ISSN 2456-6861 PRAG CONSILIENCE RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132
PRAG CONSILIENCE A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol. 4, No 1, August 2019
PRAGJYOTISH COLLEGE RESEARCH COUNCIL (PCRC) PRAGJYOTISH COLLEGE Bharalumukh, Guwahati 781 009 (Assam) 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 1 PRAG CONSILIENCE, ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132, A Multilingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce, Printed by Prince Choudhury, Published by Dr. Manoj Kumar Mahanta, Principal, Pragjyotish College, on behalf of Pragjyotish College Research Council (PCRC), Pragjyotish College, Bharalumukh, Guwahati 781 009 and Printed at Bhabani Offset & Imaging Systems Pvt. Ltd., 7 Lachit Lane, Rajgarh Road, Guwahati 781 007 and Published at Pragjyotish College, Bharalumukh, Guwahati 781 009. Editor: Dr. Jyotirmoy Sengupta.
© Copyright, 2019, Pragjyotish College Research Council (PCRC) Pragjyotish College
Address for Communication Editor PRAG CONSILIENCE (ISSN 2456-6861) Department of Bengali Pragjyotish College, Guwahati 781 009 E-mail: [email protected] Contact No. +91-8638850289
Price: Rs. 250/- (Rupees Two Hundred and Fifty only)
Disclaimer The Editorial Board and the Publisher of the Journal are not responsible for the opinions expressed by the authors
2 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 From the Editor's Desk ______
I am very pleased to introduce the Volume 4, No 1 of the Research Journal PRAG CONSILIENCE published by Pragjyotish College Research Council (PCRC), Pragjyotish College, Guwahati. At the outset, I am offering my sincere apology for unexpected delay to publish this 4th volume of the journal. After winning all the hurdles, when we were almost ready to hand over the finalised manuscript to the press, the pandemic covid-19 stood as an unprecedented barrier. But it is the utmost will-force that helped us to come out and reach to the end of the journey, anyway. We will remain grateful to all the authors for submitting their manuscripts to PRAG CONSILIENCE and for giving us the opportunity to consider their valuable work. We would like to offer our sincere gratitude to the Reviewers from different institutions that have made their precious time available for us to review the research papers for this volume. Their valuable inputs and comments have helped to improve the quality of the papers. On behalf of the Editorial Board, I would also like to convey my special thanks to Dr. Manoj Kumar Mahanta, Principal and President of the PCRC, Pragjyotish College, for his relentless encouragement to publish this volume of the journal. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Paramananda Majumdar, ex-faculty, Geography Department of the college for the cover design of the journal. I must convey my sincere gratitude to Dr. Baikuntha Rajbangshi, Dr. Namita Das, Dr. Ira Das, Dr. Gargee Sharma, Dr. Preeti Baishya, Dr. Kabita Doloi, Dr. Zoul Khawbung and Dr. Saitanya Kumar Bharadwaj for their kind help in compiling this volume of the journal. I must be thankful to all other co-members of the Editorial Board and the members of the PCRC for their support during the journey. I would like to express my gratitude to the Publication Hub, Pragjyotish College for the most important financial assistance extended to publish the journal. Last but not the least, we are thankful from the deep of our heart to Bhabani Offset and Imaging Systems Pvt. Ltd, Guwahati for quality printing of this volume.
Place: Guwahati-09, Assam Editor, PRAGCONSILIENCE
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 3 4 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 CONTENTS
Humanities and Social Science Section 1. Oraganized Retail Outlets and Customers' Satisfaction: A Study in Guwahati City, Assam, India Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya / 7 2. Religious Beliefs and Practices of Fishermen: A Descriptive Study of Assam Dr. Avijit Kumar Dutta / 17 3. An Overview of the Sculptural Motifs of Madan Kamdev: An Empirical Study Abhijit Bharali / 24 4. Cultural Aspects and Social Systems of the Bodos and their Lives: A Descriptive Study Dr. Jayanta Deka / 34 5. Traditional Religious Practices of The Ao Nagas Kabita Doloi / 40 6. Christian Missionaries and the Tribal Ethos in Pre Independent Assam Dr. Nandini Sarma / 50 7. Breaking Traditional Notions of Impurity With Specific Reference to the Sabarimala Case Arpita Das / 61 8. Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism: The Islam in India Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sirca / 68 9. 'Ankiya Nat'- It's Role in the spread of Bhakti Movement & its Futuristic Aspects Priyanka Sarmah / 78 10. A Reading of Women's Character in Shashi Deshpande's Novels With Particular Reference to Small Remedies and The Dark Holds No Terror Laltlanzuol Khawbung / 85 11. 0 û 93 12.
û 107 13. 0 û 116
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 5 14. û 131 15. / 139 16. , / 150 17. / 158
Science Section 1. Studies on the variation of pKa values of Phosphoric acid supported on different Solid Surfaces Dr. Saitanya K Bharadwaj / 170 2. Association Between BMI and BLOOD PRESSURE of Young Adult Males of Latakata area of Guwahati Sanjiv Mallick / 179 Book Review 1. û 187
6 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 7-16
ORGANIZED RETAIL OUTLETS AND CUSTOMERS’ SATISFACTION: A STUDY IN GUWAHATI CITY, ASSAM, INDIA
Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya*
Abstract: India’s middle income class has greatly expanded, and so has its purchasing power. But over the years, India has been slow to open its retail sector to foreign investment. In 2006, the government eased retail policy for the first time, allowing up to 51 per cent FDI through the single brand retail route. It can be said that liberalization of FDI would usher in quality and discipline in the Indian retail sector besides giving consumers a wider choice and options. FDI in retail could be an efficient way of addressing concerns of farmers and consumers. However, customer satisfaction and its various parameters is the key factor in knowing the success of any retail business. Therefore, this paper tries to focus on the satisfaction level of the customers in the organized retail outlets and also to analyze the factors that determine the satisfaction level. Keywords: Organized Retail, Liberalization, FDI.
1. Introduction Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been integrated into theories of economic growth as the “gains-from-FDI” approach (Krugman, 1998). In the thirty years and more, since the economic liberalization of 1991, India’s middle class has greatly expanded, and so has its purchasing power. But over the years, unlike other major emerging economies, India has been slow to open its retail sector to foreign investment as it has open up the economy in the form of Economic Reforms in 1991 only. In 2006, the government eased retail policy for the first time, allowing up to 51 per cent FDI through the single brand retail route. Since then, there has been a steady increase in FDI in the retail sector, and the cumulative FDI in single- brand retail stood at $195 million by the middle of 2010 (Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, DIPP, 2010). It can be said that liberalization of FDI would usher in quality and discipline in the Indian retail sector besides giving consumers a wider choice and options. * Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Pragjyotish College, E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 7 Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya
The word retail means to cut off a piece or to break bulk. Retailer is a dealer who sells goods in small quantities. Retailing is a link between producer and the consumer for fulfilling the personal needs. The retailing may be divided into two categories namely organized and unorganized retailing. Organized Retailing refers the activities undertaken by licensed retailers who are registered for sales tax and income tax. Un-Organized Retailing is a traditional way of low-cost retailing. These may be local shops. Unorganized retailing consists of self- employed, hence with more freedom; but may be with stress at this present competitive environment. The employees of organized retailing may be regular employed but with market clearing salary; do not have bargaining power. Some top players of retail in India are, Pantaloon Retail, Raheja Group, Tata, Landmark, Piramal Group, Bharati – Walmart, Reliance Group, AV Birla Group etc. The FDI Policy in retail in India initially had allowed foreign investment only in single brand. The growth of FDI is as follows: 1995: World Trade Organization’s General Agreement on Trade in Services, which includes both wholesale and retailing services, came into effect. 1997: FDI in cash and carry (wholesale) with 100 percent rights allowed under the government approval route. 2006: FDI in cash and carry (wholesale) brought under the automatic route. Up to 51 percent investment in a single-brand retail outlet permitted. 2011: 100 percent FDI in single brand retail permitted 2012: 49 percent FDI in multi brand retail is permitted. The current and anticipated growth of retail sector in India can be seen by the following diagram-
Source: International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering, Technology and Management, Vol. 1, Issue 1, November 2012, pg 33
8 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Organized retail outlets and customers’ satisfaction
It was expected that the retail sector would grow by US $ 175-200 by 2017 which is encouraging as foreign players also try to enter India with the allocation of foreign investment. A number of concerns have been raised about opening up the retail sector for FDI in India. The advantages of FDI in retail are - emerging opportunities, benefits for the farmers, improved technology and logistics, Impact on real estate development etc. However, some disadvantages of FDI in retail are - killing local shops and millions of jobs, reduction of monopolistic power etc. The growth of retailing has the potential to impact the performance of interlinked sectors such as manufacturing of consumer goods and agriculture-based industries. FDI in retail, therefore, could be an efficient way of addressing concerns of farmers and consumers. Moreover, satisfying customer is one of the main objectives of every business. Customer satisfaction is the key factor in knowing the success of any retail store or business. Gaining high level of customer satisfaction is very important to a business because satisfied customers are most likely to be loyal, place repeated orders and use a wide range of services offered by a business. Therefore, it is very important to measure it and to find the factors that affect the customers’ satisfaction.
1. Literature review In the present study some literature has been collected to have a broad overview of the customer satisfaction in the retail sector. Some of the literatures are discussed below: Das Prasun (2009) said that literature on customer satisfaction is voluminous and spans several areas such as marketing, management and accounting. Iacobucci et al. (1994, 1995) provided precise definitions of services quality versus customer satisfaction. They contend that service quality should not be confused with customer satisfaction, but that satisfaction is a positive outcome of providing good service. Ittner and Larcker (1998) provided empirical evidence at the customer, business-unit and firm-level that various measures of financial performance (including revenue, revenue change, margins, return on sales, market value of equity and current earnings) are positively associated with customer satisfaction. Sulek et al. (1995) found that customer satisfaction positively affects sales per labor hour at a chain of 46 retail stores. Anderson et al. (2004) found a positive association between customer satisfaction at the company level and Tobin’s q (a long run measure financial performance) for department stores and super markets. Babakus et al. (2004) linked customer satisfaction to product and service quality within retail stores and found that product quality had a six significant impact on store- level profits.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 9 Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya
2. Objectives of the study On the above backdrop the main objectives of this paper is - 1) To identify the different shops/stores getting preferences before buying from the organized retail outlets in Guwahati city. 2) To analysed the satisfaction level of the customers and also to identify the factors of customer satisfaction towards the service provided at organized retail outlets in Guwahati city. 3) To offer some suggestions for the future prospects of organized retail outlets in the Guwahati city.
4. Scope of study The study deals with the customer satisfaction towards organized outlets only which is very essential for retailing.
5. Research methodology The main aim of this study is to know the customer satisfaction towards organized retail outlets and find out the key factors for customer satisfaction. Therefore, descriptive research was being adopted to find out the customer satisfaction and characteristics of consumers. The survey was conducted among all class of customers who were the regular purchasers and occasional buyers in the organized retail outlets in Guwahati. Guwahati is having both – Single Brand retail outlet and Multi Brand retail outlet. Our study comprises of both this retail outlets. A pilot study was made of 30 samples in the month of October, 2018. On the basis of the pilot survey, later on the primary data is collected through survey method. Required information was collected by filling up a schedule by the respondents. The schedule contains open ended questions and it was simple to the respondents. Altogether 300 schedules were distributed among the customers/ respondents. However, 257 respondents have provided the required information in systematic and cleared way. In the rest 43 numbers of schedules the information found were missing in various ways. So it was not incorporated for analysis. Therefore, the sample size taken in this study was finally 250 for our conveniences. The study was conducted during the period November 2018 to January 2019, for a period of two months. As all the possible items are considered for research, the sampling method adopted was convenience sampling. For analysis and interpretation, only primary data was used. However for conclusion and recommendations both primary and the secondary data, verbal knowledge
10 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Organized retail outlets and customers’ satisfaction and information obtained from respondents were also included. The data collected from these sources were analysed by using percentage age analysis only. A standard schedule was prepared for the collection of data from various respondents. The schedule was designed in such a way that the aim of collecting essential information for the study would meet the set of objectives.
6. Analysis and Discussion 6.1 General Profile of the Respondents/Customers The Study captured respondents from cross section of people – age, educational qualification and economic background. The respondents contain both male and female customers. They were of different age groups with different educational qualifications as well as with different monthly income. Therefore, it becomes necessary to have a look about the overall profile of the respondents. The following Table 1 gives the details:
Table 1: An analysis of the respondents overall profile is given in the following table Aspects Classifications No. of percentage Respondents Male 95 38 Gender Female 155 62 Age 25 & below 58 23 Age 26-35 84 34 36-45 61 24 Age above 45 47 19 School Level 25 10 Education Graduate 93 37 Post Graduate 89 36 ITI/Diploma/Others 43 17 Below Rs 10,000 4 2 Monthly Income Rs 10001- Rs15000 22 9 Rs 15001 – Rs20000 110 44 Rs 20001- Rs 25000 61 24 Rs 25001 & above 53 21 One 5 2 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 11 Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya
One 5 2 Two 33 13 Total Family Three 67 27 Members Four 119 48 Five & above 26 10 Below Rs 2000 14 6 Rs 2001-Rs 3000 31 12 Average Monthly Rs3001- Rs 4000 128 51 Purchased Rs 4001- Rs 5000 64 26 Above Rs 5001 13 5
Source: Survey Data
Analysis: From the above table, it was clear that 62percent of the respondents were female and 38percent of the respondents were male. After dividing the respondents on the basis of gender, they were further divided according to their age. In this, it was found that out of total respondents 23percent were 25 years old and below, 34percent were between 26 to 35 years, 24percent belonged to the age group of 36 to 45 years and 19percent were above 45 years. Regarding education of the respondents, 37percent and 36percent of the respondents were graduates and post graduates respectively. 44percent of the respondents were in the income level of 15001 to 20000, 24percent of the respondents were in the income level of 20001-25000, and 21percent of the respondents were above the income level of 25000. Again, from the table it was observed that 48 percent of the respondents have four family members. Next to that 27 percent respondents have 3 family members. The majority of the respondents, i.e. 51percent spend Rs 3001- 4000 of their monthly budget towards their purchase in organized outlets. Only 5percent of the respondents spend more than rupees 5001 of their monthly budget.
6.2 Preferences of stores before buying from Organized Retail Outlets The opening up of organized retail outlets in Guwahati city is of recent development. The trend of establishing organized retail outlet in Guwahati takes momentum as Guwahati has observed the rising of the middle class. Therefore, one of our objectives of the study was
12 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Organized retail outlets and customers’ satisfaction to identify the different shops/stores getting preferences before buying from the organized retail outlets in Guwahati city. From this analysis we can have an idea of the customers and their preferences in buying their goods or getting their services before moving to the organized retail outlet. Table 2: Preferences of Stores Sl No. Shop No. of Respondents percentage 1. Neighborhoods Store 28 11 2. Wholesale Market 40 16 3. Convenient Store 164 66 4. Other Stores 18 7
Source: Survey Data Analysis: From the above Table 2, it was clear that maximum 66 percent of the respondents were purchasing from convenient store before they move to organized retail outlets. Next to that 16percent of the respondents also preferred wholesale market for their purchase before moving towards the organized retail outlet.
6.3 Satisfaction Level towards Service Provided at Organised Retail Outlets A consumer is in a stable state when his level of satisfaction is at maximum. Satisfaction also implies the optimum utility that the customers derive from the purchase. However, the level of satisfaction is determined by various factors such as, quality, price range, time, accessibility etc. The following Table 3 shows the satisfaction level of the customers in percentage age towards the service provided at organized retail outlet— Table 3: Satisfaction Level towards Service Provided at Organised Retail Outlets Level of Satisfaction (in percent) Parameters HS S N DS HDS Quality of Service 55 33 10 2 0 Self Service 25 43 18 9 5 Product price Range 16 36 38 2 8 Visual Merchandising 21 31 22 24 2 Time Saving 22 46 22 4 6 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 13 Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya
Time Saving 22 46 22 4 6 Fast Check Out 17 38 26 13 6 Easy Accessible Layout 22 36 25 8 9 Parking Facilities 7 21 24 33 15 Trolley Facilities 17 40 31 6 6 Home Delivery Facilities 18 53 21 8 0 Store Entrance & Walk Ways 17 31 37 8 7 Variety of Mode of Payments 28 26 19 18 9
Source: Survey Data HS: Highly Satisfied S: Satisfied N: Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied DS: Dissatisfied HDS: Highly Dissatisfied
From the above table it was observed that most of the customers were highly satisfied by the quality of products, i.e. 55 percent. However, a mere 2 percent were also dissatisfied with the quality provided. 43percent of the customers were satisfied with the prospect of self service, whereas, 9percent and 5percent are dissatisfied and highly dissatisfied respectively with the self service prospect. Regarding product price range, 36 percent were satisfied, but an almost equally 38 percent were also neutral. 31 percent were satisfied due to visual merchandizing, whereas 24 percent were also dissatisfied with it. Respectively, 46 percent and 22 percent were satisfied and highly satisfied due to the time saving nature of the organized retail outlet. Moreover, 38 percent of the respondents were satisfied due to the fast check out procedure whereas 13 percent were dissatisfied. Again, in an interesting move it was found that 33 percent were dissatisfied by the parking facilities of the outlets. Again, more than half, i.e. 53 percent and 18percent were satisfied and highly satisfied by the home delivery services of the organized retail outlets. Regarding mode of payments, respectively 28 percent and 26 percent of the customers were highly satisfied and satisfied due to the availability of the varieties of the mode of payments in the organized retail outlets. The above information of Table 3 is also represented graphically in the following Figure 1:
14 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Organized retail outlets and customers’ satisfaction
Figure 1: Satisfaction Level towards Service Provided at Organised Retail Outlets
7. Findings of the study The main findings of the study are that, an organized retail outlet provides better quality and avenues for customers. Most of the customers were satisfied with the quality of service provided by the organized retail outlets in Guwahati. They were satisfied with self service, product price, visual merchandising, home delivery and fast checkout. The customers feel that the store layout is easily accessible to find the products. Some of the respondents were not satisfied with the parking facility of the organized retail outlet. It was also observed from the information collected that there may be a positive correlation between the monthly income of the respondents and their monthly purchase in the organized retail outlets.
8. Conclusion This study reviews that the customers prefer organized retailing over others retailing. The establishment of such organized retail outlets in Guwahati city had proved to be successful as it fulfilled the needs of the customers. As an expansion, such outlets were being established in Guwahati city and other places. Hence, it’s significant for such outlets to cater to the needs of customer for its long run. Also, most of them were satisfied with the quality of service, price and product range of the goods provided by organized retail outlets. Satisfaction of customers in retail service was an important criterion for a marketer to understand for further strategic decision. However, it would have had been better if we could show the relationship/
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 15 Dr. Bidyut Bikash Baishya association between the satisfaction level towards quality of services and education level of the customers or correlation of the income level of respondents and their average monthly purchase etc. at the retail outlet. But due to use of low level of statistics or non-availability of the software packages and time constraints it has not been possible.
References Anderson et al. (2004). Customer Satisfaction and Shareholder Value. Journal of Marketing, Volume: 68 issue: 4, (172-185), retrieved June 6, 2019 from https://doi.org/10.1509/ jmkg.68.4.172.42723. Babakus et al. (2004). Linking Perceived Quality and Customer Satisfaction to Store Traffic and Revenue Growth. Decision Sciences, 35(4): (713–737), retrieved June 06, 2019 from https://doi.org/10.18551/rjoas.2017-11.42 Das, Prasun, (2009). Prediction of retail sales of footwear using feed forward and recurrent neural networks. Journal of Neural Computing and Applications, May 2007, Volume 16, (4–5). Springer-Verlag. Dhar, P.K. (2014). Indian Economy: Its Growing Dimensions, Kalyani Publishers. 15th Enlarged Edition. Iacobucci et al. (1994, 1995). Distinguishing Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: The Voice of the Consumer, Journal of Consumer Psychology, volume 4, Issue 3, (277- 303), retrieved June 07, 2019 from https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp0403_04 Ittner and Larcker, (1998). Performance implications of strategic performance measurement in financial services firms in Accounting, Organizations and Society. Volume 28 (7-8), October–November 2003, (715-741), retrieved June 07, 2019 from https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0361-3682(03)00033-3 Kothari,C.R. (2008). Research Methodology: Methods & Techniques, New Age International (p) Ltd. Publishers, 2nd Edition. Sulek et al. (1995). The Impact of a Customer Service Intervention and Facility Design on Firm Performance. Management Science 41(11):1763-1773 · November 1995, retrieved June 03, 2019 from https:// 10.1287/mnsc.41.11.1763 Departmental Reports on Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP), Government of India, 2010.
16 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 17-23
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF FISHERMEN A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF ASSAM
Dr. Avijit Kumar Dutta*
Abstract: This research paper aims at discussing fishermen’s beliefs in some significant religious ceremonies like Ganga Puja, Bheldia, Khutapota, Jaleswari Puja etc. Fishing communities in Assam enriches our folk culture and civilization. Their beliefs in occupational identity, religious ceremonies and social folk customs play a significant role in determining their folk culture and tradition. A descriptive analysis of these religious ceremonies and rites and rituals, associated with these ceremonies, are taken into account in this paper in order to study the cultural and religious trends of the fishing communities. Keywords: Fishing communities, Ganga Puja, Khutapota, Jaleswari Puja
1. Introduction Fishing communities in Assam enriches our folk culture and tradition with the practice of the rites and rituals, adhering to their occupational religious beliefs. Ganga Puja, Khutapota, Jaleswari Puja etc. are some common religious practices of this occupational community that reflect their folk beliefs in some deities and their supernatural powers. Offering prayer to these deities on certain religious occasions represent their traditional belief patterns and social folk customs, prevailing in their occupational life. Being a significant occupational group of Assam, religious norms and practice of rites and rituals several their religious beliefs in terms of their occupation and society. Like the Japanese fishermen who believe in the supernatural powers of Konpira and Ebisu. (H. Wilhelm: 28), fishing communities in Assam offer prayers to some deities, as mentioned
*Assistant Professor, Department of English, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9, Email:- [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 17 Dr. Avijit Kumar Dutta above. In dong so, they express their religious beliefs in them. Like the fishermen of Senegal who offer milk and fruits to the deities of the ocean just before they start annual fishing season (Anson: 47), fishermen of Assam also offer certain eatables to these deities.
2. Objectives of the Study This study tries to focus on: Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Ganga Puja Khutapota Jaleswari Puja Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Khutapota Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Jaleswari Puja Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices as certain significant Elements of Folk Life
3. Review of Related Studies Authors and scholars have already discussed belief patterns of the fishing communities. While some of them have narrated their religious practices, customs and beliefs, some others have narrated their society and culture, based on their folk life. Some of such books are as follows: In Malay Fishermen: Their Peasant Economy, Raymond Firth makes numerous references to Malay Customs and beliefs which prevail in the occupational society of the Malyan fishermen. Apart from the social and economic conditions of this fishing peasentry, beliefs in spirits like the spirit of the sea (hantu laut), the rice spirit etc. are also narrated in this book. Craig T. Palmer explains ritual taboos of fishermen in his work, titled The Ritual Taboos of Fishermen. In it, the author narrates the ‘anxiety-ritual theory’ with reference to the ideas, developed by Bronislaw Malinowski. Based on his questionnaire survey of lobstermen in a port in Southern Maine, the author also discusses the apparent correlation between amount of ritual behavior and extended trip fishing. Devendra Kumar Bezbaruah narrates some folk beliefs and traditions and culture of the fishermen of the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in his book Brohmoputro Uppotyokar Koivarta Jatir Ruprekha. The author narrates some common beliefs, prevalent among fishermen and analyses these beliefs in the context of Assamese society. In Kamrupor Koivarta Somprodai: Samaj aru Sanskriti, published in Jana- Kristi, a research journal, the author Phanindra Chandra Thakuria reflects society and culture of fishing communities of Assam. He also discusses some of their customs, associated with marriage system. Some folk performances of fishermen and their beliefs in deities and waterbeds are also brought to light in this essay.
18 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Religious beliefs and practices of fishermen...
4. Methodology This study relies on primary and secondary sources and brings out a descriptive analysis of collected resources.
A. Primary Sources In order to collect data systematically and scientifically, certain research methodology has been adopted during the field work in the villages of Assam, inhabited by fishing communities. During field survey, data have been collected systematically and they have been processed and analysed in due course in order to achieve the scope and the objectives of this research work. During the field work, observation and interview methods have been adopted to collect relevant information. Directive and non-directive interview methods have also been adopted during the field study along with the survey method. Data have been collected by participatory method by joining in worship process. Moreover, questionnaire method has been used to get the relevant data. Similarly, the audio-visual techniques have been applied while recording the interviews of the informants.
B. Secondary Sources Library work has been undertaken in some libraries like Krishnakanta Handique Library, Gauhati University, State Library, Assam and District Library, Guwahati, Assam. Some local libraries, situated at the villages, inhabited by fishing communities have also been visited.
5. Analysis Fishing communities of Assam believe in the presence of folk deities in this material world. Various narratives based on the supernatural powers are prevalent in their thought and beliefs and they offer prayer to these folk deities by performing certain rites and rituals as a part of their folk customs. On the other hand, they also believe in these folk deities and perform rites and rituals to alleviate anxiety and fear. As said by Mallinowski while describing, Trobriand fishing taboos, fishermen of Assam also perform rites and rituals to lessen their anxiety and fear. The following lines from Mallinowski may be quoted here. “…where man can rely completely upon his knowledge and skill, magic does not exist, while in the open-sea fishing, full of danger and uncertainty, there is extensive magical ritual to secure safety and good results.” (Malinowski: 30-31) Apart from some common deities who are widely worshipped in Assamese folk society, some deities whom they believe as the dwellers of water are also worshipped by fishing
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 19 Dr. Avijit Kumar Dutta communities. Ganga, Jaleswari, Kuvir, Jaladevata and many such watery deities are also worshipped by them. As a result, certain rites and rituals are performed by this occupational community while worshipping these watery deities. Though, these deities are also worshipped by common Assamese people on certain cases, fishing communities believe that they have certain affinities with these deities as their occupation is closely associated with water. In the following lines, fishermen’s beliefs and religious practices, associated with three forms of religious occasions are described.
