Directors of Urban Change in Asia --On Tokyo: A Speculator Title and Builders' paradise--

Author(s) FUNO, Shuji

traverse --新建築学研究 : kyoto university architectural Citation journal (2004), 5: 21-34

Issue Date 2004-06-30

URL https://doi.org/10.14989/traverse_5_21

Right © 2004 Traverse Editorial Committee

Type Departmental Bulletin Paper

Textversion publisher

Kyoto University アジアにおける都市変化のディレクター Directors Directors of Urban Change in Asia 投機家と建設業者の楽園：東京 On Tokyo: A Speculator and Builders'paradise

布野修司 Shu 」i FUNO

ライデン大学で「アジアにおける都市変化のディレクター」と題された国際ワークショッ プ (International workshop Mega-urbanization in Asia and Europe: Directors of urban change in a comparative comparative perspective: Leiden, 12-14 December 2002) が開かれたのは、 2002 年の暮れであった。 インドネシア研究を通じての長年の知己、人類学講座 P. ナス教授の招請で、参加することになった。

アジアの大都市として、どうしても東京についてのレポートが欲しいという。結局 'Never E叫 ing Tokyo projects: Catstrophe? Or Rebirth? Towards the age of community design' と題する論文を書 いて、シドロモドロの発表で冷や汗をかいた。その後、ライデン大学の UAS (国際アジア研究研究

所）の機関誌 IIAS News 誌 tter に、そのシンポジウムの特集を組むというので、求められて Tokyo:

The Declining Capital'(" HAS NEWSLET 『ER," Leiden University, 31 July, 2003.) という単文を書い た。そうしているうちに、本にするから書き直せという (London : Routledge の予定）。以上の草 稿をもとに新たな原稿を提出したが、その原稿も厳しく批評され大幅な書き直しをさらに要求され た。以下は、再度全面的に手を入れ直した原稿である。採用されるかどうかは不明である。ネイテ ィブ・チェックは、横尾先生の紹介で布野研究室の研究生をしていたことのある、現在、櫃文彦事 務所（横総合計画研究所）に勤めるミシェル・ヴァン・アカー氏にお願いした。なお、図は紙数の 関係でかなり省いた。

Introduction Introduction

From its origin as a small castle town 1 ぬ斜出函恥,, 幻硝5 until until the end of the Edo Era (1603-1868), urbanization urbanization in Tokyo (formerly know as Edo) Edo) seems to have followed an orthogenetic process. process. The Tokugawa Shogunate closed Japan Japan to foreign countries with the exception of of the port of Deshima at Nagasa 訓opened to only only the Dutch) from 1641 to 18532. Japan continued continued to stay at the periphery of European World Economy, though the silver from Iwami Cinzan (silver mine) exported through Deshima did make a small contribution. Japan 和臨函噂畑ex;I accepted accepted no immigrants from outside during I ・8"0"" 蒻細戸年疇釦疇図 this this so-called sakoku (seclusion) era. It is, therefore, a unique example of urbanization within the formation formation of the Modern World System. In In the mid-seventeenth century, Tokyo's population reached one million - matching London and

Paris → although its huge urban village form did not resemble its European counterparts. Japanese society society gradually opened to the world since 1853. Imperial rule was restored in 1868, and Edo was renamed Tokyo, meaning Eastern Kyoto (Capital), as the new capital of Japan in 1869. Tokyo today is is a mega city3. The city has transformed from a huge village to a global capital center over the the

21 21 past past 150 years. Edo4 Edo4 was established as the Shogun's capital, even though Kyoto (where the Emperor resided) remained remained the formal capital of Japan. The Tokugawa Baku 「u Shogunate controlled all of Japan, including including Kyoto. It is obvious that the directors of Edo were the Shoguns, who introduced control systems systems for both land and people in the early Edo period. Political authority in Japan was divided amongst amongst a centralized and bureaucratized military regime and some 250 bureaucratized feudal domains domains called Han. Daimyos, the governors of the Han, were obliged to visit Edo with levies for the Shogun Shogun once a year (5ankin kotai system). They were classified according to their degree of loyalty, and and were given land and goods based on the Shogun's evaluation of their accomplishments. All All building lots5 were arranged hierarchically around the Edo castle in the centre. Edo's spiral pattern pattern of moats and roads, as if the centric power of 5, 加 1gun absorbed the power of people, is very unique. unique. Da 加 U/OS more faithful to the Shogun received larger reside 叫 al sites nearer to Edo castle. Edo Edo was a highly controlled city where residential quarters among classes (Hudai Daimyos (insiders), Tozama Daimyos (outsiders), hatamotolgokenin(antrustion/inmate), chounin(townspeople)) were strictly strictly segregated according to hierarchy of Edo society (Si Nau Kou Shau (samurai (knight)- farmers-craftsman-merchant) farmers-craftsman-merchant) system). Following Following the Meiji Restoration, the Emperor moved from Kyoto to Tokyo, which at last became the the capital of Japan both nominally and actually. The Emperors, however, did not become the directors directors of Tokyo. The New Meiji Government took the initiative in restructuring Edo as a modern capital capital comparable to European capitals such as London and Paris. The central government invited and and hired foreign engineers to create the new face of the city before reaching the same level of industrialization industrialization in western countries. The modernization of Tokyo in a Western image was the prime prime objective.

5 紅彰践 塵麗直叩（和如砂0 叫） 's Aro! '"''瑣

The directors of Tokyo were the Meiji Governors, who were advised by western architects and urban urban planners and promoted modern city planning. From the Meiji Restoration onward, Japan continued continued to import concepts and systems of urban planning from the west, including Baron G.E.Haussemann's grand projects of Paris in late 19th century; the Nazi national land planning during during the Second World War; the Greater London Plan after the Second World War; and the German B (Bebaungs)-Plan of the early 1980's.

