7.4 Defining and Leveraging Game Qualities for Serious Games

Defining and Leveraging Game Qualities for Serious Games Michael W. Martin & Yuzhong Shen Old Dominion University Department of Modeling, Simulation, and Visualization Engineering [email protected] [email protected] Abstract. Serious games can and should leverage the unique qualities of video games 10 effectively deliver educational experiences for the learners. However, leveraging these qualities is incumbent upon understanding what these unique 'game' qualities are , and how they can facilitate the learning process. This paper presents an examination of the meaning of the term 'game'. as it applies to both serious games and digital entertainment games. Through the examination of counter examples, we derive three game characteristics; games are self contained, provide a variety of meaningful choices, and are intrinsically compelling. We also discuss the theoretical educational foundations which support the applicalion of these 'game qua lilies' to educational endeavors. This paper concludes with a presentation 01 results achieved Ihrough the application of these qualities and the applicable educational theories to teach leamers about the periodic table of elements via a serious game deveklped by the authors.

1.0 INTRODUCTION "Game" which are relevant to the The term "serious games" is somewhat discussion: open-ended, and even people who work "3a(1) : a physical or mental competition with serious games have a hard time conducted according to rules with the agreeing upon its exact meaning. This work participants in direct opposition to each is not presented with the intent of settling other... 3a(S) : the manner of playing in a the debate on the meaning of the term, but contest ... 3c(2) .' any activity undertaken or si mply as an effort to add to the greater regarded as a contest involving rivalry, strategy, body of discussion. Additionally, this work or struggle" [1 ]. is presented because the authors believe that this approach to looking at serious There are a number of more in depth works games can be useful, not only in the on the subject of games, and they all tend academic sense of defining the term, but in towards these same basic definitional actual development of serious games, as components. [n the 1961 book Man , Play well. and Game, Roger Caillois, described games as being activities that are fun, distinct, To that end, this paper will first present a uncertain, non-productive, rule-driven, and discussion of both common definitions of fictitious [2]. Clark Abt. in 1970. described "games", and "serious games", followed by games as an "activity among two or more an effort to identify some of their salient independent decision-makers seeking to characteristics to clarify the definitions. achieve their objectives in some limiting Then, the paper will discuss the context" [3]. More recently, Katie Salen and development and deployment of a serious Eric Zimmerman describe "a rtificial conflict, game that was created by the authors, defined by rules, that results in a based on these concepts, quantifiable outcome" [4]. Wlile each definition has its own nuances, in general, 2.0 BODY they fairly close[y resemble the dictionary definitions found above, Those common 2.1 Definitions for Game and Video recurrent components found in these Game definitions can be summed up as Mirriam-Webster's online dictionary participants, goals, rules, and challenges, provides several definitions of the term The participants have goals within the game, which they try to achieve via a set of

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rules. The rules define the participants' to the reallNOrid. The game mechanics and interactions, and in the application of these content have a sufficient degree of fidelity rules, the participants try to overcome with real life mechanics and subject. When challenges in order to achieve their goals. the player learns something in the game, that knowledge is transferable, within The definitions apply to the general term reason, to the real world as well as the game. However, the focus of this paper will game. be on computer based games. This is simply the stipulation that the game in A number of established serious game question takes part on a computer. Michael authorities define serious games in terms of Zyda, Director of the University of Southern their intent. One of the most succinct California Viterbi School of Engineering's definitions for serious games is found on the GamePipe Laboratory builds a similar Michigan State University Serious Game dictionary based definition proposing that a Design Program webpage: video game is: "Serious games are games with purpose beyond "A mental contest, played with a computer just providing enteftainment. ~ [7] according to certain rules for amusement, recreation, or winning a stake." [5] (emphasis Put another way, "Serious Games" are added) game played for a serious intent or reason. Zyda proposes a similar definition, though 2.2 Definitions for Serious Game with more detail as to the nature of the and Definitional Pitfalls purpose: Having established a basic definition for "game", the next step is to determine the "Serious game: a mental contest, played with a computer in accordance with specific rules, that meaning of "serious games ~. uses enteftainment to further government or In understanding the nature of a Serious corporate training, education, health, public policy, and strategic communication objectives. " Game, as defined in thi s paper, it is helpful [5[ to consider that game players learn something in every game. If this were not Building upon the definitions above, a true, then a player's performance on a Serious Game might be "an activity game would be the same the first they consisting of participants, goals, rules, and played as the last. However, this is not so, challenges with a purpose beyond and players improve their performance by entertainment." learning the mechanics which govern the game. These definitions for "Games" and "Serious Games" are useful for grounding the Most of the time, what the players learn is baseline understanding of these concepts. useless in the real world. Players of However, as analytic propositions, they may Nintendo's famous game Super Mario Bros. also be seen as being overly inclusive. [6) learn that mushrooms are evil, but that They encompass the concepts in widely the player can jump on them to kill them. applicable terms, and as a result, may also They also learn that they can jump on be valid for things which are not games. turtles and use their shells to kill other For example, a game of football has enemies, like the mushrooms. Learning participants, goals, rules, and challenges. these aspects of the game helps the players However, arguably the chore of mowing the perform better, but this knowledge usually lawn has all of these com ponents as well. transfers very poorly to the real world. This does not necessarily invalidate the definition as much as it highlights that this In a Serious Game, the knowledge that the definition does not provide sufficient user learns within the game is transferable 945

