xvi ’s Raptors: Diurnal of Prey and Birds Australia Conservation Statement No. 2 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

electrocution and collision mortality due to power assets: REFERENCES the Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax and novaehollandiae in , Australia’. In: 2nd General texts: International Conference on Raptors, Urbino, Italy, October AUSTRALIA’S Debus, S. (1998), Birds of Prey of Australia: A Field Guide, OUP, 1996, Raptor Research Foundation, Provo. Melbourne. 21. Gaffney, R. (1994), ‘Community support to manage Higgins, P. J. (ed.) (in press), Handbook of Australian, New for nesting Wedge-tailed Eagles Aquila audax fleayi in RAPTORS: Zealand and Antarctic Birds, vol. IV, to Dollarbird, OUP, Tasmania’. In: A. Norton (ed), Conserving Biological Diversity Melbourne. in Temperate , Centre for Resource and Hollands, D. (1984), Eagles, and of Australia, Environmental Science, Australian National University, Nelson, Melbourne. DIURNAL BIRDS Canberra, pp. 87–8. Hollands, D. (1991), Birds of the Night: Owls, Frogmouths and 22. Mooney, N. J. & Taylor, R. J. (1996), ‘Value of nest site Nightjars of Australia, Reed, Balgowlah. protection in ameliorating the effects of forestry operations on Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. (1993), Handbook of Australian, the Wedge-tailed Eagle in Tasmania’. In: D. Bird, D. Varland OF PREY AND and Antarctic Birds, vol. II, Raptors to Lapwings, & J. Negro (eds), Raptors in Human Landscapes, Academic OUP, Melbourne. Press, New York, pp. 275–82. Olsen, P. (1995), Australian Birds of Prey, University of New 23. Olsen, P. & Olsen, J. (1978), ‘Alleviating the impact of OWLS South Wales Press, Sydney. human disturbance on the breeding Peregrine : I. Schodde, R. & Mason, I. (1981), Nocturnal Birds of Australia, Ornithologists’, Corella 2, pp. 1–7. Lansdowne, Melbourne. 24. Holdsworth, M. & Marmion, P. (1993), ‘Raptors and by Penny Olsen Specific references: education in Tasmania’. In: P. Olsen (ed), Australian Raptor 1. Blakers, M., Davies, S. J. J. F & Reilly, P. N. (1984), The Atlas Studies, Australasian Raptor Association, RAOU, Melbourne, of Australian Birds, MUP, Melbourne. pp. 220–6. SUMMARY: Raptors (birds of prey) fall into two 2. Baker-Gabb, D. J. & Steele, W. K. (1996), ‘Monitoring the 25. Norman, J., Christidis, L., Westerman, M. & Hill, F. A. R. natural groups, diurnal species and owls, which relative abundance, distribution and movements of Australian (in press), ‘Molecular analysis confirms the species status of birds of prey’, Australian Agency Project the - natalis’, Emu. have similar habits, but are unrelated. As no. FPP 110, RAOU, Melbourne. 26. Norman, J., Olsen, P. & Christidis, L. (in press), ‘Molecular predators they are important components of 3. Collar, N. J., Crosby, M. J. & Stattersfeld, A. J. (1994), Birds genetics confirms taxonomic affinities of the endangered ecosystems, but this role sometimes brings to Watch 2: The World List of Threatened Birds, Birdlife Boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata’, Conservation Series no. 4, Birdlife International, Cambridge. Biological Conservation. them into conflict with humans, both as 4. Hill, R. (1996), A Recovery Plan for the Christmas Island 27. Aumann, T., Mooney, N. J. & Olsen, P. D. (1989), ‘The legal perceived pests and as untargeted victims Hawk-Owl, RAOU, Melbourne. status of birds of prey in Australia’. In: B.-U. Meyburg & R. of programs to control other pests. 5. Hill, R. (1996), A Recovery Plan for the Christmas Island D. Chancellor (eds), Raptors in the Modern World, World Goshawk, RAOU, Melbourne. Working Group on Birds of Prey, Berlin, pp. 591–6. Discounting rare vagrants, Australia 6. Olsen, P. (1997), Recovery Plan for the Norfolk Island Boobook 28. Brereton, R. N. & Mooney, N. J. (1994), ‘Conservation of and its territories host 35 species of Owl Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata, Environment the nesting of the Grey Goshawk (Accipiter novaehol- birds of prey: 24 diurnal raptors and Australia, Canberra. landiae) in Tasmanian State Forests’, Tasforests 6, pp. 79–91. 7. Gaffney, R. F. & Mooney, N. J. (1992), The Wedge-tailed 29. Jackson, J. & Taylor, R. (1994), Threatened Fauna Manual for 11 owls, many of which are endemic. Nine Eagle Recovery Plan: Management Phase, Department of Parks, Production Forests in Tasmania, Forest Practices Board, species and as many subspecies are listed as Wildlife and Heritage, Hobart. Hobart. threatened nationally and/or regionally. 8. Anon. (nd), Living with Wildlife (one each on eagles and 30. Garnett, S. (ed.) (1993), Threatened and Extinct Birds of hawks), Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service, Hobart. Australia, RAOU Report no. 82, RAOU and ANPWS, Unobtrusive but vigilant management, through the 9. Maciejewski, S. E. (1997), ‘The Grass Owl Tyto capensis in Canberra. preservation of adequate areas of well-maintained north-eastern ’. In: G. Czechura & S. habitat, is the critical conservation priority for all Debus (eds), Australian Raptor Studies II, Birds Australia Monograph no. 3, RAOU, Melbourne, pp. 54–70. species. This not only involves protection of 10. Debus, S. J. S. & Chafer, C. J. (1994), ‘The relatively undisturbed , but better Ninox strenua in New South Wales’, Australian Birds 28 management of agricultural land and (supplement), pp. 21–38. 11. Kavanagh, R. P. & Bamkin, K. L. (1995), ‘Distribution of harvested forests according to the nocturnal forest birds and in relation to the logging principles of ecologically sustainable mosaic in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia’, development, and more conservation- CONSERVATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE Biological Conservation 71, pp. 41–53. conscious development of residential areas, 12. Kavanagh, R. P., Debus, S. J. S., Tweedie, T. & Webster, R. ACN 004 076 475 (1995), ‘Distribution of nocturnal forest birds and mammals 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Vic. 3123 to the benefit of all users, including raptors. in north-eastern New South Wales; relationships with Tel: (03) 9882 2622; Fax: (03) 9882 2677 Disturbance of nest sites should be avoided, environmental variables and management history’, Wildlife Email: [email protected] particularly those of and Research 22, pp. 359–77. Birds Australia Home Page: http://www.vicnet.net.au/~birdsaus 13. Silveira, C. E. (1997), Targeted Assessments of Key Threatened subspecies. For a few taxa, such as the Vertebrate Fauna in Relation to the North-east and Founded in 1901, Birds Australia (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union) is Australia’s oldest national conservation Norfolk Island Boobook and the Benalla–Mansfield Forest Management Area (one each on organisation, dedicated to the study and conservation of native Tasmanian subspecies of Wedge-tailed Barking Owl, Sooty Owl and Powerful Owl), Arthur Rylah birds and their habitat. New members are welcome. Institute, DNRE, Melbourne. Eagle, the protection and maintenance 14. Robinson, D. & Traill, B. (1996), Conserving Woodland Birds of individual nest sites is essential. in the Wheat and Sheep Belts of Southern Australia, RAOU Other areas of need are: research Conservation Statement no. 10, RAOU, Melbourne Australasian 15. Debus, S. J. S. (1997), ‘The Barking Owl in New South Raptor Association into the status and conservation Wales’, Australian Birds 30, pp. 53–80. The Australasian Raptor Association (ARA) is a semi-autonomous requirements of some species, and the 16. Anon. (1998), Report to RCD Management Group, March group of Birds Australia. It was founded in 1979 to act as a focus 1998, National RCD Monitoring and Surveillance Program for those with an interest in diurnal and nocturnal raptors of the identification of significant breeding and and Epidemiology Program, Bureau of Resource Sciences, Australian region. The ARA’s broad aims are to promote raptor wintering areas; research into the consequences of Canberra. research, conservation and management and to foster management initiatives, such as fire regimes, grazing 17. Olsen, P. (1998), Australia’s Pest : New Solutions to communication and co-operation in the region. For further Old Problems, Kangaroo Press, Sydney. information, contact Birds Australia National Office. pressure and pest management on raptors and other 18. Olsen, P., Fuller, P. & Marples, T. G. (1993), ‘-related ARA Home Page: http: //www.tasweb.com.au/ara/index.htm wildlife; education to increase understanding of raptors’ eggshell thinning in Australian raptors’, Emu 93, pp. 1–11. Birds Australia Conservation Statements provide information ecological role and intrinsic value; and promotion of the 19. Avian Power Line Interaction Committee (1996), Suggested about issues relating to the conservation of Australasian birds and Practices for Raptor Protection on Power Lines: the State of the their habitat, and suggest solutions to problems. White-bellied Sea-Eagle in its element. Wilderness areas, use of raptor-safe techniques and poisons to control Art in 1996, Edison Electric Institute and Raptor Research Wingspan is the quarterly membership magazine of conserved for the benefit of all their inhabitants, pests, and of non-destructive measures to minimise Foundation, Washington, DC. Birds Australia. Additional copies of this Conservation Statement are are the most natural way to leave space for raptors. livestock losses to raptor predation. 20. Hess, J. F., Holdsworth, M. & Mooney, N. (1996), ‘Reducing available from the National Office. Photo by Ford Kristo Supplement to Wingspan, vol. 8, no. 3, September 1998 ii Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls iii 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