22 Also Also important for Tokyo were the disasters -wars and earthquakes - that changed the city dramatically. dramatically. The'scrap and build'process was a real driving force of Tokyo's transformation. The directors of urban change, especially after the 1960's, were speculators and builders. Twice destroyed destroyed in the twentieth century (by earthquake in 1923 and aerial bombardment in 1945), Tokyo emerged as a speculator and builders'paradise, a true global city, in the 1980's. Today. Tokyo is comprised of over 12 million inhabitants and one-fourth of the Japanese population lives in in the greater metropolitan area6. The mega-city seems to be awaiting another cataslrophe unless measures measures to change its over-centralization are taken.

Notwithsta 叫 ing all the changes, there is one invariant area, which Roland Barthes (1915-80) 7 called'void'or'vacant', called'void'or'vacant', in the center of Tokyo. That is the Emperor's palace complex, where Edo castle was once located. It is remarkable that this mega-city has been able to preserve a large large natural precinct in its center for over 400 years

Dreams of Occidentalists: Towards a Western-style Capital Due to the drastic change of social system by M 叫 iRestoration, Tokyo's population dropped from from one million to about 600, 000. One of the most urgent tasks of Meiji New Government was to remodel Edo into a modern capital. In 1869, 1869, Japan's first railway was opened and the the first steam locomotive started running in 1872 between from Shinbashi to Yokohama. In 1885, 1885, a cabinet system of government was adopted and Japan established a modern nation-state political political system, drafting the Constitution of the Japanese Empire in 1889. Two projects are symbolic of modern urban planning8 in Tokyo. One is the Ginza renga gai (Ginza (Ginza Brick Quarter) project(l872-1877), and the other is the HI 加ya Kancho Shu びu Keikaku (Governmental (Governmental Offices Concentration project) (1886-1887) at Kasumigaseki . The Ginza district, where many merchants and craftmans had gathered in the Edo period, was becoming a new center of Western civilization because of its location near Tsukiji (a p 『otected settlement settlement for foreigners) to the east and Shinbashi (connected to Yokohama's international port) to to the south. The Ginza renga gai project was launched to refashion the entire Ginza district in red brick brick after the great fire of 18 7 2. Brick was adopted not only for fire protection, but also to create a showpiece with a European flavor. The directors of this project were Shigenobu Ohkuma9(1838-l 922), the Minister of Finance, and Kaoru Kaoru Inoue10(1835-1915), the Deputy Minister. Together with many other bureaucrats, they lived in in the Ginza area and were key proponents of Western civilization. English architect Thomas James Waters11 Waters11 with his brother Albert Waters were invited to prepare plans for the area. Construction took took nearly a decade and the project was completed in 1877. 2,855 buildings were built, one third of of which were two-story brick buildings with colonnade and balconies. The streets were lined with maples, maples, willows and gaslights, creating the first commercial street with a European atomosphere in in Japan. Georgian style streetscape were transferred to the Far East and suddenly emerged in the the central part of Tokyo in this manner. The project, however, was not welcomed by residents. Newspapers Newspapers at that time criticised the project as unsuitable for Japanese climate and claimed that this this planning would encourage beriberi outbreaks. Almost all trees withered and died. The brick structures structures were soon abandoned because of frequent earthquakes in Japan.

23 Most of the Daimyo land plots in the vicinity of the new Imperial Palace (Edo castle) were claimed by agencies various of new government as sites for offices. The project to build Central Business District District for government offices was launched after the Cabinet System was adopted in 1885. The Director who proposed the project was again Kaoru Inoue, the Minister of Foreign Affairs

and and an enthusiastic occidentalist. First, he designated an English architect Josiah Condor12, the father father of modern Japanese architecture and designer of the Rokumeikan (an elaborate hotel and a symbol of Western Civilization in 1883) to make plans for new office blocks, which were never implemented. implemented. Later, Herman Ende (a professor of the Bau-akademie and a technical adivisor of of O.E.L.F. von Bismarck, the first Prime Minister of Deutsches Reich and Willhelm Bockman13 from from Germany) were invited to plan and design this Central District of Tokyo. They prepared a Masterplan Masterplan which included a central Assembly Hall far bigger than that of the German Empire (built four four years before), based on baroque urban planning concepts. The project was not implemented because of financial concerns raised by James Hobrecht, a civil civil engineer responsible for the Berlin Plan in 1862. Hobrecht had carried out many projects in

Moscow, Moscow, Cairo, and Alexa 叫 in ria addition to Berlin, and was the most famous of foreign engineers invited invited to Japan during Meiji Era. Ende edited the project and only two buildings were constructed on on the site (half of which is now Hibiya Park), the first example of a western public park in Tokyo. Amidst Amidst the planning of the flamboyant projects like Ginza Brick Quarter, the Hibiya Governmental Offices Offices Concentration Projects and Mitsubishi Londontown projects14, various strategies called Shikukaisei Shikukaisei (urban block improvement) to reform Tokyo were discussed. In 1880, the governor of Tokyo Tokyo Michiyuki Matsuda(1839-82) published the first£ 加kukaisei program. Akimasa Yoshikawa (1841-1920), (1841-1920), the next governor, followed up the program supported by the Ministry of Interior. The major concern of Yoshikawa's program was to revitalize and develop transportation networks that that could be the base of modem industries via an international port (although Matsuda's plan laid more stress on commercial development). The Capital of the Great Japanese Empire or a Metropolis for for modern capitalism, that was the issue. The directors of this effort were Ministry oflnterior headed by Aritomo Yamagata 15(1838-1922) and and newly rising entrepreneurs like Eiichi Shibusawa (1840-1931) who founded the first national