5.1 Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Ganga Puja Ganga puja is a religious festival in which the folk Goddess Ganga is worshipped, especially by fishing communities in Assam. This folk Goddess is considered as the Goddess of water and river. This occupational community offers prayers to this folk Goddess, seeking her favour while going for fishing by following certain rites and rituals in relation to this religious festival. Ganga puja is celebrated in the month of Jeth (an Assamese tabooed month). Just before the river and other water beds are filled with water, this religious ceremony is observed. The fishermen offer prayers to Ganga, the Goddess of water so that the Goddess protects them from water and keep the fish healthy and fresh. The fishermen observe this ceremony with the singing of some hymns to invoke the Goddess of water. These hymns are sung by some female singers. This religious ceremony is observed in some Vedic systems. As a result, the fishermen invite some priest and they place an idol of the Goddess. The priest chants mantras. During this religious ceremony, all the fishermen do not eat anything. After the religious ceremony, all the fishermen of a locality have Khisiri, (an eatable item), which has been offered to the Goddess. They do not go for fishing on this day. Many of the fishermen consider this religious festival as a means to offer prayers to river and water. They go for fishing into the riverbed, which according to them is dominated by the Goddess Ganga.
5.2 Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Khutapota Some of the fishermen, in Assam observe this ceremony. Khutapota suggests the act of placing a long bamboo stick into the water of the river, prior to fishing. In many parts of Assam, the fishermen use to catch fish under the leadership of a group leader, who is an expert in catching fish. The leader of a fishermen’s group digs the ground of the river bed. This act symbolizes the fishermen’s belief in selecting a particular area in which the river God showers bliss upon them. This ceremony is observed by the fishermen in the month of Ahhar. (An Assamese tabooed month.)
20 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Religious beliefs and practices of fishermen...
There are some rites and rituals, associated with this religious ceremony. During this religious ceremony, fishermen do not catch fish. After placing the long bamboo stick into the river bed, they offer milk and salt to the water of the river. The leader of the group offers prayer to the river God and requests the God to shower bliss upon them when they will go for fishing. This is done in order to satisfy the river God, who according to them is fond of having milk and salt altogether. Next day, the fishermen go for fishing. The big fish, which they will first catch on this day, is usually offered to Goddess. This fish is brought to some temple and this is given to the priest of the temple.
5.3 Fishermen’s Beliefs and Religious Practices, associated with Jaleswari Puja Fishermen believe in the power of Jaleswari, the water goddess. They believe that this water goddess is the queen of all the animals and the creatures that exist in water and the act of worshiping this folk goddess determines their destiny when they are in water. Under such beliefs, they offer prayer to her on Jaleswari Puja. Fishermen believe in the power of Jaleswari, a watery goddess. During the worship, a particular fisherman who possesses a particular place of a beel has to offer some votive offerings to her. This fisherman who offers votive offerings to the goddess does not eat anything during this religious ceremony and he does not catch fish till offerings are offered to this folk goddess.
6. Conclusion Fishing communities in Assam observe and practice these rites and rituals, associated with some popular religious occasions. In this connection, it should be noted that they perform these rites and rituals by following some local customs, prevailing in Assam. On the other hand, geographical location of this occupational community also deals with their belief patterns, linked with the existence of some deities like Ganga, Jaeswari and others. In Indian mythology, there may have some other narratives about the existence of these deities. But, the fishermen living in Assam have some unique belief patterns, associated with them. For instance, Ganga is generally considered as a river goddess in Hindu mythology. But fishing communities in Assam believe this deity as a folk goddess who is associated with their occupation only. The same may also be seen in case of other deities, worshipped by fishing communities in Assam. Fishing communities in Assam assimilate their culture and tradition into a common Assamese heritage. Rites and rituals of fishing communities are interwoven with their folk beliefs and their folk customs and religion. On the other hand, these rites and rituals deal with
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 21 Dr. Avijit Kumar Dutta their traditional knowledge about the elements of nature, which they generally consider as the forms of gods and goddesses. Natural elements like river, water, lake or other water bodies also appear before them having some concrete forms of supernatural powers. The concept of animism has influenced them for years and they believe in the presence of soul everywhere. This belief pattern shapes their rites and rituals, originating their religious and cultural practices. In brief, beliefs and religious practices of fishing communities of Assam naturally deal with their sense of affinity with their occupation which assimilate them with Assamese culture and tradition.
References Anson, Peter F, Facsimile of 1932 edition, (1975). Fishermen and Fishing Ways, E P Publishing Ltd, Bascom, W.R, (1965). The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives, The Journal of American Folklore: 3-20 Bezbaruah, Devendra Kumar, (1997). Brohmoputra Upotyakar koivarta Jatir Ruprekha, Guwahati Datta, Birendranath (ed), (1994). A Handbook of Folklore Material of North-East India, Anundoram Borooah Institute of Language, Art & Culture, Guwahati Dorson, Richard M (ed), (1972). Folklore and Folklife: An Introduction, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press Frazer, Sir James George, (1959) The Golden Bough, London: Macmillan and Co Firth, Raymond, (1975). Malay Fishermen: Their Peasant Economy, W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. Georges Robert A. & Jones, Michael Owen, (1995). Folkloristics: An Introduction, Bloomington: Indiana University Press Leach, Maria(ed), (1949). Standard Dictionary of Folklore Mythology and Legend, Newyork: Funk and Wagnalls Ltd Malinowski, Bronislaw, (1935). Coral Gardens and Their Magic, London Palmer, Craig T, (1989). The Ritual Taboos of Fishermen An Alternative Explanation, Maritime Anthropological Studies (MAST) Thakuria, Phonindrachandra, (2005). Kamrupor Koivarta Somprodai: Samaj aru Sanskriti (in Assamese) Jana – Kristi (ed.) Dr. Paban Bordoloi. Folklore Society of Assam
22 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Religious beliefs and practices of fishermen...
Appendix I Name and addresses of the informants 1.Bholanath Das 72 years Keotpara, Azra, Kamrup 2. Harobala Das 65 years Keotpara, Azra, Kamrup 3. Mano Das 58 years Japia, Rangia, Kamrup 4. Shyama Das 65 years Rajabari, Chanrapur, Kamrup 5. Probhat Das 65 years Solmara, Chamata, Nalbari 6. Protap Keot 70 years Solmara, Chamata, Nalbari 7. Bishu Das 48 years Tukrapara,Nagaon,Barpeta 8. Pachananda Das 70 years Tukrapara,Nagaon,Barpeta
Appendix II Questionnaire Pattern of the investigation 1. Name of the Informant 2. Narratives related to Religious Beliefs and Practices 3. Narratives related to Ganga Puja 4. Narratives related to Khutapota 5. Narratives related to Jaleswari Puja
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 23 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 24-33
AN OVERVIEW OF THE SCULPTURAL MOTIFS OF MADAN KAMDEV AN EMPIRICAL STUDY
Abhijit Bharali*
Abstract: The roots of Indian art can be traced back to the very first cave paintings found in Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh. From the crude wall paintings to complex stone cut sculptures, the journey of Indian art has been of great aesthetic value. It is nothing but a manifestation of ideas and beliefs that are attached to the general human mind. The early societies developed their art through various symbols and motifs that could reflect their beliefs and traditions. Art had a more intrinsic value attached to it. Sculptural motifs and designs had the sole purpose of beautifying the elements of art that were created in the walls of temples and palaces. However these detailed motifs had a deep socio- cultural ethos attached to it. The temple complex of Madan Kamdev is a wonderful example to testify the fact. Hailing from the Pala dynasty of Kamarupa, Madan Kamdev temple has a variety of sculptural designs and motifs that reflect the cosmopolitan nature of Kamarupa art. These art forms are a product of various sectarian and local elements that were fused into a peculiar art form. The detailed survey of these art forms throw a light on the nature of Kamarupa art, which in due course of time, had become a cultural hotspot of the Brahmaputra Valley. Keywords: Sculpture, Motif, Symbols.
1. Introduction History has always been the unending dialogue between the past and the present societies. It is the early society that has paved the way for the development of newer ones. The art history of the humans can however be traced back to the Mesolithic and early Neolithic age
* Research Scholar, Department of History, Gauhati University, Email- [email protected]
24 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 An overview of the sculptural motifs... where the simple forms had witnessed representation. The cave walls formed their canvas and the subject of art was usually day to day activities that they thought to be important. It was from that era that art found its way through the annals of human history. The geography of an area has also a lot to contribute towards moulding the culture and society of the people. The hill dwellers had a much different perspective of their lives than the plain dwellers. The art of early humans had gradually led to the evolution of complex forms of art in later societies. From the simple cave paintings to sophisticated rock cut sculptures, art has surely travelled a long way than expected Any creation of art has chiefly two distinct features. The first feature is the idea of self- expression by which the artist attempts to display his/her independent approach towards the subject. Secondly, every piece of art deliberately tries to present a symbol or aspect of ‘beauty’ which is derived or relevant from the spirit world. (Dubash, 1979) The distinction as forwarded by scholars like Croce and S. Casson has attempted to define ‘art’ in the truest sense. Art has the capacity of transporting us from man’s activity to a world of aesthetic exaltations. (Langer, 1965) The beauty of nature was regarded as ‘beautiful’ by the humans which in due course of time had been developed into the idea of perceiving beauty. (Hegel, 1975) The inception of Art in early India could be witnessed in the Harappan culture where the type site of Harappa has provided us with enough evidence to justify the fact. The wide variety of seals which have been excavated in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are beautiful specimen of art. The linear stylisation of the trees and the particular mode of rendering the leaves, as we find in some of the seals, show a close relation to man with nature. (Saraswati, 1975) The concept of motif and symbolic representation however developed mostly after the second urbanization in the Ganga valley. The Gandhara and the Mathura schools of art had witnessed the emergence of complex sculptural art that involved both symbolic and artistic representations. Motifs like the kalpavriksha, visva padma and purna kumbha etc had grown popularity which have great intrinsic value attached to it. The mainstream Indian art had however found its way into the Kamarupa lands through the gradual process of Sanskritization. The early historical period of Assam dates back to the Kamarupa Kingdom which emerged mostly covers the Brahmaputra valley. The early kingdom of Kamarupa developed since the third century CE which had witnessed the growth of various ruling dynasties. The physical boundary of Assam is mainly divided into two zones- the north eastern and central hilly tracts comprising of the valleys of Barak and Brahmaputra. (Barpujari, 2014) The cultural hotspot of Kamarupa kingdom in the early times were mainly scattered in parts of
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 25 Abhijit Bharali the Brahmaputra valley. It is here that a gradual assimilation and transformation of culture could be witnessed. This was evident from the art and architecture of the area from the fifth century CE. Temple architecture mostly resembled the mainstream Nagara style of Northern India. Sculptures had invariably been made with a much more Mathura ‘touch’ with Indianness to it. However local sentiments in art could also be witnessed which indicated an assimilation of northern Indian and local elements of art. In some cases, there has been considerable contribution from the Southeast Asian artistic elements as well. As for instance, the kalpavriksha and the scroll design in the panels of Madan Kamdev which show an influence from the Khmer art to a certain extent. Therefore, the art of Kamarupa speak a lot about the cultural integrity and diversity of the area that it had achieved in the fifth to tenth century CE. The Kamarupa kingdom had in turn generated the development of a new school of art which was peculiar and diverse in its own nature.
2. Review of Literature Art Heritage of Assam by R.D Choudhury is an important work that deals with the evolution of art history in early Assam. The work is divided into a number of chapters that stresses on the development of the archaeological sites in the Brahmaputra valley. The text describes the various sites and their sculptures that hold important place in the art heritage of Assam. The author has also attempted to deal briefly with the sculptural motifs and designs found in the archaeological sites of Assam. The text however passively deals with the designs and motifs without much detail devoted to the particular field. Hindoo Art in its Social Setting by Perviz Dubash is a work that deals with the history of art in early India. The author attempts to discuss the evolution of art in the early Indian society. The work has a chronological chapterization regarding the evolution of art from the Harappan times up to the arrival of pre modern period. The text deals with the significance of art in the social setting that was dominant in the Indian society. The trends of Indian art are mostly dealt in throughout the text. However the text was silent on the evolution of the sculptural designs and its implications over the particular art as a whole. Indian Symbolism by Rai Govind Chandra describes a wide variety of motifs and symbols that were a part of the Aesthetic of Indian art. The motifs and symbols that were applied in the art of early India have been beautifully discussed in this work by the author. It is also a good source that has provided a comparative study of the motifs found in India with that of the outside world.
26 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 An overview of the sculptural motifs...
3. Objectives The objectives of this study :- To highlight the sculptural designs and motifs found in the Madan Kamdev temple complex. To analyse the designs and the implication of the motifs in the art of Madan Kamdev and confirm its position in the aesthetic of Indian art.
4. Area of study The area of study is concentrated on the temple complex of Madan Kamdev which is located in North Guwahati, Assam. The area is located in Baihata Chariali which is a part of North Guwahati located in the state of Assam, India.
5. Methodology The nature of the study is purely empirical based on philosophical thoughts with a social, cultural and historical approach. The guiding factor in the identification and analysis of the sculptures and their designs is primarily first hand observation. Intensive field works in and around the archaeological site of the Madan Kamdev temple complex is the primary method applied for the study. Apart from this, interviews with the local committee responsible for the conservation of the sites and with the local people is another method proposed for the fulfilment of the study. The measurements of the sculptures are taken with the inchtape and digital cameras are used to take photographs of the specific sculptures and their designs. The study is intended to be qualitative in nature in order to realise the objectives proposed.
6. Discussion Madan Kamdev temple complex is located in present north Guwahati, Assam (state of India). The area is rich in artistic designs which have great intrinsic value prescribed to them. The temple complex can traced back to Pala period which ruled after the Salastambhas in Kamarupa. The date of construction has therefore been assigned to post ninth to century CE. The area contains some ruins of a temple in the pancaratha style. The temple complex also possesses some smaller group of temples which are attributed to the god siva. The smaller siva temples which are large in number also follow the style of the larger temple. As for now, two major temples have been excavated by the archaeologists, one of which is in complete ruins. Only the plinth of the temple has remained. The panels which held the sculptures have been collected and placed in the museum constructed nearby. The sculptures uncovered were mainly erotic in nature. Madan Kamdev holds vital ground for detailed study in the field
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 27 Abhijit Bharali of eroticism, architecture, art etc. However, the artistic style found in the temple complex is peculiar in nature. The initial designs that can be noticed in the sculptural art of Madan Kamdev are the scroll designs. Scroll designs which are decorated in floral patterns are mostly found in sides of the sculptures. The sheer motive of the application of this design was to beautify the sculpture as far as possible. The scrolls are particularly flat lined and lack heavy detailing. The similar scroll designs can be witnessed in the Bamuni Hills of Tezpur which are much more detailed and minute. The designs in Madan Kamdev are mostly simple but are abundantly found bordering the sculptures. The origin of these scroll designs can be traced back to the Greek art where they were applied through a variety of designs. The similar designs can also be traced back to the Southeast Asian Khmer art where the temple art of Cambodia are seem to be inlaid with similar designs. Not only Cambodia or Indonesia, the art of India had tremendous influence in China as well. (Datta, 1978) Scrolls may have represented the association of the art with nature. As the scrolls had floral patterns, this might attempt to relate the art with the environment and nature. The Madan Kamdev complex is also abundant with the motif of angasikhara which were used as designs. Angasikhara also known as miniature temples are found abundantly in the area. They are at least three feet in height and represent the sikhara of the temple. Two separate panels have been found which possess the motif of five angasikharas placed horizontally. This might have been the upper part of the doorways of the temple. This motif found abundantly implies the fact that the sikhara part of the temple may have been decorated with these angasikharasi. The five angasikharas applied in one panel may suggest the fact that there was a possibility of more four temples in that area. As two major temples are discovered till now, the motif suggests the possibility of having three more major temples in that area. (figure 1) There is also a possibility to the reference of the pancatirtha which is evident in the Odishan art found in the Jagannath temple. Incidentally, the pancatirtha concept is famous in the Odishan culture which suggests the influence of the culture on the art of Madan Kamdev. The most common motif applied in the art of Madan Kamdev is the Padma or the lotus. The lotus forms an important part of the ethos of Hindu culture. It could be found in various forms and designs all throughout India. The impact of the flower is so popular in Indian aesthetics that an entire Purana was created out of it. The version of the Padma witnessed in the Madan Kamdev temples is mostly the astapadma or the visvapadma motif. The application of this motif is clearly a mark of assimilation of diverse cultural norms. As the name suggests, the astapadma consists of eight petals of lotus and have nine pores attached
28 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 An overview of the sculptural motifs... in the centre of the flower. The nine pores have deep aesthetic value imbibed in them. It may represent the nine planets attributed in the early Indian astrology or jyotish vidya. However, the nine planets have the Sun and the Moon enlisted as planets as well. The eight petals may signify the cosmic realm which is in continuous motion. (figure 2) Another theory may also be applied which involve the influence of Buddhist elements. The eight petals may also signify the dharma chakra of Buddhism. The eight petals may also represent the eightfold paths of the Buddha which is necessary for all humans to achieve enlightenment. This may suggest a major influence of Buddhism, as we have found in the case of Surya Pahar in Goalpara district of Assam. (Choudhury, 1998) The similar motif is found abundantly in the Cole Park area of Tezpur, Assam. This motif is also attributed to God Vishnu which reflects the influence of the Vaishnavite sectarian elements in early Kamarupa. Nonetheless, the padma is a common motif found in the Madan Kamdev site. Another important motif found in the area is the kalpavriksha. This motif is a direct correlation between the people and the environment. The motif usually represents the tree known as kalpataru which has Puranic origins. The tree find mention in the Vishnu and the Bhagavat Puran where the myths reveal the birth of the cosmic tree form the samudra manthan. The entire episode deals with the origin story of various mythical elements out of which this tree finds special mention. This episode also mentions about the Kurma avatar of Vishnu which he manifests in order to support the Mandar Mountain from below. It is due to this churning that precious gifts like the Kamdhenu (the cow with infinite milk), Laxmi (goddess of wealth), the Chandra (moon), the amrit (the nectar of immortality) etc. (Das, 2001). The motif is found in one of the doorways of the temple. It is sculpted with its branches stretching out in different directions. The tree itself is granted with cosmic powers which had the potentiality of granting wishes to the devotees. As the Puranic story suggests, the tree was kept in heaven or the swargalok by the Devas. This tree might have been the culmination of the thoughts of the humans who had attempted to understand the treasures of nature since time immemorial. The early humans understood the value of Mother Nature and therefore attempted to uncover them for the betterment of the society. This might have led to the creation of this motif which is placed so accurately in the doorway. (figure 3) The temple in which this motif was placed might have been believed to have granted boons and wishes to the devotees who entered inside. The similar motif can be witnessed in the Khmer art as well. The Surya Pahar ruins also possess a similar kalpavriksha which is entrusted in terracotta. A real tree found in the present day temple complex of Madan Kamdev has been used with a similar motive. Red strings of clothes are usually tied around the tree by the pilgrims in order to fulfil their wishes. The presence of this tree can be regarded as a ‘continuity’ of the
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 29 Abhijit Bharali culture which may have once flourished in this area while keeping in mind to the ‘changes’ that it had undergone throughout human history. The purna kumbha is one similar motif found in the temple complex. The motif is found on one of the doorways. The most special feature of the motif is that three purna kumbhas are placed horizontally. This makes it one of the most auspicious symbols of the site as the Kumbha itself is a motif of great religious importance. The ceremonies of Hindu traditions are mostly performed through a kumbha which is an earthen pot with a coconut placed on the rim of the pot. Inside the pot the water is stored which becomes the main element of worship. This is regarded as a highly auspicious design as there are rare references of three kumbhas found in a row at any other site. The three ghatas might have been implemented to wash off the unholy and only let the purer essence of the soul to enter inside. (Figure 4) The motif of purna kumbha is a common depiction of their beliefs that had been inculcated into the art. Purna Kumbha also appears in Southeast Asia, Tibet and Ceylon. At Bhubaneswar in the Mukteswar Temple, we find several variations of the purna ghata placed on at the shikhara. (Chandra, 1996) The temple complex of Madan Kamdev has been therefore regarded as a site of great artistic importance. Not only does it represent remarkable depth of erotic art and elements, it may also have been a bustling centre of human interaction in the Pala period of Kamarupa history. The existences of different temples show the complexity and diversity of culture that might have flourished in the early historical period of Kamarupa. From the artistic point of view, the temple site is a fine specimen of the fact that Kamarupa art was a hotspot of different artistic elements from all across the world.
7. Conclusion The Madan Kamdev group of temples is not only a temple to its very core. It has been regarded as a canvas where we find various forms of sculptural art flourishing and thriving. The motifs associated with the sculptures reflect the traditional beliefs of various sectarian elements that had developed in early Kamarupa. The objects of nature like trees, leaves, flowers etc have found utmost importance in the Indian art throughout the ages. This is evdent in the case of Madan Kamdev as well. These had led to the development of motifs and symbols that possessed immense esoteric value. Motifs like astapadma, kalpavriksha, purna kumbha were implemented as symbols that were associated with objects of art. Most of the sculptural designs applied to the religious buildings of early historical period had natural elements imbibed in them. The flora and fauna was the chief target of attraction that beautified the art. It was the dawn of various religious and sectarian elements that nature
30 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 An overview of the sculptural motifs... found a special position in the art of India. The early Kamarupa art was also generous enough to incorporate the symbolic motifs that were related to nature. The development of art in Kamarupa has been through various sources and channels. The sectarian elements of Buddhist and Jainism traditions have found its way into the mainstream art of Kamarupa. This is evident in the Surya Pahar ruins of Goalpara as well. The Kamarupa kingdom was not a single entity in respect of art. It encompassed a much larger tradition which amalgamated both foreign and local elements. It can be therefore rightly justified that Kamarupa art had developed in a similar manner like that of Gandhara and Mathura art. It would not be wrong to state that Kamarupa art had developed through generations and cultural elements from all across the valley had intermixed to form the Kamrupi art. The art of Madan Kamdev had a deep influence in the nearby areas as well. The temples of Pingaleswar and Dirgheswari which were constructed later had similar forms of artistic elements attached to it. This concludes the fact that the art of Madan Kamdev had a great contribution towards the art of Kamarupa in general.
References Barpujari, H.K (2014). The Comprehensive History of Assam, Volume I, Guwahati: Publication Board Assam, page- 2-5 Chandra, Rai Govind, (1996). Indian Symbolism Symbols as sources of our Customs and Beliefs, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Private Limited, page-18-20, 109-110 Choudhury, R.D, (1998). Art Heritage of Assam, New Delhi: Aryan Books International, page-6 Das, Surendra Kumar, (2001). Vishnu Puran, Guwahati: Banalata Publishers, page-19-20 Datta, Bhupendranatha, (1978). Indian Art in Relation to Culture, Calcutta: Nababharat Publication, page-11 Dubash, Perviz N. Peerozsaw; Dr. S. Radhakrishnan (fwd.), (1979). Hindoo Art in its Social Setting Art in the Ancient Indian Civilisation, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, page-17-18 Hegel, G.W.F, (1975). Aesthetics Lectures on Fine Art Volume I, London: Oxford Clarendon Press, page-123 Langer, Susanne. K, (ed.), (1965). Reflections on Art a Source Book of Writings by Artists, Critics & Philosophers, New York: Oxford University Press, page- 36-39 Saraswati, S.K, (1975). A Survey of Indian Sculpture, Varanasi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, page-17
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 31 Abhijit Bharali
APPENDIX - I
Figure 1
Angasikhara found in Madan Kamdev
Figure 2
Astapadma motif
32 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 An overview of the sculptural motifs...
Figure 3
Kalpavriksha motif in the doorway
Figure 4
Purnakumbha motif
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 33 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 34-39
CULTURAL ASPECTS AND SOCIAL SYSTEMS OF THE BODOS AND THEIR LIVES: A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Dr. Jayanta Deka*
Abstract: Socio cultural aspects of a particular community reveal its identity. In order to understand the social processes execution in a society, it is important to know the socio-cultural environment of the society in which they are rooted. To get the necessary imminent of the Bodo distinctiveness, it is essential to have some acquaintance with the various dimensions of the Bodo society. This paper intends to discuss some aspects like Originality about the Ethnic names, economic occupation, Food Habits, Dialogues, Dresses and Ornaments and Marriage of the Bodos. Keywords: Bodo Community, Ethnic names, Economic occupation
1. Introduction The Bodos are one of the indigenous ethno-linguistic groups of North Eastern India belonging to Indo-Mongoloid origin of Tibeto-Burman language family. Grierson (1930) in his Linguistic survey has remarked that this ethno-linguistic community is the migrant of Chinese origin. The term Bodo literally means ‘man’ with the generic term ‘Kachari’ intended for a number of factions speaking a common parlance or language and having a common mythological ancestry (Gait, 1926 & Goswami, 2012). The Bodos have certain autonomy and originality. They have certain economic, commercial and social status. The origin of this tribal community, some of the social systems, originality about their Ethnic names, economic occupation and many such features of this community are discussed in this research paper.
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
34 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Cultural aspects and social systems of the bodos and their lives...
2. Objectives of the Study This study tries to focus on the following points, prevalent among the Bodos: Originality about the Ethnic names Economic occupation Food Habits Dialogues Dresses and Ornaments Marriage
3. Review of Related Study A number of scholars have made a great contribution related to Bodo communities. Some of the great works are discussed below: Basumatary et al. (2014a) in their research article ‘Status of the Bodo women in Brahmaputra Valley: A Historical Perspective’ have clearly mentioned the status of Bodo women in context to the socio-economic and cultural activities of their society. They further tried to focus on the status in the perspective of marriage, rights of property, religious affairs, management in a family, and their role in family economy. The research article ‘Jou: the traditional drink of the Boro tribe of Assam and North East’ is one of the significant contribution Basumatary et al. (2014b) to the society where it was clearly mentioned about the socio-cultural life of the Boros and their old age tradition of preparing Jou from fermented cooked rice (jumai) The research included participatory approach of unstructured and semi-structured interviews and group discussions. Narzary and Halder (2015) in their work ‘Bodo Religion in Transition: A Historical Analysis’ clearly analyzed the unique religious life of the Bodo. He further analyzed the original form of religion of the Bodos. Ali and Ramchiary (2014) have in their works tried to make acquainted with every sphere of social life that is affected by new innovations, progress and development. They in their study deal with the social change relating to the institutions of economy, education health, socio- cultural and religion.
4. Methodology Methodology of this study is as follows: a. Primary sources: This survey has been mainly based on the field work and necessary helps from available literature. The methods involve participatory approach with direct interviews. The survey has been designed to have a direct interaction with the aboriginal of
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 35 Dr. Jayanta Deka the Bodo community. b. Secondary sources: Library work has been undertaken in some libraries like State Library, Assam, District Library, Guwahati, Assam and Pandit Tirthanath Sarma Library, Pragjyotish College in order to study some other books like ‘Assamar Jajajati Aru Sanskriti’, ‘A Study of Socio Religious Beliefs Practices and Ceremonies of the Bodos’ and ‘Tribes of Assam Part – III’.