FOR THE PURPOSES OF THIS CONSERVATION STATEMENT raptors are THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES defined as birds that survive largely by eating other animals, captured with heavily taloned feet. This definition encompasses both the diurnal birds of prey and the owls, Australia and its territories host 35 species of raptors groups united by similar habits and ecological roles but otherwise unrelated. (see Table 1. p. IV), plus a few vagrants of other species. Eleven species are endemic to Australia, A shared characteristic is that females of all diurnal species and most owls are larger another 17 are endemic to and only seven than males, as much as twice as heavy in a few species. In Australia, the exceptions are are more cosmopolitan in distribution. This is a high the three large hawk-owls, in which the male is clearly larger. Nevertheless, the four level of regional endemism but an unexceptional families of diurnal birds of prey (Families and ) and owls number of species. Nevertheless, certain groups are particularly well (Strigidae and Tytonidae) are distinguished by anatomical, behavioural and ecological represented. For example, about 16 per cent of the differences. world’s falcon species and about one-third of the The accipitrids, known colloquially as hawks, kites, harriers, vultures and eagles, are species of both Tyto and Ninox occur in Australia. The rather similar in basic structure, but they have wide ecological radiation, reflected in a country’s open flatness may help to explain the first, and the second may be related to the diversity of small diversity of sizes, shapes, flying abilities and predatory habits. They are closely related to to medium-sized nocturnal species that the falconids, represented in Australia by the falcons, perhaps the most distinctive group Australia once supported. of diurnal birds of prey. Falcons resemble hawks, and share such characteristics as a hooked beak, fleshy cere, a crop, and two ovaries (unlike other birds), but differ in other ECOLOGY significant ways, such as their habit of immobilising prey with a bite to the neck and In general, raptors tend to be long lived, with low In autumn many Australian Habitat degradation is reproductive rates and low population densities. As thought to have restricted their lack of nest-building instinct. Typically, members of the two families are largely Hobbies and other raptor the breeding range of the active by day, although some are also crepuscular and one, the Letter-winged Kite, is they are at the top of food chains, they can be limited species from the south-east Grey Falcon more or less to largely nocturnal. by the availability of their prey. These and other traits make their way to northern the arid zone, warranting make them particularly vulnerable to human impact. Australia for the winter, the need for special By contrast the owls are primarily active by night. Most have cryptic plumage and For example, populations of large, slow-breeding possibly following the flocks of migrating research into the falcon’s eagles are sometimes unable to compensate for high status and conservation feathers adapted for silent flight; all have reversible outer toes and usually perch with headed for requirements. Little is two toes forward, two back. The tytonids, with a distinctive heart-shaped facial disc, losses through persecution. milder climates. Movements known of raptor ecology in asymmetrical ear openings and rather small eyes, make great use of sound cues for During the breeding season, a preference for long of these and other arid and northern Australia. Distribution and habitat grasses and reeds (especially near swamps) in Australian raptors are not Photo by Lindsay Cupper hunting. The Australian strigids all belong to the genus Ninox, the hawk-owls. As the Raptors are distributed Australia-wide. The distribution temperate areas limits the Swamp largely to well understood. Photo by Dave Watts name suggests, they are more hawk-like than other owls, with a proportionately smaller of a particular species is intimately linked to its habitat the south-western and south-eastern mainland and head and indistinct facial disc. Symmetrical ear openings and larger eyes distinguish requirements: species with specialised requirements Tasmania. However, in the non-breeding season it them from the tytonids, and they are more dependent on sight for hunting. have more limited distributions than those that tolerate occurs in wetter areas across the mainland. The a variety of conditions. Several raptors frequent a Powerful Owl and Sooty Owl are more or less variety of habitats and occur almost Australia-wide, confined to forested habitats east of the Divide. including Tasmania and other large offshore islands. By contrast, the Square-tailed Kite and areas These include the Nankeen , , occupied by the Grass Owl are scattered over much of Wedge-tailed Eagle, , Collared the mainland. However, the kite is limited by its need Sparrowhawk and Southern Boobook. to breed in species-rich patches of woodland and the In the 1977–81 Atlas of Australian Birds project,1 owl is confined to moist, open, tussocky grassland and the Brown Falcon and were the most similar habitats. widely encountered of all birds, each reported from Many widespread species are also abundant, for 95 per cent of the 1-degree blocks used to divide the example the Brown Falcon, Australian Kestrel and country. The Wedge-tailed Eagle fell sixth, in 86 per Southern Boobook (see Table 1). By contrast, the cent, and two other raptors, the and Grey Falcon and Grass Owl both occur over a vast Black Kite, were in the top 10 most widespread area but are nowhere common. Similarly, the widely species for the Northern Territory. Other species, distributed Red Goshawk, with an estimated including the Australian , Brown Goshawk, 350 breeding pairs, is probably the rarest of the , Barn Owl and Southern diurnal species. The Christmas Island Hawk-Owl is Boobook are also widely distributed, but may not be quite abundant but its total population is small, sighted as easily. perhaps 600 pairs, because it is confined to an isolated The most constrained in distribution are the island only 137 km2 in area. Lesser Sooty Owl and the highly specialised Letter-winged Kite. In Australia, the owl occurs only Movements between about Cooktown and Paluma, in north-east It is critical that we understand raptor movements, . The kite is more or less confined to the particularly for identifying points at which to apply Coopers Creek drainage system, except sporadically, conservation action. For example, in non-sedentary when its population increases and erupts in species or age groups, conservation problems can conjunction with its prey, the Long-haired occur on the breeding grounds, on the non-breeding (Rattus villosissimus). grounds or en route between. iv Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls v 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