24 bank in 1877. The first legislation in Japan to facilitate facilitate city planning, Tokyo Shikukaisei Jore!, was enforced in 1888. It was a 16-point initiative that that created a city planning board and set in motion motion various improvements to infrastructure, especially especially in the downtown area. The greatest atlention atlention was given to road construction. The model model was the Great Reform of Paris by Baron Georges-Eugene Haussemann (1809-1891). However, However, because of cholera outbreaks, special attention attention was given to the water supply a叫 sewage sewage removal, and consequently, road network reform reform was interrupted 亨 The fruits that Tokyo Shikukaiseiaccomplished until until 1916 were enlargement of streets for trams, establishment establishment of water supply & sewage treatment and installation of Hibiya Park. Most of sites of theDaimyo's residences and temples were converted for newly needed facilities

Dreams o「Nationalists or Colonists: Towards an Ideal City The Industrial Revolution in Japan started in the 1880'sand Tokyo absorbed a huge migratory population population from rural areas. The population reached nearly two million at the beginning of twentieth twentieth century. Three famous slum areas called called hinminkutu (caves of the poor people) appeared appeared within Tokyo from the 1890's onward. During During Lhe Taisho Era (1912-1926), the number of of wage earners increased in the Japanese cities, and and an increasing proportion of citizens came to lead lead consumer lifestyles. The Japanese economy was already involved in the world economy in 1920's. 1920's. The population of Tokyo had reached 3.7 3.7 million in 1920. Tokyo Tokyo had become so large that Tokyo shi (municipal government) could not manage the urban and and housing problems. Therefore, legislation was established to control and regulate the urban expansion. expansion. The Toshi Kt 疇 aku Hou (Town Planning Act) was adopted in 1919 along with Shigaic 加 Kenchiku りutu Hou, the first Municipal Area Building Law in Japan. The word toshi keikaku, or urban urban planning, was used for the first time in late 1920's. The emphasis continued to be on infrastructure infrastructure development in order to establish modern industry. These acts and building codes adopted adopted a Zoning System to delineate Fire-protection Zones and to identify districts within the city city for special uses. It also provided for land readjustment such as the straightening of roads and property property lines in suburban areas expected to transform from farms to houses. The concepts and methods methods of land readjustment were taken from Adi ch es 17 Law of Germany. Japanese Japanese architects opened their eyes to urban issues in the latter part of Meiji Era, but could not not yet afford to carry out urban projects. A typical example is Shigeyoshi Fukuda (1887-1971), a city architect and engineer who launched the'New Tokyo'Plan in 1918. He estimated that the population population of Tokyo would be 6.76 million after 50 years (1961) and that its area would grow

25 3.6 3.6 times, assuming a density of 250 persons/ hectare. hectare. His'New Tokyo'Plan was based on this individual individual idea and remained unrealized. The idea of'Garden City'was introduced to Japan Japan in 1907 via a book titled'Denen 乃 shi.' 18 18 This was published by Ministry of Interior technocrats technocrats who wanted to enliven rural regions. regions. However, the theory a叫 true aim of the'Garden the'Garden City'was not understood in Japan. The naming of'Denen Toshi'caught the interest of of entrepreneurs as they developed suburbs into into residential quarters. The'Denen Toshi' company was established by Eiichi Shibusawa in in 1918 and developed 3 settlements, one of which which is called Denen Chofu (today one of the richest richest areas in Tokyo). Ind•炎ぷ塙 1祐買総 In In September 1923, the Great Kanto Ag 求叫邸'''° 油 皿エ為 Rai 邸町 Earthquake19 Earthquake19 struck Tokyo a叫 resulting fires 一丘訳＄珈的 知 glonal pl 叙内釘 Ing 箪等i burned down the city center. It reduced 60 percent percent of Tokyo to ashes, reverting it physically to to the beginning of Meiji restoration. This might be said to be the first true opportunity to change Tokyo, Tokyo, since the resulting reconstruction projects were actually based on the first comprehensive reform reform proposals. Shimpei Goto20(1857-1929), mayor of Tokyo (1920-23), was appointed to lead the reconstruction reconstruction and drew up plans. He was a national figure with experience as an administrator in in Taiwan (Formosa), Manchuria (North Eastern China), and had played a leading role to draft Toshi Toshi Keikaku Hou (Town Planning Act, 1919). Goto established the Tokyo Institute for Municipal Research Research soon after he had become mayor in 1920, inviting Charles Austin Beard21 (187 4-1948) as principal a principal advisor and proposing a Master plan for the city even prior to the emergency. His plan included included new street lines and wider streets, reorganization of the rail network, improvements to water water and sewer systems, and creation of open spaces. Goto Goto is often considered as the father of modern urban planning in Japan. Only few elements of of the master plan, however, were actually accomplished, because of its cost and the opposition of powerful powerful landowners. Land acquisition was a major issue of urban planning from the beginning The Dojunkai (Foundation for Restoration after the Great Kanta Earthquake), was established with with donations from foreign countries, and became the first body supplying public housing in Japan. Japan. It began to build collective houses as well as detached and semi-detached houses. It also initiated initiated slums upgrading projects and carried out land readjustments. The Showa Era (1926-1989) has difficult beginnings because of the Great Earthquake and the World Economic Crisis (1929). In addition Japan was heading for war (1931-1945). Wartime planning, however, created new changes in Tokyo as new transportation systems were introduced. In 1927 Japan's first subway line opened, in 1931 Tokyo Airport was completed completed in Haneda, and in 1941 the Port of Tokyo was opened. In 1932, the outline of Tokyo was expanded by combining adjacent 82 towns a叫 villages into what was called Dai Tokyo22 (Greater (Greater Tokyo). By 1935, the number of people living in Tokyo had reached 6.36 million,

