“STINKY AND SMELLY – BUT PROFITABLE”: THE CAPE GUANO TRADE, c.1843 – 1910 HENDRIK SNYDERS DISSERTATION PRESENTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (HISTORY) IN THE FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES AT STELLENBOSCH UNIVERSITY PROMOTOR: PROFESSOR SANDRA S. SWART CO-PROMOTOR: PROFESSOR ALBERT. M. GRUNDLINGH DECEMBER 2011 1 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualifications. SIGNATURE:……………………………….. DATE:………………………………………… Copyright©2011 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved 2 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT Soil infertility and concomitant low levels of food security under conditions of population pressure and land scarcity have been, and still remain, one of society’s most daunting challenges. Over time, societies have tried to maximize the yield from the available land through the use of various fertilisers. In the 19th century in the midst of an environment infertility crisis, guano (bird dung) from the Peruvian coastal islands became, through a combination of factors, the international fertilizer of choice for most commercial farmers. As a result, a combination of natural factors, monopoly control and price manipulation contributed to the relative scarcity of the product. Nevertheless, strategic manoeuvring between the major players prevented any significant change in the supply regime. News of discoveries along the African coasts in the 1840s, some inside the territorial waters of the Cape Colony, introduced a new dimension to the trade. Both established merchant houses and new contenders strategised in an attempt to gain monopoly control. These events created new policy crises for the Cape Colony, the closest legal authority, and led to new policy and other initiatives in the absence of imperial precedents. The trade in guano also impacted on constitutional, political and scientific developments in the colony. Key amongst these was the struggle for monopoly control over both the Cape- and Ichaboe-based supply, which pitted individuals, family members and businesses against each other. The process became intertwined with political developments such as the transfer of political control from the Imperial authorities to the colonies. In addition, a coercive labour system developed under the colonial administration and colonial farmers struggled for fair access to the fertiliser, which added another dimension to the trade. 3 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za OPSOMMING Daar is ‘n noue verband tussen bevolkingsgetalle, oesopbrengs, voedselsekuriteiten die beskikbaarheid van voldoende bewerkbare landbougrond. Waar samelewings probleme ervaar met die gehalte van hul landbougrond, is daar heel dikwels ook lae vlakke van voedselsekuriteit en word daar gewoonlik ook ‘n onsekere van-die-hand-tot–die-mond bestaan gevoer. As ‘n teenvoeter vir hongersnood as gevolg van lae oesopbrengs, het uiteenlopende samelewings met verloop van tyd en na gelang van hulle natuurlike omstandighede, bepaalde bemestingstradisies ontwikkel in ‘n poging om ‘n volhoubare opbrengs te verseker. Gedurende die 19de eeu, het ghwanobemesting te midde van ‘n wêreldwye grondgehalte krisis, ongekende gewildheid onder winsgedrewe landbouers bereik en voorts ook daarin geslaag om ander vorme van bemesting soos beenmeel en kraalmis as voorkeur produkte te vervang. As gevolg van ‘n kombinasie van natuurlike faktore, monopoliebeheer oor die eiland-gebaseerde ghwanobron en prysmanipulasie, was die produk wataanvanklik net vanaf Peru in Suid Amerika ingevoer is, dus nie vrylik beskikbaar nie en moes belangstellende boere hoë pryse daarvoor betaal. Vanselfsprekend het dit tot groot frustrasie en ontsteltenis in die geledere van diegene wat ‘n belegging in kommersiële landbou wou maak, gelei. Die onderlinge politieke intriges, knoeiery en pogings van plaaslike en oorsese sakemanne om mekaar te uitoorlê in die soeke na alleenbeheer oor die beskikbare ghwanobronne, het sake nie juis verbeter nie. Inteendeel, die situasie het net vererger toe alternatiewe ghwano bronne langs die wes- en ooskus van Afrika sowel as op ‘n reeks ander eilande in die Atlantiese Oseaan ontdek is. Die ontdekking van ghwano binne die Kaapse gebeidswaters in die 19de eeu, het die owerhede met ’n beleidsdilemma waarvoor daar nie enige presedente in die Britse Ryk bestaan het nie gelaat. Daarbenewens was die kolonie te midde van heelparty konstitusionele en ander kwessies en het die toevoeging van die ghwanohandel die maatskaplike en politieke lewe van die kolonie wesenlik beïnvloed. 