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Extending Consumer Ethnocentrism: Development And EXTENDING CONSUMER ETHNOCENTRISM: DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF THE CEESCALE By NIKOLETTA-THEOFANIA SIAMAGKA A thesis submitted to University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Marketing Birmingham Business School University of Birmingham September 2009 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT The concept of consumer ethnocentrism has been in the centre of scholarly inquiry for more than twenty years. The original dimensionalisation and operationalisation of the construct has been introduced in the marketing literature back in 1987. Since then the relevant literature unquestionably applies the existing scale, namely the CETSCALE. This thesis seeks to explore consumer ethnocentrism facets under the light of increased globalisation and integration and consequently develop an enhanced measurement instrument. A mixed methods approach is pursued and as a result, several deviations from the original conceptualisation and operationalisation of consumer ethnocentrism are evidenced. Although some of the already established dimensions prevail to be equally relevant in these days, there are numerous other areas that the CETSCALE fails to capture. In particular, the new, extended scale (CEESCALE) encapsulates the novel notions of impure altruism and self enhancement, social demonstrability of benefits of consuming domestic products and finally, buying inertia. Following the development of the CEESCALE, construct validity is established. The superiority of the CEESCALE to the CETSCALE is attested by better predictive validity estimates. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research would not have been possible without the contribution of a number of people. I would like to thank my parents, Giannis and Pitsa, for their love and continuous support. Their trust in me and my work was a significant motivation and a driving force towards a better result. I would have never managed to complete this thesis without them. I would also like to thank my supervisors, Dr Svetla Marinova and Dr Eric Shiu for their support. They both devoted a significant amount of time and effort for this research. Their advice and feedback were vital for the completion of the thesis presented. A special thank you should go to Professor George Balabanis, who had the patience to discuss for hours several aspects of this research. His knowledge and his support were crucial for the completion of this thesis. He was definitely a source of inspiration for me. Last but not least, I would like to thank my good friends Katerina and Konstantinos for their encouragement. They were there to help me stand on my feet again throughout the difficult times of my Ph.D. life. I would like to also thank Loukas, Anna and Ioanna for being there for me whenever I needed help. A final word of thank you should go to George, for the valuable pieces of advice, the long but always interesting discussions and the unconditional support he offered me. He certainly made my life in Birmingham more enjoyable. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background of Research 1 1.2 Research Problem 2 1.3 Reasons for Conducting the Research 4 1.4 Outline of the Methodology 5 1.5 Outline of the Thesis 6 1.6 Conclusion 8 2 Literature Review 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 The Origins of Consumer Ethnocentrism: A Sociological 10 Overview of Ethnocentrism 2.2.1 Ethnocentrism and Ideology 12 2.3 Consumer Ethnocentrism Specifics 15 2.3.1 Understanding Incidence: Insights from Sociology 26 2.3.1.1 Ethnocentrism Manifestations: Ingroup Favourability and 27 Outgroup Derogation 2.3.1.2 Group Identification and Social Identity 31 2.3.1.2.1 Understanding Groups 31 2.3.1.2.2 Intergroup Relations in the Light of Social Identity 33 2.3.1.2.3 Goals of Social Identity Enhancement: Caring for the Group 36 or for the Self? 2.3.1.2.4 Pursuing Distinctiveness: The Stereotyping Path 39 2.3.2 Dimensionalisation of Consumer Ethnocentrism 44 2.3.2.1 Affective Dimensions 45 2.3.2.1.1 The Interplay of Self-Interest and Altruism 46 2.3.2.1.2 Patriotism and Nationalism 57 2.3.2.2 Cognitive Dimensions 64 2.3.2.2.1 Stereotype Development and Cognitive Distortion 65 2.3.2.2.2 Perceptions of Threat 71 2.3.2.3 Normative Dimensions 73 2.3.2.3.1 Conformity to Social Norms 73 2.3.3 Antecedent Analysis 76 2.3.3.1 Socio-Psychological Variables 79 2.3.3.2 Cultural Variables 83 2.3.3.3 Economic Variables 88 2.3.3.4 Demographic Variables 90 2.3.4 Reasons for Antecedent Literature Inconsistencies 93 2.3.5 Consequences Analysis 94 2.3.5.1 Mediators 