26 comparable comparable to the populations of New York and London. In 1943, the dual administrative system of Tokyo-tu and Tokyo-shj was abolished, and were consolidated to form Tokyo Metropolis. Metropolis. The Metropolitan administrative system was thus established, and a governor was appointed. appointed. In In 1941, the Pacific War broke out. Ironically, the only realized examples of Japanese modern urban urban planning took place in its colonies in Taiwan, Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula. The Datong Datong City Plan and Dalian Plan in China were famous Japanese colonial projects. Japanese Japanese architects considered the colony as as an experimental field to realize ideals of of modern architecture and city planning. Colonial Colonial urban planning reminds us that top top to b叫 om urban planning requires political political power and will to realize it. The power of the state as a whole was director to to implement colonial urban planning Japanese Japanese architects and planners were indebted indebted to Nazi planning concepts during this period A central government committee proposed the'Tokyo Green Belt Plan'in 1939. The plan included included a green belt encircling Tokyo for protection of scenic spots and also for air defense, but never never materialized due to the lack of time and financial resources. Here the director was war itself.

In In the final phase of the Seco 叫 World War, Tokyo was bombed 102 times, including the heaviest air air raid on 10 March 1945, in which many citizens lost property or were killed.

Dreams of Futurists: Towards an International Metropolis The war came to an end on 15 August 1945, when Japan'acceptanceof the Potsdam Declaration. Much of Tokyo had been in ruins by the bombings and by October 1945, the population had fallen to to 3.49 million, half its level in 1940. Tokyo again reverted to'tabula rasa'. The shortage23 of dwelling units, lost and needed for families coming back from colonies outside outside was estimated at 4.2 million at the conclusion of the war. Building shelters a叫 managing managing daily life was very hard. It took few years to commence the reconstruction plan. Eiyo Ishikawa24(1893-1955), Ishikawa24(1893-1955), the Tokyo government's chief planner, had already prepared a'War Damage Rehabilitation Plan'during the war, adopting a symmetrical radial and ring-road network with with spaced green belts, and identifying of land uses through zoning. It was too idealistic to be implemented. implemented. This concept of symmetrical radial and ring-road network with spaced green belts. however, however, had continued to the influential model until Kenzo Tange (1913-) proposed the linear model model in 1960. Dai Tokyo Tiku Keikaku (Greater Tokyo Regional Planning Model) of 1940 was also also based on this concept such as those of S. Fukuda's plan and S. Goto's plan. From the end of the War onward, the director was GHQ of the American Occupation Forces until Japan's Japan's return to international community via the San Francisco peace treaty in 1951. One year after after the war, the Special City Planning Law was enacted and large-scale reconstruction plans were made by architects a叫 planners for several cities. In May 194 7, the Constitution of Japan, based on the doctrine of democratic sovereignty and the Local Government Act was promulgated. The first first Governor of Tokyo was elected under the new system. In 1949, Tokyo Metropolis started the 23-ku 23-ku system The Capital Construction Law was passed in 1950. This law established the Capital

27 Construction Construction Committee; a natio 叫 organization devoted to the goal of Tokyo's reconstruction, and and created the Emergency Five-Year Capital Construction Plan. However, due to severe economic conditions, conditions, it was impossible to effectively realize plans these and problems were left for the next generation generation to solve. Land readjustment projects were planned in many districts of Tokyo but decision-making decision-making was overly time cunsuminig. Competitions for reconstruction programs were held, but but the ruined economy did not permit their implementation

The real reconstruction started with the outbreak of Korean War (1950-53), a叫 special procurement procurement demand arising from the War. The Japanese economy steadily recovered during the the 1950s and postwar economic reconstruction was completed roughly ten years later. A Capital Region Region Development Plan was seriously considered in order to control the excessive population concentration. concentration. To this end, a Capital Region Development Law25 was enacted in 1956 to replace the the Capital Construction Law of 1950. This co-centric radial plan was modeled after the Greater London Plan(l 944) by Sir Patrick Abercrombie(l 879-1957), and was based on the idea of strong controls. controls. Laws were promoting the construction of industrial satellite cities and restricting factory

locations locations in existing urbaniz 叫. Earlier in 1955, the Japan Housing Corporation26 had been established established as a semi-public organization to carry out large-scale housing construction and housing site site development in metropolitan areas. Their activities ushered a new era in town construction in in Japan. New towns intended for middle-income level families were built one after another in the suburbs27. suburbs27. It should be noted that new towns created in Japan were very different from the self- contained contained new towns of England, which both provided work, places and housing. This was the inevitable inevitable result of the conditions prevailing in Japan at the time. In In lhe 1960's Japan entered a period of high-level economic growth. In 1962, the population of Tokyo Tokyo broke the 10 million mark. In 1964, the Olympic games were held in Tokyo and the super express express bullet train (shinkansen) opened, forming the basis for Tokyo's current prosperity. The 1964 Tokyo Olympics transformed Tokyo's landscape radically by virtue of the Metropolitan highway highway (Shuto Ko soku) and other facilities like the Yoyogi National Gymnasium designed by a world world famous architect, K. Tange. Tokyo began to change from horizontal city to vertical city since mid-1960s. mid-1960s. From late 1950s to early 1960s, Japanese architects raised hands to be the'directors'as if they they could lead the directions of Japanese cities. K. Tange proposed the'Tokyo Plan 1960' following following Kiyonori Kikutake's (1928-) ℃ ity on the Sea'(1958) and'Tower City'(1959). The 'Tokyo 'Tokyo Plan 1960,'which insisted on a linear structure rather than a radial system, intended to to change structure of Tokyo radically, but was only pie in the sky. Many architects, including Noriaki Noriaki Kurokawa (1934-) ('Rurban City','Spiral City') and Fumihiko Maki (1928-) ('Group Form'), Form'), who had belonged to the Metabolism Group launched ideal projects for the future city. Arata Arata Isozaki (1931-) proposed a project called'The City in the Air'. Prominent Prominent urban projects by star architects were proposed for a period of two or three years years in the beginning of the 1960s. Realization was of no concern and the proposals lacked procedural procedural and financial considerations. However, one image of the future city was temporarily realized realized at the sites of'Expo'70'. Another rare case, K. Kikutake's ℃ ity on the Sea'(1958), was realized as'Aqua polis'in 197 5. On the other hand, rapid expansion of urbanized areas, shortage of housing, increased land- use use prices and confusion in land ownership became apparent in metropolitan areas. Solving these these problems became an extremely urgent policy issue. Planning in Tokyo began to move in in new direction from mid- l 960s, because little was done to create better living environments