4 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za 5 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. To Our Creator – for a blessed life despite our sinful nature. 2. I wish to thank my supervisors, Professors Sandra Swart and Albert Grundlingh for their wise counsel and academic leadership and insistence on rigorous research at all times. Your empathy and morale, as well as physical support through difficult times, restored my faith in humanity. 3. My wife and children for their unwavering support and patience for over two decades and for taking a backseat to birds, islands and guano. Your love and support is immeasurable. My gratitude to you knows no bounds. 4. My heartfelt gratitude to the following: My parents, sister, Faith and brother-in-law, Sydney. Your love, support and contribution is an account for life. Robbie Jansen, who during the early years (and unconditionally) provided me with the necessities of life and who sustained me during the lean and difficult 1980s. A friend for life. I salute you! Francois Davids, President of the Boland Rugby Union, for extending a vital helping hand, employment and friendship to me at a time when it was sorely needed. University of Stellenbosch for critical financial support. Personnel of the Cape Archives, National Library in Cape Town and University of Stellenbosch Library for invaluable assistance. Marius Meiring, Chief Information Officer at Saldanha Bay Municipality. Abé Davids, Randall Modiba and Ivan Pekeur for their friendship, support and for making life away from home bearable. My former teachers at De Plaat Primary and Weston High School 6 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za CONTENT CHAPTER 1: FOLLOWING GUANO TRACKS – A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Perspectives and Discourses around the Guano Trade: The Secondary Literature 1.2.1. The International Literature 1.2.2 The Southern African Literature 1.3. The Primary Resources 1.4. Conclusion CHAPTER 2: FROM PERU TO ICHABOE AND NAURU – THE DYNAMICS OF A SHIFTING GUANO FRONTIER 2.1. Introduction 2.2. From Resource Location to the Emergence of the Guano Frontier, c.1800 - 1840 2.3. Concessions, Shifting Meanings and the Emergence of a Peruvian Guano Frontier 2.4. The Dynamics of the Ichaboe Guano Frontier, 1843 - 1845 2.4.1. From Naming and Claiming to Anarchy 2.4.2. Frontier Dichotomies: Anarchy, Accommodation and the “Lettered” Frontier 2.5. The Commercial and Environmental Effects of the Shifting Guano Frontier 2.6. Conclusion CHAPTER 3: “FORTUNATE ADDITION?” FROM A FREE-FOR-ALL TO A CAPE GUANO POLICY, 1843 – 1845 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Towards a Guano Policy Agenda 3.3. The Dynamics of Guano Policy Making 3.3.1. Guano Claims and Policy Contestation 3.3.2. From a ‘Non-judicial Opinion’ to a Formal Policy Process 3.3.3. The Cape Guano Ordinance and Imperial Law 3.4. Policy, Mutiny and Jurisdictional Challenges 3.5. Policy and Guano Income, 1844 - 1845 7 University of Stellenbosch http://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.6. Conclusion CHAPTER 4: “OBNOXIOUS AND PREJUDICIAL MONOPOLIES”: SHIFTING GUANO RELATIONS AND POLITICS IN THE PERIOD 1854 – 1872 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Extra-territoriality, Guano Policy and Monopoly 1846 – 1853 4.3. Contesting the Ichaboe Monopoly, c.1850 - 1861 4.3.1. The American Guano Islands Act (1856) and Cape Colonial Relationships 4.3.2. Attacking the Monopoly: Pirates, Interlopers and Family 4.4. Guano, ‘Acts of Sovereignty’ and the Challenges of Policy Transfer, 4.5. The Dynamics of Guano Political Relations 4.6. Restructuring the Trade: From Special Dispensations to a System of Leases 4.7. Guano, Colonial Finance and Governance, 1861 - 1872 4.8. Conclusion CHAPTER 5: “TURNING (GUANO) TO PROPER ACCOUNT”- FARMERS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR FAIR GUANO ACCESS; 1872 – 1910 5.1. Introduction 5.2. The Commercialisation of Cape Agriculture, c.1800 -1872: An Overview 5.3. Towards a Consolidated Cape Guano Trade, 1872 - 1890 5.3.1. Bird Island – The Search for a ‘Judicious Compromise’ 5.4. The Establishment of the Guano Agency 5.5. Fair Access, Regional Interests and Defeating the Guanopreneur, 1890 - 1898 5.6. From Protest and Commissions to the Guano Islands Division 5.7. The Obstructionist Superintendent of the Government Guano Islands, 1898 – 1904 5.8. War, Depots and Guano Quality Standards, 1899 - 1910 5.9. Seabird Protection, Economic Bounty and “Preventing a Silent Wilderness” 5.10. Conclusion CHAPTER 6: “A SALTY AND PRECARIOUS ATMOSPHERE” - GUANO LABOUR RELATIONS DURING THE CAPE AND ICHABOE TRADE, 1843 - 1910 6.1. Introduction