Table 1. Estimated status and likely trends in the total population size of Australia’s raptors since European settlement. bone, hair, scales and invertebrate exoskeletons. Pellets Species General status General change in total population size since settlement (and supposed major reason for change) offer a useful way to estimate diet. Most detailed studies of raptor diet have been conducted in the Osprey Pandion haliaetus fairly common decrease (, persecution), but good recovery in recent years breeding season when prey is usually brought to the Black-shouldered Kite Elanus axillaris common increase (moderate clearing, mice) Letter-winged Kite Elanus scriptus rare–uncommon — nest, and pellets and remains can be collected Pacific Baza Aviceda subcristata fairly common — relatively easily from beneath. For most species the Square-tailed Kite Lophoictinia isura rare–uncommon decrease (clearing) non-breeding diet is unstudied. Black-breasted Buzzard Hamirostra melanosternon fairly common — Red Goshawk radiatus rare-uncommon decrease (clearing, direct disturbance) All raptors are primarily carnivorous, taking Black Kite Milvus migrans common–very common increase (rubbish dumps, slaughterhouses, ) mammals, birds, , , and Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus common slight decrease (persecution?, disturbance) . The Pacific Baza occasionally feeds on fleshy Whistling Kite Haliastur sphenurus common decrease (pesticides, alteration); some local increases (rabbits, rubbish tips) fruit, such as figs. Some, such as the fish-eating White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster fairly common stable?: local increases (man-made reservoirs, etc., carp) and decreases (clearing, development) Osprey and the bird-eating , are Spotted Harrier Circus assimilis uncommon Decrease (degradation of arid zone?) specialists. Others are more catholic in their diet. All Swamp Harrier Circus approximans common — species take mostly live prey, especially when Brown Goshawk Accipiter fasciatus common slight increase? (rabbits, moderate clearing); some areas apparent decrease eg. coastal NSW Grey Goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae fairly common slight decrease (clearing, persecution?) breeding; only a few eat carrion regularly. Collared Sparrowhawk Accipiter cirrhocephalus fairly common — Within a species, diet can vary markedly between Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax common local increases (rabbits, moderate clearing); also local decreases (disturbance, persecution, regions, habitats, years and seasons, ages, sexes and clearing) Hieraaetus morphnoides common increase (moderate clearing, rabbits, starlings?) individuals; availability of preferred prey is thought to Brown Falcon Falco berigora very common slight increase ? (moderate clearing, rabbits, starlings, provision of permanent water) account largely for the differences but is seldom easy Falco subniger uncommon — to measure. For example, in summer, Swamp Harriers Grey Falcon Falco hypoleucos rare-uncommon decrease in distribution (habitat alteration) but perhaps not in status (provision of permanent water) at Werribee, , are most dependent on Falco longipennis common slight increase? (provision of water, starlings, winter refugia in urban areas) mammalian prey; in winter the emphasis is on birds. Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides very common increase (moderate clearing, mice, starlings) but local decreases (intensive agriculture etc.) In spring, Brown Falcons in Tasmania eat mostly Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus common decrease (pesticides, persecution) but recovery to slight increase (man-made nest sites, spread of Galahs, starlings, feral pigeons, permanent water) mammals and birds; during summer, they switch to Sooty Owl Tyto tenebricosa fairly common decrease (clearing) seasonally available insects and reptiles; in winter, they Lesser Sooty Owl Tyto multipunctata common in restricted range stable? return to birds and mammals, but also carrion. Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae uncommon stable in Tasmania; decrease in NSW, Victoria and Queensland (clearing, overgrazing, rodenticides) Powerful Owls prey mostly on arboreal Barn Owl Tyto alba common possible increase (moderate clearing, introduced ) (possums and gliders), flying foxes when available, Grass Owl Tyto capensis uncommon suspected decrease (clearing, overgrazing, introduced predators, rodenticides) and the occasional roosting bird. Many species are reproductive rate of larger species can slow recovery Powerful Owl Ninox strenua common slight decrease (clearing) Ninox rufa fairly common — most insectivorous in their first year or so of life (in efforts. Drought-sensitive species, such as the Wedge- Barking Owl Ninox connivens common decrease (clearing, overgrazing?) in more disturbed areas general, there is less skill and risk involved in the tailed Eagle, may breed poorly in very dry years, Southern Boobook Ninox boobook very common stable; local declines (clearing, overgrazing?) capture of insects and they are more common than whereas other species, such as the Peregrine Falcon, The Lesser Sooty Owl, New Zealand Ninox novaeseelandiae rare (Norfolk I.) severe decrease (mainly clearing); hybrid population increasing (conservation assisted) vertebrates), and for similar reasons juveniles of some may be little affected. Both species are widespread and the most constrained in Christmas Island Hawk-Owl Ninox natalis common decrease 25% (clearing, mining; now ceased); now stable species tend to eat more carrion than do adults. highly successful, but have different reproductive distribution of all Australia’s raptors, occurs Status is ranked from very common to rare. The relative terms ‘rare’, etc. are used in a colloquial sense and refer to status within the usual range of each species and relate to its strategies. An understanding of such dynamics is expected abundance. They acknowledge the fact that raptors are never common in the sense of, say, starlings. Thus, populations of the Tasmanian subspecies of the Wedge-tailed only in a confined area of Eagle and the Christmas Island Hawk-owl may be more or less saturated (common), even though both are officially listed as threatened (Table 2) because they have such small Reproduction important when assessing conservation issues. mountain in populations that they are particularly vulnerable. Raptors are particularly vulnerable when breeding, north-east Queensland. and some species are prone to desert nests or young Population status Like the falcons, the owls Much remains to be discovered about the partially migratory: each year part of the population when disturbed. The main months of breeding vary Human impact has led to a change in status of several are unable to build a true nest; their dependence on movements of Australia’s raptors. Important wintering moves to kinder climates for the winter and this causes according to species, seasonal conditions, latitude and species (see Table 1). Certain species may have nest hollows makes them areas and drought refugia are only just beginning to a northward and/or coastward shift in distribution of altitude. If disruptive human activity in a breeding benefited while others have suffered: several of the particularly vulnerable to be recognised.2 Across northern Australia, migrants the species. Partial migrants include the Black Falcon, area is necessary, preferably it should be undertaken latter are now recognised as threatened either habitat loss. probably outnumber residents during the dry winter. Brown Falcon, Grey Falcon, Australian Hobby, outside this period. nationally and/or regionally (see Table 2, p. X). Photo by David Hollands Significant wintering areas for the diurnal raptors Nankeen Kestrel, Brown Goshawk, Square-tailed Kite, Because the falcons and owls are unable to build a Settlement and clearing has adversely affected the appear to include the Kimberley, the Top End, the Black-breasted Buzzard and Little Eagle. true nest, they are more limited by the availability of distribution of some species. For example, the Red Gulf of Carpentaria drainage zone, Cape York Other species are more nomadic or irruptive: for nest sites than are species that can build nests Goshawk and Brahminy Kite once occurred in New Peninsula, the Darling Downs and some coastal and example, the Letter-Winged, Black-Shouldered and themselves. Such dependence on tree hollows, on South Wales as far south as Sydney, but their range subcoastal areas of southern Australia. The north-west Black Kites, and the Barn Owl and Grass Owl. Still existing stick nests, or a limited number of cliffs with has shrunk northwards; the goshawk is now rarely coast of Arnhem Land, and the Mitchell Grass Downs others – many of the owls, the Peregrine Falcon and ledges, can be a species’ ‘Achilles heel’ and therefore a seen only in the extreme north-east corner of the south to the Coopers Creek drainage basin are partic- White-bellied Sea-Eagle – are largely sedentary. suitable point for concentrated conservation effort. State. The Southern Boobook, once common on ularly important for the concentration of raptors they