28 at at that time, and citizens still suffered from severe water shortages a叫 air pollution. Minobe Ryokichi28(1904-84), Ryokichi28(1904-84), a professor who criticized urban policy from a socialist-communist perspective, perspective, was elected as governor in 1967. He made an appeal to recover clean rivers and blue skies skies and promised to work toward a more healthful Tokyo. The Town Planning Law'was revised in in 1968 long after the first version of 1919.

The Post-Modern City Tokyo at its Zenith By the beginning of the 1970's, the excesses of high-level economic growth became apparent through through environmental problems such as air, river, and noise pollution. At the same time, the Energy Energy Crisis of 1973 brought the period of high-level economic growth to a halt. Saving energy a叫 resources became a real issue to avoid catasrophe. Development shifted from outward urban expansion expansion towards the fuller development of already urbanized areas. Urban planning and housing paradigms paradigms shifted from large-scale development to small-scale projects, from new construction to urban urban renewal, from high-rise flats to low-middle rise town houses, and from quantity of dwelling units units to quality of life. This situation Tokyo stood resembles that of the end of the 20th century Japan's Japan's stable growth period, however, was followed by a'bubble economy'. In 1980's, Tokyo enjoyed enjoyed rapid economic growth again via its increasing internationalization and the emergence of of information society. Tokyo became one of the world's most vital and attractive major cities, boasting boasting advanced technology, information, culture and fashion, as well as a high level of public safety. safety. Suzuki Suzuki Shunichi occupied the seat of governor after Minobe in 1979, serving four terms until 1995. 1995. He called his vision for the city'My Town Tokyo'. His administration put together a series of of three comprehensive plans in 1982, 1986 and 1990. The biggest difference from the previous administration administration was their emphasis on the Central Business District and other major commercial districts, districts, where construction of large, showy projects was intended to advance Tokyo as an international international business center and metropolis. New Tokyo City Hall29 located in Shinjuku designed by K. Tange (an intimate friend of the governor S. Suzuki from 1960s) is the symbol of Tokyo's zenith. zenith. The urban issues Tokyo faced in the mid-1980's were quite different from those it had faced in the the past. The city had reached its limits for horizontal expansion. The Tokyo Problem'and'Tokyo Reform'became pressing issues for debate. Scholars and critics discussed the negative effects of of Tokyo's political, economic and cultural dominance, as well as possibilities for relocating the Japanese Japanese capital Tokyo's status as one of the world's financial centers attracted an unprecedented influx of foreign foreign businessmen and workers in the 1980's. The resulting demand for centrally located office office space and 24-hour facilities sparked a speculative building rush that dramatically transformed transformed the cityscape. Western architects with post-modern designs were invited to give Tokyo a fashionable facelift, befitting its status as a global city. Further Further urban development necessitated the search for new frontiers. The first frontier identified identified was the unused public land in the city center. Investors snapped up downtown properties, while while large real estate companies launched re-development projects. Many of these destroyed the the fabric of existing downtown communities. The second frontier was the sky. Tokyo still had more space in the air than New York. The project called'Manhattan Project', revived after a long hiatus, hiatus, started to renew Marunouchi area (the former Mitsubishi London town), the Central Business District District around Tokyo Station. The third frontier was the under the ground, the so-called geo front.

29 A project to create an underground city with 500,000 inhabitants was seriously proposed. The fourth fourth and final frontier was the Tokyo waterfront, hitherto the home to dockyards and factories. Factories Factories of heavy industries moved out according to the change of industrial structure. The tertiary tertiary industries evidently became the key industries of Tokyo in the 1980's. New technologies, production systems, and building materials shaped Tokyo's urban transformation. transformation. Since 1960s sealed aluminium sash systems have been de rigueur, meaning that all all dwelling units are now air-conditioned. So-called intelligent office buildings came into fashion in the the 1980s. Domed, climate-controlled stadiums allow baseball games to be played in the midst of storms. storms. The daily lives of Tokyo's citizens have become completely divorced from nature. Most space space in Tokyo is artificially controlled by computer. Electronic conglomerates symbiotic enjoying relations relations with the government are prominent players in this development process, as are the large large construction companies, which still wield considerable political power. Tokyo is a temporary metropolis metropolis that is constantly changing within this reiterative'scrap and build'process, the city is losing losing its historical memory.