information to distinguish games from non· seized upon the ~ Serious Games ~ trend. games. They apply game-like facades to traditional computer education activities and declared Normally, a traditional game maker will not them to be games. This misappropriation of suffer from such a definitional dilemma. the term ·Serious Game" is compounded by Arguably, the one and only value metric the fact that, as with the examples above, used for entertainment games is their " fun ~ many traditional computer based leaming or entertainment value. Serious games add activities fulfill the definition of game a competing metric: the ulterior purpose provided above. beyond entertainment. This additional aspect can confound the value assessment. A quiz or test, common to most educational systems, is a prime example of an activity VVith these competing values, the field of that can satisfy the majority of the game serious games can become quite confusing. attributes listed above. A quiz has rules (fill Organizations of all sizes and types attempt in the blank, multiple choice, etc.), it has to leverage viable serious games to achieve goals (to score the highest possible score) their goals. Ambiguity in what constitutes a and conflict (the difficulty of the questions). game allows the term to be applied to a It is a difficult to argue that quizzes or tests variety of efforts which are perhaps better are fun, but some educational applications identified as non·games. decorate test·like experiences with ~ fun ~ veneers, such as cute graphics and silly As with the ~ Iawn mowing ~ example above, sound effects and label them serious the serious game definition might games. Two examples of this are Grammar encompass the use of a budgeting program. Gorillas (8), and Snark's Long Division [9]. Budgeting program have participants, goals, Grammar Gorillas has the player select rules, challenges, and a purpose beyond specific parts from a sentence. Snork's entertainment. Such a definition might be Long Division has the player simply perform technically correct, but ultimately it is long division. Both are self declared serious unhelpful in trying to determine how to best games, but clea~y fall short of what would make use of serious games. Clearly, if normally be considered a game. someone expected a game, and was gi ven a budget to balance, they might be In examining why these activities do not dissatisfied. Such confusion could seem like game, one finds that at their core, contribute to disillusionment on the part of these programs don't provide the leamer serious game customers, users, and with any meaningful choices. The user developers. simply answers the question correctly or fails the question. While the students 2.3 Characterization of Serious choose how to answer the question, these Games choices are not meaningful in that there is To better understand and apply the term only one correct answer, with no viable N ~ serious games it is helpful to identify what alternative. Raph Koster identified this aspects of games make them unique from pitfall in A Theory of Fun and Leaming(10]. non·game activities. There are two serious Using Tic-Tac-Toe as an example, he game counter examples which help provide illustrates that the game ceases to be a additional clarity through contrast. The first game when the players leam that they have counter example is generic computer based no choices. At that point, the game training, and the second is computerized becomes a simple drill in the rate sand box training. application of logic.