It is likely that the movement patterns of some For example, if mature trees with hollows are in short , no longer occur there. As support in winter, and the Riverina in species have been influenced by human activity; for supply because of land degradation or clearing, then undesirable as such changes are, in terms of the total spring–summer. Inland ranges and associated example, rubbish tips and abattoirs support nest boxes may be a conservation solution. population, no species of Australian raptor has lowlands probably also act as refugia for some species populations of Black Kites that might otherwise Most species nest as solitary, territorial pairs, undergone a critical change in distribution or status during drought: these include the Central Ranges, the move elsewhere. although the Letter-winged Kite and Grass Owl, for since European settlement. Pilbara, the Flinders Ranges, the Selwyn Ranges and instance, occasionally nest in loose colonies. The pairs Persecution and pesticides all but removed the the central drainage system of Lake Eyre. Diet of many species nest year after year at traditional nest Osprey from New South Wales by the 1980s, but No Australian species is wholly migratory. Almost Raptors regurgitate pellets containing the less sites or at least in the same area, facilitating census of protection in the past decade has allowed it to return the entire population of Swamp Harriers departs digestible portions of their prey. Depending on the breeding populations. to much of its former range. Peregrine Falcon Tasmania for the winter, but elsewhere populations are acidity of the digestive system, these contain greater or Details of reproduction have great significance for numbers, similarly reduced in certain areas by only partially migratory. Indeed, many species are lesser quantities of indigestible food elements such as conservation. For example, the naturally low pesticides and persecution, have also recovered. vi Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls vii 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

if existing habitat is preserved. The Square-tailed Kite is a widespread but sparsely distributed raptor. Destruction of the -rich open forest and woodland it favours is a continuing threat to its survival. The Black-breasted Buzzard is poorly known; however, it is probably more common than previously supposed. A management plan has been prepared for the Christmas Island Hawk-Owl,4 which is now adequately protected and probably secure. Island subspecies of three otherwise common raptors are considered to be at risk. On Christmas Island, an Australian territory in the Indian Ocean, an unusual subspecies of Brown Goshawk may number less than 150 pairs. In the past, mining for phosphate destroyed about 25 per cent of the forest, and birds were shot. However, much of the island has been declared a national park, mining ceased in 1987, mined areas are being rehabilitated, and guns were banned in 1975. The goshawk seems secure but because the island cannot support a large population, it remains vulnerable. A study is required to assess the population’s viability and genetic identity. THREATENED SPECIES Management plans have been prepared for the Regional Forests Agreements (RFA) plan; and the mortality is important. Identifying vulnerable goshawk5 and also for the Norfolk Island Boobook,6 development of new harvesting protocols. Eighty per populations or subsets of populations, such as a Several Australian species are listed as threatened which was reduced to one bird before action was taken, cent of Australia’s temperate woodlands have been particular age or sex group, and their threats, is either internationally, nationally or by the States, with and now exists only as a hybrid subspecies, managed in cleared for agriculture, much remaining woodland is vital. For example, the damaging effects of DDT some variation in assessment criteria between organis- the wild through the provision of nest boxes. becoming increasingly degraded, and clearing is (dichlor-diphenyl-trichlor-ethane) on some raptor ations (see Table 2). Other species have been placed in Destruction of forests and persecution are the escalating in the less damaged tropical woodlands of populations went largely unrecognised for more than working categories, which indicates concern and the main conservation problems facing the Tasmanian Queensland.14 a decade: even though egg loss was causing many need for vigilance over their status. For example, the subspecies of the Wedge-tailed Eagle.7 The subspecies Although conservation action, particularly on breeding failures, many long-lived adults were still Black Falcon and Letter-winged Kite are considered usually breeds in forest and is prone to desert the nest islands, and increased knowledge have alleviated present at their nest sites. Thus, recruitment into the Australia’s rarest raptor and uncommon in , and Masked and when disturbed. Only about 20 per cent of the concerns for some threatened species, the trend is for breeding population is also one of the more critical This wooded hillside is one of the rarest in the Powerful Owls and the White-bellied Sea-Eagle are roughly 220 pairs breed on land with a high more groups to be listed and none has been delisted. life history characteristics, but it is also one of the typical of that favoured in world, the Red Goshawk is placed in a working category (rare) in the ACT reservation status. Logging protocols, administered by Recently, the White-bellied Sea-Eagle was listed in least researched. south-east Australia as a estimated to have a total (Nature Conservation Act 1994), as is the Grey the Tasmanian Forest Practices Unit and wildlife Victoria because of concern that habitat clearance, nest-site by the Brown breeding population of Goshawk. In south-eastern only 350 pairs. A ‘hands-off’ Goshawk in Tasmania. authorities, limit nest destruction and disturbance, disturbance, persecution and accidental poisoning Habitat change and south-western management strategy is has a ‘priority’ list, used for but each year more and more nests are affected. threaten its small population (c. 100 pairs). For Destruction, degradation and alteration of habitat is Australia, less than recommended for the management planning purposes, which includes the Targeted education and legal protection have failed to similar reasons, the species has also been nominated by far the most significant raptor conservation 10 per cent of the original secure population in Barking Owl and Square-tailed Kite. Similarly, in halt the decline, and up to 30 per cent of each year’s for listing in Tasmania. problem. The distribution of several species has woodland remains, putting Australia’s tropical north; Tasmania, the Masked Owl and White-bellied juveniles and 5 per cent of adults are killed by shrunk following destruction of nesting and hunting all those birds which more active research and depend on them for Sea-Eagle are given high priority for research and shooting and poisoning. Greater liaison between habitat. For example, clearing, grazing and other conservation of habitat is MAIN THREATS feeding, shelter and nesting needed for the subcoastal management. Usually, species listed are those that conservation bodies, land owners and processes appear to have altered some at risk. Habitat protection eastern population. occur naturally in low numbers either because of managers, wider education8 and harsher penalties for Several characteristics of raptors make them resistant semi-arid habitat so that it is now less suitable for and restoration is the key Photo by Lindsay Cupper small distributional range (Christmas Island Hawk- offences, should secure the future of the subspecies. to the processes leading to extinction. For example, in Grey Falcons; since the 1950s, the eastern limit of long-term conservation Owl) or low population density (Grey Falcon, Grass Owls may be adequately protected in general they are highly mobile, the structure of their the falcon’s distribution has shifted further inland in priority for all raptor 9 species. Square-tailed Kite, Red Goshawk and Powerful Owl). north-eastern New South Wales by reserves; but habitat is more important than the vegetational New South Wales. Habitat loss and degradation are Photos by Penny Olsen Several subspecies are threatened and one, the Lord elsewhere may be less secure. Large owls are composition, and they have the ability to switch prey also implicated in the worrying decline in Barking Howe Island Boobook (Ninox novaeseelandiae particularly threatened by broadscale clearance of if appropriate alternatives are available. This has