Never Never Ending Tokyo Projects: Scrap and Build Process At At the beginning of the 1990's the bubble economy collapsed and Suzuki-era ended in 1995. 1995. The waterfront became a principal issue in the gubernatorial election of 1995. How to

redevelop redevelop the waterfront had become the major topic of early l 990s. Under the 叫 e'Urban Frontier', Frontier', the'World City Exposition Tokyo'96'directed expansion towards Tokyo Bay. To hold exposition exposition and equip infrastructures for the development after is a well-worn device in Japan. A promise to electors to halt waterfront development led to the election of Yukio Aoshima, better better known as a TV comedian, as Governor. His abandonment of the'World City Exposition Tokyo'96 - Urban Frontier'symbolized the end of the'bubble economy'and its infinite expansion. expansion. It is also very symbolic that the Great Hanshin Earthquake30 in the same year revealed revealed the weakness of Japan's tradition of urban planning. Standing Standing at the dawn of a new historical starting phase at the beginning of the 21st century, Tokyo still suffers from financial difficulties created by the'bubble economy'. The paradigm of of urban planning is shifting again. Instead Instead of large-scale projects here is greater greater interest in creating communities and and enriching the people's immediate environment, environment, and a greater interest in creating creating an urban culture.'Sustainable City'or ℃ompact City'is becoming a new slogan, replacing the'Expanding City'or'Mega-City'. City'or'Mega-City'.

Looking Looking back at this overview of the history history of urban planning in Tokyo, several several general trends are evident.

Lack Lack of originality: Concepts and systems of urban planning have always been imported from western western countries, such as Baron Haussemann's grand project of Paris, Nazi ideas on national land planning, planning, the Greater London plan, and the German B-plan, It is not a bad idea to learn from other

30 systems, systems, but they do not necessarily work well in different context. Ideas and methods need to be rooted rooted in the realities of Japan. Absence Absence of subjectivity and the passiveness of people: In Japan, it is not clear who is planning and designing designing the cit)r. The local government is controlled by the central government and cannot decide on any matter related to urban planning. In addition, there is no system for participation and advocacy advocacy Weakness of urban planning finance: There are no special funds allocated for urban planning. They depend depend on the annual budgets. Policies may easily be changed by the mayor, who may be replaced in in the next election. Unstable planning boards are also problematic. Officials in local government change change from one board to another frequently. Professionals in urban planning are needed on urban planning planning boards. Immaturity Immaturity of public consciousness to limit the power of private urban planning: Japan is said to be be the freest country in the world for the design of buildings. This is because of the loose relation between the Building Code and the Urban Planning Law (block regulations). The cityscape is chaotic, chaotic, as a result of architects responsible for this situation enjoy the freedom.

The'scrap The'scrap and build'urban process: For half a century after the war the'scrap a叫 build'process has has been repeated. Urban planning has neglected the urban historical heritage. The resulting poor quality quality urban stock remains a big problem. The politically powerful construction industry was one of the drivers of rapid post-war economic growth. growth. Relying heavily on the'scrap and build'method, concrete and steel transformed the Japanese Japanese landscape. In the late 1960s, construction accounted for over 20 percent of GDP. High growth growth gave way to a period of stable but lower growth in the wake of the 1973 Energy Crisis; heavy heavy industries lost grou 叫 to light science and technology industries. The focus of urban development development shifted again from outward expansion to the full development of already urbanized areas. areas. Money generated by the speculative bubble of the 1980's transformed Tokyo into a global city, city, wired to the dynamic movements of 1.he world capitalist economy. The glory days of Tokyo with the'bubble economy'had gone and Tokyo suffered from economic economic stagnation and post-bubble debt. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, a curious phenomenon appeared. Along the Tokyo waterfront many new office buildings buildings and flats were built. The number o「high-rise flats newly built in 20023'is said to be unprecedented. unprecedented. This construction was driven by the speculative activities of real estate agents and investors investors as before. The rumour of The 2003 Problem32'- companies move to the waterfront, leaving leaving older inner-city office buildings unoccupied-spread. The oversupply was obvious and predictable, predictable, but the individual realtors and developers continues to pursue their own short-term interests, interests, even as they know they witl later suffer. The central government has tried to influence the fluctuating annual number of dwelling units built built by reforming tax incentives. The current slogans of the central government are and'Urban Rebirth'.' 「he central government has established a special board called'Urban Rebirth'and Rebirth'and has opted to deregulate building codes and urban planning laws to stimulate building Local Local governments can nm,v rezone areas and make decisions on the restructuring of districts. districts. Most local governments, however, are suffering from financial constraints and lack of funds funds to realize new projects. Though policymakers believe promoting building activity through deregulation deregulation is the only way to economic recovery, the idea is actually ill-conceived. What is actually happening, however, is the hollowing out of the inner city. Ishihara Shintaro, governor governor of Tokyo Metropolitan Municipali ぃr, has declared sixteen policy goals, the first of which

31 31 is is to ℃ reate an urban city that facilitates a balance of jobs and residences'. It consists of two strategies:'Promotion strategies:'Promotion of inner city residence'and'Fundamental reform of the Metropolitan housing system'. The former includes bringing workplaces and residential areas together in the suburban Tama area. The results have been disappointing.

Conclusion Nobody controls a global city like Tokyo; nobody knows who is behind the constant change. Something invisible, which we might call the World Capitalist System, guides the transformation of the the Japanese capital Tokyo has its natural limits. The city cannot grow indefinitely. What is first needed is decentralization decentralization and reorganization of the land based on the ecological balance in the region. The municipal municipal government should strengthen the autonomy of urban community for risk management. Water, Water, food and other daily necessities are needed in the neighborhood units in case of disaster. It It is obvious that the city needs powerful leadership and the participation of citizens to implement new ideas. Unfortunately, while formal procedures for citizen involvement have been proposed, they do not function effectively. People are reluctant to participate when their private concerns are not affected. Though blackouts and drought already threaten the metropolitan area in summer, the current current system of production and consumption of spaces, however, is controlled by profit margins rather rather than social or ecological responsibility. If the current trends remain unchanged, Tokyo awaits awaits catastrophe, and another reconstruction.