5. Analysis 5.1 Originality about the Ethnic Name The Bodos was in north of China in between the Huang Ho and the Yang-tzse Kiang rivers from which they moved out and dispersed in different directions. One of the groups moved into Tibet and settled there for centuries before coming to India. As the original name of Tibet was Ti-bod so it is conjectured by some of the scholars that those Mongoloids who lived in Ti- bod were identified as bod who later changed to Bodo (Grierson 1967).
5.2 Economic Occupation Agriculture plays a vital role in the globe of Bodos’ economics. Earlier references have clearly indicated that a major section of this ethnic group was engaged in shifting cultivation but now they have transformed themselves into fully settled farmers (Goswami, 2012). This cultured ethnic community have adopted proper scientific analysis selecting an agricultural field for cultivation like the field should have water sustainable capacity as well as water availability. In spite of have a proper technological degree they engineered their ideas by constructing irrigation canals and embankments. Bordoloi et al. (1991) have stated that the major part of the cultivation includes rice plantations which falls under three main heads viz. Maisali (transplanted as winter rice, in the low lying area), Bawa (stemmed rice sown mainly in marshes with deep water) and Ashu (sown at spring season in high lands). Besides rice cultivation, jute and mustard seeds occupy the second most position in the agriculture system. This farming system helps the Bodo people to earn a sustainable livelihood. This ethnic community involves three mode of cultivating system. The self cultivation system, in which, the farmer along with his family members cultivates the field. The Adhi system where the farmer gives away his land to a cultivator for cultivation for a temporary phase and the product is distributed equally between them and in Sukhani system the farmer tied into oral agreement with a cultivator at a fixed quantity for the produced (Waddell, 1975). Other than agriculture the Bodo ethnic group specially the women folk are engaged
36 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Cultural aspects and social systems of the bodos and their lives... in a traditional culture of eri rearing. The eri culture makes the people to earn a sustainable livelihood as the end product of the eri is the cocoon from which eri shawl (Endi chadar) is prepared.
5.3 Food Habits: The food habit of the Bodos is mainly rice, but this is supplemented by plentiful supply of vegetables. The most highly priced diet is the pork and fish (Narzi, 1966). The prestigious beverage for the Bodo community is the jau (the rice beer). The jau is also used in social functions and is also offered to the Chief God, the Bathou borai (Basumatary et al. 2014a).
5.4 Dialogues Goswami (2012) have clearly stated that the Bodo language belongs to the western branch of Barish section under the Baric division of Sino – Tibetan family as given by Robert Shafer (1952). It was found that the Bodo community does not have inherited scripts. Most of the Bodo literature consists of oral literature. Their folksongs, ballads and proverbs were written either in Assamese or Roman scripts (Bhattacharya, 1997). Bordoloi (1991) & Brahma (2007) stated that the Bodo literature Society tried to make a reform in the Bodo language. This reform tried to initiates in bringing an identity consciousness among the Bodos as well as to instill new consciousness amongst the other members of the community (Bhattacharya, 1997). The movement lunched by the Bodo Literature Society during 1960s – 70s tried to recognized the Roman Script in place of Assamese scripts (Bordoloi, 1991)
5.5 Dresses and Ornaments The dresses of Bodo people have no differences with other community brothers. Bodo are fond of wearing colourful dresses prepared from natural dyes. The male community put on home woven cotton towel, Gamsha which hangs down from the loins to knees. Besides, they put on Aronai (a small wrapper) around their neck (Brahman, 1960). During winter they wrap themselves with eri shawl, jumgra. The women folk use Dokhna to cover their body round the chest below armpit to the toes. If the dokhna is plain it is called sala matha and if it is designed it is called dokhna thawsi is also important for marriage purpose. Furthermore, clothing of the Bodo community is a socio – economic norms and it varies with types of social occasions. The women of Bodo community have a passion for ornaments. Gold and silver are the favoured ornaments for the women folk. Different ornament are made for different parts of
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 37 Dr. Jayanta Deka the body like for ear they uses Kheru, Japkhring, Dul, Boula and Puti. For nose they use Nakphul and Bulaki. Ornaments like Chandra har, Bisahar, Thanka siri and Jibou zin siri becomes a part of neck while Mutha and Ashan are worn at hands (Brahman, 1960).
5.6 Marriage Marriage is basically a socio – cultural relation between a man and a woman. Marriage creates new social relationships and reciprocal rights between the spouses, between each and the relatives of the other, and establishes the status of the offspring’s when they are born (Brahman, 1992). The marriage ceremony is an important element in the Bodo society. In Bodo the marriage is called Haba. For Bodo, the Haba is categorized into six categories. Swngnanwi lainai haba is the socially accepted marriage custom where the bride is selected by the parents of the bridegroom and then the marriage is settled after negotiation. Till today this form of marriage is solemnly celebrated. Earlier bride price was common but now a day’s bride price is no longer compulsory. Gwrjia Lakhinai Haba was also known as marriage by service as the bridegroom has to give his service at the bride house before marriage. This system is very rare at the present time. Kharsonnnai Haba is a mutual agreement between the bride and bridegroom. The bride generally settles in the groom house before marriage. Moreover the consent of the bride parents is not considered important. Bwnanwi Lainai Haba system of marriage was prevalent in earlier days where the girl was forcefully taken by the bridegroom and then the marriage is solemnized. Donkharlangnai Haba is a mutual understanding marriage. This is the marriage by elopement of both bride and the bridegroom. This system of marriage is akin to Gandharava marriage. Donkha Habnai Haba is the marriage of a widow with the man who stays together as husband and wife. But, their marriage has to be regularized according to the social customs. The Traditional system Hathasuni Khurnai is considered to be the simple and earliest form of marriage. In this system the bride offers meals to the bridegroom in a simple function. The meal consists of a special chicken curry with broken rice without applying any spices or colorings agents. This is called Bodo ondlakhari. After consuming a portion of the rice the couple prays to Bathou Borai for peaceful conjugal life. Before offering the meal to the bridegroom the bride offers a portion of the meal to the goddesses and god of the main house. The meal thus prepared is than served to the villagers. The ceremony last for three days.
38 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Cultural aspects and social systems of the bodos and their lives...
6. Conclusion The Bodos the indigenous ethno-linguistic groups of North Eastern are simple. Though they like to live in a natural environment but have accepted the hustle and bustle of the civilization. In most of the areas their modes of production are still simple, the primitive methods like slash and burn are still used, they somehow still are bereft of the concept of private property, they neither had the sense of acquisition nor accumulation. Gradually they are a changed lot, still much behind. The economic degradation by the government and the exploitation by the land-owners and the trading community did also create unrest in them. The core of the problem lies in the feeling of humiliation and fear for loss of identity.
References Ali, M. and Ramchiary, N, (2014). Social Change among the Boro Society: An Analytical Study of Dhira Village of Assam. Journal of International Academic Research For Multidisciplinary. 2(10) Basumatary, I.T.K., Terangpi, R., Brahma, C., Roy, P., Boro, H., Narzary, H., Daimary, R., Medhi, S, Brahma, B.K., Brahma, S., Islary, A., Swargiary, S.S., Das, S., Begum, R.H. and Bose, S. (2014). Jou: the traditional drink of the Boro tribe of Assam and North East, Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research. 3 (2): 239-243. Basumatary, A, Brahma, R. and Basumatary, K. (2014). Status of the Bodo women in Brahmaputra Valley: A Historical Perspective. Intellection: A bi-annual interdisciplinary research journal, Vol.II, No.II, Bhattacharya,P.C, (1997). A Descriptive Analysis of the Boro Language, Department of Publication, G.U. The Register, G.U. Brahma, A, (2007). The Verb Phrase in Bodo, Unpublished M.A. Dissertation submitted in the Deptt. of Linguistics, Gauhati University. Chowdhury, M.M. (1990). Tribes of AssamPlains: A Profile. Directorate of Welfare of Plain Tribes & Backward Classes, Govt. of Assam, Guwahati Endle, R.S, (1911). The Kacharis, Bina Library, Panbazar, Guwahati oswami, M, (2012). The Bodos: Culture and Society, Journal of Business Management & Social Sciences Research, 1(1): 88 – 103 Narzary, A. and Halder, T.K, (2015). Bodo Religion in Transition: A Historical Analysis with the Special Reference to the Expansion of Christianity, Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(1): 35 – 40. Shafer, R, (1952). Athapaskan and Sino-Tibetan, International Journal of American Linguistics 18 (1): 12–19
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 39 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 40-49
TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS PRACTICES OF THE AO NAGAS
Dr. Kabita Doloi*
Abstract: The Ao Naga tribe of the North-East India with its different socio- religious tradition has been contributing to Indian culture. The Aos give importance to the village as a whole but not the family. In case of some sibs totemic origin is found. The Aos are basically cultivators. During their cultivation they celebrate various festivals most of which are religious. Their religion is simple in which they try to appease their deities by offering sacrifices. The primary aim of their worship is to get plentiful harvest and prosperity of the villagers. They worship their ancestors to remove sickness. They worship the sun for a favorable weather for their cultivation. They worship some unusual shaped stones considering them as the abodes of deities. To perform various religious activities the Aos have some priests who play important role. The Aos refrain from doing some activities which are considered as taboo in their tradition. Keywords: Tribe, Religion, Worship
1. Introduction The Naga tribe is one of the ethnic tribes of the North-East India. The Nagas belong to Indo-Mongoloid group whose presence was noticed during 10th century. They were known as ‘Kirata’ or non-Aryans and in Sanskrit literature were described as subsisting on the flesh of the animals they hunted, roots and fruits of the forest and a warlike race (Bahadur, 1977, p.3). Similarly, Hem Barua has mentioned that the Mongolians in general belong to the
*Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
40 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas
Tibeto-Burman family of the Indo-Chinese group. The Kacharis, the Rabhas, the Meches, the Miris, the Lalungs, the Garos, the Nagas and the Kukis are the members of early Mongoloid group (Barua, 1962, p.48). Again, the Nagas are said to be among the earliest migrants from the South-East Asia to the North-East India across the Assam plains. There are more than twenty Naga tribes and sub-tribes. Among them the Aos, the Angamis, the Semas, the Lothas, the Konyaks, the Tangkhuls and the Rengmas are well-known. The origin of the term ‘Naga’ is unknown. Still, there is a belief that it is derived from the Assamese term ‘Naga’ (Sanskrit ‘Nagna’) which means naked. Bahadur has observed that it could also be from vernacular ‘Nag’ which means a mountain. Or it may be considered as a corrupted form of ‘Log’ that means people (Bahadur, 1977, p.3). Along with this, it may be said that Kenilo Kath has observed various European scholars’ view about the origin of the term ‘Naga’ such as Gait, Peal, Holcombe, Elwin etc. who state that the word ‘Naga’ is derived from some of the tribal dialects ‘Noks’ which means ‘folks’. According to Mawu Gwizan, the term is derived from the Chinese word ‘Natcha’, because the Chinese call the Nagas as Natcharemi meaning ‘Naga People’. Another view is that the term ‘Naga’ is derived from Burmese word ‘Noka’ which means perforated ears (Kath, 2005, p.10). Kath has stated that regarding the origin of the word Naga none of the derivations is satisfactory and the name is quite foreign to and unrecognized by the Nagas themselves. He has mentioned that they have no generic term for the whole race. The North-East India has been considered as the dwelling place of various ethnic tribes from the time immemorial. All the tribes have their own culture and tradition, religious beliefs and practices. Yet, they share their feelings and emotions with themselves and the cultural affinities may be noticed among them. So, as a tribe the Nagas in general and Ao Nagas in particular also have their unique social customs and religious practices.
2. Review of Literature The present study, a few literatures have been reviewed to focus on tribal religion and various traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas. The Philosophy of Religion of Galloway is an attempt to keep the facts and movements of religious experience in the foreground and to discuss the problems of religious philosophy in the light of their historic development. This book provides abundant information about the transition from tribal to modern religion. The Ao Naga Tribe of Assam by W. C. Smith is a comprehensive study of the Aos. This book represents each and every aspect of their socio-religious life. It thoroughly describes the social organizations and religious faiths like ancestor worship, worship of natural forces, stone worship, priesthood etc. The Golden Bough of J. Frazer provides different
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 41 Dr. Kabita Doloi significant concepts about magic, religion, taboo, myth etc. The author has elaborately expressed the various aspects of magic. Traditional Religious systems of Rengma Nagas by K. Kath describes various religious aspects of Rengma Nagas i.e. ancestor worship, purification, priesthood etc.
3. Objectives of the study (i) To focus on different aspects of Ao religion as a form of tribal religion. (ii) To highlight the traditional religious practices of the Aos.
4. Methodology So far as methodology is concerned, it is mainly based on secondary sources such as books, journals, internet etc. and analytic method is followed to prepare the paper.
5. Discussion Tribal religion is considered as the earliest form of religion. Galloway has observed that there are two critical points in the historic development of the religious consciousness: the transition from the tribal to national and the transition from national to universal religion (Galloway, 1960, p.89). Generally, the tribal religion is the product of tribal world view. The worship is simply a contract and mostly propitiatory in nature and in some cases it is the expression of gratitude. The idea because of which men started to select objects for reverence was that they had the power to help or harm them. The primeval men could not think any concept like God as is thought today. But the fear of death caused by natural calamities compelled them to worship the objects of nature. They had the faith that if they could satisfy the natural objects, they (the objects of nature), the owners of super natural power would save their lives. Again, the animals which impressed the early men as weird became the object of worship. The snake was prominent among them and serpent-worship had prevailed in many parts of the world, especially in India and America. Basically, tribal religion is regarded as local and it is exclusive in nature. The conception of religion that people share with their surrounding tribes appear foolish and meaningless to the tribal man. His God belongs to his tribe and the tribe to its God. Hence, there are some aspects that may be considered as the features of tribal religion (An effort is made to represent only those aspects which are relevant to the Aos). Firstly, tribal religion is considered as animistic. The tribal people believe that all places are holy because they are the seats of spirits. Animals, trees, rivers, stones, mountains etc. are the abodes of the spirits. Animistic concept is found among the Aos too. They believe that the universe is filled with infinite
42 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas number of spirits, with whom they must deal; otherwise they may harm the people. Secondly, tribal religion is actually the worship of nature. The tribal people consider the sun, moon and earth either as the creator or owner of supreme power. In middle India, the Santhals, Mundas and Hos identify the sun as Sing Bonga or supreme God. The Garos and the Kacharis also consider the sun, moon and stars as spirits placed in the heaven for ruling the region. Similarly, for good crops the Aos worship the sun, and sacrifice cows and pigs to the ruling spirits of the sun and moon. Thirdly, tribal religion is regarded as totemic. Apart from nature tribal people are associated with the animals and plants in the form of totems too. Many tribal clans are named after the animals, insects etc. like Hansa (Swan), Kandru (Fish), Bhengra (Horse) clans of Munda tribe; Lakra (Tiger), Minz (Fish), Toppo (Wood-pecer) etc. clans of Oraon tribe. In case of the Aos, Ozukumtzur (bird-became woman) and Ongsichir (Children of a lime fruit) are some of the clans of totemic origin. Fourthly, taboo is another sacred belief which is considered as one of the features of tribal religion. Taboo has a reference to a system of magico-religious prohibitions based on the principle of ‘it is unlucky to interfere with this’ rather than upon a divine or human directive i.e. ‘though shalt not kill’ or ‘Though shalt not steal’. In case of Kharia tribe, touching a plough and roofing a house are taboo for the woman. The Aos as a tribal group observe genna or taboo in various socio-religious activities. Fifthly, Magic is considered as one of the most important practices found among the tribes. It is said that unpleasant natural events, inadequate technical means and situations full of danger and uncertainty lead them to belief in the magical practices. Among the Aos magic plays vital role in their socio-religious lives. Sixthly, ancestor worship is a prominent practice of the tribal groups. They have a faith that the dead ancestors become deity and protect their family. They firmly believe that the spirits of the dead ancestors have the power to decide their destiny. So, they perform various rites and observe all ceremonies very cautiously. Among the Nagas ‘Mithun’ ceremony is observed, which is fully dedicated to the spirits of the ancestors. In the late summer the Aos sacrifice a pig or dog to their ancestors. The Ao Nagas like all other North-Eastern tribes of India are basically cultivators. They cultivate their land in the ‘Jhum’ system of cultivation which is known as the most primitive fashion of cultivation. They observe various festivals most of which are based on their agriculture. At the seed-time and in the harvesting time they celebrate different festivals, majority of which are religious. During their festivals they sacrifice some animals and freely use rice beer. The social organization of the Aos is based on the exogamous sib-system. Therefore, the family is not considered as primary element for the society. There is a saying in Ao tradition that six men issued forth from a rock at Lungtrok (literally, six stones), the traditional
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 43 Dr. Kabita Doloi cradle of the human race and became the progenitors of six patri-lineal, exogamous sibs, called kidongs (Smith, 1925, p.49). In case of many sibs a totemic origin is found as these people do not eat their totem. Among the Aos one group is known as ‘Ozükumtzür’ or ‘bird-became-woman’ and this sib does not eat the hornbill. The concept of totemic origin is considered as one of the basic characteristics of tribal religion that is reflected among the people of Ao tribe. Regarding totemic concept Galloway has observed: “The totem is a species of animal, and occasionally a species of plant, whose life is conceived to be bound up with the life of the tribe, and to be closely linked with the well-being of the social whole. The totem, which in some cases is an individual animal, is the visible embodiment of the unity of the society, and its life is mysteriously connected with that of all the members of the group”(Galloway,1960, p.96). In Ao society, kidong or sib plays important role as it sets the boundaries within which no intermarriages may be taken place. Here, descent is traced only in the male line. The members of a sib feel closely bound together like the members of a family. The members of the same kidong consider one another as brother, even though the relationship is quite remote. The members of a kidong may be found in different villages, widely separated. The Aos are divided into two moieties or clans namely Mongsen and Chongli. They follow the same religion but their dialects differ widely. Again, the Aos consider the village as the largest unit where all are bound together by social, political and religious ties. It is compulsory for all the villagers to attend all religious festivals for the attainment of bountiful harvest. Most of their religious activities are performed for the welfare of the village and the crops. Like other tribes of India the Aos also have a simple religion. They believe that the universe is filled with multitudes of spirits. They are scared of the unknown powers as they can harm them. They think that the malevolent spirits or demons are producing misery in their life. Therefore, to save themselves they try to appease the spirits by offering sacrifices and performing various rites and ceremonies. Smith has observed that, for the Aos to be religious means to be true to the traditions of the tribe. Everything in the routine of life is bound up with some belief, tradition or superstition, which is an integral part of the religion. A person’s life, in all its aspects is guided by his religious beliefs and practices (Smith, 1925,76). Generally, the Aos offer sacrifices to those deities which they think may harm them; but they also have a general idea of good deity. They do not worship any idol in material form. Yet, they have a faith that certain spirits take up their abode in material objects mainly in stones, but they worship the spirit abiding there and not the rock. This concept has a resemblance with the concept of Fetishism. In Fetishism
44 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas there is a belief that the object (stone or claw) has mysterious power which is due to the presence of a spirit within it and people worship the spirit, not the object (Galloway, 1960, p.94). Hence, one of the basic features of tribal religion as Fetishism is found among the Aos. In their religious system the Aos worship a number of gods. Among them Lungkijingba, the chief of heaven, Lizaba, the chief of earth and Mojing, the chief in realm of departed spirits are most common. For deity they use a general term called ‘tsungrem’. Lungkijingba is considered as their highest god. He is the one who fixes the destiny of all human beings. Again, Lizaba is the deity who is known as the ‘earth-walker.’ He is also considered as the creator of the earth. He is in charge of the rains and the storms and food supply. The ruler in the abode of the departed spirits is Mojing. According to the Aos, when a man dies his spirit must pause at Mojing’s house, because here the spirit will be judged and be assigned to its proper place. Some of the basic traditional religious practices of the Aos may be mentioned as: 1) Sacrificial activities during worship, 2) Ancestor worship, 3) Worship of nature, 4) Worship of stone, 5) Priesthood, 6) Magic and 7) Genna or Taboo.
5.1 Sacrificial activities during worship Sacrifice is necessary in tribal religious activities. All tribal people sacrifice some objects to their deities. During their worship of various deities, the Aos offer sacrifices such as a fowl, a pig etc. to appease them. In fact, the gods receive only some tiny bits of the meat; yet, according to the Aos the gods receive the animal’s spirit which is essential for them. Regarding sacrifice D. Miall Edwards has stated that four attitudes may be distinguished in sacrificial observances. First is the attitude of gratitude to the gods for favours they received. This is represented in the thank-offering, generally in the form of first fruits offered as a spontaneous expression of man’s sense of dependence on higher beings from whom he derives the indispensable things of life like food and drink. But this attitude of thanks-giving passes into that of bargaining with the gods by offering them gifts whereby he will be benefitted in return. A third type of sacrifice expresses the craving for participation or communion with the deity. In the sacrificial meal, shared by the god and his worshippers, the bond of fellowship with the deity is realised. The fourth type of sacrifice expresses the desire for reconciliation with the gods, the offering being regarded as an act of propitiation and atonement (Edwards, 1968, pp.117-119). A village as a whole does not worship Lungkijingba, the chief of heaven, but individuals may make their offerings to him. He is the great god, the highest of all the gods. He fixes the
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 45 Dr. Kabita Doloi destiny of all men. To perform the religious ceremonies, the owner of the house provides the soothsayer a cock, some rice, dried fish, dried pork, salt and rice beer. The soothsayer takes some small amount from each of the food and makes some packages which he ties to the main post of the house. After this he flourishes the fowl over the man’s head and prays for the welfare of the household. Lizaba, the creator of the world is worshipped by the whole village at least once in a year. For this worship, near the gates of each village the people establish one or two altars. The altars are formed of two rows of stakes driven in the ground, crossing each other as to form the letter ‘X’. At these altars only village priests can be in charge of the activities. They carry two fowl, a pig, a quantity of boiled rice and some cooking pots separately to the altar and groan loudly in order to impress god Lizaba and to get blessings from him. The Aos have a day of worship called ‘imkong ao’ each year before they begin to cut down the jungle on the new rice lands. The aim of this worship is to save the villagers from serious injury while clearing their fields. The offerings are made at the Lizaba altars, near the village gates. The priests taking a cock, a pig and a dog move to the selected place where the fowl and the porker are sacrificed. In the spring also, the Aos have a day of worship called ‘tenden mung’, before they begin to sow their rice. Here also they offer blood sacrifice to their deities. In the morning one of the priests takes a cock, an egg, some boiled rice, some rice beer and a handful of seed rice and goes either to his rice-field or to some other convenient place near the path to the fields. There he offers the fowl to Lizaba and prays for a prosperous year and plentiful harvest. In addition to these, sacrifices are made by individuals in their own rice-fields and granaries.
5.2 Ancestor worship Ancestor worship is one of the basic features of the tribal religion. Kenilo Kath has stated that the term ‘ancestor worship’ describes a variety of religious beliefs and practices concerned with the spirits of dead persons, regarded as relatives, some of whom may be mythical (Kath, 2005, p.35). Ancestor worship can be found in many societies throughout the world, especially where the local community is composed of kin-groups. The ancestors are thought as the guardians of the community. The Aos in the late summer sacrifice a pig or a dog at the place where the remnants of the ancestors were deposited. The aim of ancestor worship is to remove sickness and to bring abundant crops. A new cloth is spread on the ground near the grave and if they notice
46 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas that a butterfly or a grasshopper light on the cloth, they attempt to catch it and carry it to the house. If they can catch the insect, they are sure that the spirit of the departed has made a friendly visit to the family during night. On the other hand, if they are unable to catch it, they think that the departed did not accept the offering and his spirit has failed to make the desired call. It may be mentioned here that in Assam also ancestor worship is found among the various tribes. The Tiwas of Assam is one of the ethnic tribal groups that belong to Mongloid race, who show great reverence for their ancestors. In performing various religious ceremonies at Barghar or Nubar (place for worship), they worship their ancestors. Barghar has two rooms, one for the main deity i.e. Mahadeo and the other for the ancestors. To select the place for cremation also the Tiwas worship their ancestors along with their deities. In case of the cremation of the dead body, the Giyati searches the Hatham (a place where the members of a clan are cremated) and prays Ista Devta and the ancestors. During Bihus the Tiwas worship their ancestors by offering sacrifices. In the month of Aghon (Nov-Dec), they worship their ancestors every year (Sharma Thakur, 1985, p.61).
5.3 Worship of Nature Worship of nature is considered as a basic feature of tribal religion. Generally, no special nature worship is found among the Aos. But, the idea of sun worship may be found among them in the way that they worship the deity who controls the sun and its beneficent rays. When the weather is unpleasant for several days, the priests gather some eggs and go to a particular spot and eat them raw. After eating the eggs they hang up the shells for the deity. Then they request earnestly the sun god to grant favourable weather. 5.4 Worship of Stone Besides nature worship, the Aos worship some special kind of stones. Several stones known as the abodes of deities may be seen in Ao territory. Stones that have unusual shape are thought to be the dwelling place of the spirits. The people worship these deities without any reason. In some cases the sacred stones are found within the villages and sometimes in the jungle. The people make the sacrifices of fowl, pig and rice beer. There are certain stones, usually kept in the granaries, which are sure to bring prosperity to the possessors
5.5 Priesthood The concept of priesthood is found among the tribes. Every Ao Naga village has a set of priests to preside over the religious activities of the community. The oldest male in each clan must serve as a village priest called ‘putir’. Among them there may be one chief called ‘putir
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 47 Dr. Kabita Doloi unger’, who occupies the position of highest honour. There are ‘putibangmi’ or second-rank priests who assist the first-rank priests in some ceremonies and on some occasions. When sacrifice is to be made in the jungle they perform vital role. The necessity of priesthood is noticed among the Tiwas also. In Tiwa society, Deori, Loro, Giyati etc. are the socially selected priests who perform vital role in various social and religious occasions. In naming ceremony as well as marriage and death related activities they perform their duty as a priest.
5.6 Magic Like all other primeval people, the Ao Nagas also have faith on magic and superstitions. In case of magic J. G. Frazer has mentioned that magic is a spurious system of natural law as well as a fallacious guide of conduct; it is false science as well as an abortive art (Frazer, 1947, p.11). Magic is considered as an integral part of tribal societies. The system of magic dominates the acts and ways of thought of all primeval people. The Aos believe that their names are vital parts of themselves. So, magic can be worked on them and the name can be injured as well as the hand or foot. Again, the Aos have many superstitions prominent in their society.