96 2.3.5.2 Moderators 103 2.3.5.3 Product Attitudes 105 2.3.5.4 Purchase Intention and Actual Purchase Behaviour 110 2.3.6 The CETSCALE 113 2.3.6.1 CETSCALE Limitations 116 2.3.6.1.1 CETSCALE Content Limitations 117 2.3.6.1.2 CETSCALE Other Limitations 125 2.4 Conclusion 127 3 Research Methodology 129 3.1 Introduction 129 3.2 Key Philosophical Paradigms: Perspectives and 129 Approaches of the Four Philosophical Traditions 3.2.1 Validity and Reliability Considerations in Quantitative and 132 Qualitative Research 3.3 The Scale Development Process 137 3.3.1 A Summary of the Scale Development Stages 138 3.3.2 Exploratory Stage: In-depth Interviews 144 3.3.2.1 Interview Design 145 3.3.2.2 Interview Sampling 148 3.3.2.3 Interview Analysis 148 3.3.2.4 Establishing Objectivity and Reliability in Coding 150 3.3.3 Item Generation and Questionnaire Development 152 3.3.3.1 Developing the Questionnaire: Response Format and 154 Number of Response Categories 3.3.4 Content Validity 157 3.3.4.1 Content Validation Analysis 159 3.3.5 Instrument Pretesting 160 3.3.5.1 Design of Pretests 162 3.3.5.2 Sampling of Pretests 164 3.3.6 Study I: Sampling 164 3.3.7 Study I: Data Collection 167 3.3.8 Study I: Analysis 167 3.3.9 Studies II and III: Sampling 168 3.3.9.1 Mail Surveys 168 3.3.9.2 Online Surveys 170 3.3.10 Studies III and IV: Data Collection 171 3.3.10.1 Mail Surveys 171 3.3.10.2 Online Surveys 172 3.3.11 Studies II and III: Analysis 174 3.4 Conclusion 178 4 Qualitative Research Findings: Exploring Consumer 180 Ethnocentrism Dimensions 4.1 Introduction 180 4.2 Establishing Coding Reliability 180 4.3 Exploring Consumer Ethnocentrism Dimensions 183 4.3.1 Affective Dimensions 184 4.3.2 Cognitive Dimensions 193 4.3.3 Normative Dimensions 199 4.4 Conclusion 203 5 Content Validation and Survey Pretests 205 5.1 Introduction 205 5.2 Content Validation 205 5.2.1 Expert Rating 206 5.2.2 Analysis of the Expert Judgements 207 5.3 Survey Pretest 211 5.3.1 Pre-pretesting and Pretesting Activities Performed 212 5.4 Conclusion 215 6 CEESCALE Development and Validation 217 6.1 Introduction 217 6.2 Item Analysis – Study I 218 6.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis – Study I 221 6.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis – Study II 225 6.4.1 Model Respecification 227 6.4.2 Reliability, Convergent and Discriminant Validity 228 6.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis – Study III 242 6.6 Nomological Validity – Studies I, II and III 245 6.7 Social Desirability Bias 249 6.8 Predictive Validity – Studies II and III 251 6.9 CEESCALE and Demographic Variables – Studies II and 260 III 6.10 Conclusion 263 7 Discussion 265 7.1 Introduction 265 7.2 Exploring the CEESCALE Dimensions 266 7.2.1 Affective Dimensions 266 7.2.2 Cognitive Dimensions 272 7.2.3 Normative Dimensions 276 7.3 Conclusion 278 8 Conclusion 279 8.1 Introduction 279 8.2 A Synopsis of the Study 279 8.3 Theoretical Contributions 283 8.4 Managerial Contributions 287 8.5 Limitations and Further Research 291 8.6 Concluding Note 294 APPENDICES 296 Appendix 1: Interview Guide 297 Appendix 2: Revised Items (Pretesting Activities) 299 Appendix 3: Cover Letter (Study I) 300 Appendix 4: Cover Letter for Mail Survey (Studies II and III) 301 Appendix 5: Cover Letter for Online Survey (Studies II and III) 302 Appendix 6: Validation Measures 304 Appendix 7: Sample Demographics 313 LIST OF REFERENCES 314 LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Basic Conceptual Model 11 2.2 Dimensions of Consumer Ethnocentrism 76 2.3 Conceptual Framework of Consumer Ethnocentrism 81 3.1 The Scale Development Process 142 6.1 The Five-Factor Measurement Model 230 6.2 The Second-Order Factor Model 234 LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Facing Threat Within High and Low Status Groups 43 2.2 Interplay of Pure and Impure Altruism 52 2.3 CETSCALE and CEESCALE Aspects 126 3.1 Summary of the Basic Social Research Paradigms 134 3.2 Pretesting Techniques and Objectives 166 3.3 Regions and Counties in the Sample 171 3.4 Response Rates for Studies II and III 173 3.5 t-Tests for the Mail and Online Samples 175 3.6 Means and Standard Deviations (SD) for the Mail and Online Samples 176 3.7 Validation Measures 178 4.1 First Group of Coders: Simple Agreement and Scott’s pi (Based on the 178 First Nine Interviews) 4.2 Second group of Coders: Simple Agreement and Scott’s pi (Based on the 179 Remaining Ten Interviews) 5.1 Factor Loadings from One Factor Analysis for Questionnaire 1 207 5.2 Factor Loadings from One Factor Analysis for Questionnaire 2 208 5.3 Intraclass Correlations Coefficients Across the Rating Criteria 208 5.4
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