restoration plan.

3 Chapter 1 Introduction

4