5.7 Genna or Taboo One of the main concepts related to the Ao Nagas is Genna or Taboo. Smith has observed that the word ‘Genna’ is used in two ways: (i) it may mean practically a holiday i.e. am man may say that his village is doing genna today, by which he means that due to a village festival or some unusual occasion as an earthquake or burning of a village, his people are observing a holiday; (ii) Genna means anything forbidden or prohibited. It applies to the large number of prohibitions which constitute an important element in the social and religious life of the Aos and most of the hill tribes (Smith, 1925, p.109). Taboo is considered as a negative custom of any belief. It is an act forbidden by tradition. The restrictions for a village are observed on the occasion of the annual festivals and at the times when they make regular yearly sacrifices. The Aos neither eat ‘hoolock’ or black gibbon nor they eat black crow. The Mongsen moiety neither eat dog nor monkey of any kind. On the other hand, Chongli moiety prefers to eat dogs and certain kinds of monkey. Genna or taboo has a tremendous influence over the Aos, not only in particular cases but in every aspect of life.
6. Conclusion Thus, it may be stated that the Ao Naga tribe as an ethnic tribe of the North-East India
48 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Traditional religious practices of the Ao Nagas with its traditional religious beliefs and practices has lots of contribution towards the enrichment of Indian culture. The features of its religion belong to tribal religion in universal context. Tribal religion is considered as that stage through which the modern religion has got its present status. After the analysis of different aspects of the Ao religion, it may be noticed that it belongs to tribal religion. Traditional religious beliefs and practices of the Aos such as concept of ancestor worship, totemic origin, nature worship, importance on magic etc. prove that their religion is a form of tribal religion. It is observed that like other tribes of the North-East India, the religion of the Aos has some similarities with the religion of the Tiwas. They have some common ideas regarding their ancestors, priesthood etc. As their religious practices belong to the tribal religion, therefore, the religion of both the tribes may be considered as form of tribal religion.
References Bahadur, K.P. (1977). Caste Tribes and Culture of India. Delhi: Ess Ess Publications. Barua, H. (1962). The Red River and The Blue Hill. Guwahati: Lawyer’s Book Stall. Edwards, M, (1968). The Philosophy of Religion, Calcutta: Progressive Publications. Frazer, J.G, (1947). The Golden Bough, New York: The Macmillan Company. Galloway, G, (1960). The Philosophy of Religion, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Kath, K. (2005). Traditional Religious Systems of Rengma Nagas, Delhi: Anshah Publishing House. Sharma Thakur, G.C, (1985). The Lalungs (Tiwas), Guwahati: Tribal Research Institute. Smith, W.C. (1925). The Ao Naga Tribe of Assam, London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 49 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 50-60
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES AND THE TRIBAL ETHOS IN PRE-INDEPENDENT ASSAM
Dr. Nandini Sarma*
Abstract: The Plain Tribes of Assam who were the original inhabitants of the soil had a rich oral history which had its roots during the times of Mahabharata. But with the passage of time it had somehow lost its glory and then came the Christian Missionaries to capitalize upon the situation, towards preserving Bodo literature by proper documentation, publishing of books, which was through evangelization. The leap towards such transformation had both pros and cons attached to it. Some of the positive aspects included education, providing health care facilities and initiating the process spearheaded by people such as Sidney Endle. The Christian Missionaries were able to discover the way to mould the minds mostly of animist people and hence, with this they could change their ways and mores. The string attached to positivity did not end there, after being introduced to new positive avenues in life, there was a paradigm shift in the way the plain tribes led their lives by doing away with evils such as maud, opium addiction, superstition, head hunting. In short to do away with backwardness and embrace a life encircled around the church, their work and family. This ultimately opened the floodgate for providing equality for women as these missionaries encouraged education for women and also provided them a platform to work as well. Not only did these missionaries condemn the social evils such as polyandry, but also provided a platform for the women of the tribal societies to empower by introducing them to vocational skills such as weaving, embroidery etc. The researcher through this paper would highlight upon the socio-cultural lives of the plain tribes of pre independent Assam. Keywords: Evangelization, Missionaries, Backwardness
Associate Professor, Department of History, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 Email- [email protected]
50 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Christian missionaries and the Tribal Ethos...
1. Introduction Missionaries over the world worked on the lone register of preaching with a view to ‘civilizing’ those who have no proper faith on christianity. The Christian Missionaries in Assam were no different. They had brought their religion to the Bodos tribes but the humanistic element made their endeavor inclusive. They started focusing on improvement of health, hygiene and education of the community. The political and administrative intent of the Missioneries was peace. As a part of their programme or even independently of ulterior motives they tried to impart education among the Bodos by not only learning the language but by bringing out first dictionary in Bodo language. Sidney Endle’s dictionary was first published in 1884 in Roman script. The script was chosen, a choice facilitated by the Bodos not having a script of their own despite having a legacy of oral literature. The adoption of the Roman script and the adoption of the New Testament into Bodo, mark the beginning of the Bodo literature in written form.
2. Review of Literature There exists some work on the contributions of the Christian Missionaries and their impact upon the plain tribes of Assam and in this present study a few literatures have been reviewed. Sujit Choudhury in his monograph ‘The Bodos : Emergence and Assertion of an Ethnic minority’ highlights upon the formation and growth of Tribal League, the evolution of the concept of Assamese Nationality in relation to the conflicts in tribal society but simultaneously he also underscores the centrality of the Christian Missionaries and their motives towards the process of evangelization which was executed phase wise. Sekhar Brahma’s ‘Religion of the Boros and the Socio-Cultural Transition: A Historical Perspective’ briefly attempts to discuss the Bodo economy, their education scenario and culture. He also underlines the fact that the Christian Missionaries helped in structuring Bodo literature but there was no advance research as such but it was a mere replica of their oral history. Vicent Hugo Sword in his book ‘Baptist in Assam A Century of Missionary Service 1836-1936’ has authentically documented the activities of the Baptist Mission in Assam from 1836 onwards till 1936. His book is a treasured trove as it is a record of that first century of service by the American Baptists in the Brahmaputra valley and the neighboring areas. From the Literature review the researcher deduces that missionaries played an influential role ever since their advent into their lives but it cannot be ruled out that they too had certain ulterior motives such as proselytizing.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 51 Dr. Nandini Sarma
3. Objectives The objectives of the paper are- (1) To analyze and examine the condition of Bodo Plain tribes of the Brahmaputra valley in the colonial period. (2) To Study the role of Christian Missionaries towards uplift of the plain tribes
4. Methodology The method of the study is descriptive and analytical. To fulfill the purpose of the paper both empirical and doctrinal methods of study are followed. Primary sources of data include interview method, survey method. Secondary sources include books, journals and internet sources.
5. Discussion The Christian Missionaries were permitted to preach in the North East following the Charter Act in 1813. Christianity then started to enter in different pockets of Assam at different times. The Lutheran Missionaries reached there in 1843 followed by the Roman Catholic Missionaries in 1928 (Chaudhuri : 2004) Traces of changes in the social behavior and educational standard of the Bodos could be noticed towards the latter part of the 19th century when the British and the American Christian Missionaries started working with them. After getting administrative control of Assam, the British authorities first allowed the Carey’s Baptist Mission of Bengal to send a few British Missionaries in Assam to work for the local people. But since the Mission was overburdened with enormous volume of evangelical work in Bengal it could not continue for long and hence after a short spell they handed over the task to the American Baptist Missionaries. The Assam Government then specially invited them to preach the gospel of peace among the Tribes or rather according to them “to tame the wild tribes” (Roy, 1995) According to Victor Hugo Sword, a member of the Baptist Mission in Assam, “The American Baptist Missionaries came to Assam not with the purpose of Christianizing the province but rather to use it as a road leading to the ‘Celestial Empire’.”(1992: 145-146). This has to be taken with a pinch of salt despite its genuine humanitarian emphasis — “They soon found that Assam was a veritable Babel, with languages too numerous to be learned and with religions too complicated to be understood, yet they adapted themselves to meet the emergency.”(Sword:145-146). Their ‘Celestial Empire’ was not immediately received and accessed by their target though “their chief purpose was to preach the gospel of life and make “wise into salvation” by means of teaching.” This was an intelligent socio historical
52 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Christian missionaries and the Tribal Ethos... choice but it was not as innocent as it sounds if we look at it as a discourse mediated by the mechanisms of the Empire. (Sword: 1992) The welfare of the tribal people was left to the endeavor of American and British missionaries who had brought a significant change in the lifestyle. The missionaries were in the business of proselytizing and in order to win a congregation. Education and health care were their instruments. Many of the missionaries, both men and women were of extraordinary dedication, compassion and devoted much to learn local languages. They worked on grammar and vocabulary of the Bodos and prepared lexicons, primers, texts and translations in the Roman script. They set the tribal people on the path of learning and established printing press to produce a secular and sacred literature. (Verghese, 2004) Health was addressed through hygiene, sanitation and other like medical attention. Social reforms followed with campaigns against slavery, consumption of alcohol, opium and head hunting. The day to day life of a missionary, worship to the God on Sundays put an impact on social attitudes and status of women. The Government emerged as supporter of missionary activities and eventually allowed subsidy on education of the Bodos to admit that as a secular service. (Verghese, 2004) The Christian Missionaries made commendable efforts to impart modern education in Assam. In Brahmaputra Valley the American Baptist Mission was actively engaged for the purpose. Their main focus was evangelization (Goswami, 2012). In 1838 the American Baptist Missionaries took over the task especially in Lower Assam from their British part. Although they worked around upper and central Assam for many years, but Guwahati remained as one of their central place of activity. The Bodo-Kacharis of North Kamrup and Darrang region attracted special attention of the Missionaries in the middle of 19th century. Several British officials and American Missionaries at that time noticed the excellent prospect of evangelization among the Bodos (Roy, 1995). William Robinson, Inspector of Government Schools in 1855, stated that being hard workers, the Kachari population in Chatguri division extended a motivating ground to the missionaries. The Kachari’s were the most active and industrious part of the population in the valley and were free from the constraints of Hinduism. Rev. Barker wrote that they were the most industrious, athletic and robust people of Assam and they deserve better attention from the missionaries (Barpujari, 1986). Sidney Endle, a missionary of the British Anglican Church undertook the pioneering evangelical work among the Bodos and also initiated studies of their race and language. He was sent to Tezpur in 1864 and in Darrang then Kamrup to work in the Bodo areas and also with the tea garden community. He was much interested in the social customs, life as well as the language of the Bodos. He had also done certain field studies (Roy, 1995). The grammar of the Bodo
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 53 Dr. Nandini Sarma language was first written in Roman script by Sidney Endle in his book ‘An Outline Grammar of Kachari Language’ in 1884 (the first book on Bodo grammar). There was nothing called Bodo script prior to Endle. However, they had a rich legacy of oral literature. Though the missionaries were contributed nothing creative in writing, but they were the pioneers to enrich the Bodo language and literature (Brahma, 2006). The aim of the Missionaries was to preach Christianity and not the introduction of roman or any other European languages as Bodo script. The Bodos did not have a written form of their language and therefore did not feel the necessity of a script. As an educated and committed missionary, Endle discovered the language of the Bodos as a living one and to record all activities he had felt importance for a script. To him it was easy to choose the roman script to describe linguistic expressions of the Bodos. Moreover the entire Bodo population of the Darrang district then was illiterate. So it was much easier for the Christian Missionaries to preach the Bible and other religious scriptures in roman script (Deori, 2015). Sidney Endle who wrote on the Kacharis towards the end of the nineteenth century, praised them as diligent aboriginals. But he was not much interested in their economic redemption but in religious development, as his main objective was to bring the Kacharis into the fold of Christianity (Sharma, 2011) Endle was directed to assist Mr. Hesslymar who was in-charge of Kachari Mission in Darrang. With his missionary zeal he visited the Kachari villages on foot and mingled with them so intimately that the villagers called him ‘Gamini Brat’ (the old man of the village) with due respect. In his book ‘An Outline Grammar of Kachari Language’ he described the principle of Bodo language and grammar as spoken in the district of Darrang. His other book ‘The Kacharis’ was published after his death in 1911 by J. D. Anderson, the then Deputy Commissioner of Darrang. This book is a bilingual collection of the folk tales, folk songs and beliefs of the indigenous people both in Bodo and English language (Brahma, 2006). Another book titled ‘The Kacharis’ is basically a detailed anthropological study of the Bodo race. He also wishfully thought the Bible to be translated in Bodo language though it was written in the Roman script. It was much later that the American missionaries pioneered in revival of the glory of Assamese language and social reformers like Kalicharan Brahma and others started to create Bodo literature that include both evangelical and educational writings in Assamese scripts. The Missionaries could not spread Christianity among the Bodos extensively as they were not simple animists or devoid of spiritual ideas and faiths. Further they did not have the added advantage of having an unoccupied religious faith in Bodos. The Bodo people had been following some alterations of Hindu rites and rituals and were living on the extrimity of Hindu religion and social mores. However, some of the Bodos of Udalguri and Tukrajhar areas of present Kokrajhar district, who were converted to Christianity, adopted a more
54 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Christian missionaries and the Tribal Ethos... hygienic life and took up English education introduced by the Missionaries. They were also succeeded to get rid of ill habits like drinking, gambling and polygamy (Roy, 1995). Minutes of the Jubilee Conference held in Nowgong in December 1886 have the detail of this endeavour of the Mission to fight against the widespread and deep rooted social evils: ‘But the Missionaries had to fight against social evils like drinking of maud (fermented rice beer), addiction to opium and superstition with modern approach of medication among the tribal people of Assam. Drinking and addiction created so many problems that sometimes it had ruined Church of a particular area. The matter was discussed in the Jubilee Conference. Opium eating and maud drinking were two problems that plagued the tribal people. The use of opium as medicine created problems for its removal’ (Conference, 1886). The Christian Missionaries had further made modern medicine accessible to fight against the superstitious practices of the Bodo people systematically. Earlier the indigenous people had a belief that a ‘demon’ was the sole agent of any illness and that can be cured by such superstitious practices. So they accepted these new developments in medication readily because of its visible effects on their life (Sword, 1992) Priyam Goswami have underlined the diversity of role and programme of the Missioneries in this way, “…They started schools for girls where, besides imparting lessons on general education, they also taught sewing, knitting embroidery and handicrafts. They soon realized that for a majority of girls, early marriage was the most formidable obstacle to getting formal education in schools. … They were progressive yet at the same time traditional, providing women with basic education while restricting them to the parameters of their homes (Goswami, 2012). These comments underline the impact of Christianity on socio-economic atmosphere of the Bodos. Perhaps one reason for the slow progress of Christianity among them was the pioneering ‘Brahma Movement’ launched by Kalicharan who was known as Gurudev. This movement which was launched by Kalicharan Brahma in early 20th century in Dhubri District of Assam tried to reform some of the traditional customs of Bodo Society and opposed Christianity and Missionaries amidst the marginalized communities of lower plains of the Brahmaputra valley. This religion kept the plain tribes out of Christianity during the imperial rule. Christianity was a very simple and apparently less demanding faith. The Missionaries chose not to interfere with their tribal rituals immediately (Devi, 2006) Christian Missionaries however made considerable development among the Bodos. About 6% of total Bodo populations of Assam are Christians. Missionaries made a qualitative impact upon them. They successively made efforts to convert the Bodos in different stages. Rev Barker was the head of the American Baptist Mission at Guwahati in 1843 and the first
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 55 Dr. Nandini Sarma
Bodo person converted was Alphinta*, a fifteen year old inmate of the boarding house. The Anglican Church first initiated to preach the gospel in the interiors of Darrang district where the Bodos formed a sizeable segment of the population. Rev. C. H. Hesslymar, came there as a chaplain in the tea garden and started working among garden-employees in early 1860’s. Rev. Sidney Endle was sent there on his advice in 1864 to assist him. After Hesslymar’s demise Rev. Sidney became chief of the Anglican Church in Darrang district. He established a Church at Bengbari. Endle thoroughly studied the Bodo culture and after learning Bodo language translated some passages of the New Testament into Bodo. His translation of such pieces paved the way to Bodo creative literature. In all these exercises the Missionaries used Roman script modified suitably to accommodate the Bodo phoneme. Hence it can be justified that the Bodo language as a medium of literary expression was born in the hands the missionaries (Choudhury, 2007) The spread of Christianity from the later part of the nineteenth century was functional in providing the basic education facilities to the Bodos in primary and then in Middle English school. Afterwards, higher institutions were also established with hostel facilities. The significant factor was the emphasis made by the Missioneries on education for girls. They also initiated process and encouraged girls to venture out of their native confines of the Udalguri region to places like Nowgaon, Golaghat and Guwahati for schooling. Along with education, health and hygiene were also priority areas for the missionaries. They had established Harisinga dispensary in 1948. It was upgraded to a maternity hospital in 1959. The hospitals were visited by members of the community with different dispensations. These factors had been highlighted with a view to offering a partisan and participants view of the developments initiated by the missionaries in the area (Daimary, 2014) The Santhal Mission took over the conversion work in the district of Goalpara during early twentieth century. Initially the main objective of the Mission was to look after the Santhal Christians who emigrated from Bihar to Goalpara to take advantage of a land settlement plan of the Government and also the Santhal tea garden labourers. Gradually it carried out its work of extension among the Bodos and the first Bodo to be baptized was Teklo Basumatari in 1886 and very soon others followed him. The ordaining of the first Bodo Pastor, Ratia Basumatari took place in 1914 (Choudhury, 2007). The Lutheran Mission and its Bodo evangelists like Teklo Basumatari, Ratia Basumatari, Dabaru Bodo and others mainly worked in Goalpara. Even the Kachari woman of that subdivision demanded a separate Mission for them in 1917 (Chaudhuri, 2004). These reflect that all these developments had also an equal impact on the women folk who, aware of their rights and abilities, could now reasonably demand special avenues for themselves. But the
56 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Christian missionaries and the Tribal Ethos...
Lutheran Mission realized that it would be much difficult to work both with the Santhals and the Bodos. So the Mission Home Beard sent a Danish couple to work exclusively among the Bodos. This mission was established at Gaurang in 1927 near Kokrajhar. Gradually more stations were established in Guwahati in Kamrup District and Tezpur and Udalguri in Darrang districts. Further two more missions were established at Bongaigaon and Parkijuli in 1938 and 1951. The Roman Catholics made a late entry among the Bodos, as the Bodo areas were served basically by different Protestant Mission and were kept at bay by the Baptist. Further they did not want to come into any confrontation and competition (Choudhury, 2007). Though the Roman Cathlic Church came late yet it made easy penetration among the Bodos and two stations one at Tangla and the other at Udalguri began functioning as busy centres of its activities. The Catholic Rector of Guwahati Father Marengo composed the first prayer book in the Bodo language which was a significant contribution to their literature. It was subsequently revised and edited by another Catholic priest Father Zenon. The Missionary activities were accompanied by other complimentary services. These services had an immense impact on many secular pursuits. They were concerned for the development of the indigenous language and hence they worked in right earnest for the spread of literacy among the Bodos by introducing formal education among them (Choudhury, 2007). D. N. Musahary stated that the schools had been instrumental in the work of evangelization of the Bodos. In early days, primary schools were set up where education was imparted not only to the children of the converts, but also to those of the non-converts in their own mother-tongue. The text books were written for the beginners in the Bodo language written in modified Roman scripts. Education was, therefore, a great force in the method of evangelization of the Bodos and every Mission station was invariably marked by the presence of a primary level school at least to start with (Mushahary, 1988). Thus the Christian Missionaries played a remarkable role in introducing a system of formal education among the Bodos. The Missionaries had established schools and hospitals at Gaurang, Bengtal, Tukrajhar, Gurhampur, Haraputra and Joima and converted many Bodos and other tribes like Rabha, Garo, Santhal etc. into Christianity (Brahma, 2006). Moreover the Baptist and Catholic Missions made laudable progress not only among the Bodos of Darrang and Goalpara in the early twentieth century but also built up hospitals and leprosy homes in Parkijuli and Shantipara of Nalbari district (Chaudhuri, 2007). The Missionaries realized that primary education was necessary so that people could learn to read and understand the Bible. The education imparted
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 57 Dr. Nandini Sarma in Mission Schools opened up avenues for employment and hence there was a growing demand for these schools. The missionaries learnt regional dialects, wrote text books and imparted education in vernacular language. Their activities were not only confined to teaching the text books but also in imparting informal education (Goswami, 2012). However, it has been observed that although the Catholics were the first among the Missions to have entered this part of the region yet they were the last to make a contribution of their faith. The Church authorities were actually indecisive as to which of its foreign missions should be entrusted the task of evangelization of the region (Syiembli, 2007). Within a century and half of organized missionary activity Christianity had made its impact on the lives of a large population in the region. Christianity became the preferred agent of acculturation. It became the more attractive option to Hinduism and Islam or the tribal religions. Though Hinduism and Islam had already made some inroads into the tribal areas among Bodos, Dimasas, Hajong, Mikirs, Miris and other groups, the arrival of Christianity acted as a hindrance towards the process of Sanskritization (Syiembli, 2007). The several Christian Mission’s humanitarian work played a commendable role in championing the cause of providing written scripts for the tribal communities, encouraging use of Assamese script, pioneering education and ministering to the health of the masses of this region. Invariably each mission set up schools soon after their arrival in any area. In educating the tribes of upper Assam the American Baptist mission first pitched tents and their schools around Nowgong, Garo hills in lower Assam. Education became a powerful agent of social change. It brought awareness among the tribes in particular that there should be an adjustment of change with modernity and tradition which further brought about political consciousness (Syiembli, 2007). The emergence of what we may call a socio-culturally aware tribal middle class became possible by the impact of Christianity accompanied by formal education. It had given them the required confidence to vie for employment in areas dominated by the Assamese and the Bengalis. A similar sentiment had been expressed in journalistic writing also (Verghese, 2004). The Missionaries faced many barbs. But their role in cultural, educational development and social reforms among the tribal peoples needs mention. By bestowing on them a written language and script often English and Roman in the absence of an indigenous alternative, they enhanced awareness and a sense of group identity (Verghese, 2004). The traditional beliefs and customs like animism, head hunting and excessive use of liquor was reduced. Modern education led to social advancement as Christianity was preached to the tribal people. They raised the status of womanhood and thus helped to bring a homely atmosphere in and around residences of the people. They laid foundations for an indigenous
58 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Christian missionaries and the Tribal Ethos... church that would stand definitely as long as Christianity lasts. The Church emphatically threw light on the discriminations made in past and consequently helped to grow a combative awareness against such discriminations. All in all they showed the path that leads to a more holistic way of living. (Sword, 1992) Christian Missionaries had made different worlds available to the ethnic communities like the world of letters, of hygiene and health and the world of different culture along with the world of equality. This development made it possible for the people to understand the discriminations done with them in the past more clearly. That in turn led to antagonistic feelings towards the perpetrators of such discriminations.
6. Conclusion The research paper attempts to decipher the role of the ‘Missionaries’ on Bodo society. Impact of Christianization on social behavior and problems like drinking maud, addiction to opium, superstitions, status of women etc. along with the spread of education in general was endorsed by the Government as a secular endeavor. Besides being robust, athletic and industrious, the Bodos were attracting the missionaries because of their mindset which was free from the constraints of Hinduism. Over and above their impact on social living especially in areas of health, hygiene and education, the Christian Missionaries influenced what is subsumed under the concept ‘life’ of the Bodos and the other plain tribes. They had apparently restricted the growth of Hinduisation and Sanskrtization process and directly helped acculturation. This in turn began to influence even individual thinking and ways of looking at or responding to different areas and problems of life.
References Barpujari, H.K (1986). The American Missionaries and North East India (1836-1900 AD), Guwahati Brahma, S, (2006). Religion of the Boros and the Socio-Cultural Transition: A Historical Perspective, Guwahati Bhobora, P.K, (2014). The Canon, Udalguri Choudhury, S, (2007). The Bodos: Emergence and Assertion of an Ethnic Minority, Shimla Deb, B.J, (2006). Ethnic Issues Secularism and Conflict Resolution in North East India, New Delhi Deori, I, (2015). Jonogosthiya Samashiya : Atit, Bartaman, Bhabishiyat, Guwahati Goswami, P, (2012). The History of Assam: From Yandaboo to Partition 1826-1947, New Delhi
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 59 Dr. Nandini Sarma
Mushahary, D.N (1988). Origin and Growth of Christanity among Bodos of Assam, in NEIHA Proceedings,Seventh Session, Shillong Roy, A, (1995). The Boro Imbroglio, (1995), Guwahati Sword, VH, (1992). Baptists in Assam: A century of Missionary Service 1836-1936, New Delhi Sharma, J, (2011). Empire’s Garden Assam and the Making of India, London Goswami, P, (2007). Changing Patterns of Economic and Society 19th and 20th Century North East India, Guwahati
60 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 61-67
BREAKING TRADITIONAL NOTIONS OF IMPURITY WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE SABARIMALA CASE
Arpita Das*
Abstract: The status of the woman as the subject is often counterchallenged by her image of the goddess, who is revered and worshipped by the masses. When that same woman is oppressed by the same religion which worships her, and the masses which revere her, the subjectivity of the female sex is emphasised to subjugate her person. The problem arises when religious practices go so far as to deny equal status to women in society and upset the notions of pollution and purity to perpetuate discrimination against a person’s basic right to dignity. This paper interrogates the nexus between religion, gender and culture where the marginalisation of the female is ensued as a part of religion and culture, both in respect to Sabrimala and Barpeta Satra. In the theistic doctrine the female gender is considered unequal, inferior and this is reflected in the roles assigned to the female in conservative religious doctrines. The Sabrimala issue prior to the Supreme Court verdict on 2018, prevented women from entering the temple goes against the fundamental concepts of equality, freedom and dignity. Even after the verdict that allowed entry of women, multiple opinions were expressed both for and against the same. Keywords: Gender, Religion, Culture, Equality
* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E.mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 61 Arpita Das
1. Introduction When religious practices goes so far as to deny women the equal status in society and when notions of pollution and purity are employed to perpetuate discrimination, such things encroaches upon a person’s basic right to dignity. The society has witnessed a constant friction between the claims of individual rights and gender equality on one hand and the issue of religion and belief on the other hand. Deplorable patriarchal elitism continues to put a stop to gender equality at religious places. Religion which by itself is a fluid concept with various interpretations and practices, contributes in the formation of gender inequalities and to subordinate the role of women in society. The nexus between religion and politics has been a key factor in marginalising women in the society. Religion seems to constitute the hardest barrier that women must overcome in the path of gender equality. Even the norms of culture too act as a barrier in enabling women to move equally with men, at all societal fronts. The irony is that most of the times women are too naive to comprehend that in the name of culture, women actually are oppressed and suppressed. Women are socialized in a way that they are made to believe that they are the embodiment of cultural continuation and that it is them upon whom the onus of restoring cultural traits and continuity are bestowed. In other words the socialised process makes them feel as if it is their entitlement of promoting and preserving the sanctity of culture. Sex difference in religion can be classified as either internal or external: (a) Internal issues studied from the perspective of a given religion which includes beliefs, practices about the roles and rights of men and women. (b) External issues examined from the outsiders perspective including possible clashes between religious leaders. It is worth mentioning that, primarily the internal issues propagate the superior status of men and inferior status of women in the domain of religion. Female sexuality has had a chequered relationship with religious and social customs. Certain customs perceived of as being sacred has posed a serious challenge to the basic framework of democracy and equality so much so that it seems to leave these concepts outside the reach of sacred spaces. The dual issue of entry to the Sabarimala temple in Kerala along with the Barpeta Satra in Assam by women-folk and the prolonged controversy of women purity is a stark example as to how the certain customary practices promote gender biasness. This paper shall try to reflect the debate cantered round religion and gender, primarily focussing on the reasons for denial of women in places of religious worship. The whole idea is to understand the perspective of gender equality and the problems evolving from gender exclusions arising out of religious belief on pollution and purity.