References References

Barthes Barthes R. (I 970) L'empire des signes, Paris, :Skira.

Cybriwsky, Cybriwsky, R. (1998) Tokyo: The Shogun's City at the Twenty-First Century, New York John Wiley & Sons Fujimori, Fujimori, Terunobu (1982) Meiji no Tokyo Keikaku (Urban planning of Tokyo in the Meiji era), Tokyo: Iwanamishoten. [Japanese] Funo, Funo, Shuji (I 998) Toshi to Gekijou (City and theatre), Tokyo: Shokokusya. [Japanese] (2003)'The declining capital', in IIAS Newsletter, Newsletter, 31 July, Leiden: IIAS Goodman, Goodman, G.K. (2000) Japan and the Dutch 1600-1853, Richmond: Curzon. Ishida, Ishida, Yorifusa (1987) Nihon Kindai Toshi Keikaku no Hyakunen (The hundred years of modern urban planning in Japan), Tokyo: Tokyo: Zichitai Kenkyu-sha. [Japanese] Ishida, Ishida, Yorifusa (1992) Mikan no Tokyo Keikaku (The unaccomplished Tokyo projects), Tokyo: Tikumashobou. [Japanese] Jinnai, Jinnai, Hidenobu (1995) Tokyo a Spatial Anthropology: Translated by Kimiko Nishimura, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California California Press

Karan, Karan, P.P. and Stapleton, K. (ed.) (I 997) The Japanese City, Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky Koshizawa, Koshizawa, Akira (1991) Tokyo no Toshikeil,aku (Urban planning of Tokyo:I Tokyo), wanamishoten. [Japanese]

Naito, Naito, Akira (I 967) Edo to Edo Jou (Edo and Edo castle), Tokyo: Kasimasyuppankai. (Japanese) Sassen, Sassen, S. (1991) The Global City: New York. London, Tokyo, New Jersey: Princeton University Press Seidensticker, Seidensticker, E. (I 980) Low City, High City: Tokyo from Edo to the Earthquake, Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle

Seidensticker, Seidensticker, E. (1990) Tokyo Rising: The City Since the Great Earthquake, New York Alfred A Knopf. Tamai, Tetsuo Tetsuo Tamai, (I 986) Edo: Ushinawareta Toshikuukan wo yomu (Reading urban spaces lost), Tokyo: Heibonsha. [Japanese] Tokyo Tokyo to (Tokyo Metropolitan Government) (1989) Tokyo to no Toshi Keikaku Hyakunen (JOO Years of urban planning m Tokyo), Tokyo), Tokyo: Tokyo to. [Japanese] Watanabe, Watanabe, Shunichi (1993) Toshikeikaku no Tanjou (The birth of urban planning), TokyoKasiwashobou. [Japanese]

32 32 Endnotes Endnotes

Archaeological 1" Archaeological evidence indicates that human settlement in the Kanto Plain dates back to prehistory. The origin of the city goes back back to the foundation of a small castle called Edo in 1457, which was built by a feudal lord named Dokan Ohta, and was part of a small small castle town before the end of sixteenth century

2 Many books and papers were written in Japanese in terms of the relationship between Japan and Netherland. See Goodman,

Grant Grant K.: Japan and the Dutch 1600-1853. Curzon, 2000

3 The population of Tokyo Metropolitan Government has grown to 12.1 7 million (as of October 1, 200 !), 9.5 percent of Japan's total total population and the largest of the 4 7 prefectures. In contrast, Tokyo's land area (2,187.0 square kilometers or 0.6 percent of of the total area of Japan) is the third smallest of the prefectures. The population density is 5,565 persons per square kilometer, by by far the densest prefecture in Japan. The 23-ku areas are home to 8.21 million persons, the Tama area to 3.94 million, and the

Islands Islands to 27,000. Tokyo has 5.518 million households, and the average household comprises 2.2 persons

1 Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542- 1616) occupied the town in 1590 and made it the central governmental city, establishing a milit 頷 y government, government, tl-ie Tokugawa Bakufu 似IJogunate) at Edo, in 1603. The Edo era lasted for nearly 260 years until imperial rule was restored restored (the Meiji Restoration) in !868

5 According to reliable records, Edo consisted of about 300 neighbourhood units in the Kanei Period (1624-1644), which increased increased up to 933 units in 1 713, and 1678 units in 1745. The estimated population was 350,000 in 1695 and 500,000 in

1 721. It is the point for later discussion that Edo was a special governmental city where half of the inhabitants belonged to the

Bushi Bushi class (nobility) who formally resided in the country So the total number of inhabitants in Edo was over 1 million at the end of of the eighteenth centrny, beyond those of London and Paris. It is said that Edo (in terms of population) was the largest city - or a huge huge urban village - in the world in early-nineteenth century

0 The Greater Tokyo Metropolitan Area is made up of Tokyo and the three neighboring prefectures of Saitama, Kanagawa and and Chiba. Approximately 26.3 percent of Japan's total population lives in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. Tokyo is a vast self- governmg unit consisting of 23 ku (wards), 26 cities, 5 towns, and 8 villages, and is divided into two major areas - the 23 ku area and and Tama area. The total areas of all 23 ku cover about 621 square kilometers. The Tama Area is adjacent to the 23-ku areas. The daytime daytime population, broken down by area, shows 11.191 million in the 23-ku area, 3.348 million in the Tama Area, and 32,000 persons persons in the islands