Owl numbers.15 albaria), was extinct by 1950, apparently because of mature forests and tree loss in woodlands.10, 11, 12, 13 allowed some species to survive well in farmlands and Loss of trees and habitat continues through habitat destruction, introduced and predators. Leaving vegetation along creeklines, and mature seed cities, on introduced prey species, for instance. clearing for timber or firewood, lack of BirdLife International, which assesses full species trees, lessens the impact of forestry operations, but if Other characteristics of raptor biology and regeneration because of overgrazing and exposure, only, categorises the Red Goshawk as endangered and logging continues at the present rate the long-term physiology make them particularly vulnerable to inappropriate fire management, increased the Square-tailed Kite, Grey Falcon and Powerful Owl prognosis for these species is poor. extinction. As predators at the top of food chains they attack in human-altered ecosystems, salination as vulnerable.3 The Grey Falcon is listed as one of six Nevertheless, several positive steps have been are vulnerable to secondary poisoning and the and residential development. Eventually this will Falconids considered at risk, and the Red Goshawk as taken, including the protection of corridors, the accumulation of persistent pesticides, and subject to have a profound effect on raptor populations one of 36 Accipitridae. retention of unlogged zones and other reserves in persecution. Sometimes conservation problems are deprived of suitable habitat, hunting perches, Of the uniquely Australian species considered wood production forests; the preservation of a system unexpected. For instance, raptors are more sensitive roost sites and nest sites. The loss of mature trees threatened, the Red Goshawk and Grey Falcon have of conservation reserves in escarpment forests; the physiologically to the effects of DDT than are most with holes for nesting is a critical concern for always been uncommon. However, human impact on identification and assessment of areas to be added to other bird groups. several owl species. Monocultures, such as their habitats has caused shrinkage of their breeding the reserve system under the Comprehensive, To understand the dynamics and conservation plantations and broadacre cropland, provide ranges. Nevertheless, both species are probably secure Adequate and Representative (CAR) process of the needs of populations, a thorough knowledge of suitable habitat for few species. viii Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls ix 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

Broadscale control of pests This would have caused local breeding failures, but Deliberate destruction of raptors continues, and, although probably not a significant conservation Raptors can suffer as untargeted victims of localised appears not to have led to the dramatic declines in usually because of their perceived damage to livestock problem, their impact could be reduced. pest control programs intended to protect livestock or populations that occurred elsewhere in the world. (e.g. poultry, lambs, kids), aviary birds or racing Collision with windows is also an increasing crops (see ‘Poisons’, below). Of greater concern is the Newer chemicals, such as organophosphates, that pigeons, but occasionally as an act of vandalism. cause of mortality; research could yield ways to nationwide control of rabbits or any other pest that is are designed to break down quickly to harmless However, at current levels such persecution is local in ameliorate the problem, particularly for large food for a variety of raptors. The interrelationship substances have replaced DDT and other persistent impact and unlikely to affect populations. buildings. Lastly, many raptors are killed by collision between predator and prey should be well understood pesticides, many of which were banned in the 1980s. with vehicles; the removal of road-killed animals on before any such control program is commenced. However, some of the organophosphates have caused Disturbance which raptors feed, so that they are well away from The introduction and spread of the control local raptor deaths by secondary poisoning, through Some raptors, particularly the Wedge-tailed Eagle and roads, would alleviate this problem. agent myxomatosis in 1950 undoubtedly affected the consumption of poisoned rodents or birds. Swamp Harrier, are sensitive to disturbance and will dynamics of some raptor populations, as will the Occasionally, Wedge-tailed Eagles and other raptors not nest close to human activity. If disturbed, for CONSERVATION NEEDS newer agent, rabbit calicivirus disease (RCD), which are poisoned in attempts to protect lambs by the example by human visitation at the nest, these species escaped into the wild rabbit population in 1995 and illegal use of baits laced with acute toxins such as often desert eggs and even nestlings. Other species Habitat protection and restoration is the most was spread by government authorities in 1996.16, 17 strychnine, lucijet, phosdrin and alpha choralase, vary in their level of intolerance of disturbance, but in important long-term conservation action that can be However, the disease is performing poorly in targeted at foxes, dingoes, ravens, Tasmanian Devils, general they are most prone to desert during the nest taken. This entails setting aside significant areas of temperate areas, and even where it has been most and occasionally the raptors themselves. Similarly, site selection period and least as the chicks near habitat, and ensuring their preservation and effective, in arid and semi-arid areas, it has leap- small numbers of raptors are killed during poorly fledging. For example, White-bellied Sea-eagles are maintenance, as well as the appropriate management frogged pockets of rabbits. Thus, at present, it seems conceived broadscale poisoning to control mouse likely to desert during the pre-laying and incubation of non-reserved land, including that which is unlikely that loss of rabbits to RCD will threaten the outbreaks. periods, but less likely to desert chicks. In general, privately owned. Not only is the total area of habitat national population of any raptor species. Contrary to popular belief, secondary poisoning disturbance above the nest is more threatening than important, but so also is the degree of fragmentation Nevertheless, large areas now devoid of rabbits as well of raptors is unlikely to occur from the use of 1080 to that from below, and prolonged disturbance more (patch size and isolation). Core breeding habitats and as native mammals may not support the numbers of control herbivores in plantations and agricultural serious than incidental. wintering areas are vital, but other areas, where non- One of the most managed Wedge-tailed Eagles and other predators of medium- land. By contrast, there is cause for concern over breeders and juveniles can survive and gain of all raptors, the Osprey is sized mammals that they once did. secondary poisoning by brodifacoum, used to control Power poles, powerlines and windows experience before joining the breeding population, a conservation success story. rodents in sugar cane. Research on the environmental Power poles provide vantage points, and occasionally must also be conserved. By the 1970s pesticides, persecution and habitat Poisons impact of the newer pesticides is needed. nest sites, for raptors. However, some distribution Loss of one habitat implies an increase in destruction had severely Poisoning of raptors can be intentional or accidental, Occasionally, raptors are affected by other lines are hazardous for medium to large species: if the another, new habitat. Some human-altered habitats, depleted many of the as in the case of DDT used to control insects, or the contaminants from human activities: for example, bird simultaneously contacts two electrical wires such as some agricultural land and sewage farms, also world’s populations. taking of baits laid to manage pests such as foxes. ingestion of lead shot from shotgun shells, PCB (conductors or phases) or a single-phase and a ground have great conservation value for breeding and over- Banning the offending Historical studies of the thickness of raptor eggshells (polychlorinated biphenyl) seepage from garbage wire, it is electrocuted.19, 20 Even small raptors are at wintering resident and transient raptors. For such pesticides, nest site guarding and the provision show that certain species suffered thinning dumps, and mercury from industrial waste. risk from certain poletop configurations and habitats to be effective, raptor necessities such as nest of artificial