62 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Breaking Traditional Notions of Impurity...
2. Objective of the study The objective of the study is to understand the sanctity of the religious doctrines, customs and practices and to find out as to what extent the certain norms of religion can be considered just and acceptable even though they advocate gender inequality. The study is primarily centred on the Sabrimala issue of denial of entry in religious places particularly the Sabrimala temple as well as Barpeta satra where women are denied complete entry and the researcher intends to find out as to how much justifiable are such traditional norms which deny women entry into the religious places.
3. Methodology The study is based on secondary data and the researchers own views on the issue.
4. Religion, gender and the issue of purity The tension between religion and gender is a pervasive one where marginalisation of female is continuous in spite of strides in female empowerment, and the claims of religious stakeholders who speak of equality of all living beings in the eyes of god. Condemnation of women when it comes to religious matters is not a new phenomenon. The question of equal rights for women in religion seems to have ambushed up with the eruption of activism and debate around Shani Shingnapur , the Sabrimala temple, the Barpeta Satra - where women are not allowed to enter the shrine. The issue of discrimination of women in the larger context of the society can be well traced back to the times when patriarchy found its roots in the society. In this case, many might want to stand strong to validate the ‘age old tradition’, citing the need to ‘protect the ‘purity’ of these religious institutions, because traditionally, and even now, menstruating women are considered ‘unclean’ or ‘impure’. But, the question as to how a man born of a woman who is considered to be ‘impure’, is deemed pure, stands unanswered even today. Barring women from the assemblies of god or preventing them from occupying the primordial positions in religious institutions symbolises deepest inequalities which is legitimised using the armour called religion.
5. The Sabarimala stance The forest shrine of Sabrimala has been in news ever since the Supreme Court questioned the logic in its practise of excluding women of procreative age in response to petition from the Indian young lawyers association. One of the heated arguments which we all are well aware in recent times is the prohibition of women entry in Sabarimala temple. The Sabrimala shrine bars women between the age of
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 63 Arpita Das
10 and 50 i.e. women of fertile age from climbing the hill and entering the shrine, since their presence is said to be offensive to the bachelor deity Ayyappa. The recent controversy began when astrologers claimed to have found that the deity was disturbed by the touch of a beautiful woman. There are certain beliefs in our society which have been practised for centuries. The recent controversy is also raised from such age old practices. There are two beliefs operating behind the practice of not allowing menstruating women to enter the Sabarimala shrine. They are as follows: a) The temple deity Swami Ayyappa is a Naishtika Brahmachari or a celibate. Because of this belief if any women between 10-50 years enter the temple they may incur the wrath of lord Ayyappa. b) Another reason is that, according to Hindu cultural tradition, a woman is considered impure during their monthly cycle. Once a priest of Sabarimala said that, they cannot check the purity of a woman who enters the temple. People who are in favour of keeping women out of the temple refuse to provide a gender perspective to this issue, rather they claim that women should be disallowed from entering the temple because of the taboos and impurity thought related with menstruation .They believe that the roots of this practise is not only to be found in patriarchy but also in myth which describes the deity as a celibate. So they want to restore the celibate nature of this deity and that’s why they do not want Lord Ayyappa to be distracted by the presence of women. It is said that women are not allowed in the temple out of empathy for Mallikapurathamma another deity residing in the temple and also not be a distraction to the deity and thereby allowing Him to remain a celibate. The matter of age restrictions on entry of women to Sabarimala temple came up for the first time in Kerala High Court in 1990 when S.Mahendaram of Perunna in Kottayam moved a petition alleging that young women were trekking to Sabarimala and offering prayers in the temple. The court came out with the verdict that directed the temple authorities not to allow women in the age group of 10-50 to trek the temple and that the age restriction on the entry of women was in accordance with the usage prevalent from time immemorial. A group of five women lawyers challenged the rule 3(b) of the Kerala Hindu places of Public worshipping Rules 1965 which authorises restriction on women of menstruating age. They moved to the apex court after the Kerala high court upheld the century’s old restriction and ruled that only the priest was empowered to decide on traditions. While the government of Kerala had opposed the entry of women, the remarkable Supreme Court judgement of 2018 September lifted all such restrictions for pilgrims, regardless of gender and age, to enter the Sabarimala. The bench of the Supreme Court in its opinion
64 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Breaking Traditional Notions of Impurity... said that any exceptions placed on women because of their biological differences, violates the very basis of fundamental rights of the Constitution, particularly Article 14(Right to Equality) and article 25 (Right to Religion). This verdict received mixed responses. Some stuck on to their belief that it would be an insult to Mallikapurathamma’s love and sacrifice and others pointed out that as women are not barred from entering into different places of Hindu worshipping, so the exception for Sabarimala is unacceptable. As a result, two women aged below 50 walked into the Sabarimala temple before dawn on 2 January 2019 and became the first to do so since the Supreme Court verdict 2018. It broke the 18 years old judgement by the 1991 Kerala high court restricting women of menstruating age from entering into the shrine. Again on 4 January 2019, a 46 year old lady from Srilanka entered the Sabarimala temple and prayed at the sanctum sanctorum.
6. Protests and hartals Several hartals were organised in Kerala by various Hindu groups and their umbrella outfit Sabarimala Karma Samthi against allowing women to enter the temple since October 2018.The first hartal was observed on 7 October 2018 in Pathanamthitta district, followed by consecutive hartals on 8 october2018, 2 November 2018, 17 November 2018, 11 December 2018, 3 January 2019.
7. The issue of Barpeta satra Like the Sabrimala, similar situation also has been faced by the Vaishnav women in Barpeta district of Assam. Women devotees are denied entry in the Satras of Barpeta. These Satras or monasteries were founded by 16th century saint Srimanta Sankardeva who propagated Vaishnavism. But the saint had never discriminated against his women devotees. While the Satras located in other parts of Assam allow women to enter, the Barpeta Satra continued to follow this ancient custom. The Satra was set up by Srimanta Sankardeva at Patbausi where he had spent 18 years of his life. It was here that he completed the ‘Kirtan Ghosa’ (religious text). Some of the articles used by the gurus and the ‘Sachipat Puthis’ (ancient manuscripts) have been well preserved here. However, with the historic intervention by Governor Patnaik, who also happens to be a Sanskrit scholar during his visit at the Assam Satra Mahasabha Conference in Barpeta broke the centuries-old barrier, by entering the Satra along with a group of 20 women thereby setting an example for posterity. The Governor was visiting the Patbausi, Sundaridiya, and Barpeta Satras in the district. Surprised by the exclusion of women in the Satra, he courteously reasoned with the authorities of the Patbausi Satra, located some three kilometres away
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 65 Arpita Das from the Barpeta Satra. He then took with him a group of 20 women devotees who were waiting outside to receive him. This however created a stir and there was a mixed public response. While many were outraged and upset, a few were relieved that finally a path had been paved for women to enter the Satra. There was also an unexpected triumph. A few days later, the management committee of Sri Sankardev Than, Patbausi Satra, formally opened its doors for women. And this raised hopes of a similar decision by the authorities of the nearby Barpeta Satra. Surprisingly, the move has been welcomed by the Satradhikars or heads of the other Satras. Sri Kosha Kanta Dev Goswami, the head of Sri Sri Chamaguri Satra in Majuli, the largest river island in the world, was positive about the decision. Many, however, are of the opinion that the sanctity of the Satra and religious conventions need to be maintained. They feel that doing something just for the sake of change doesn’t make sense.
8. Some observations Women’s entry to religious places has time and again been the focus of controversies. Nature has created both men and women equally; as such neither is superior to the other. The only difference lies in their biological composition. But the debate centred round the whole issue of Sabarimala or that of the Barpeta Satra, continues as to whether women should be allowed to enter into the temple or not. The issue of menstruation and its perception as a taboo seems to be the focal point here. In most of the cultures, menstruation is viewed as a taboo, perceived of something as unclean and impure and as such women are denied entry into religious places. Different cultures view menstruation in different ways. While certain cultures like Western-European societies, want that the periodic cycle should be kept hidden. Many primitive tribal societies, particularly African societies view this cycle as a positive indicator denoting fertility without any connotation of uncleanness. Again in many societies, particularly in traditional one, many girls and women are subject to restrictions in their daily lives simply because they are menstruating. Not entering the “puja” room is the major restriction along with restrictions from offering prayers and touching holy books. However, there seems to be no logical or scientific explanation for this. There are many who do not understand the biological processes of menstruation and childbirth. This lack of scientific understanding results in these kind of discriminations in society resulting in gender injustice.. While the feminists blame the patriarchal set up of our society, some others support the ban so as to comply with the traditional norms of religion and culture. In this case both arguments sound strong in each ones camp, but somewhere in the long debate of gender discrimination, we have somehow ignored the equality dimension of all human being alike. In
66 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Breaking Traditional Notions of Impurity... the tussle between religious traditions and beliefs on one side and gender justice and constitutional rights on the other side we are somewhere sidelining the notions of equality and rationalism and scientific basis which constitute the basic foundation of human entity. The challenge before us is how these traditions and beliefs should be received in our modern world where every aspect is expected to be viewed through the prisms of rationality and logic.
References Aikau Hokulani K., Karla A. Erickson, and Jennifer L. Pierce, eds, (2007). Feminist Waves, Feminist Generations: Life Stories from the Academy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Andersen, Margaret, (2005). Thinking about Women: A Quarter Century’s View. Gender & Society 19:437-455. Bernard, Jessie, (1981). The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press M Lowe, R Hubbard, (1983). Woman’s nature: Rationalizations of Inequality, bingoepub.com Sabarimala issue: What would you like to know Sabarimala, from The Economic Times, 2018 October Legend of Sabarimala love story that kept away women from lord Ayyappa, form India Today, 2 October 2018 The Economic Time-Barpeta Satra, 25 October 2018
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 67 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 68-77
LIVED RELIGIONS AND NUANCED SYNCRETISM : THE ISLAM IN INDIA
Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sircar*
Abstract: The trajectories of Muslim experiences in India have been a diverse one. The Muslims in India though sometimes face the contradictory stance of doubtful loyalties and differentiated identities, at large, the Indian identity is often seen to surface and supersede the other claims. Simply put, the experi- ence of being Muslim in India can be a very intriguing and interesting one, because the Indian Muslim, has evolved a unique variety of Islam keeping in with the larger Indian experience and ethos. This paper is an attempt to ex- plore this stimulating variety of improvised Islam which is practised by most of the Muslim communities in India, with specific reference to the Axomiya Mus- lims of Assam. It is a humble attempt to understand the coming together of religions considered to be bipolar to each other, which culminate in the emer- gence of a nuanced form of subtle syncretism which is seen to accommodate itself in most religions in India, especially in Hinduism and Islam. Keywords: Axomiya Muslims, Adaptation, Hindu space
1. Introduction The trajectories of Muslim experiences in India have been a diverse one. The Muslims in India though sometimes face the contradictory stance of doubtful loyalties and differenti- ated identities, at large, the Indian identity is often seen to surface and supersede the other
* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail id : [email protected]
68 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism the Islam in India claims. Simply put, the experience of being Muslim in India can be a very intriguing and interesting one, because the Indian Muslim, has evolved a unique variety of Islam keeping in with the larger Indian experience and ethos. The stereotype of Muslim Indians has long been that they are a comparatively inert minority that coexists with the larger non-Muslim context of contemporary India. The as- similation is so much that sometimes, the non-Indian Muslims are seen to scoff at the appar- ent compliance of the Muslim voice. (Pandya, 2010) The basis of such compliance may be the fact that, the Indian Muslims do not really see the identities of Muslim and Indians as apart and that they have formulated a religion and culture which is largely located within the larger Indian Hindu space. Their existence may and is most likely to be supplemented by the larger Hindu culture and narrative, which helps in the juxtaposition of the two most unlikely religions and cultures. Thus, given this stance, there has been a process of a reinvention and adaptation of Islam in India, which does not really fit the description of the pan-Islamic culture, but which is suited to the Indian experience and Indian Muslim experience in par- ticular.
2. Objective The objective of the paper is to explore the unique character of the lived Muslim reality in India. The ‘lived Muslim reality’ basically implies how the real lives, that is the ground reality pertaining to the Muslims in certain regions of India can be quite different from the common perceptions and set notions about Muslims and the Muslim way of life. The idea is to investigate the causes and the circumstances of such adaptation and reinvention in certain pockets of the country, and to try to understand how such a large Muslim population has existed relatively peacefully in a Hindu majority nation without major conflicts given the stark differences of religion. This paper will specifically observe the adaptation and reinvention of Islam in Assam, in the context of the Axomiya Muslims. How the lived Islam among the Axomiya Muslims is different from the pan-Islamic idea of the religion and of being Muslim.
3. History and Tradition A brief assessment of the interfaith relations in medieval India is imperative to under- stand the interlinkages between the faiths of Hinduism and Islam. Many significant historians have recorded that there were amicable interactions between the religions and there has been the evolution of many syncretic traditions as a result of such exchanges. In fact, such interchanges resulted in the evolution of many amorphous communities which had blurred perimeters, somewhere between Hinduism and Islam. For instance, there were and still are
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 69 Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sircar the communities of Husaini Brahmins, Pranam Panthis, and Meo Muslims etc., who form very intriguing subjects for such studies. (Engineer, 2006) Also, much of the wars which have being depicted as communal in history were actually just wars between kings of different religions, with religion not being a basis or criteria of war. There was generous intermingling among the sufi and the bhakti saints during the medieval times. Religious as well as cultural exchanges were quite in vogue. Alberuni, who is recorded to have visited India in the eleventh century is believed to have studied the Hindu epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Another scholar, Dara Shikoh, had earned expertise on the Sanskrit language and had even translated the Upanishads into the Persian language and had called it Sirr-e-Akbar, meaning ‘The Greatest Mystery’. He had even stated that Hinduism did not reject monotheism and that there was ample proof of that in the four Vedas; he had also applauded the Upanishads as fountain of monotheism and had called it a heavenly book. (Engineer 2006) History is replete with instances of religious harmony between the Hindus and the Mus- lims in India. Many Muslim sects were seen to adopt the local ways of life to blend in more with the native populations. The Ismaili Nizaris of Gujarat for instance had taken to the prevalent local language for describing their religion, and had used terms like Nizar Dharma or Satpanth to indicate their faith. In fact even the Bishnoi Panths of Rajasthan are believed to be a result of the mixing of Hindu and Muslim traditions and religions. (Engineer 2006) Even the shrines and religious fairs reflect the harmonious religious tradition in India. Another important fact which needs consideration is that, a large chunk of Indian Mus- lims were formed by conversion and that being so, the influence of their preceding religion and culture was combined and in some cases may be juxtaposed to form a convenient way of life. Some such influences formed unique inter-religious communities and some formed a new variety of Islam which was a new genre, in the given new space and context of India
4. The Adaptation of Islam in India – A Theoretical Perspective The historicity of religion in India helps us understand that syncretism has been a part of the socio-cultural and religious tradition in India, given the existence of inter-religious com- munities and the movements which manifested the idea of syncretism like the bhakti and the Sufi movements. The phenomenon of reinvention of religion can be understood by theories on religious adaptation. It will be apt to state that just like evolutionary theory helps us understand geneti- cally transmitted diversity, it can also help us in grasping culturally inherited diversity. The last quarter of the 20th century had seen theoretical developments which were aimed at developing
70 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism the Islam in India quantitative-mechanistic theories of cultural evolution. (Richardson and Newson, 2009) Richardson and Boyd (2005) have developed a hypothesis termed as a ‘tribal social instincts hypothesis’, which argues that the evolution of culture set in motion a process of group selection on cultural variation. Populations in semi-isolation rapidly evolved cultural differences. Symbolic boundaries limited the flow of ideas between groups. Individual members were inclined to copy the behaviour most common within their group, and this decreased the differences within the groups and increased the differ- ences between the groups. (Richardson and Newson, 2009) This theory helps in explaining human cooperation within tribal groups, that is why Richardson and Boyd go on to analyse that, those who do not conform to the behaviour of the larger group are punished and they fared badly within groups. In our case however, the part of this theory which states that populations in semi-isolation rapidly develop cultural differences helps us consolidate the fact that religions in given environments and surround- ings rapidly evolve and adapt to make the members of the group assimilate into a given situation. Stephen K. Sanderson in his article, Adaptation, Evolution and Religion tries to sub- stantiate how religious adaptation works, he argues – Neo-Darwinian theories of religion include both nonadaptationist and adaptationist versions. Nonadaptationist versions contend that the mental architecture of the brain is wired for religious thinking but that religious concepts have piggybacked on other cognitive adaptations, especially those for agency detection. Religious concepts are not evolved biological adaptations but rather by-products of more general cognitive structures that are adaptations. Adaptationist versions concentrate on the benefits provided by religion, such as increased social cohesion and the individual benefits that stem from it (Sanderson, 2008) This theoretical idea therefore explains that, religion as a practice is subject to the physi- cal and mental surroundings of an individual or group.. It explains that religion is not a proc- ess of biological adaptation, rather it is more of a process of cognition and is determined by the processes of social accommodation and influenced by social conditioning of individuals and groups. In simple parlance religion is based and rooted in human convenience rather than functioning merely as a process of biological adaptation. People and communities adapt religion keeping in view the advantages provided by it and how that adaptation would sub- sequently benefit the individual and the society. Extending this idea of adaptation, the context of space needs to be emphasised because adaptation is influenced by other groups in a definite context of a given space. The Muslims
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 71 Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sircar in India have existed as a group within the larger group of the Hindus. Thus, their existence has been influenced by the larger aspects of surrounding them. Adaptation is fundamentally influenced by the space aspect, because it is the space which sets in and directs such processes. George Simmel in his theory of the – Sociology of Space – talks about a) socially relevant aspects of space b) the effect of spatial conditions on interaction (Sircar, 2016) Simmel explains the ‘social space’ is not a ‘spatial fact with sociological consequences’ instead, a ‘sociological fact that is formed spatially’; and that all social exchanges, within the social space can be assessed and understood by their relative degree of propinquity and distance among individuals and groups. (Sircar 2016) This helps us understand that the variation in the religion and religious practices are formed by their degree of closeness to other community or communities. And that commu- nities are a sociological fact which is formed spatially, which supplements the idea as to how, particular communities adapt and reinvent religion and form nuanced versions of religion and religious life. Such theoretical framework helps us to understand that the Islam in India has been largely influenced by multiculturalism and the Hindu space context in which it has existed and sustained. But again, there are varying degrees in which Islam has evolved and adjusted in different parts of India. There has been more adaptation and reinvention in some pockets of the country and among some communities than in others.
5. Adaptation and Reinvention of Religion: The Case of the Axomiya Muslims The Axomiya Muslims are believed to be contested community because of the frequent attacks on the identity of the group and the challenge to being indigenous. There have been a plethora of debates about the identity of being an Axomiya Muslims and the claim to indigenousness or being a Khilonjia (the term used to denote an indigenous Axomiya). In the past the Assam Movement and in the contemporary times, the NRC process have raised doubts over the genuinety of the members of the community. The challenging aspects have been that, being an identity it has been extremely difficult to define in rigid terms. But given that fact, the Axomiya Muslims are a veritable community which exists and asserts its identity as sons of the soil. This paper however seeks to concentrate on the cultural and religious life of the given community and shall not concern with the political implications of being an Axomiya Muslim as that is an extensive debate in itself.
72 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism the Islam in India
The focus here is to analyse how the Islam practised by the members of this community is different and unique to the region. The Axomiya Muslims are also not a homogeneous community like the other Muslims of the country. But the aspect that specifically dominates them is the fact that identity of being Axomiya is seen to supersede the identity of being Muslim. To put it simply, an Axomiya Muslim, is an Axomiya first and Muslim only later. This fact has been mentioned and substantiated by much of the existing literature on the subject. To mention a few – Edward Gait notes, — The Muslims in Assam are Assamese in their habits, and Muhammadans but only in name. (Gait 1906) Yasmin Saikia, states – “...I have grown up as an Assamese, that is, I spoke Assamese as my first lan- guage; humanisn was the religion in my home, although we participated in all religious festivities, —Pujas, Christmas and Eids; and Assamese culture was a priority.” (Saikia 2004) Like Dasgupta states in Ahmad (Ahmad 2003) — in a considerable contrast to the type-casted idea of Islam — “...in Assam Islam is open, accommodative, inclusive and adaptive in its local specificity. Islam is conspicuously different from that in the north and western India, the core area of Islamic civilization in India, and the actual social prac- tices of the Asamiya Muslims may be inconsistent with the laws of any Islamic schools. This however does not mean that Islam is not an influence in the behaviours and lives of Asamiya Muslims but rather that these societies are predisposed and fashioned principally by local and environmental factors, unfamiliar to other parts of the country.” (Ahmad 2003) Monirul Hussain states – “Unlike the Muslims of north Indian states , who are deeply involved in the problems related to the status of the Aligarh Muslim University and the status of the Urdu language or even the BabriMasjid-Ram Janambhumi tangle, by and large, do not affect the Muslims . . . (of Assam) . . . psychologically. This signifies their level of integration with the regional society.” (Hussain 1993) Thus, we get the idea that the Axomiya Muslims are largely a unique genre of Muslims who are covertly concerned about their religious identity. In fact Dasgupta had also termed them as ‘non-practising Muslims’. The atypical Muslim characteristics are not explicit when it comes to this community. Purdah is negligible among them; it is only in the recent decades that a small section of the Axomiya Muslim women are seen to sport a hijab. The burqa still remains a rarity among
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 73 Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sircar them. Instead these women are stunning in the indigenous mekhela sador and paat muga and they practise the native traditions like touching the feet of the elders or greeting with a ‘namaskar’ rather than the more expected salam or adaab. (Ahmad 2003) Further, Dasgupta states, — Urdu and Persian names sit ineffectually on the Asamiya Muslims of Assam as most of them are not familiar with the meanings of such names. In the hamlets and towns of Upper Assam, it is not outlandish to come across Muslim names like “Meera, Golapi (Rose), Jonaki (glow worm), Rupahi (beautiful)” and the like while Muslim men have names like “Mukuta (pearl), Sonai (gold) and Rupai (silver)” (Saikia 1967 :244-5 as quoted by Dasgupta in Ahmad 2003). In the Nagaon district of Assam, Asamiya Muslims are habitually seen to go together with the Hindus in the cattle-bathing ceremonies which mark the commencement of Bihu, the spring festival of dance and music in Assam. (Saikia 1967:248, as stated by Dasgupta in Ahmad 2004) Thus the social and personal lives among the Axomiya Muslims are marked by the Axomiya way of life and what we understand from the above is that there are no distinct differences between the Axomiya Hindus and Muslims. From clothing, to language to cuisine to lifestyle the Axomiya Muslims have adapted fairly well to the predominantly Axomiya way of life. The lived Islam, that is the life among the Axomiya Muslims has thus evolved as a rare variety of Islam which is largely influenced by the Axomiya space and the larger Axomiya Hindu way of life. This meaning that, the specific ‘Muslim’ influence is not staunchly visible. The lifestyle of the Axomiya Muslims has been built primarily on the foundations of being Axomiya first and Muslims only later. Whether it is food choices or eating meat which is not halaal (a particular way of butchering animals followed by Muslims world over) to organis- ing and attending maah-halodhi (lentil and turmeric bathing rituals common among the Assamese) ceremonies in weddings , to organising inter-religious weddings as joyously as any other wedding, to singing biya naams (wedding songs) – the religious distinctiveness of the Axomiya Muslims is actually a case-in-point. Some other aspects which highlight and help in emphasising the adaptation of religion among the Axomiya Muslims are – the absence or negligible use of Urdu, which is often identified as the first or second language of Muslims across India; the absence or negligible practice of signing a nikahnama (the official document for marriage registration among Mus- lims) and a talaqnama (the official document that finalises a divorce among Mulsims); the absence or extremely negligible presence of polygamy; and of course the absence of segre- gation of the sexes during social functions like marriage ceremonies, engagements, or other social or religious functions.