2.3.1 Computer Based Training Further, by not providing meaningful There are a number of computer based altematives, these software examples limit leaming or training application w hich have 946

the potential for creating a psychosocial can spend hours adjusting the eye color, moratorium, as described by James Paul cheek bone height, hair style, etcetera, but Gee. The psychosocial moratorium, a ultimately none of that has any effect on the phrase which Gee adapts from psychologist game play. In contrast, a meaningful choice Eric Erikson, is ~ a learning space in which allows the player to select ber.veen viable the learner can take risks where real world alternatives with concrete consequences, consequences are lowered," (11]. The lack without any clear optimal choice, thereby of choice collapses the exploratory learning allowing the player to freely explore the space, and deprives the player of the conceptual space created by the game. opportunity to reflect upon the information being presented and applied. David Shaffer In order to differentiate games from quizzes, argues that games have the potential to the first necessary characteristic of games allow a more "authentic" method of learning (and serious games) is that they provide the than traditional schooling techniques user with an array of meaningful choices. because games set the stage for learners to think not only about what the right answer 2.3.2 Sandbox Experiences is, but also how they know an answer is The next counter example of non-games is right and what is the process by which they the open sandbox experience. These types arrive at that answer {12]. Quizzes, which of programs are commonly used in military limit the "players" interaction with their world and police training. They are programs that (the quiz) to a single correct answer, with all create worlds in which typically large groups other options being incorrect, do not of individuals engage in educational or engender the same degree of introspection learning scenarios. that a wider array of viable choices might. Such programs have been in use for several In order to provide that sense of freedom decades. One of the first was SIMNET, that fosters exploration and, as Gee and which was developed and deployed in the Shaffer suggest, learning, games need to early to mid 1980's [14). For many years, adhere, to an extent, to game designer Sid such programs have used specialized Meier's dictum that games are a "series of hardware and software, which was interesting decisions" {13]. Meier is inexpensive in comparison to the resource renowned for his complex and involved cost of conducting the training using real strategy games, like the Civilization and world equipment and locations. Tycoon series, where each decision can Recently, however, the commercial have profound consequences. However, entertainment software industry has proven games can provide the player with that high quality experiences can be meaningful choices without having to resort delivered on commercially available to such elaborate depth. The term hardware and software. And these meaningful, in this sense, can refer not to a experiences can be delivered for even less profound consequence for the available than the cost of simulation using specialized choices, but rather, to having any hardware and software. consequence at all. One recent development in this field is the Some activities, like the above mentioned US Army's adoption of a program called quizzes, offer no meaningful choices - the Virtual Battlespace 2 (VBS2) (15). VBS2 is player's only option is to answer the developed by Bohemia Interactive, which question correctly. At the other extreme, was previously a commercial entertainment some games offer a wide array of choices company. Bohemia developed a great that effectively have no consequence. For number of games including a tactical virtual example, many games allow the player to reality shooting game called Operation visually customize their character. A player Flashpoint. Unlike earlier training 947

simulations using specialized software and like it lack this fundamental game hardware, VBS2 is based on the Operation characteristic. Flashpoint game, and is designed to run on common desktops and laptops. Because If VBS2 did have those qualities, then users the program shares software technology could train at their own pace, learning the with Bohemia Interactive's new game, materials as appropriate to their individual Operation Flashpoint II , there is a natural skills. Targeting training at the indi vidual tendency to call VBS2 a serious game. level could greatly increase the user engagement and ultimately the However, VBS2 is not a game in the effectiveness of the training. No longer traditional sense. It is designed to host would quick learners be held up by the slow large numbers of networked users in a members of traditional classes or training virtual environment. In game terms, it would groups, nor would the slow learners be be considered a large multiplayer game. dragged along faster than they can Unlike games, however, this experience is assimilate the material. If the instructional not a closed system. The multiplayer framewor1<. were properly embedded, then sessions don't have scores, or objectives the serious game would be a self defined within the game. They lack the encapsulated experience, just as framework associated with even freeform commercial video games are. multiplayer games. Instead, VBS2 sessions are designed to be administered by teams Therefore, the second quality that a serious of instructors, who then take on the role of game should have is that it is a self giving the players objectives, assessing encapsulated experience. Given that this their performance and providing them with discussion has been centered on video feedback. In commercial terms, this would games, it is worth noting that this quality be considered an open world experience, would not exclude serious game that are not similar to Second Life. Players can interact, played on a computer. Because of their but there is not game structure to support automation advantages, computers facilitate the interactions. this characteristic. However, it is possible to have board or card and paper games, or In commercial games, a player can play the even athletic games that are playable solo game entirely by himself or herself. This as well as with other people. Granted, concept even applies to multiplayer games. these games are rare, and the difficulty in A player sitting down with the commercial creating them is much higher than version of the game Operation Flashpoint traditional board games, but it is not can play the game by themselves, even impossible to conceive of. when engaging in multi player sessions. They can join a multi player session with no 2.4 The Issue of Fun prior coordination, play the game, and then A few of the definitions of games, such quit when they desire. Most importantly, the those of Caillois and Zyda, also refer to game provides internal feedback loops, via entertainment or fun. Many of the scores and other performance measures, to definitions omit such concepts, perhaps due let the player know how well they to their highly subjective nature. However, performed. Granted, in games which are as a basic metric of value for games, it is exclusively multiplayer in nature, this undeniable that these are fundamental assumes a robust network structure with aspects of the concept available sessions, but given that assumption, there is no overhead to playing Customers pay money to play games not the game other than the player and the because the games provide some sort of game itself. VBS2 and other serious games reward, but because the game experience, itself, is rewarding. The intrinsic value of 948