nesting sites of their shells, particularly in the 1960s transformers. sites, roosts and hunting perches must be conserved have restored most and 1970s.18 Persecution On the other hand, the distance between the or provided. populations. In Australia To protect the expanding sheep industry, in the past cables of large transmission lines is usually greater Particularly in the vicinity of disturbance-prone the species now thrives. the Wedge-tailed Eagle was among the most than a raptor’s wingspan and poses little risk, except, species, human activities must be managed to Photo by Lindsay Cupper persecuted of all raptors worldwide. A bounty system occasionally, to the largest species. Bundled insulated minimise disruption.21, 22, 23 Various other measures in some States encouraged the slaughter of tens of aerial cables rather than separate unprotected lines, can be taken to promote raptor survival, such as thousands of eagles annually. Nevertheless, like many insulation of closely spaced wires on the tops of poles, their protection from persecution and exploitation persecuted raptors, the species proved and the provision of safe perches are just some of the (e.g. harvesting by falconers or egg-collectors); and the remarkably resilient. Once such killing cost-effective means available to electrical suppliers to reduction of incidental threats, including those from was made illegal, by 1971, reduce the risk of electrocution. A reduction in toxic chemicals, pesticides, electrocution on populations recovered rapidly. electrocutions results in fewer outages and significant powerlines and accidental poisoning in campaigns cost savings to power supply companies and directed at other species. European Honey Bees are an consumers. 20 increasing problem in their appropriation of holes Perhaps more often, fast-flying raptors die or from tree-cavity nesters. The control of exotic injure themselves through collision with the wires or predators, such as cats, may benefit certain species. electrical structures. As increasing amounts of land are However desirable, any broadscale control of taken up by rural development, the incidence of such introduced pests such as rabbits, mice or starlings may collisions is likely to increase. Electrocution and have a severe effect on dependent raptor populations. collision are poorly researched in Australia The powerful and pervasive interaction between native and exotic predators and prey is not well understood and should not be tampered with lightly. Since the late 1980s, in Australia the harmful organochlorine pesticides are now banned or their use has been severely restricted. However, several Australian raptors winter in New Guinea, where these chemicals are still widely and heavily applied; as yet, there is no evidence of any significant impact. There is a need for vigilance to ensure that newer, ‘safer’, replacement chemicals do not have any unforeseen deleterious effects. x Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls xi 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

raptors has little conservation value in itself. raptors during pest control programs, and the A Federal authority (Environment Australia) deals with Nevertheless, the care and effort involved reinforce assessment of raptor predation on livestock and non- island territories, and national and international the notion that raptors have intrinsic worth as well as destructive methods for its control. affairs.27 Except between registered wildlife and rights, and close contact allows many people a positive Injured raptors unable to be rehabilitated to the zoological parks, there is no legal trade in birds of prey. experience of raptors. wild are often suitable for display at raptor education In Australia, conservation of raptor populations In general, in situ preservation has proven to be talks to school and other groups, and arouse great has been confined largely to giving all raptors legal more cost-effective than captive breeding. It entails interest among children and teachers alike. 24 Wildlife protection and to preserving tracts of land for the the protection and enhancement of habitats and parks and zoos are also sources of information for the benefit of all their inhabitants – in national parks, state Brown Goshawk and rabbit prey. Although it seems at alleviation of threats, actions not necessarily associated public, and can enhance raptors’ image and promote reserves and the like. Preservation of large tracts of land present unlikely that loss of with a captive-breeding program. Misplaced captive legitimate conservation issues. from the pervasive influence of humans remains the rabbits to RCD will threaten breeding can also drain resources and attention from Enough basic information is known about most most effective way to conserve many species, although the national population of more critical in situ conservation needs. Importantly, Australian species, and about raptors in general, to active management will become more essential in the any raptor species, large wild-based recoveries eliminate the special problems allow intelligent decisions to be made about their future as human pressure increases. areas of the continent now devoid of rabbits as well as associated with the release of captives. conservation and management. Nevertheless, the Well-managed private land has great conservation native mammals may not status, ecology and conservation needs of the value. Increasingly, private land managers and support the numbers of Education and research threatened Grey Falcon, Square-tailed Kite, Grass community groups are undertaking conservation Wedge-tailed Eagles and In Australia, from ingested lead Only if raptors are understood and valued will the Owl and, perhaps, Barking Owl, warrant special action. Initiatives such as Land for Wildlife, run in other raptors that they shot used by hunters has caused some raptor deaths. public accept the need for, and the cost of, their research attention. Little is known of raptor ecology Victoria for landholders willing to preserve native once did. Photo by Nicholas Birks There is lobbying for a change to steel shot because of conservation. Thus, the development and dissemi- in northern Australia. Issues such as the effectiveness habitats, and Landcare, Bushcare, Coast Care and the build-up of lead shot in some water bodies and its nation of accurate information about raptors is of conservation measures, the relationship between Greening Australia, must be applauded and fostered. perceived threat to waterbirds and, through important. To be most effective, information is best management techniques and population and Several States have a system for convenanting land, consumption of them, raptors. targeted at specific groups and aimed at a specific community dynamics, and other ecological factors, which allows owners to incorporate conservation Eggs and nestlings have been stolen and outcome. For best results, the key players should be are still little understood. Finally, there is a need for conditions into the title of their property. Large occasionally adults are killed at nest sites. The keeping involved. For example, if rock climbers are causing taxonomic research, blending molecular genetics and corporations also have an important role to play in 25, 26 Few raptors nest on the of raptors for sport () is not permitted in breeding failures among nesting Peregrine Falcons, traditional techniques, to ensure that conser- habitat preservation, but have mainly confined their ground. Grass Owls, like Australia, and only a few individuals licensed through then climbers, ornithologists, and local private or vation efforts are not misdirected. efforts to reducing the environmental impact of their Swamp Harriers, nest in museums are allowed to collect eggs. Nevertheless, public land managers may need to be consulted when activities and to restoring damaged areas. The long grass and are there is a small illegal following of both of these recommendations for the minimisation of CONSERVATION INITIATIVES Australasian Raptor Association and/or Birds Australia susceptible to introduced pursuits which should be discouraged, especially disturbance are drawn up and circulated. can offer advice on bird-related management and local predators, nest destruction by harvesters, and loss of where they involve rare species. Currently, information needs include the Since 1971 all Australian raptors have been protected land-use planning issues. nest sites to land Except in the case of extremely rare raptors, protection and management of raptors on private by legislation. However, Western Australia does not In Tasmania, guidelines based on research have reclamation. rehabilitation to the wild of sick, injured or orphaned lands, the avoidance of untargeted poisoning of provide full protection to the Wedge-tailed Eagle and been formulated to minimise the effect of logging on Photo by David Hollands Brown Goshawk. Each State has an independent Grey Goshawk and Wedge-tailed Eagle nesting wildlife authority responsible for regional matters. habitats.28, 29 Buffer zones, the limiting of Table 2. Official status of Australian raptors considered threatened or at risk of extinction. Federal National NSW Vic. Qld WA SA Tas. Main threats Osprey (Australian subspecies) P. h. leucocephalus Vulnerable Vulnerable Habitat destruction Black-breasted Buzzard Vulnerable Vulnerable Habitat destruction Square-tailed Kite Rare Vulnerable Rare Vulnerable Habitat destruction Red Goshawk Vulnerable Vulnerable Endangered Endangered ROLBE Habitat destruction White-bellied Sea-Eagle Rare Habitat destruction Grey Goshawk Rare Vulnerable Rare Habitat destruction Brown Goshawk (Christmas Island subspecies) A. f. natalis Vulnerable Habitat destruction Wedge-tailed Eagle (Tasmanian subspecies) Endangered Vulnerable Habitat destruction A. a. fleayi and disturbance