74 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism the Islam in India
6. The Superimposition of Culture over Religion One crucial point of difference that sets the Axomiya Muslim community apart from other Muslim communities in India is the fact that, the subnational identity of being an Axomiya is considered as their primary identity. Professor Hussain’s contention in this context helps in substantiating the above statement – he states that because of strong historicity in the relatively isolated north-eastern region, the Muslims here had become an indissoluble component of the medieval Assamese society and state and that Asamiya was their mother-tongue. Leaving out only the aspect of religion and related rituals, the Asamiya Muslims are linguistically, ethnically, economically as well as socially extraordinarily parallel and undistinguishable to the Asamiya Hindu community. The prominence of culture over religion is visibly explicit in the accommodation of Axomiya cultural practices as an indispensable part of lives for the Axomiya Muslims. For instance, the celebration of Magh Bihu (the harvest festival among the Axomiya) and Bohag Bihu (the spring festival among the Axomiya) the observance of traditional Axomiya feasts of Uruka, which is a prelude to Magh Bihu celebrations, the burning of Meji ( Pyramid like formations of hay which are built and burnt as an important ritual during Magh Bihu) , the making of pithas, which are traditional rice cakes during Bihu, and the participation in the quintessential Bihu dance are convention for the Axomiya Muslims. In parts of lower Assam, some other local festivals and ceremonies are also religiously observed by the Muslims. Most of these festivals are a juxtaposition of Hindu and Muslim cultures. (Ahmed 2010) Another significant fact is that, in the Islamic festivals — like Muharram, Shabebarat, Milad-ul-Nabi, and Eid-ul-fitre as well as Eid-Uz Zuha , observed by the Axomiya Mus- lims, the local/Axomiya customs and traditions dominate, rather than a more Islamic observ- ance of the same. (Ahmed 2010) Even some of the prayers are improvised in the Axomiya language and are said or sung in Axomiya. Another distinguishing cultural feature of the Axomiya Muslims is that there is absence or negligible presence of preferential cousin marriage, which again is a largely common prac- tice among other Muslim communities in India and largely across the world. Patrilinieal par- allel cousin marriage is quite common, which are generally seen to be psychologically moti- vated and functional, to maintain the reproduction of the social structure to which the mem- bers they belong to.i Among the Axomiya Muslims instead, intermarriages between cousins is rare, and the very instance of marrying a cousin is largely unacceptable and quite embar- rassing for the Axomiya Muslim. This can be deciphered as an impact of the larger Axomiya community which does not have such practices among them. Ergo, it is perceived as unac- ceptable among the subgroup of the Axomiya Muslims.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 75 Dr. Sabrina Iqbal Sircar
7. Conclusion This paper was intended to highlight and showcase the cultural homogeneity of the Axomiya Muslims with the larger Axomiya community. The facts and substantiations cited do not intend to take away from the religious identity of the community but it makes evident that the apparent or expected ‘Muslimness’ of the Axomiya Muslim is largely understated and they again largely do not have any qualms about it. In the recent context of the protests and agitations in the Axomiya society, which were directed towards the Citizenship Amendment Bill, 2016, the entire Axomiya society came together overriding all other concerns, including religion. The binding factor was the Axomiya identity. This point is significant because the proposed Bill intends to give citizenship to persecuted minorities from other countries on the basis of religion and this does not include Muslims. Thus, in these protests, the entire Axomiya society came out together asserting the Axomiya identity and claiming their unity. This reassures the fact of the assimilation of the Axomiya Muslims as a culturally inseparable component of the Axomiya society and of Axomiya sub-nationalism. Thus, claiming once again that, the Axomiya Muslims have been historically and culturally as Axomiya as they can be, reasserting their cultural identity and only then claiming their religion. Hence, it is quite evident that, the lived Islam for the Axomiya Muslims is a unique adaptation of the religion shaped and deeply impacted by the larger religio-cultural space, and socio-religious cognition, which makes the Axomiya Muslims a case-in point among Muslim communities across the world.
References Ahmad, Imtiaz, (2003). Divorce and Remarriage Among Muslims in India , Manohar Books Ahmed, Kasim Ali, (2010). The Muslims of Assam, Eastern Book House Publishers, Panbazar, Guwahati Engineer, Ashgar A, (2006). Muslims and India, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi Richerson, P.J. & Newson, L., Is Religion Adaptive? Yes, No. but Mostly, We Don’t Know, retrieved 4.1.18 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/53e7/dd8c188bbc7b1d5db 80266fd9801374d187f.pdf Gait, E, (2018). A History of Assam, Eastern Publishers, India Hussain, Monirul, (1993). Assam Movement: Class Ideology and Identity, Manak Publica- tions Pvt. Ltd. ISBN: 81-85445-29-X Pandya, Amit, (2010). Muslim Indians, Struggle for Inclusion, The Henry L. Stimson Cen- tre, Washington D.C. retrieved 20.12.18 from https://www.stimson.org/sites/default/ files/file-attachments/Muslim_Indians-Complete_1.pdf
76 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Lived Religions and Nuanced Syncretism the Islam in India
Sanderson K. Stephen, (2008). Adaptation, Evolution and Religion, Journal Religion, Vol- ume 38, , Cognitive Science of Religion Simmel (1903), as stated in Sircar, Sabrina I, (2016). The Muslim Family in an Emerging Urban Space, A Study of Axomiya Muslims, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Gauhati Univer- sity, Saikia,Yasmin., (2004). Assam and India : Fragmented Memories, Cultural Identity and The Tai Ahom Struggle, Duke University Press Seema, (2013). Kinship and Marriage Among the Muslims, PhD Scholar Jammu University, IJHSSI, Volume 2, issue 9, September 2013, retrieved 15.1.19 from http://www.ijhssi.org/ papers/v2(9)/Version-2/I0292063067.pdf
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 77 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 78-84
ANKIYĀ NĀT- ITS ROLE IN THE SPREAD OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT AND ITS FUTURISTIC ASPECTS
Priyanka Sarmah*
Abstract: During the era of Sankardeva (1449), the socio-political scenario in Assam was in chaos. When Sankardeva was on his pilgrimage to the north- ern part of India, he witnessed many dramatic entertainments based on reli- gion. He realized that in order to propagate ‘ekshrana’ among the common people, the use dramatic medium would be the perfect one. He developed a dramatic form called ‘Chinha Yatra’ which means ‘a pageant in painted scenes’ in order to make his teachings of ‘eksharana’ more visual. This pageant later developed into regular plays called ‘Ankiya Nats’. It was the result of the self- less endeavor of Sankaradeva to bring together all the different tribes of greater Assam. Through the ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’, Sankaradeva was able to achieve ethnic integration and further the cause of Vaishnavism. The legends of Bhagawata Puranas, Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the source of the stories in ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’. In depicting his dramas, he made use of those features which came to be called as superior and unique language of theatre in the 20th Cen- tury by Antoino Artaud. According to the French critic, Oriental theatres com- municate to its audience through movement, sound, gesture and symbolism rather that language. He did not have the knowledge of Sankaradeva’s ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’. If he had he would have been surprised to find that all the elements which he considered to be superior language of theatre, was already there in the ‘Ankiya Nats’. So, not only did the ‘Ankiya Nats’ served as an instrument in the spread of Bhakti movement in Assam but it also has elements which were far ahead of its times. Keywords: Ankiyâ-Nâts, Neo-Vaishnavism, Dramatic medium
Associate Professor, Department of English, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
78 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Ankiyâ Nât- It’s Role in the spread of Bhakti Movement...
1. Introduction In 1449 at Alipukhuri, in the district of Nagaon, in Assam, Sankaradeva, the saint- scholar, social and religious reformer, dramatist and a great poet was born. In the medieval age the socio-political scene was in chaos. During that time not only animal sacrifices were prevalent, but under the tantric mode of worship human sacrifices were made. Vajrayana, a system of Buddhism also entered Assam which was associated with practices like sorcery and necromancy. The entire atmosphere of the society was depressing and degenerating. Moreover, the caste system with its tyrannical attitude destroyed the very base of the society. The larger part of the society was deprived from education and they were also prohibited to read religious text. As a whole the society was moving towards total despotism. In politics it was an age of invasion. There was no kind of humanism to talk about during that time.1 It was during this time of social and political frenzy that Sankaradeva was born. He started his school from the age of twelve but was soon able to master the Sanskrit language within a very short time and studied all the Vedas- Puranas, Kavyas, Vyakaranas and the two epics. The first verse he composed was on the distinctive features of Lord Vishnu. It was an exceptional piece because he used only one single vowel ‘a’ in the whole verse. In 1481 Sankaradeva set out on a pilgrimage to both Northern and Southern India. It was during his travelling that he got influenced by neo-Vaishnavism. He realized that neo- Vaishnavism had given life a new lease of liberalism. He also realized the urgent need for a new religion in Assam. The ‘Ek-Sarana’ system which he wanted to introduce is about leading a life governed by higher laws and manners. It is about a life of absolute faith and devotion to the Almighty. He was convinced that this cult of Lord Vishnu is of highest ranking. So, Sankaradeva set on this journey of propagating the new religion of love and equality. He chose the difficult path of living up to his faith and persuading the people to accept it. His religion was preached through songs, dramas and stories. It was a religion of literature. It also started the great institution of ‘Satra’ where this new disciplined movement actually took a form. It forms moral laws for the society to follow. This religion and the institution stood the fury of time but till today its foundation is as strong as it was when Sankaradeva laid its first stone. 2
2. Objectives: The paper is an effort to study the role of the ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’ in the spread of Sankaradeva’s Vaishnavism. It attempts to study how drama plays the role of an effective medium in the spread of almost every religion all over the world. The paper also tries to depict the futuristic aspects of the ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’. Sankardev was much ahead of his time.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 79 Priyanka Sarmah
The technical aspects of his ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’ has all the elements which Antonin Artaud, the French director, actor, critic and dramatist of the 20th century has pointed out as superior elements of Oriental theatre.
3. Review of Literature Dr. Sanjeeb Kr. Barkatoky in his book Unique Contribution of Srimanta Sankaradeva in Religion and Culture writes about Sankaradeva family, his education and about his pilgrimage to North India and how he was influenced by it. B. I. Evans’s A Short History of English Drama is a book on English drama from its beginning which explains that British drama like Greek and Roman dramas are all rooted in religion. Dr. Birinchi Kumar Baruah in his book Ankiyâ Nât gives a detailed study of Ankiya Nat, the ways in which Sankaradeva used it as a tool to influence the common people to take up Vaishnavism. He also writes about the metaphysical elements present in the dramas and how it was staged to attract people. Antonin Artaud in his book The Theatre and Its Double talks about the superiority of the Oriental Theatre as compared to Occidental Theatre. He states that Oriental theatre has metaphysical tendencies while Occidental has psychological tendencies. In the website https//owlcation.com information of the origins of drama is found. Dramas all over the world are rooted in religious ceremonials. Slowly with time it moved away from religious places.
4. Origins of Drama and ‘ Ankiyâ Nâts’ The origins of drama all over the world are deeply rooted in human being’s inclination towards religion. English, Greek and Roman drama are all concerned with religious ceremonials of people. As drama appeals to the two instincts of human beings, one - want for amusement and the other, improvement, so it has a complex origin. There are two completely opposite needs of human being which the drama has to cater to. So we have to differentiate the sacred lay from the other lay. In the middle ages jugglers and jesters were introduced in the dramas for amusement. Originally, the Bible was written in the Latin language which the common people did not understand. To spread the teachings of the Bible the clergies had to find out ways of expounding the teachings of the bible. So a new method was found. The performers acted out stories from the gospel. In the beginning the characters did not speak. But in the next stage of development the actors delivered dialogues as well as acted. Later vernacular French was used to write the plays so that the common people
80 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Ankiyâ Nât- It’s Role in the spread of Bhakti Movement... could understand them. The important dramatic entertainments of the middle ages were the miracle and morality plays. The miracle plays are also called the mystery plays as they were based on the miraculous happening in the lives of saints. In the history of Greek drama also, dramas started during festival time honouring their God. Roman dramas are very similar to the Greek dramas and the dominant local language was used. Earliest origin of Greek dramas is found in Athens. In that time hymns were sung in honour of their God ‘Dionysus’.3 Sankaradeva travelled widely throughout India. In his travelling he witnessed many dramatic entertainments like ‘Ramlila’, ‘Yatua Kathakai’, ‘Yokaaganay’, ‘Raslila’, ‘Yoksagana’ etc. in Northern India, Bhagaveta Mela and Krishnattam in Southern India. In Orissa he witnessed Philladanatakam. These dramatic entertainments had religious motive and were performed mostly during festival times. So, in India also drama was deeply rooted in religion like in other parts of the world. Sankaradeva realized that to propagate his cult among the common people, the dramatic medium could be the most effective one. Through cultural ingredients he wanted to bring all the ethnic tribes of Assam under one single community. So Sankaradeva introduced ‘Ankiya Nats’ during the 16th century with a religious motive and for the common people. In ‘Ankiya Nat’ we find scenes and incidents from the life of Rama and Krishna. They are considered to be the two main incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Sankaradeva did not present his characters in his dramas as extraordinary human beings. They are shown as ordinary people so that the common people could relate to them. The character, like all human beings had evil, good and odd things in them. This is why the common people could easily accept them. He depicted folk societies with their common hobbies, life and habits. The ‘Ankiya Nats’ were staged during festival times, like Dol- Yatra, Jonmastomi etc. in the village Namghar or prayer halls for all the people of the village. The common people became so interested in them, that whenever they were free they would gather to hear the recitation of sacred scriptures in the Namghar. 4
5. ‘Ankiyâ Nâts’ as a tool: Sankaradeva considered drama to be the most effective tool for propagation of the religious path which he chose and through which he wanted to develop the two concepts- love and peace and through which he believed that world peace can be attained. This concept in the next level brings all the Indian culture together thus creating Indian nationalism. He was a great reformer with great foresightedness. Sankaradeva also gives a lot of attention to the way his dramas were depicted. He wanted the common people to feel that the characters in the dramas are close to them. He created awareness of universal brotherhood and imbibed people with his new and liberal
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 81 Priyanka Sarmah ideas which came to be known as ‘Ek sarana Nama Dharma’. ‘Namghar’ played a very significant role in the life of the people of Assam. It was considered to be a seat of justice where all kinds of major disputes were solved and during the festival times the Namghar became a place of entertainment. Sankaradeva wanted to convert his pluralistic society to a society of equality. The ritual, beliefs and religious faith of the different tribes are brought together in his dramas under the banner of humanity. Social reformation was his priority. In the ‘Ankiya Nats’, the language used is that of mixed Assamese, Maitheli and Brajavali. This kind of language was used so that the common and illiterate people understood it. ‘Bhoana’ is a particular kind of presentation of ‘Ankiya Nats’. We find the character of ‘Sutradhar’ in the ‘Ankiya Nats’. The ‘Sutradhar’ is like the ‘Chorus’ in Greek drama. They are a group of actors who commented and described upon the main action of a play with song, dance and recitation. The ‘Ankiya Nats’ begins with a benediction and ends with a forgiveness of God for any mistakes by the ‘Sutradhar’. Sankaradeva wrote as many as six ‘Ankiya Nats’ out of which ‘Chinna Yatra’ is lost. The others are ‘Kaliya Damon’, ‘Patni Prasad’, ‘Kaliya Gopal’, ‘Rukmini Haran’, ‘Parijat Haran’ and ‘Ram Vijay’. 5
6. The Futuristic Aspects of the ‘Ankiyâ Nât” Antonin Artaud’s in the essay Oriental and Occidental Theatre in his book ‘The Theatre and Its Double’ states that Oriental theatre like the Balinese theatre was much superior to Western theatre. Occidental theatre that is Western drama is dependent on speech. The supremacy of speech is asserted. According to Artaud, many times words fail to convey message which has many layer of meanings. Oriental theatre has both the religious and metaphysical aspects. Oriental theatre affects not only in one level but every level of the mind simultaneously. They are religious and ritual in nature. This kind of theatre can attract the mind of people. They become blindly immersed and invincibly disarmed. So more than speech they use other technical aspects to give their messages to the audience. Masks, songs, dance, face-painting, ornaments, light and sound are used. Through these kinds of presentations, the spiritual and the ordinary are brought together. In this way even the most sacred rituals possess elements of crowd-pleasing theatricals. All these superior aspects of Oriental theatre were pointed out by Artaud, French dramatist poet in his collection of essays ‘The Theatre and Its Double’ published in 1938. Artaud in the 20th century talked about a language for theatre which was unique. It has to be half way between gesture and thought.6 This kind of unique language without asserting too much on dialogues was used by Sankaradeva in his ‘Ankiya Nats’ in the 15th century. His ‘Chinna Yatra’, as described was probably pantomimic and he also used ‘drop scene’. The use of mask, ornaments, face
82 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Ankiyâ Nât- It’s Role in the spread of Bhakti Movement... colours, animal depiction and lighting in ‘Ankiya Nats’ were called ‘Ahajya’. The variety of masks that were used was of different types. Effigies were also used. The dresses and appearances of the characters were very carefully made with regard to design and colour. The ‘Ankiya Nats’ are lyrical in nature. The ‘Sutradhar’ plays a very important role. The songs and verses of the plays are called ‘angkar geet’ and ‘bhatima’, sometimes ‘borgeet’s are also included. Various kinds of melodies are used in the plays. Though ‘Ankiya Nats’ have lots of similarities with Sanskrit dramas but we find elements which are not there in the Sanskrit dramas. The actors performing in the ‘Ankiya Nats’ are highly respected. The dresses were specially made by the village ‘khanikar’ or painter. We can say that the ‘Ankiya Nats’ were ‘a lyrico-dramatic spectacle’. So with his foresightedness he depicted his ‘Ankiya Nats’ using technical aspects which in the 20th century came to be considered as superior element in dramatic performances. Sankaradeva’s dramas possessed elements which were crowd pleasing, so the common people not only derived pleasure from watching these dramas but became so taken up by them that they were raised to a higher level which made them aware of the sacredness of Vaishnaivism.7
7. Conclusion Sankaradeva was intelligent enough to understand that the dramatic medium is more effective than merely reciting stories as in the Kavyas. Dramatic medium is visual while the other is oracular. He was successful in striving devotional sentiment and his aim to further the cause of Vaishnavism was fulfilled. His way of staging the dramas with all the futuristic aspects made them very modern and appealed to his audience. Sankaradeva’s Bhakti movement not only was successful in bringing a religion of the purest form but also contributed to the growth and development of art and literature in Assam. Renowned scholar Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee and other social thinker and critics had rightly said and observed that he was the greatest builder of Assam and was successful in bringing a purer spiritual life. By establishing a democratic religious faith, he united all the small tribes of Assam together.
References Retrived from www.drsanjib.net Dr.Barkakoty, Sanjeeb Kumar, (2006). Unique Contribution of Srimanta Sankardeva in Religion & Culture, 75th Annual Conference of Srimanta Sankardeva Sangha, 1st edition, Retrieved from https//owlcation.com Dr Barua, Birinchi Kumar, (1983). Ankiya Nat, Dept. of Historical & Antiquarian, Govt. of Assam, 3rd edition,
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 83 Priyanka Sarmah
Dr.Barua, Birinchi Kumar, (1983). Ankiya Nat, Dept. of Historical & Antiquarian, Govt. of Assam, 3rd edition Artaud, Antonin, (1983). (Trans. From the French by Mary Caroline Richards) The Theatre and Its Double, Grove Press, New York Chaliha, Bhaba Prasad, ed. (1998). Sankaradeva’s Studies in Culture, Srimanta Sankaradeva Sangha, Assam, 2nd
84 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 85-92
A READING OF WOMEN’S CHARACTER IN SHASHI DESHPANDE’S NOVELS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO SMALL REMEDIES AND THE DARK HOLDS NO TERROR
Dr. Laltlanzuol Khawbung*
Abstract: Shashi Deshpande is a highly acclaimed Indian novelist writing in English. Her works portray different class of Indian society. But what is com- mon among them is the portrayal of woman as a marginalized class. In these paper two novels written by Shashi Deshpande has been taken into account, Small Remedies and The Dark Holds No Terror. In these two novels, women from different class and different generations have been made the protagonist. Although there are many differences in their character, all of them have stories to tell of the hardship and difficulties they have to endure to fulfill their desires and ambition. Their freedom are curtailed to such an extent that they are men- tally unable to come out of their chains. One of the parameter of judging empowerment is education. However, it seems even educated women are also not spared from the various difficulties that women go through in Indian soci- ety. Patriarchy is an inherent system in Indian society. In fact, even women are very patriarchal; upholding its values to the point of making their fellow women suffering within the system and this concept is clearly portrayed in The Dark Holds No Terror. This paper will make an attempt to study how far women enjoy freedom in their daily life. Keywords: Marginalization, Freedom, Patriarchy.
Assistant Professor, Department of English, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 85 Dr. Laltlanzuol Khawbung
1. Introduction: Indian Writing in English has evolved considerably since its inception. Now it has become one of the most popular one among the English speaking nations in the world. Although it is a new voice, no doubt, it is as much Indian as others and it is one of the voices in which India speaks. At present, some of the Indian English Writers are acclaimed as great writers at international level. Hence, the rising importance of Indian Writing in English can never be ignored or underestimated. As a novelist writing in English Shashi Deshpande’s contribution in Indian English Literature is immense and in the year 1990 she was also awarded with the Sahitya Academy Award. Shashi Deshpande writes about certain specific concerns and mostly it deals with the issue of women and their relationships. Though she has categorically stated in an interview that she writes as a novelist and not as a feminist, the note of feminism is very strong. The women characters in her novels walk from different spheres of life. Some are highly educated while some are not, but they have certain things in common. As a reader we have witnessed that these women are in some way or the other neglected; and hence a ‘marginalized’ class. A very popular theme of Shashi Deshpande’s novels is the study of ‘relationship’ which binds us together. But are these relationships helping us in binding us together or is it only a menace to curb our freedom in living a contented life.
2. Objectives of the study This paper is an attempt to study the position of women in Indian society. Women in Indian society have always taken back seat in every sphere of life. Starting from the time they are born, women are subjected to every kind of mistreatment. The prevalence of different social evils like dowry system, child marriage and female infanticide show that women are neglected and are considered second class citizens. Listed below are the objectives of this paper: i) To understand the position of women in Indian society. ii) To examine whether women enjoy equal freedom in the society along with their male counterparts. iii) To examine how far education has changed the fate of Indian women. iv) To examine the various socially sanctioned disadvantaged issues for women.
3. Review Of Literature The work of Shashi Deshpande has been widely researched upon by many scholars. Her works have also been translated into different Indian languages which make her connected to different cultures and traditions. In fact, the theme she generally dealt has universal appeals
86 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 A Reading of Women’s Character in Shashi Deshpande’s Novels... which make her popular across cultures and traditions. In her paper on “Shashi Deshpande’s Narrative Technique and Style of Writing”, Sujata Ramkrushnarao Khandagale, discussed about the different writings style adopted by Deshpande to suit the narratives of her novels. The note of feminism is very strong in Deshpande’s novels. In their paper on “Feminine Consciousness in the Novels of Shashi Deshpande”, Rajesh Sagu and Vijay Bhushan Jha have discussed the different novels written by Deshpande. Their paper basically focused on men-women relationship, the different emotions that come to a woman upon the realization of their feminine consciousness. Y Kusuma Kumari has given a critical analysis of the novel Small Remedies in her paper “Women in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies: A Critical Analysis”, her paper basically focused on the concept of tradition and modernity and the role it plays on the life of women
4. Research Methodology This research is based on two novels, viz, The dark Holds No Terror and Small Remedies by Shashi Deshpande, a renowned Indian novelist. As it is a literature based paper, so the research methodology that is followed is content analysis. Through the various female characters of the two novels, the paper would highlight the various problems faced by women in the society.
5. The Concept Of “Freedom” The word ‘freedom’ is a very complicated term; it could be a physical one or a mental one. Since this is a post-modern period, perhaps everybody has attained physical freedom but having a mental space of one’s own is very difficult to achieve. Virginia Woolf in “A Room of One’s Own” has given a great argument on the necessity of space for women. However, in India, even in the twentieth first century the lack of space for women is quite noticeable. Another way of interpreting the term ‘freedom’ is the ability to do and live as on desires without anything standing on the way. But is this possible for the marginalized class where every bit of life is a struggle. So in such circumstances the search for freedom will become one’s ultimate desire. In India, the issue concerning women’s liberty is very complicated. Of course, women’s emancipation has achieved great heights, but it has a long way to go. In the two novels “Small Remedies” and “The Dark Holds No Terrors”, there are certain similarities among the characters and that is their struggle to gain freedom. Though the novels are different from one another, the characters are desperately trying and fighting to create niche for themselves. A study of some of the characters shows that to gain freedom and one’s own desire, one has to be a rebel in a certain specific way.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 87 Dr. Laltlanzuol Khawbung
5.1 Small Remedies The structure of the Indian society is such that it does not allow women to dream and Shashi Deshpande resist this system through the portrayal of the two character of Savitribai and Leela in ‘Small Remedies’. Both of them were the rebels of their time; both dared to dream and achieve freedom. To Savitribai it was music, her passion and her dream which can deliver her ultimate freedom and to Leela, it was her political career. Both these women are highly ambitious to achieve their desired dream and freedom. “Both these women got for themselves the measure of freedom they needed, they worked for it. And they both knew the price they had to pay for it.” (Small Remedies, page 224) Madhu was so impressed by their free spirit that she can never accept the version that women can never be free. However, freedom does not come to them in an easy way. The path is very difficult. They have to live on their own terms, resisting patriarchal set up for women. Patriarchy has set up certain limits for women. Looking at the life of Bai we have come to know that she was already a respectable Brahmin married woman with a family of her own. In a social set up this is her destiny where she has to live the rest of her life. But to Bai, this is not the end, she has to move ahead. To chase her dreams and ambitions is another way of achieving her ‘freedom’. In order to achieve her dreams and freedom Bai has to go through so many difficulties, she started by rebelling the whole system of how a woman should live. She left her in-laws home to learn music in a far flung place. Not only that, she also started deserting her husband and having a live-in relationship with a Muslim married man who is also her tabla player. “What is the truth about Bai? Why did she leave her home and that with a Muslim lover? A step so great that even today it would require enormous courage.” (Small Remedies, page 166) This kind of actions and behavior on the part of Bai is not socially acceptable and unthinkable during those days. But Bai has to break those traditions in order to gain her freedom and dreams. She has to pay a heavy price for this. When Madhu was writing the biography of Bai, she could still sense the strength in Bai’s character, having failed to notice any sense of regret or repentance of her past life. Another strong character in ‘Small Remedies’ is Leela, the aunt and guardian of Madhu, the narrator of the novel. No doubt, Leela does not have to take a very big step like Bai, but her struggle is no less. She was married off at a very tender age, but of course she has no objection to it, because it was the only way to gain freedom from several chains that binds
88 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 A Reading of Women’s Character in Shashi Deshpande’s Novels... her as a daughter. “I was happy; I got all the freedom I wanted in that house.” (Small Remedies, page 233) So, from childhood onwards there are so many things that stood on the way to freedom. However, lucky enough for Leela, her in-laws were very supportive and she could continue with her studies even after her marriage. “Mai and Vasant were very good to me. Vasant let me go to school, I passed my matric. Mai was proud of me. So my grandmother’s punishment turned out to be a blessing after all.” (Small Remedies, page 233) After her husband died, it was Leela who has worked very hard to support her brother- in-laws in their education. It was also not an easy decision to make on the part of Leela when she got married again for the second time to Joe, who is a Christian. When it comes to her political career there are so many hurdles that stood on the way. So, in order to preserve the privilege of ‘freedom’ that Leela is enjoying she is ready to make any sacrifices or take up any step that is required. When the cancer in her was diagnosed, she does not succumb to any suggestion made by others because that would mean compromising with her freedom. Both Leela and Bai lived their life in their own terms, rebelling the whole system. But it is very admirable to see them having a very firm mind to rule their own life. However, it is only through the narration and experiences of Madhu that we have come to know both Leela and Bai. Madhu has a very good knowledge of both these women and through the recounting of their life only Madhu is trying to reflect and see her own ‘self’. Madhu has her own life tragedies and experiences. Being motherless herself, Madhu has several advantages to experience a girl’s freedom during her childhood. When her father died she explored all possible arrangement to retain her freedom. After her graduation, much against her aunt and Joe’s wishes, she joined Hamidbhai’s City View as assistant editor to be independent and free from all kinds of indebtedness to others. Even her small cell-like room which is like a store room is a sign of her independence where she gets all sorts of freedom. “I have a sense of absolute freedom, of soaring in space.” (Small Remedies, page 86) When Madhu accepts the offer to write the biography of Bai, is it really the need to write Bai’s biographer or is it the need to run away from those memories which make her unable to move forward in life? By escaping the sordid realities of life and her husband, Madhu is looking at herself from different perspectives which ultimately enable her to move forward in life again. Moreover, being always preoccupied with all her domestic life, she
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 89 Dr. Laltlanzuol Khawbung really felt the need of time for herself to be on her true self again. “No wonder women need to be on their own at times, away from men and children.” (Small Remedies, page 137) After reaching Bhavanipur only, Madhu realized that her life has been very monotonous, almost like an imprisonment. In the later part of the novel we have come to know that Madhu has accepted her fate very calmly and her experiences in Bhavanipur has helped her in realizing the need to move ahead in life.