the game experience outweighs any Thus, the third quality of a serious game is extrinsic benefit bestowed by playing the that it should be intrinsically compelling. game. The games, without any consideration to outside benefit, are 3.0 DISCUSSION intrinsically compelling. Based on these concepts, the authors have been developing a Serious Game entitled "Intrinsically Compelling" encompasses the Elemental Solitaire™ . The effort to develop concepts of "fun", but it also makes room for the game began simply enough with the other aspects, such as the satisfaction of idea to build a combination of popular overcoming a challenge, or earning a classic card game mechanics, such as reward, which may not be entirely fun. For solitaire, and the periodic table. example, many Massively Multiplayer Online Role·Playing Games (MMORPGs), Because of the nature of this project , it was like World of Warcraft (16], routinely include more likely to fall prey to the "Computer what player communities often refer to as Based Training" pitfall than the "Sandbox "grinding". World of Warcraft is a game in Experience" pitfall. The mechanics of the which players try to improve their character game lent themselves well to creating an by accomplishing various tasks and thereby encapsulated game·play experience. gaining experience points. Grinding is a low However, avoiding the "quiz-like" danger risk way to gain experience points. It is a required more effort. repetitive act, which is widely described in negative terms, otten involving tediously killing large numbers of weaker enemies which pose little threat. Killing these weak enemies might be a boring and repetitive task, but it gains pOints which grant the player some form of in-game reward, such as a more powerful character. It is a significant component of this game genre which is not normally deemed as fun. Yet it is intrinsically compelling.

Regardless, however, of what creates that intrinsic compulsion , be it fun or the feeling of achievement, or some other factor, this intrinsic compulsion and educational value do not necessarily compete. Raph Koester proposes that fun is, in fact, the brain's In early iterations of the game, the simplest reaction to learning [10]. Keeping in mind designs precluded any such meaningful that paradigm that players are always choice. As the players were given learning when they play, it follows that the elements, they either placed them correctly, two are closely interrelated. or they were penalized for failing to do so. Though the program had a graphic interface Even from a practical stand point, a player and the elements had an appearance of who feels intrinsically compelled by a playing cards, there was no conceptual serious game is more likely to engage with space to explore. The program simply the game, and therefore, assuming the presented the user with quiz questions serious game is designed well, more likely disguised in a graphical form. Though to achieve the desired "non-entertainment" different in execution, this program, in spirit, purpose. resembled many of the aforementioned online quizzes. In order to add more 949

decision space to explore, three items were allowing them to score even higher on added to provide the user with more subsequent correct placements. This factor meaningful choices. also adds significance to the decision the player must make in balancing the risk and First, players were given ten 'skips', so if reward of placing the elements. they wanted to delay placing an element, they had the ability to do so ten times, These three mechanics of the game without penalty. This gives the player a combine to create a decision space for the small degree of control in choosing whether player to explore, and extend the game to place an element or not. It also adds a space beyond simply entering a right or measure of strategic depth, as players must wrong answer. These "choice creating ration their skip choices, and forcing them to factors" do not possess the depth nor the weigh the risk of skipping a present element scale of the types of decision often made in versus the need to be able to skip an a highly strategic game, such as Sid Meier's element later on. Civilization games, but they do create a small space for the learner to explore. Second, when placing an element, the These factors set the conditions for the players are given a countdown timer. As psychosocial moratorium, and presumably the time passes, hints as to the correct improve the facilitation of learning. With an element position on the table are array of possible actions, the player can automatically given, including the family play how they like, and, in the words of color, the row, and ultimately the actual game designer Chris Crawford, imprint their element position. The balance is that the own personality on the game [17]. Fig. 2 score the player receives for placing a card shows a screenshot from a game in play, decreases as more hints are provided, until, with a hint showing the family and row of the ultimately, no points are awarded if the element. card's correct position is shown to the player. A player can also choose to capitalize on this, and if they are willing to take a lower reward, can even manually advance the timer to display the next hint, without having to wait. Again, this mechanic allows the player decide how to balance risk and reward. As risk diminishes, so does the reward.