7 Roland Barthes ,"L'Empire des signes(Empire of Signs)" ,Skira, 1970

8 Y. Ishida(l 987) divides the development of modem urban planning in Japan into following stages.

(i). (i). Introduction of European urban reform (1868-1887), (ii). The Tokyo Urban Improvement Ordinance period (Shikukaisei

Jorei) Jorei) (1880-1918), (iii). The period establishing the urban planning system (1910-1935), (iv). Wartime period (1931-1945),

(v). (v). Reconstruction period (1945-1954), (vi). Urban development (1955-1968), (vii). Establishing new urban planning system

(1968-1985), (1968-1985), (viii). Anti-planning during the'bubble economy'(1982-1993). If I add the period after Y. Ishida, (ix). CommuniGJ design design after the'bubble economy'(1995-)

9 Born in Saga Han of Kyushu island. Politician. The Prime Mister(1898.6-10). One of the leaders of Meiji Restoration. The founder founder of Waseda University.

10 10 Born inThoshu Han .Politician. The Mister of Foreign Affairs(l 885- 1888)

11 11 Thomas James Waters is known as an engineer who had worked in Shanghai before coming to Japan. The detail of his career 1s not not known

12 12 Josiah Condor from England is respected as the father of the Japanese modern architects. He was invited to Japan at the request request of Ministry of Technology(kouburyo) in 1877 and taught the first generation of students at Kobudaigakko (Institute of

Technology) Technology) and designed a considerable number of buildings.

13 13 Herman Ende was 57 years old at that time. Willhelm Bockman was Ende's colleague of Ende & Beckmann Atelier. Richard

Seel, Seel, Hermann Muthesius, Heinrich Manz, Adolf Steghmi.iller, Oskara Emil Leopold Tietze were hired as architects according to

Bockman's recommendation

33 33 ''Londontown, ''Londontown, which is located immidiately south of the Imperial Palace and now called Marunouchi facing to Tokyo Central

Station, Station, was a creation of a private, family-owned business called Mitsubishi headed by Iwasaki.

'5 '5 Born in Chosyu han. Politician. The Prime Mister(1889.12-91.4).

'6 '6 In terms of the urban planning in the Meiji-era (1868-1911), see T恥 jimori (1982), which is still the best material

''The name of Mayor of Frankfurt am Main cs cs The word'Denen Toshi'is used as the Japanese word translated from'garden city', but means'rural city'or'country town'if the the word is literally translated into English.

'9 '9 104,619 people, most of which had lived in the densely built up area, died or were missing and 300,000 houses were destroyed as as a result of this disaster

20 20 Born in Mito han. Politician. Colonial Officer in Taiwan(l 898. The first director of Mantetu (Manshu railroad company) in

Manchuria(l Manchuria(l 906). The Postmaster and (1908).Minister of The Ministry of Interior(l 916). The Minister of Foreign Affairs(l 918)

Mayor ofTokyo(l 920)

』1 An American schalor on public administration, finance and politics who had started a similar institute in New York.

と2 The area is 55260ha, which is 6 times of that of Tokyo-shi. Dai Tokyo was consisted of 35 ku (ward), the area of which is the same as the present 23-ku (wards) area

23 23 The number of dwelling units exeeded the number of households in 1968. It took about a quater century to recover the shortage shortage of dwelling units.

24 Civil engineer who garduated from Tokyo Imperial University. Engineer of Minis 切 of Interior. Directer of Construction board of of Tokyo shi. Professor of Waseda University.

" It soon became clear that the Capital Region Development Plan was unrealistic in its u叫 of erestimation industrial and population population concentration pressures in the metropolis. In particular, the idea of green belts was totally ineffective in the face of the sprawl sprawl into suburbs during 1960's. As a result, a reevaluation of the plan became necessary. The Capital Region Development

Law was revised in 1965, and the second Capital Region Development Master Plan was established in 1968

3''The 3''The cooperation was disorganized in 2004 according to restructuring of governmental organization

27 27 The New Residential Built-up Area Development Law and the Law for Infrastructure Development of New Cities are notable as measures measures that dealt realistically with metropolitan development.

28 28 He was a popular two-te 叩 governor until 1979. His ideas reoriented Tokyo city planning, but almost brought it to bankruptcy

29 29 The former Tokyo Hall City demolished had been located in Marunouchi Central District. The movement of hall city to the west, the the former sub-center Shinjuku shows the movement of center of gravity of the city

30 30 In the early morning on January 17, 1995, the Great Hanshin Earthquake occurred. The building collapsed killed over 6,000 people, people, flying objects (furniture) and the fires. About 300,000 people have lost their houses and were compelled to live in the temporary temporary shelters until the end of August 1995 when the emergency houses were barely completed li 「 be population movement between Tokyo and other prefectures in 2000 shows that 444,000 persons moved into Tokyo while

391.000 moved out. a total movement of 835,000 and a net population increase of 37,000. Regarding total movement, the trend of of depopulation has prevailed since 1967, with the exception of 1985. In 1997, there was a net population increase for the first time time in 12 years, and 2000 again showed a net increase. Looking at the total movement between Tokyo and the three adjacent prefectures prefectures (Saitama, Chiba and Kanagawa prefectures), 208,000 came into Tokyo with 205,000 moving out, representing a total movement of 413,000 persons or 4 7.6 percent of the total, a net population decline of 3,000. Concerning natural population movement, births numbered 101,000 and deaths numbered 84,000 for a net increase of 17,000 during 2000. The degree of net increases increases has declined yearly since 1972, with the exception of 1994 and 1996

Funo,Shuji,'The " Funo,Shuji,'The Declining Capital', IIAS Newsletter, 31st.July, 2003.

34 34