Peregrine Falcon OSPF Vulnerable Persecution? Grey Falcon Rare Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable ROLBE Vulnerable Habitat destruction Grass Owl (Australian subspecies) Vulnerable ROLBE Vulnerable Habitat destruction, T. c. longimembris introduced predators Masked Owl (southern subspecies) Rare Vulnerable Rare Vulnerable Habitat destruction T. n. novaehollandiae Masked Owl (northern subspecies) T. n. kimberli Vulnerable Habitat destruction Sooty Owl (Australian subspecies) T. t. tenebricosa Rare Vulnerable Rare Rare Habitat destruction Powerful Owl Rare Vulnerable Rare Vulnerable Habitat destruction Rufous Owl (eastern subspecies) Rare Vulnerable Habitat destruction N. r. queenslandica Rufous Owl (Cape York Peninsula subspecies) N. r. meesi Rare Habitat destruction Barking Owl Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Habitat destruction Norfolk Island Boobook N. n. undulata Endangered Endangered BPUIA Habitat destruction; introduced species Christmas Island Hawk-Owl Vulnerable Vulnerable BPUIA Habitat destruction Listing according to: Federal (CESPA 1992); National;30 NSW (Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995); Vic. (Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1995); Qld (Nature Conservation Wildlife Regulation 1994); SA (National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972, amended 1991 – being updated); WA (Wildlife Conservation Notice 1997); Tas. (Threatened Species Protection Act 1995). There are no listings of threatened fauna in the Northern Territory. ROLBE – Rare or Likely to Become Extinct; BPUIA – Birds Protection under International Agreement; OSPF – Other Specially Protected Fauna. xii Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls xiii 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

ACTION PLAN promote nature conservation in land management. This Action Plan has been developed for Landowners should be rewarded for government agencies, land managers and the environmentally sound management community, as a guide to raptor conservation initiatives such as preserving belts of issues in Australia. The list of recommended woodland, revegetating, etc. (e.g. a subsidy actions is not necessarily in order of priority, nor is to assist fencing-off a sensitive wetland area). The Norfolk Island Boobook it exhaustive. Incentives, such as taxation deductions, for was reduced to one bird The Action Plan is underpinned by the practices leading to the destruction of natural before action was taken, following: habitat should be abolished. States without and now exists only as a hybrid subspecies, managed • Ensure that the principles of ecologically conservation covenants should introduce in the wild through the sustainable development (ESD), particularly such legislation. provision of nest boxes. the management of total grazing pressure, and 4. Expand the Comprehensive, Adequate and Further support is needed bio-diversity conservation are vigorously Representative (CAR) reserve system, as is for the raptors of applied. now applied with the Regional Forest Australia’s island territories. Photo by John Hicks • Encourage the retention, rehabilitation and Agreements, to include all vegetation long-term management of native vegetation communities in each State and Territory. communities, including dead trees. Avoid the Particular attention should be given to the destruction of . creation of more large reserves in the semi-arid • Encourage ecologically sensitive management and arid zones, tropical savannas, and of fire, both in the case of wildfire and where temperate and tropical woodlands. fire is applied as a land management 5. Carry out regular, systematic monitoring technique. of raptor populations, particularly those • Employ integrated, strategic pest management considered at risk, using standardised practices. Thoroughly assess perceived methods. Integrate this with the problems, aim for a reduction in damage development of a system of user-friendly, rather than in pest numbers, promote the use affordable databases on wildlife of non-chemical pest control strategies and, distribution, numbers and habitats, easily disturbance to the non-breeding season, and where the use of pesticides is necessary, use exchanged with and interpreted by all levels Priorities include: development of enhanced streamside reserves in core habitat are non-persistent, targeted products and of government and the public. environmentally-sensitive, national integrated among the recommendations. techniques. The Birds Australia New Atlas of Australian pest management plans for major pests, and Pacific Baza pair with Co-operation between researchers, conservation • Facilitate more frequent updating and greater Birds, BOP Watch and monitoring of RCD State-based actions for more localised pest at the nest. Mainly agencies and the forest industry continues to do much uniformity among the various international, impact on raptors are examples, but would problems; dissemination of associated insectivorous, they also eat small , small birds towards mitigating the impact of timber harvesting on Federal and local bodies in the identification benefit from greater standardisation. educational material; and research on and – unusually for raptors large forest owls. and categorisation of threatened species, and 6. Establish a ‘Raptor Research and integrated management of pest damage to – small fruits such as figs. Management of individual pairs of raptors, for expedite implementation of co-operative Management Zone (RRMZ) Register’ and a sugar and grain crops. Where Bazas feed in urban their preservation, has been attempted. For example, actions for their protection. ‘Raptor Research Requirements Register’ 9. Encourage/promote the installation of areas they may be nest boxes and platforms have been erected. Such • Ensure that legislation protecting wildlife in (RRRR). underground or bundled cabling in areas susceptible to poisoning by insecticides. measures are local in effect, but can generate positive each State and Territory is consistent and that RRMZs can be reserved or non-reserved areas. of high collision risk for raptors and of Photo by Lindsay Cupper publicity, co-operation and goodwill. exploitative use of raptors, such as for falconry, Their primary role would be to focus research electrocution mitigation hardware in Peregrine Falcons nest on spectacular cliffs that remains illegal within the region. on local raptor ecology and the impact of land problem areas. are also much favoured by rock climbers, nature lovers • Identify important raptor areas and expand the management practices. To be effective RRMZs 10. Continue to support conservation of and sightseers. The risk of disturbance to resident reserve system to ensure adequate protection. should be established in a wide variety of raptors on Australia’s island territories. falcon pairs has led to closure of some cliffs to the • Improve awareness of raptor conservation bio-regions and, together, include all raptor 11. Encourage conservation of raptors public, at least during the falcons’ breeding season. issues throughout the community. species. Areas for consideration could include: in countries within the Australasian Nature trails and lookouts have been shifted or Strezlecki Creek, (SA); Riverina Murray (Vic.); region. located to cause minimal disturbance to these What can Federal and State agencies do? Darling Downs (Qld); and the various Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and some excitable birds. 