Lastly, as mentioned above, an abstract scoring mechanic was added to the game. This system rewards the player with a specified amount of points for each element correctly placed, and deducts an amount for incorrect placements. The amounted award for correct placement is inversely proportional to the time taken to place the Additional discussion of the development of element. Additionally, not only do players Elemental Solitaire™ can be found in the get rewarded for correct answers, but they paper Differentiating Between Serious also increase a score multiplier, which links Games and Computer Aided Instruction their decisions on how they choose to [18]. answer questions with the rewards they can receive on future correct answers. As they score better, their multiplier increases,

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4.0 CONCLUSION 8. funbrain.com Grammar Gon"lIas. 2010 VlJhile the traditional approach to [cited 2010 20 Feb): Available from: understanding something is to examine htto:llwww.funbrain.com/grammar/inde what it is, this paper presents a x.htmL characterization of Serious Games based 9. Snark's Long Division Game . on what they are not. From this KidsNumbers.com. 2010 [dted 2010 examination of counter-examples, we have 20 Feb]; Available from: derived three qualities which a Serious http://www.kidsnumbers.com/long· Game should possess: division.php. 10. Koster, R. , A Theory of Fun for Game 1. They provide meaningful choices to Design. 2005, Scottsdale, AZ: the user. Paraglyph Press. x, 244 p. 2. They are self encapsulated 11 . Gee, J.P. , What video games have to experiences. teach us about leaming and literacy. 3. They are intrinsically compelling. Rev. and updated ed. 2007, New York: Palgrave Macmittan. 249 p. Elemental Soliatire™ is an example of how 12. Shaffer, D., In Praise of Epistemology, these characteristics can be used to guide in The Design and Use of Simulation the development of a Serious Game. This Computer Games in Education, B. program is going to be used as a test Shetton and D.A. \!Viley , Editors. 2007, platform to assess the effectiveness of Sense Publishers: Rotterdam. p. 7· these and other game design principles in 27. developing Serious Games. 13. Camargo, C. (2006) Inleresting Complexity: Sid Meier and the Secrets 5.0 REFERENCES of Game Design. Crossroads: The 1. Merriam-Webster Inc. Game­ ACM Student Magazine. Definition and More from the Free 14. Lenoir, T. and H. Lowood (2003) Meniarn-Webster Dictionary. Mirriam· Theaters of War: The Military­ Webster Online 2010 [cited 201015 Entertainment Complex. July); Available from: 15. Bohemia Interactive Simulations. http://www.merriam· BISimulations. 2010 (cited 2010 23 webster.com/dictionarv/game. July]; Available from: 2. Caillois, R., Man, Play and Games. http://www.bisimulations.com/. 1961, New York: Free Press of 16. Blizzard Entertainment Inc. World of Glencow. Warcraft Community Site. 2010 (cited 3. Abt, C.C. , Sen"ous games. 1970, New 201027 July): Available from : York,: Viking Press. xvi, 176 p. http://WNW.worldofwarcraft.com/i ndex. 4. Salen, K. and E. Zimmerman, Rules of xml . Play: Game Design Fundamentals. 17. Crawford, C., The Art of Computer 2003, Cambridge: MIT Press. Game Design. 1984, Berkeley, Calif.: 5. Zyda, M., From Visual Simulation to Osborne/McGraw-HilI. xiv, 113 p. Virtual Reality to Games. Computer, 18. Martin, M.W. and Y. Shen, 2005(September 2005) : p. 8. Differentiating Between Serious 6. Miyamoto, S., T. Tezuka, and H. Games and Computer Aided Yamauchi, Super Mario Bros. 1985, Instruction, in Virginia Modeling, Nintendo Co., Ltd. Analysis and Simulation Center 2010 7. Michigan State University. MSU Student Capstone Conference. 2010: Serious Games Design Program. Suffolk, VA. [cited 2010 July 15]; Available from: http://seriousgames.msu.eduJ.

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