5.2 The Dark Holds No Terror In “The Dark Holds No Terrors”, we have Sarita alias Saru who is a doctor by profession and who constantly is on the run to achieve freedom. During her childhood days Sarita can never enjoy any freedom because her mother was constantly nagging her and imposing her will upon her daughter. In an Indian society being a daughter has several disadvantages and Sarita has to go through several difficulties to achieve her dreams and career. Sarita was so much crippled by her mother’s constant nagging and scolding that she cannot enjoy even the least girlish happiness which her friends were enjoying during those days. To Sarita the phrase “Home Sweet Home” was never applicable; it was only after her mother’s death that she could enjoy the pleasure of being at Home. Now she has the freedom which she can never get before her marriage when her mother was alive. Everybody takes great pleasure and delight to be at home, but to Sarita home means imprisonment. So when she got herself admitted in medical college, she was happier to be away from home than the prospect of becoming a doctor in future. “Freedom at last, she had exulted when she had left home and joined medical college. It had been not just relief but a kind of rebirth to get away from home to the hostel, so different with its cheerful feminine jangle.” (The Dark Holds No Terrors, page 95) Living in hostel gives her great delight because she has all the freedom which she never gets at home. So getting herself admitted in medical college is the only way to ensure her freedom at present and also in the future. When Sarita got married to Manohar, it was not so much because of the love that exist between them, rather the rejection of her mother prompted her to get married because her mother is seen as an agent to curb her will and freedom. So by getting married to Manohar she resisted the power and authority of dominion which is an instrument of denying her freedom. Anything that stood on the path of her freedom, Sarita is ready to do away with it. It is very pathetic to see that Sarita is again running from her husband and because of his constant torture at night which makes her unable to think freely.
90 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 A Reading of Women’s Character in Shashi Deshpande’s Novels...
“And to do that I must get away. Yes, that’s why I’m going. To get away from this house, this paradise of matching curtains and handloom bedspreads. This hell savagery and submission.” (The Dark Holds No Terror, page 28) Her home coming is not so much the need to be with her father; rather it is an escape from the den of torture which took away her freedom. Otherwise, leaving behind two children could be very difficult for any mother. Sarita has to leave her family just like she left her mother to be on her own. “Here she felt a measure of freedom that had eluded her in the other.” (The Dark Holds No Terror, page 95) Thus, we can say that Sarita has to go through so many difficulties to attain her ultimate status and she is constantly running to achieve her dreams and freedom. Freedom is something which is very easy to have but very difficult to feel and experience it. All the characters discussed so far have problems which restrict their freedom. Bai has her domestic chores and marital status which makes her unable to attain her desired freedom. Leela took up big challenge by getting married early to be free. Both Madhu and Sarita had to leave their homes to be able to reflect back their life and think freely. All these women face certain constraints which make them unable to do things as they like and they have to make great sacrifices to go ahead in life. However, those are something which can be seen and dealt with some courage. What about their mental space! All these women; be it Bai or Sarita, Leela or Madhu; they all have been crippled to some extent to think freely. If they had not moved out of their confinement they would not have had a mind of their own. They do not have a mental space of their own. Being a married Brahmin woman, Bai cannot have an independent thought; she has to think like ‘one’. Sarita, in spite of being a well-known doctor often faces problem with her mental preoccupation with certain things which makes her unable to think freely. So is the case with Madhu, although Leela to some extent have a very independent mindset after her marriage. It is not only the freedom to do things as they like, but also mental space of their own which these women greatly desire. However, it is not very easy; nevertheless, in the end we have seen that Madhu and Sarita have to accept the present to be able to move ahead in life. Both Bai and Leela lived their life according to the way they wanted without any sign of regret or repentance. All these women achieved freedom not merely by challenging patriarchy, but by discovering one’s own strength as women
6. Conclusion Thus, it is seen that freedom is something which is never fully given to a ‘marginalized’
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 91 Dr. Laltlanzuol Khawbung class. Shashi deshpande has beautifully dealt with the idea of freedom and how women were denied space in spite of education and several social upliftments. Small Remedies and The Dark Holds No Terror greatly portray the psyche of Indian Women and how they were denied an access to several things.
References Abrams, M.H, (2003). A Glossary of Literary Terms Seventh Edition, Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt. Ltd. Barry, Peter, (2010). Beginning Theory, New Delhi: Viva Books Pvt. Ltd. Deshpande, Shashi, (1990). The Dark Holds No Terro, New Delhi: Penguin Books Deshpande, Shashi, (2001). Small Remedies, New Delhi: Penguin Books Gopal, Priyamvada. Ed, (2010). The Indian English Novel, Nation, History, and Narration, Delhi: Oxford University Press Iyengar, K.R. Srinivasa, (1995). Indian Writing in English, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt.Ltd, Khandagale, Sujata Ramkrushnarao, (2015). Shashi Deshpande’s Narrative Technique and Style of Writing, New Man International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 2 Issue 6 June. retrieved from www.newmanpublication.com Kumari, Y Kusuma, (2017). Women in Shashi Deshpande’s Small Remedies: A Critical Analysis. International Journal of English Research Vol. 3; Issue 5; September; pp 08-10. retrieved from www.englishjournals.com Naik, K. Chanchala. Ed. Writing Difference, The novels of Shashi Deshpande, Delhi: Pancraft Publication, 2005. Sagu, Rajesh; Jha, Vijay Bhushan, (2013). Feminine Consciousness in the Novels of Shashi Deshpande, International Journal of English and Literature Vol. 3, Issue 2, June, pp 53-58, retrieved from https//www.researchgate.net Tharu Susie., Lalita K, (2011). Women Writing in India, Volume1: 600 B.C to the Early Twentieth Century. New Delhi: Oxford University Paperbacks Woolf’s, Virginia, (2000). A Room of One’s Own, London: Penguin Books.
92 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 93-106
THE LANGUAGE IN THE LYRICS OF NIRMALPRABHA BORDOLOI
*
Abstract: The Assamese Lyrics has a glorious history. Assamese lyrics coming through the oral form, it has got written formation in the time of Charjyapada era. The form of modern Assamese lyrics are found in the Aronodoi(1846) published by American Missonary and in the Jonaki (1889). It is established as a new dimension enriched by the influence of western romanticism. Accepting as the basic of Assamese folk songs, Baishnabi Songs of Mahapurusa Sankar Dev and Madhav Dev, the eminent lyricist like Satyanath Bora,Lakshminath Bezbarua,Lakshmiram Barua,Ananda Ch Agarwala, Kirtinath Sarmah Bordoloi, Jyotiprasad Agarwala, Bishnu Rabha, Parvati Prasad Barua, Bhupen Hazarika, Rudra Barua, Keshab Mahanta, Nirmalprabha Bordoloi and many others have made the highest pillar of the Assamese lyrics, contributing their valuable thoughts and ideas through lyrical poems. Nirmalprabha Bordoloi has created a new wave in the field of Modern Assamese lyrics, by her own poetic thought, style and expression. Her notable writings, Sonborania Aei, Surujmukhi and Phular ei melate are one of the best lyrical poem collection of the Assamese Lyrics. Although the poet's songs are mainly dedicated to the human being, her personal profound feelings also found in the some of her Lyrics. In this paper it will be observed the uses of language of Nirmalprabha Bordoloi's lyrics and hope, it may enlighten the poet's writing style and internal beauty of her Lyrics. Keywords : Assamese Lyrics, Style, Internal beauty
* Assistant Professor, Department of Assamese, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 93 0
94 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 95 96 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 97 98 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 W. B. Yeats ‘All sounds, all colours, all forms, either because of their preor- dained energies or because of long association, evoke indefinable and yet precise emotions, or, as I perfer to think, call down among us certain disembodied powers, whose footsteps over our hearts we call emotions; and when sound and colour, and form are in a musical relation, a beautiful relation to one another, they become, as it were, one sound, one colour, one form, and evoke an emotion that is made out of their distinct evocations and yet is one emotion.’
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 99 100 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 101
102 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 103 1 , ,
104 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 , , ,
, ,
, , , , , , , ,
,
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 105 -
106 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 107-115
SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE 19TH CENTURY TEA-TRIBES IN UMAKANTA SHARMA’S EJAK MANUH EKHON ARANYA
*
Abstract : Under the British rule in Assam the growth of tea industry and its close connection with tea-tribes have constracted the plot in Umakanta Sarma’s Ejak manuh Ekhon Aranya. The story of this novel describes the life of tea tribes from the time of their migration in pre-independence period. They wanted to get relief from the sorrow in their homeland. So they migrated to Assam and then after confronted with the attrocities both from fellow countrymen and from the foreigners. All the ill-fated people suffered very badly both socially and economically. In the history of Assam, the heart breaking story of oppression on this tea tribe are written in golden words. Umakanta Sarma rewrites that history in the novel. In this paper, we have tried to focus on the socio-economic problems of the tea-tribes in the colonial period as depicted in the novel. Thus, we shall try to study the social status of the tribal people as shown in the novel. Keywords: Tea-tribe, Colonial suppression, Socio-economic status
* Research Scholar, Deapartment of Assamese, Dibrugarh University, E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 107
108 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019
,
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 109 [
110 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 111 First Plantation Act
black listed
‘...... The workers had no freedom movement. Communication with neighbouring tea gardens and villages was under strict control, even prohibited...... In many gardens the coolies were virtually prisoners under guard, night and day.’
112 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Plantation Act
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 113 Planta- tion Act
114 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019
Jha, J. C, Aspects of Indentured Inland Emigration to North-East India 1859-1918, p.22 Das, Rajani Kanta, Plantation Labour In India, p.31 Ibid, p.107 I Guha, Amalendu, Planter-Raj to Swaraj Freedom Struggle And Electoral Politics in Assam 1826-1947, p.44-45 Das, Rajani Kanta, op. cit., 31 Ibid, p.110 Ibid, p.20 Ibid, p. 145 Guha, Amalendu, op.cit., 16 Das, Rajani Kanta, op.cit., 116
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 115 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 116-130
IN SEARCH OF NARRATIVE IN BENGALI NOVELS OF THE BRAMHAPUTRA VALLEY
*
Abstract: When we try to critically analyse literary contributions of a particu- lar region, it obviously tend to find out the internal uniquness of the creation. The bengali novels written in Bramhaputra valley bear such characteristics for the purpose. The history of migration or settlement of Bengali speaking people in this region can be traced back to 13th century. Some of their successors contributed in modern Bengali literature from 19th century itself. But the valley got its first Bengali novel only in 1967. From then the novelists of the region have made a sizable contribution to the Bengali literature. In recent time a sub- tle change have been noticed in theme selection, manifestation and the manner of addressing different social issues arround them. Migration and settlement, relentless displacement, social constraints and conflict, resentment, existence issues and the cultural-linguistic harmony etc. are rapidly replacing certain customary approach of early days with firm reliability. This has already began to create a new narrative of Bengali novels as a whole. In this analysis we have tried to find out the uniqueness of this narrative. Keywords: Narrative, Migration, Cultural-linguistic harmony
Associate Professor, Department of Bengali, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9, E-mail: [email protected]
116 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 117 0
118 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019
)
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 119 0
Narratology
120 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 121 0
6.
122 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 123 0
124 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 125 0
126 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 127 0
128 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 129 0
,
,
130 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 131-138
LITERARY PERIODICAL PRITHIBI AN ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO BENGALI SHORT STORIES IN THE NORTH EAST *
Abstract The contribution of little magazines in the developments of Bengali Short Stories in Assam is very encouraging Prithibi is one of them The Short Stories published in this little magazines reflects the realities of modern society in and around us Human relation in the midst of social constrains is the main theme or subject matter of all this stories From the point of view of subjectivity some other important contemporary issue were also paved the way to build up the story line of different writers In this article we have tried to analyse the subjectivity in the stories published therein Keywords Prithibi Short stories Social conflicts
* Guest Faculty, Department of Bengali, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 131 132 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Live and Let Live Live and Let Live theory
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 133 134 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 135 136 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 137 .
.
. . . .
138 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 139-149
IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON FOLK-FESTIVALS OF ASSAM
*
Abstract: Globalisation is a process, by which different businesses and tech- nologies, various cultures and literatures, different traditions and life styles spread to the whole world. Globalisation affects a country by economical, po- litical, social, literary, cultural and psychological ways. The folk-festivals of Assam, a North-East Indian state are also impacted by globalisation to a great extent. Globalisation affects Assamese cultures made of folk-festivals of vari- ous castes and tribes like Assamese, Boro, Mising, Deuri, Rabha, Tiwa, Kachari, Karbi, Moran, Tai-Phakiyal, Tai-Ahom, Tea- tribe positively and negatively. When one culture or folk-festival of a country goes close to the others due to the globalisation, it goes far away from its own characters of folk-festivals, dances, songs and localised characters. Due to globalisation, the limits of folk- culture have also been limited to some extent. Lots of changes occurred due to globalisation in all areas whether in bihu dances or bihu songs as in other folk- festivals. We have to protect the own cultural features of folk-festivals despite the effects of globalisation on it. Keywords: Assam, Folk-festivals, Globalisation.
* Assistant Professor, Hindi Department, Pragjyotish College, E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 139 MLA (Modern Language Association)
:
:
140 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
:
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 141 :
:
:
:
:
142 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 143 144 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
:
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 145 ’
:
:
146 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 LBC https:// londonbihu.com,dated
Folk song
Fusion
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 147 :
:
148 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
: :
Web.4 Aug. 2014.< https://londonbihu.com/>
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 149 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 150-157
A STUDY OF INDIA’S PARTITION TRAGEDY AS DEPICTED IN ‘AADHA GAON’
* *
Abstract: During the 20th century, the partition of India was marked as the saddest event in Indian history. Contemporary writers tried to establish human values and peace in their writings.In the world of Hindi literature RahiMasum Raza was one of those novelists who have witnessed the partition of India and depicted the tragic scenario in his novel ‘AadhaGaon’ through the resident of Gangauli, the village of Uttar Pradesh.During the freedom movement, the whole country united and started revolting against the British, which shaken the British rule. The British tried to break the communal harmony by sowing the seed of a divide and rule policy. The contemporary politician also took the advantage of communalism.This resulted in the partition of India, which is a devastating disaster for the nation.The people that lived together for centuries were divided on the ground of religion. The religious biasness has made the country suffered socially, politically, economically and culturally. Through the proposed topic, an effort is made to discuss upon the political, religious, cultural, social and economic tragedy reflected in the novel ‘AadhaGaon’. Keywords : Tragedy, Partition, Religion.
* Associate Professor, E-mail: [email protected] & * Research Scholar, Department of Hindi, Gauhati University, E-mail: [email protected]
150 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
:
: 4. :
MLA (Modern Language Associa- tion)
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 151 ,
152 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
:
:
:
:
:
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 153 ,
:
:
:
154 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 : :
:
:
:
:
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 155 ,
:
:
:
:
:
:
156 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 ‘ ’
: :
: , : : :
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 157 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 158-169
SONGS OF GULZAR AND BHUPEN HAZARIKA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
*
Abstract: Gulzar (1936) and Bhupen Hazarika (1926-2011) are the prominent lyricists of Hindi and Assamese music respectively. Both have been successful creators, poets, filmmakers, writers in their respective languages and regions. But Bharat Ratna Bhupen Hazarika is more familiar as a unique singer in the Assamese music world. His voice is familiar to all Assamese people. The songs written by him have made the Assamese ethnic life so rich that today we feel proud to call ourselves Assamese. Despite being of different language and province, Gulzar and Bhupen Hazarika have similar themes in their songs. Love, nature, patriotism, opinion towards life, humanism, social, political and cultural depiction is the main themes of their songs. Sympathy towards the masses and rebellion against exploitation are also found in their songs. The songs of Gulzar have become popular among people all over India for their effectiveness, simplicity, sentiment, seriousness, etc. Similarly, the songs of Bhupen Hazarika are also acclaimed all over the world due to their elegance, simplicity, fluency etc. Bhupen Hazarika was determined for the welfare of humanity all over the world. He is credited for making cultural coordination with different languages and cultures by making Hindi and Assamese art and culture familiar to the whole world. Gulzar is one of the finest lyricists of Hindi music of current time. The Hindi music world is incomplete without him. There are some similarities and differences in the themes of their songs. In this research paper, we will do a comparative study of the various aspects of the songs of Gulzar and Bhupen Hazarika. Keywords: Gulzar, Bhupen Hazarika, Songs
Research Scholar, Department of Hindi, Gauhati University, E-mail: [email protected]
158 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 ‘ ’
MLA (Modern Language Association)
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 159 160 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 161 162 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 163 164 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 :
,
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 165 166 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 167 7.8.1
7.8.2
7.8.3
7.8.4
7.8.5
7.8.6 7.8.7
168 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Shekhar, Sunjoy, 100 Lyrics GULZAR. Gurgaon: Penguin Books, 2012. Shekhar, Sunjoy, Another 100 Lyrics GULZAR. Gurgaon: Penguin Books, 2016.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 169 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 170-178
STUDIES ON THE VARIATION OF PKA VALUES OF PHOSPHORIC ACID SUPPORTED ON DIFFERENT SOLID SURFACES
Dr. Saitanya Kr. Bharadwaj*
Abstract: The variation of pKa values of ortho-phosphoric acid supported on various supports like Montmorillonite clay, Silica gel, Alumina and copper (II) oxide have been studied. In this study phosphoric acid is absorbed chemically on a solid support in the ratio of (1:10) and (1:1) and then acidity is determined by potentiometric titration. Finally the acidity of phosphoric acid is converted into pKa values. Keywords: Phosphoric acid, Solid support, pKa, Potentiometric titration
1. Introduction
pKa is a measure of acid strength. Generally, pKa was introduced as an index to express the acidity of weak acids. Since the dissociation of weak acids into ions is incomplete, equilibrium exists between the reactants and products at any given time and temperature.
The dissociation constant for the acid, i.e. Ka (also known as acidity constant, or acid- ionization constant) is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid solution. It is dependent on the identity and chemical properties of the acid. Mathematically, pKa is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the Ka in g ions/L, pKa= -log Ka. For an acid, larger the value of pKa, weaker will be the acid at any given pH. A weak acid has a pKa value in the approximate range “2 to 12 in water. Acids with a pKa a value of less than about “2 are said
Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, Pragjytotish College, Guwahati-9 Email: [email protected]
170 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Studies on the Variation of Pka Values of Phosphoric Acid...
to be strong acids. The relation between pKa and pH is given by Henderson–Hasselbach equation, i.e. pH= pKa + log {[salt]/[acid]}. For an acid (HA), the dissociation constant is given by . pKa values of different weak acids are available, however, the same for strong acid cannot be measured accurately experimentally, can be estimated by theoretically.
Experimentally pKa value can be determined by potentiometric titrations using pH meter. pH meter directly measures the strength and concentration of an acid. At the halfway point in the titration, exactly half of the HA originally present is neutralized, and therefore the - + concentrations of HA and A will be equal. Hence Ka =[H3O ]1/2, or we can say at the equivalence point pH= pKa. In case of phosphoric acid at least two half-equivalence points are present corresponding to pKa1 and pKa2.This relationship is valid only if the initial dissociation of the acid is negligible. In the case of a very dilute solution, the pH at the midpoint of the titration bears no relation to the value of Ka. Rapid increase in pH and hence inflation in the titration curve at the equivalence point can be accounted for determination of pKa values. As the equivalence point is approached, the concentration of un-reacted HA becomes progressively smaller so that successive addition of NaOH neutralizes a greater fraction of the remaining HA. This produces a large change in the [HA]/[A-] ratio, therefore, an inflation in pH of the solution is observed. At the equivalence point, the acid and base have reacted completely to yield the salt, NaA. The pH at the equivalence point is determined by the strength of the base, A–. The conjugate base of a weak acid is a strong base therefore it will react with water to produce hydroxide ions (hydrolysis).
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is a tribasic acid, i.e. it has three ionisable protons. It ionizes in three steps, each step having a distinctive dissociation constant: Ka1, Ka2, and Ka3. However, the titration curve of phosphoric acid shows two prominent equivalence point regions. The third equivalence point is so small it is unobservable in aqueous titrations. Dissociation of as given below: + - + - H3PO4 + H2O ! H3O + H2PO4 Ka1= [H3O ][H2PO4 ] / [H3PO4] …... pKa1 value: 2.15 - - 2- + 2- H2PO4 + H2O ! H3O + HPO4 Ka2 = [H3O ][HPO4 ] / [H2PO4] ..…. pKa2 value: 7.20 2- + 3- + 3- 2- HPO4 + H2O ! H3O +PO4 K a3= [H3O ][ PO4 ] / [HPO4 ] ….... pKa3 value: 12.32 pKa measures the ease of loss of proton of an acid which is dependent upon electronegativity of the central atom and its attached group. In phosphoric acid, the phosphorus is surrounded by four electronegative oxygen atoms. If one of these oxygen atoms are attached to another substance/atom, the acidity of the phosphate group may increase or decrease, thereby changing the pKa values. Apart from the electronegativity of the central atom, pKa values of an acid depend on various factors like solvent properties in
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 171 Dr. Saitanya Kr. Bharadwaj which it is studied. The polarity of solvent may affect the dissociation of the proton. Again while doing the titration the solution strength of acid and bases undergoing titration affect in the neutralization point. Hence all the factors has to be considered while comparing the pKa values.
2. Literature reviews pKa values for any substance having an acidic proton is very important to measure its acid strength. There are various analytical methods used in determination of pKa values (Pathare et. al. 2014). Determination of pKa values by potentiometric titration for different biologically active and chemical significant molecules has been studied (Kelen & Sanil 2009). The importance of pKa values have also been studied with respect to aerosol chemistry (Wellen et. al. 2017). The pKa values of some hydroxylated benzoic acids in methanol- water binary mixture were determined by LC methodology and potentiometry. The results were compared to validate the potentiometric method and it was found that potentiometric method is one of the easiest methods to determine the pKa (Erdemgil 2007). The pKa values of Human and veterinary antibiotics have been determined by potentiometric titration. This includes various sulphonamides, fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines etc. The pKa values obtained from potentiometric titration has been compared with other method and it has been observed the results gave almost same values (Qiung 2004). Similarly Barbic et.al. determined the pKa values of different pharmaceutical ingredients.
3. Objectives of the study
Attachment of phosphate from phosphoric acid onto different solid surfaces like TiO2,
SiO2, MoO3 and clay has been reported (Samantary & Parida 2001, Parida et. al. 1999 and Adamiak et. al. 2011). However their quantitative and systematic studies on the changes of pKa values have not been studied till now. Qualitatively it has been found that acidic property of attached phosphoric acid varies and shows different properties. These modified oxides are also applied for different acid driven organic reactions where these act as catalyst (Clark 2002). These are one type of “solid acid catalyst”. It is well documented that solid acid catalyses many industrially important reactions. Metal and non-metal oxides have specific layered structure. Incorporation or attachment of different chemicals on the layered structure provides different physical and chemical properties. The most common layered oxides are clay, silica, alumina etc. Out of various clays, Montmorillonite is a very soft aluminosilicate having microscopic crystalline structure. Similarly, alumina and silica have also definite layered structure. Copper oxide is another
172 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Studies on the Variation of Pka Values of Phosphoric Acid... metal oxide, which is basic in nature and used in various organic reactions due to its rigidity in the structure. Therefore we choose these solids for our studies and tried to attach phosphate group chemically on the surface. Herein we report the results obtained for the pKa values of phosphoric acid attached onto different solids like Montmorillonite clay, alumina, silica and copper oxide. The determined pKa values are compared to conclude the best surface for adsorption of phosphoric acid.
4. Experimental Chemicals and solvents were used without purifications. Ortho phosphoric acid ( International chemicals, India), Sodium hydroxide (CDH, New Delhi), Montmorillonite clay ( Sigmaaldrich, India), Oxalic acid (CDH, India), Alumina ( Sigmaaldrich, India), Silica Gel (Merck, India), Copper (II) Oxide (CDH, India) were used as purchased. Sodium hydroxide solution is standardized with oxalic acid. pH Meter (LI 120 Elico) was used to monitor the pH of the solutions. Preparation of Solid supported phosphoric acid: In a typical experiment, 0.05 gm (0.05 gm/1.88 gm/mL=0.0265 mL=26 µL) of phosphoric acid was mixed with 0.5 gm of Montmorillonite (Clay) in a silica crucible then heated on a sand bath for about 2 hrs until the temperature raised to 250oc. Then the mixture was allowed to cool in a desiccator. Similar procedures were followed for different solids like Alumina, Silica Gel,and copper (II) oxide. Procedure for Potentiometric titration of phosphoric acid: 8.6 µL of orthophosphoric acid was measured with a micro pipette and taken in a 250 mL beaker. 50 mL of distilled water was added to it and mixed. pH of the solution is measured with the help of pH meter and recorded the same by adding 0.5 mL of standardized 0.01 N NaOH solution with a burette. Potentiometric titration of “Solid supported phosphoric acid”: 0.3 gm (1:10) or 0.5 gm (1:1) of solid supported phosphoric acid weighted out accurately and transferred it to a 250 mL beaker containing 50 mL of distilled water. Stirred the solution and pH of the solution is measured with the help of pH meter and recorded the same by adding 0.5 mL of standardized 0.01 N NaOH solution with a burette. The pH values are incorporated in table 1.