1. Develop agricultural practices codes and wintering areas mentioned in the main text. Pacific Island nations face significant Recently, attempts have been made to save forest practices codes in co-operation with All States and Territories would nominate conservation problems, particularly in relation telegraph poles as a means of conserving raptors. For industry within each State and Territory areas for inclusion in the RRMZ Register and to forestry and other land-use practices. example, on the Nullarbor Plain telegraph poles are (where applicable). research needs for the RRRR. Through co-operative activities the Australian among the few safe nesting places, as well as being This includes the negotiation of property 7. Provide realistic advice on identifying, Government can contribute to research and favoured perches and roosts. However, the poles are management agreements, whole farm plans, assessing and managing stock/pet predation conservation initiatives in the region. now redundant and are being removed. Telstra has regional plans and the like, and adherence to by raptors. agreed to leave and secure every fifth pole, but other the principles of ESD, for the benefit of all Promote the application of integrated, What can local government do? corporations have proved to be less sympathetic. biota, including raptors. strategic pest control measures for raptors, and 1. Develop and reward integrated grazing, Management of raptors that are harassing 2. Standardise existing legislation for the the use of non-destructive solutions. agricultural, fire and pest management livestock, aviary birds or threatened species has been protection of native vegetation, and 8. In conjunction with industry, improve the practices by local land owners and attempted on a small scale. Wildlife authorities allow expedite its introduction in all States. use of pesticides, herbicides and other managers that maximise retention or the removal and relocation of individual ‘problem’ 3. Develop financial incentives and other chemical agents to reduce or avoid direct or improvement of vegetation communities raptors, but rarely issue permits for their destruction. initiatives for private land managers that indirect impacts on raptors. and their component wildlife. xiv Birds Australia Conservation Statement Australia’s Raptors: Diurnal Birds of Prey and Owls xv 24 WINGSPAN / December 1997 December 1997 / WINGSPAN 25

What can land owners and managers do? government agencies, Birds Australia and 1. Be pro-active in introducing elements other organisations. of an agricultural practices code or whole 8. Consider ecotourism as an alternative or farm plan. addition to traditional farm enterprises. As predators at the top of Working examples and peer pressure are For example, guide parties of birdwatchers, food chains, raptors are particularly susceptible to powerful tools. run nature walks from bed and breakfast secondary poisoning. This 2. Control introduced pests using integrated accommodation, organise workshops on Rufous Owl is dying from management systems that avoid or minimise ecologically sensitive management practices. the effects of brodifacoum non-target effects. poison, used to control the 3. Deal with perceived problem raptors What can the community do? Cane Rat in the sugar industry. Further research is strategically. 1. Programs such as Landcare, Bushcare, Land needed on the impact of Seek expert advice (e.g. from conservation for Wildlife and Coastcare can support rodenticides on raptors. agencies, Birds Australia or the Australasian raptor conservation. Photo by John Young Raptor Association). Thoroughly assess the Bird enthusiasts are encouraged to provide problem (is the raptor the real culprit?, where local input into these programs and to seek and when is the problem happening? etc.) and advice and assistance from Birds Australia to 2. Create minimal impact residential zoning apply non-destructive, long-term solutions develop project proposals. for important raptor habitats. that focus on alleviating the damage. 2. Make yourself available to help Several raptor species thrive Consider clumped housing instead of 4. Disseminate information on successful, conservation agencies, NGOs and in the suburbs, a few even broadacre housing in rural residential areas. environmentally friendly farm management researchers in their work. taking to the inner city. This means fewer physical hazards (e.g. roads, practices and useful conservation inventions This can improve the effectiveness of research In Melbourne, Peregrine fences, wires, power poles) and greater areas of (e.g. rafts to stop birds drowning in water while providing participants with exciting Falcons have been observed hunting pigeons and insects undisturbed habitat for shy species (e.g. eagles troughs, efficient nest boxes etc.). opportunities. under the city lights, and and harriers). Develop long-term plans to 5. Offer positive criticism to government 3. Offer an educational service to schools and nesting on buildings high improve or reconstruct ‘green belt zones’. agencies. Let them know what you need to community groups to promote raptor above the city streets. 5. Consider more than the legislative be ecologically constructive and offer conservation. Photo by Victor Hurley minimum. practical, on-site advice. Resources from museums, conservation Many Australians enjoy the closeness of 6. Record nesting raptors on your farm plan agencies and licensed raptor rehabilitators can wildlife (e.g. ospreys nesting on suburban and manage for their conservation. be used to support educational activities. poles, peregrines on buildings). This is especially useful on very large 4. Inform local government and conservation A Wedge-tailed Eagle lies Environmentally sensitive policies and properties or when there is a new agencies of location of raptor ‘hot spots’, paralysed after hitting enlightened leadership at the local level will manager/owner. Seek advice on better such as eagle nests, and advise them of overhead wires between improve conservation. management for wildlife. impending raptor conservation problems. pylons; it never recovered. Collisions are a common 3. Obtain databases (and regularly update) on 7. Place covenants over important places for Authorities are sometimes unaware of the cause of raptor mortality, local biodiversity, raptor hot-spots, raptor conservation. location or importance of such sites and often particularly for fast-flying threatened species and threatening processes. Advice and other help is often available from it is too late to protect once development species, which collide with commences. wires, windows or motor vehicles Table 3. Conservation priorities for threatened or near-threatened (priority) raptors in Australia, other than preservation of habitat which is Photo by Nicholas Birks essential for all species. Dr Penny Olsen is a Senior Research Fellow at the Species NSW Vic. Tas. SA WA NT Qld Island Terr. Australian National University. Formerly with Osprey RP TR1 CSIRO, she has studied birds of prey for more than Letter-winged Kite TR1 TR2 Square-tailed Kite TR1 TR1 TR2 TR1 TR1 TR2 20 years Black-breasted Buzzard TR1 TR1 TR1 TR2 Red Goshawk TR1 RP RP TR1 Whistling Kite TR White-bellied Sea-Eagle TR2 RP RP Acknowledgements Brown Goshawk RP1 Nick Mooney and Mark Holdsworth proposed this Grey Goshawk RP TR1? TR2 Conservation Statement and they, Stephen Debus, Wedge-tailed Eagle RP David Baker-Gabb, Tom Aumann and Ian Falkenberg Black Falcon TR1 contributed to its development. Mike Braysher Grey Falcon TR1 TR1 TR1 TR1 Peregrine Falcon RP commented helpfully on the Action Statements. Peter Sooty Owl RP RP TR2 Copley (SA), David Rounsevell (Qld), Allan Burbidge Masked Owl RP (East RP RP TR2 TR1 (WA) and Peter Dostine (NT) provided information Division), on the legal status of threatened raptors in their TR (Central & respective States, Jo Hess gave advice on powerlines, West Division) and Helen Neeve supplied information on RCD. Grass Owl TR TR1 TR1 TR2 Powerful Owl RP RP TR1 Rufous Owl TR TR1 Barking Owl TR RP TR2 TR2 New Zealand Morepork RP Christmas Island Hawk-Owl RP Edited by Stephanie Haygarth and Merrilyn Julian; TR=targeted research to identify key conservation areas and requirements for development of a management plan: 1 highest priority; 2 second-highest priority. RP =Recovery or layout and production by P.A.G.E. Pty Ltd; Management Plan in place or in preparation; RP=Recovery or Management Plan needed. 1 Christmas Island subspecies. printing by Buscombe Vicprint Ltd.