5. Result and Discussion The phosphoric acid is attached to the solid surface by heating in a definite ratio in a silica crucible at 250°C for two hours. The mixture is kept in a sand bath and stirred with a glass rod. After two hours the water present in phosphoric acid is expected to vaporize and
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 173 Dr. Saitanya Kr. Bharadwaj the mixture is dried. The samples are cooled and also kept in a desiccator. This is done mixing the phosphoric acid and solid in 1:1 and 1:10 ratio (by mass) to study the effect of mass percentage on the pKa values. In the present investigation, we study the pKa values of the phosphoric acids supported on different solids by potentiometrically. The potentiometric titration of phosphoric acid with NaOH solution has been carried out by using pH meter. 0.01 N NaOH standardized solution is used to titrate the acid solution. Aliquot amount of NaOH is added from the burette and pH values are recorded each time. The pH values are incorporated in table 1. For the potentiometric titration of the solid samples, 0.3 g from 1:10 ratio or 0.5 g from 1:1 ratio was taken. The varied amount is taken to maintain the concentration of H+ ion in solution. The values for all titrations are given in Table 1. The pH values are plotted against the volume of NaOH added and shown in the Figure 1(a) and 2(b). The derivative plot is shown in the Figure 1(b) and 2(b). The pKa is determined directly from the derivative plot.
Table 1: pH of orthophosphoric acid with solid support in the ratio of 10:1
NaOH Phosphoric acid pH values of phosphoric acid treated pH values of phosphoric acid (mL) with different solid (1:10) treated with different solid (1:1) clay alumina silica clay alumina silica 0 4.14 3.07 4.01 3.69 2.98 3.03 3.01 1 4.18 3.13 4.14 3.78 3.02 3.09 3.02 2 4.22 3.21 4.34 3.86 3.08 3.17 3.03 3 4.26 3.28 4.58 3.97 3.17 3.27 3.04 4 4.31 3.37 4.85 4.11 3.24 3.41 3.04 5 4.37 3.51 5.18 4.31 3.33 3.52 3.06 6 4.46 3.64 5.47 4.57 3.47 3.65 3.11 7 4.52 3.81 5.72 4.91 3.61 3.85 3.17 8 4.65 4.03 5.89 5.33 3.79 4.06 3.25 9 4.85 4.28 6.15 5.66 3.94 4.28 3.35 10 5.25 4.57 6.41 5.92 4.18 4.49 3.49 11 5.98 4.84 6.59 6.09 4.37 4.71 3.65 12 6.21 5.13 6.76 6.26 4.59 4.89 3.87 13 6.41 5.34 6.91 6.37 4.81 5.03 4.02 14 6.52 5.58 7.05 6.47 4.93 5.27 4.34 15 6.61 5.72 7.17 6.57 5.12 5.44 4.6 16 6.71 5.87 7.32 6.65 5.32 5.61 4.91 17 6.76 5.97 7.42 6.73 5.46 5.81 5.1 18 6.84 6.07 7.55 6.82 5.61 5.89 5.35 19 6.91 6.21 7.67 6.91 5.72 6.01 5.51 20 6.95 6.25 7.81 6.97 5.84 6.09 5.65 21 7.01 6.32 7.92 7.05 5.92 6.19 5.85 174 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Studies on the Variation of Pka Values of Phosphoric Acid... 20 6.95 6.25 7.81 6.97 21 7.01 6.32 7.92 7.05 5.92 6.19 5.85 22 7.05 6.42 8.03 7.11 6.03 6.29 5.95 23 7.11 6.49 8.12 7.16 6.12 6.39 6.02 24 7.15 6.56 8.32 7.17 6.22 6.47 6.11 25 7.21 6.61 8.38 7.21 6.31 6.55 6.17 26 7.24 6.67 8.48 7.27 6.38 6.62 6.25 27 7.28 6.73 8.58 7.33 6.45 6.71 6.28 28 7.33 6.79 8.64 7.41 6.52 6.77 6.34 29 7.37 6.84 8.73 7.48 6.56 6.85 6.4 30 7.42 6.91 8.81 7.54 6.62 6.9 6.45 31 7.48 6.93 8.91 7.61 6.71 7.01 6.51 32 7.51 6.98 8.97 7.67 6.75 7.07 6.54 33 7.6 7.03 9.03 7.74 6.8 7.14 6.61 34 7.66 7.09 9.07 7.81 6.86 7.2 6.65 35 7.68 7.16 9.18 7.92 6.89 7.27 6.7 36 7.72 7.21 9.25 7.99 6.95 7.37 6.74 37 7.78 7.27 9.36 8.07 7.04 7.44 6.81 38 7.83 7.31 9.37 8.16 7.06 7.48 6.85 39 7.91 7.35 9.45 8.26 7.12 7.58 6.88 40 7.98 7.41 9.52 8.37 7.2 7.66 6.93 41 8.04 7.46 9.64 8.51 7.25 7.73 7.02 42 8.13 7.49 9.74 8.61 7.3 7.79 7.09 43 8.23 7.53 9.82 8.75 7.37 7.86 7.11 44 8.32 7.61 9.91 8.87 7.42 7.92 7.15 45 8.42 7.65 10.02 8.98 7.45 7.95 7.21 46 8.52 7.71 10.09 9.02 7.52 8.02 7.26
Figure1: Potentiometric titration curves (a) and its derivative (b) to determine the pKa values of the sample prepared with 1:1 mass ratio of phosphoric acid and solid support.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 175 Dr. Saitanya Kr. Bharadwaj
Figure2: Potentiometric titration curves (a) and its derivative (b) to determine the pKa values of the sample prepared with 1:10 mass ratio of phosphoric acid and solid support.
The pKa values are determined from the derivative potentiometric titration curve and the values are included in the Table 2. From the pKa values it is observed that there is no effect of clay (1:1) on the pKa values. However negligible decrease in pKa values is observed in case of 1:10 phosphoric acid and clay ratio. Alumina gives better results than that of clay. It might be due to formation of aluminium phosphate which is more acidic than neat phosphoric acid. Silica shows lower pKa values in case of 1:1 whereas much higher value for 1:10 ratio.
In case of 1:10 ratio highest pKa value indicates that some aggregation might form which has lower acidity.
Table 2 : pKa table of phosphoric acid and solid supported phosphoric acid
1 pKa1a Phosphoric acid 10
2 pKa1b Phosphoric acid +Clay (1:1) 10
3 pKa1c Phosphoric acid +Clay (1:10) 9.9
4 pKa1d Phosphoric acid +Alumina (1:1) 5.0
5 pKa1e Phosphoric acid +Alumina (1:10) 8.1
6 pKa1f Phosphoric acid +Silica(1:1) 7.0
7 pKa1g Phosphoric acid +Silica (1:10) 14
176 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Studies on the Variation of Pka Values of Phosphoric Acid...
6. Conclusion From the experiment it is found that pKa value of phosphoric acid is 10, which is less than that of standard value ( i.e.12). This is due to the factors acting on the titration procedure; they are strength of the acid and base solution and temperature of the solution. The pH is determined by the ion product for water. The first small excess of NaOH greatly increases - + the concentration of OH , concomitantly decreasing the H3O concentration, and causing the pH to continue to decrease. When phosphoric acid is treated Montmorillonite in (1:10) and (1:1) ratio the pKa value is 10 which means it does not effects the pka value even Montmorillonite is acidic while in case of alumina which is neutral in nature, (1:10) give pKa lower than the (1:1); silica gel which is acidic in nature, (1:10) give pKa lower than (1:1) and cupric oxide which is basic in nature, (1:10) give lower pKa than (1:1). In every case when phosphoric acid is treated with solid surface i.e alumina, silica gel G and cupric oxide in 1:1 ratio gives the lower pKa value than that of 1:10 ratio that means (1:1) is more acidic.
In conclusion, the pKa value of an acid can be changed by supporting the acid on different surfaces; hence the chemical properties can be tuned. Supporting by mean of chemisorption gives acidic solid surface, which is far better than mineral acid and are used in many acid driven organic reactions as catalyst. We have seen that pKa values can be determined easily with the help of potentiometric titration. Inversely, determining the pKa we can have an idea on the behaviour of the acidic proton. This comparison of pKa values are found to be valid as all the experiment were done by maintaining the same condition.
References Adamiak, J., Alichnewicz, D. K., Maksimowski, P., Skupinski, W, (2011). Characterization of
a novel solid catalyst, H3PO4/MoO3/SiO2, and its application in toluene nitration, J. Mol. Catal. A Gen. 351, 62-69. Babic, B. Horvat, A. J.M., Mutavdžiæ, D., Marija, P., Macan M., (2007). Determination of
pKa values of active pharmaceutical ingredients, TrAC Trends in Anal. Chem. 26(11) Bebbe Pathare, B.; Tambe, V. & Patil V (2014). A review on various analytical methods used in determination of dissociation constant, Int J Pharm Pharm Sci, 6(8), 26-34 Clark, J.H, (2002). Solid Acids for Green Chemistry Acc. Chem. Res. 35, 791-797. Erdemgil, F. Z., ªanli, N., Özkan, G., Barbosa, J., Guiteras, J., Beltrán, J. L., (2007) Determination
of pKa values of some hydroxylated benzoic acids in methanol–water binary mixtures by LC methodology and potentiometry, Talanta, 72, 489-496 Kelen M. & Sanil, N, (2009). Determination of pKa values of some auxins in methanol-water mixtures by reversed phase liquid chromatography and potentiometric methods, J. Braz. Chem. Soc., 20 (1), 133-140.
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 177 Dr. Saitanya Kr. Bharadwaj
Parida, K.M., Acharya, M., Samantaray, S. K. & Mishra, T, (1999). Studies on anion promoted titania. 1: Preparation, characterization, and catalytic activity toward alcohol and cumene conversion reactions of phosphated titania, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 217, 388-394. Qiung, Z., and Adam, C, (2004). Potentiometric determination of acid dissociation constants
(pKa) for human and veterinary antibiotics, Water research, 38 (12), 2874-2890 Samantaray, S. K. & Parida, K.M, (2001). Studies on anion-promoted titania: 3. Effect of concentration and source of phosphate ion, method of preparation, and activation temperature on redox, acid–base, textural and catalytic properties of titania, J. Mol. Catal. A Chem. 176, 151-163. Wellen B. A., Lach, E. A. & Allen, H. C, (2017). Surface pKa of octanoic, nonanoic, and decanoic fatty acids at the air–water interface: applications to atmospheric aerosol chemistry Phys.Chem.Chem.Phys,19, 26551.
178 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 PRAG CONSILIENCE: ISSN 2456-6861, RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132 A Multi-lingual Peer-reviewed Annual Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Vol.4, No.1 (2019), pp. 179-186
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN BMI AND BLOOD PRESSURE OF YOUNG ADULT MALES OF LATAKATA AREA OF GUWAHATI
Sanjiv Mallick*
Abstract: The blood pressure and body mass index (BMI) are important for evaluating the health of children, adolescents and adults. The purpose of the present study is to examine the association between blood pressure and body mass index (BMI). A cross-sectional study was conducted among 200 young adult males of Latakata Area of Guwahati, and age ranging from 18-32 years. The subjects were divided into three different age groups to study age trends. Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure is higher among subjects of 28-32 years with elevated BMI; normal blood pressure was found among the subjects of 23-27 years with normal BMI and low blood pressure is found among the subjects of 18-22 years who are underweight. Keywords: BMI, Blood Pressure, Young-adult.
1 .Introduction Body mass index is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of individual. The BMI is an attempt to quantify the amount of tissue mass (muscle, fat and bone) in an individual and then categorize that a person as underweight, normal, overweight or obese based on that value. Body mass index is positively and independently associated with morbidity and mortality from hypertension, cardiovascular disease, type II diabetes mellitus, and other chronic diseases(Pi-Sunyer, F.X,1993).
* Guest Faculty, Department of Anthropology, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 179 Sanjiv Mallick
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels, when used without further specification. Blood pressure usually refers to the pressure in arteries of the systematic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one heart beat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heart beats) and is measured in millimeter of mercury (mmHg), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure (considered to be zero for convenience). The relationship between BMI and BP has long been the subject of epidemiological research. Positive association of BMI and BP has also been reported among Asian populations (Gupta, R, et.al, Kapur S.S, 1995 & 2000). Around the world, traditional populations often have low blood pressure (<120/80) and show little increase with age (Dressler,W.W, 1999). Similarly, in India, the traditional tribes and caste groups, which represent a substantial percent of the country’s population, are believed to have lower BP than other ethnic groups (Kusuma, Y.S, et.al, 2002). Gradually, with changing social environment, marked increase in BP was noted (Nirmala, A, 2001). However, few tribes and caste populations have been explored for such studies, in spite of India’s diversity in terms of biological as well as sociocultural backgrounds, especially in northeastern region of India.
2. Review of Literature Innumerable studies on BMI (Body Mass Index) and Blood Pressure (BP) were done by different scholars from different parts of the world. Jarvase E, et.al. (2009) studied the Sex differences and Relationship between blood pressure and age among the Igbos of Nigeria. In 2010, Wang H, et.al., studied the Blood pressure, body mass index and risk of cardiovascular disease in Chinese men and women. In India the studies were mainly combined with some basic parameters like height, weight and some physiological variables. The scholars like Kusuma et.al.,(2002), Gupta S and Kapoor S (2010), NK Mungreiphy et.al., (2011) also studied the blood pressure and body mass index in different populations. Body Mass Index Relates to Blood Pressure among Adults was studied by the authors like Suman Dua, Monika Bhukar and Satwanti Kapoor (2014). Suman Dua, et.al., found in their study that age was positively correlated with blood pressure (both systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure). The relationship between blood pressure and age was found to be significant.
3. Objectives of the Study The main objective of the present paper is to assess the relationship between body mass
180 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Association between BMI and blood pressure of young adult males... index and blood pressure of young adult males of Latakata area of Guwahati. With this prime objective the paper attempts- (i) To find out the mean values of BMI according to the age group. (ii) To find out the mean values of Systolic and Diastolic blood pressure with reference to the age group.
4. Subjects and Methods A cross sectional study was conducted among the 200 young adult male, age ranging from 18 to 32 years. The subjects were divided into three different age groups. Door to door survey was carried out to collect data. The subjects were selected from Latakata area in Kamrup (M) district of Assam. Both the purpose of the study and techniques to be used were explained to each subject. All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Young adult or youth is the time of life when one is young, but often means the time between childhood and adulthood (maturity). Young adulthood represents the transition from the complete development of the singular self and identity to the social out-reach [Erikson, 1968]. The member states use different chronologies to define youth, the United Nations defines youth as a persons between the ages of 15 and 24 with all UN statistics based on this range. The UN also recognizes that this varies without prejudice to other age groups listed by member states such as 18-30. A useful distinction within the UN itself can be made between teenagers (i.e., those between the ages of 13 and 19) and young adults (those between the ages of 18 and 32).
5. Assessment and Classifications of BMI and BP For the assessment of BMI, height and weight measurements were taken using standard protocols given by Weiner and Lourie [Weiner, J.S & J.A. Lourie, 1981]. Stature was measured by anthropometer and weight was measured using portable weighing machine in light clothing and without shoes. Standard mercury sphygmomanometer with appropriate cuff size was used to measure blood pressure. The subject was asked to sit relaxed in a chair with his arm supported comfortably and pressure cuff was applied closely to the upper arm. The cuff was rapidly inflated to pressure above the level at which the radial pulse could no longer be felt. The stethoscope was placed lightly over the brachial artery and the mercury column was immediately allowed to fall at the rate of 2mmHg per second. The first perception of the sound was taken as the systolic pressure and then the mercury was allowed to fall
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 181 Sanjiv Mallick further till the sound ceased to be tapping in quality, became fully muffled, and finally disappeared. The level where it disappeared was taken as the diastolic pressure. The cuff was then deflated to zero pressure. The measurement was repeated in a trice with five minute interval and the average taken for accuracy. Statistical analysis of the data collected were done by using SPSS 16.0. Chi square test was done to determine the association between BMI, age, systolic and diastolic BP. The value of BMI was calculated and summarized age group wise, and in order to assess BMI- based nutritional status, recommended cut-off points for Asians were used. Blood pressure was classified based on JNC 8. Body mass index (BMI) is calculated as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters (kg/m2). The cut-off point of BMI according to Asian standard is given below: BMI Cut-Off Underweight <18.5 Normal 18.5-22.9 Overweight 23-24.9 Pre-obese 25-29.9 Obese ≥30 Obese type-I 30-40 Obese type-II 40.1-50 Obese type-III >50
Categorization of Blood pressure according to the Eighth Joint National Committee are as follows: Category Systolic (mmHg) Diastolic (mmHg) Normal 90-119 60-79 Prehypertension 120-139 80-89 Stage 1 Hypertension 140-159 90-99 Stage 2 Hypertension >160 >100 Isolated systolic Hypertension >/=140 <90
6. Results Body mass index of young adult males in three different age groups are displayed in Table 1. The mean value for BMI was found to be highest in the 28-32 age group. Mean BMI is lowest which is 18.3 in the age group 18-22.
182 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Association between BMI and blood pressure of young adult males...
Table 1. BMI of the young adult male in different age group. Age Group (in Years) No. of Individual BMI (Mean ± SD) 18-22 70 18.3±1.45 23-27 65 23.08±2.65 28-32 65 26.59±3.47
Table 2. Blood pressure among young adult males in different age groups. Age Group (in Years) No. of Individual Systolic (Mean±SD) Diastolic (Mean±SD) 18-22 70 88±10.07 57±7.89 23-27 65 118±14.25 79±8.97 28-32 65 136±15.79 88±10.01
The mean value of systolic and diastolic BP is low in the age group of 18 to 22 years. The mean value is normal in the age group of 23 to 27 and mean value is high in the age group of 28 to 32.
Table3. Systolic and Diastolic blood pressure of young adult males in different BMI categories. BMI Classification N (No. of Individual) Systolic (Mean±SD) Diastolic (Mean±SD) Underweight 70 88±10.07 57±7.89 Normal 65 118±14.25 79±8.97 Overweight 61 134±15.50 88±10.01 Obese 4 141±16.18 92±10.65
From the above table we can get that the underweight young adult males have low BP whereas normal young adult males have normal BP. Overweight and obese young adult have hypertension. Table 4. Distribution of Subjects in different categories of BMI and BP.
BMI N % Underweight 70 35 Normal 65 32.5 Overweight/Obese 65 32.5
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 183 Sanjiv Mallick
Total 200 100 Systolic BP N % Low 70 35 Normal 65 32.5 Prehypertension 61 30.5 Hypertension Stage-I 4 2 Hypertension Stage -II Total 200 100 Diastolic BP N % Low 70 35 Normal 65 32.5 Prehypertension 61 30.5 Hypertension Stage-I 4 2 Hypertension Stage -II Total 200 100
From the above table it is cleared that the underweight have low systolic and diastolic BP whereas normal young adult have normal systolic and diastolic BP and overweight and obese have prehypertension and hypertension stage-I category.
Table. 5. Association between BMI and Blood pressure with the help of Chi Square test.
Age Group No. of BMI Systolic Diastolic Row Totals (in Years) Individual 18-22 70 (55.88) 18.3 (19.00) 88 (95.55) 57 (62.58) 233.3 [3.57] [0.05] [0.60] [0.50] 23-27 65 (68.35) 23.08 (23.24) 118 (116.87) 79 (76.55) 285.08 [0.16] [0.00] [0.01] [0.08] 28-32 65 (75.78) 26.59 (25.76) 136 (129.58) 88 (84.87) 315.59 [1.53] [0.06] [0.32] [0.12] Column Total 200 67.97 342 224 833.97
From the above table we get the expected values of each categories under the first bracket and under the third bracket we get the chi square values of each. And the chi square calculation is done online in Chi square calculator and from this table we get the value of Chi
184 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 Association between BMI and blood pressure of young adult males... square statistic is 6.9979. The p-value is 0.321041. Therefore the result is not significant at p<.05.
7. Conclusion The above study reveals that body mass index is not associated with both systolic and diastolic BP therefore it is not statistically significant. Blood pressure and BMI is associated with rising age independently. The risk of hypertension was higher among the young adult males who were overweight and obese. The researcher studied the Latakata area and their people who were mostly Assamese, Bengali and Garo. They live in a same area therefore their food habits are also almost same. In that area mostly overweight and obese young adult were found in the age group of 28 – 32. The association of BMI and BP was also studied in different areas by the different scholars and authors and their results are quite different from the Latakata area. But in some cases like the risk of hypertension was higher who were overweight and obese. It was also seen that with the rising age, hypertension was higher among them.
References Dressler, W.W. (1999). Modernization, stress and blood pressure: new directions in research, Human Biology, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 583-605. Dua, S. et.al. (2014). Body Mass Index Relates to Blood Pressure among Adults, North American Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol.6 no.2: 89-95. F.X. Pi- Sunyer. (1993). Medical hazards of obesity, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.119, no.7, pp. 655-660. Gupta R, S. Guptha, V.P. Gupta and H. Prakash. (1995). Prevalence and determinants of hypertension in the urban population of Jaipur in western India, Journal of Hypertension, vol. 13, no. 10, pp . 1193-1200. Gupta S & S. Kapoor. (2010). Sex differences in blood pressure level and its association with obesity indices: Who is at greater risk. Ethn Dis. 20:370-4. [Pub.Med]. Jervase E. et.al. (2009). Sex differences and Relationship between blood pressure and age among the Igbos of Nigeria, Journal of Biological Anthropology, 3-2. Kapur S.S. (2000). Blood pressure, waist to hip ratio and body mass index among affluent Punjabi girls of Delhi, Acta Medica Auxologica, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 153-157. Kusuma, Y.S, B.V.Basu and J.M. Naidu. (2002). Blood pressure levels among cross-cultural populations of Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India, Annals of Human Biology, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 502-512. Mungreiphy NK. et.al. (2011). Association between BMI, Blood Pressure and Age: Study
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 185 Sanjiv Mallick
among Tangkhul Naga Tribal Males of North East India, Journal of Anthropology, vol. 2011. Nirmala, A. (2001). Age variation in blood pressure: effect of sex and urbanization in a genetically homogenous caste population of Andhra Pradesh, American Journal of Human Biology,vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 744-752. Wang H. et.al. (2010). Blood pressure, body mass index and risk of cardiovascular disease in Chinese men and women. BMC Public Health. 10:189. [PubMed]. Weiner J.S, and A.J. Lourie. (1981). Practical Human Biology, Academic Press, London, UK.
186 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 *
middle class
*Associate Professor, Department of History, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-9 E-mail: [email protected]
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 187
slave
188 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 middle class
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 189 primary source secondary source
190 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE AUTHORS
PRAG CONSILIENCE (ISSN 2456-6861; RNI No. ASSMUL/2016/70132) is a Research Journal of Pragjyotish College and is being published annually by Pragjyotish College Research Council, Pragjyotish College, Guwahati-09. This Journal is the first research journal of its kind in the history of Pragjyotish College. The journal has tried to critically analyse the complex process of the political, social, economic and cultural transformation. The aim of the journal is to provide an academic platform to scholars to discuss issues focused particularly on the North Eastern Region. The topic coverage of the journal is broad and the journal incorporates a wide variety of topics, related to any branches of science, languages, environment, economics, politics, and social life etc. As a multi-lingual and multi-disciplinary journal, PRAG CONSILIENCE encourages the contributors to submit research papers of relevance to many fields. All research papers should reflect rigorous analysis, critical examination, and creative and innovative thinking. All research papers should be both relevant and accessible to a general population interested in the respective fields.
Instructions to the Authors Editorial Review Process Since the journal is a double-blind peer-reviewed journal, all papers selected for submission will undergo review by the eminent Reviewers of the specific fields. Submission Procedure Articles should be sent through e-mail ([email protected]) and also as a hardcopy duplicate to the address given below:
To The Editor, PRAG CONSILIENCE Pragjyotish College Bharalumukh Guwahati-781 009 Assam Contact Nos. 8638850289, 9864063325, 9435017775, 98592644
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 191 Author’s Declaration All research articles should be the original work of the authors. The author must declare that the sent manuscript is an unpublished work and it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.
Specifications 1. Research article/paper should be within 3000 words. 2. An abstract of not more than 200 words is required. Authors should include 3-6 Keywords in the abstract describing the content of article. Since the journal is multilingual in nature and it should be accessible to a general population interested in the respective fields, authors should submit the abstract in English only whatever may be the language of the paper. 3. The language of the Research article/paper may be English, Assamese, Bodo, Bengali and Hindi. 4. The font for English : Times New Roman; Vernacular language : Geetanjali; Hindi : Chanakya. 5. Research Methodology must be followed. 6. There is no publication fee to publish research papers in this journal.
Formatting Guidelines (for Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Commerce Section) 1. There must be a cover sheet with the title of article, full name, designation, affiliation, address, e-mail address, and contact number. 2. Author’s declaration should be put in the cover page. 3. The paper should be typed in MS Word and Font size would be 12 with 1.5 spacing. The language papers must be typed in page maker format. 4. All tables and figures need to be numbered serially with appropriate title. The place of insertion in the text should be clearly marked. 5. Any relevant photographs, charts, or graphs may be included within the body of the article itself. These should be cited appropriately and give the source under the same. 6. The authors should use only British spelling in the text. However, the words ending with – ze, –zation etc. may be allowed. 7. The research article should follow the following format - Introduction - Theoretical/Conceptual Background and Review of Literature (if not given in introduction) - Objectives of the Study - Hypotheses (if any)
192 PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 - Methodology - Results and Discussion /Analysis - Conclusion - Acknowledgement (Optional) - End note (if any) - References 8. In the text mention only the Author’s surname with the year of publication. Also the page number if a quotation is cited. As for example, Sen (2002) says that …………(Dreze & Sen, 2004) According to Sen,”fgfnjkj” (Sen, 2003) 9. American Psychological Association (APA) styles for referencing should be followed. Modern Language Association (MLA) may be followed for language subject. 10. Only those references which are cited in the text should remain in the reference list. 11. References should be listed in alphabetical order. 12. All papers must carry full and correct references. Works by multiple authors can be cited in the text as: One report describes 2,123 occurrences (Smith & Williams, 2001). Smith et al. (2001) also discovered that the chicken crossed the road. Multiple references of the same data/information by the same authors should be properly identified e.g (Sharma, 1991a; Sharma, 1991b). American Psychological Association (APA) Style should be followed for referencing as follows:
Books Sen, A.K. (1999). Choice, Welfare and Measurement, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Gordon, E.E. & Gordon, E.H. (2003). Literacy in America: Historic journey and contemporary solutions. Westport, CT: Praeger. Journal Articles Parke, B., Zeira, Y. & Hatem, T. (1996).International joint venture managers. Journal of International Management. 1(1): 1-29. Article from Edited Volumes Sarkar, N. (1997). A note on customary laws of the Tagins.In P C Dutta & D K Duarah (Eds.), Aspects of Customary Laws of Arunachal.Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. Unpublished Works Sandee, H. (1995). Innovations in Production, Unpublished PhD Thesis.Amsterdam Free University. Electronic Copy of an Article available by Search Bajaj, M. (2004). Mobile Creches. Retrieved June 21, 2014 from http://www.indianngos.com/ issue/education/interviews/mridulabaja/fullinterview.htm
PRAG CONSILIENCE / VOL.4, NO.1 / AUGUST, 2019 193