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COUNCIL w CONSEIL OF EUROPE * ★ * DE L’EUROPE

Naturopa 0 0 No. 45 - 1983 'A X ir e u ro p e a n

information Editorial P. Hardy 3 c e n tre (Photo W. Lapinski) for Who are these animals? E. Puiiiainen 4

n a tu re Struggle for life E.Zim en 7 conservation Legislation P. Dollinger 10

The genet M. Delibes 13 oisoned, snared, trapped, clubbed and Countryside Act of 1981 consol­attractive animal, a creature which re­ or shot, the small predatory mam­ idated that measure and provided veals such a beautiful fluidity of move­ P mals of Europe have a poor timegreater sanction against offence. This ment, a unique “ring upon bright water’’. was necessary for road traffic alone The otter, symbol of our threatened of it. Fortunately some television films have is a critical influence upon badger fauna S. McdonaldandN. Duplaix 14 A common argument used to justify aroused awareness and offer oppor­ survival. Persecution adds surfeit to their destruction is that without such tunity for observation which would other­ destruction. control their numbers would rise to such wise be an experience denied. But what A special case a w.M cdonald 20 levels as to seriously harm human But law alone cannot suffice. In a rural do we see when there is nothing left to interest. Yet increasingly naturalists are situation each weasel may not be film? watched, each stoat supervised, a police The Arctic fox P. Hersteinsson 22 aware that left alone predator popula­ Observation of such creatures requires officer cannot guard every fox’s earth. tions are almost self-regulating. Man’s either good fortune or the exercise of In fact more protection may be afforded hatreds are scarcely relevant and given considerable wit for the four-legged Predator-prey s.Eriinge by enlightenment than by the schedules 24 the scale of environmental change in hunters have to be furtive to survive. of law—important though these are. Symbol for the Council of Europe's nature Europe the pressure upon the predators But if man has to use subtlety to observe conservation activities. may have reached eradicating propor­ Trapped, gassed, poisoned... p. Pfeffer 27 Enlightenment is urgently required for so he has to destroy. That intelligence tions. without it the decline of many species should be used for such a purpose Yet persecution continues—often ways in will be maintained to the point of their seems a contradiction. There we have Can they adapt? R .M .L ib o is 29 which are almost as obscenely barbaric national or regional disappearance. a rather modern paradox. as those used to end the life of the big There is another. Naturopa is published in English, French, cats so that their unmarked furs may German and Italian by the European adorn the backs of rich ladies. In many of our countries we have just Information Centre for Nature Conserva­ begun to see greater admiration of the tion of the Council of Europe, BP 431 R6, But our smaller European predators falcon's beauty, have begun to watch F-67006 Strasbourg Cedex. are an essential part of the pattern of with respect the ascent of the eagle or Editor responsible: Hayo H. Hoekstra our nature. They are themselves a con­ the dash of the hawk. With necessary trol upon the rodentiae, an alternative, Conception and editing: controls upon agriculture’s organo- Annick Pachod perhaps, to the poisons which we chlorides the raptor’s egg-shells may rather recklessly ply upon our eco­ Adviser for this issue: have returned to a thickness which systems. Their removal might well be French Society for the Study assists their prospect of survival. For and Protection of Mammals (SFEPM) not only a matter for aesthetic regret that we can be a little relieved. but of economic disadvantage. And we Printed by: Georges Thone, Let us protect should realise that whilst our landscape Yet the killer birds serve the same role Liège (Belgium) is impoverished in visual quality for our as the mammalian predators which yet Repros: Gam Gratic, do not enjoy the same improvement in Herstal (Belgium) own eyes this means habitat for preda­ tors is entirely removed. regard. Articles may be freely reprinted but it The swoop from the air may be no more would be appreciated if reference is urry, beautiful, but seldom seen of rabies, which is a current subject for The fox is regarded as a threat to made to the source and a copy sent to the noble than the pounce from an earth- —Europe’s small predatory mam­ debate. However, this world is also poultry yet most European foxes will Centre. The copyright of all photographs never have tasted domestic chicken. bound stillness. Both deal in the death is reserved. Fmals have not always enjoyed a theirs and they too have the right to nature’s design requires. Poultry is kept increasingly in intensely The opinions expressed in this publica­ favourable status. As competitors, they live in it. managed security. Yet the hunt con­ But the most ruthless of nature’s mur­ tion are those of the authors and do not were usually swiftly dealt with and only a few naturalists raised a voice in their tinues perhaps in order to maximise the derers is man and the instruments he necessarily reflect the views of the This issue of Naturopa is published on Council of Europe. defence. yield of game. But the vixen shot whilst has now devised allow him to eradicate the occasion of the Third International carrying mice to her cubs no longer neighbour species, even those of value Colloquy on the Otter, which was held This is slowly changing. A world-wide contributes unwittingly to making theIn many Council of Europe states onlyand of beauty. in the Palais de l’Europe in Strasbourg campaign to save the great cats laid the agricultural economy just a little more three or four small predator species in November 1983. That value and beauty need urgent groundwork for better appreciation of robust. are likely to be widely established. Others may have gone or become ex­ recognition. Our own sensitivity and predators in general and in Europe, In Britain it was lawful until 1973 to dig ceedingly rare as creatures retreat to perhaps our own eventual comfort sug­ Front cover: Lutralutra (Photo W. Laplnski) campaigns by nature-lovers brought the “The Water’s Edge" campaign will be out the badger’s sett, to haul him out their wilder fastnesses before the de­ gest that there should be tolerance. Back cover: (Photo G. Lacoumette) wild cats, foxes, badgers, otters, stoats, highlighted at the Fourth European with special tongs and then to torment mands of man. A tolerance of other species which share Captions to colour illustrations p. 16-17 : ermines, weasels, etc. almost to the Ministerial Conference on the Environ­ him for so-called sport. We had abolish­ our' continent including those killers 1. Gulo gulo (Photo C. Nardln-Jacana) front pages. As predators they may come ment, to be held in Athens at the end of ed dog—and cock-fighting and bear- Destruction of habitat, pollution, dis­which are smaller than ourselves. 2. Lynx lynx (Photo Labat-Jacana) into direct conflict with man—young roe­ April 1984. Thus N aturopa’s next issue baiting over a century before. I take turbance and persecution have brought 3. Ursus arctos (Photo J.-P. Varin-Jacana) deer, fish, song-birds and eggs are 4. Canis lupus (Photo Ziesler-Jacana) will encourage better appreciation of some pride in having steered the 1973 our otter population to a level which Peter Hardy, M.P. among their prey, and man does not that vulnerable and rich habitat: where Badgers Act through the Commons and means that less than one person in aChairman, Council of Europe always like this. There is also the problem water and land meet. H.H.H. I was further relieved when the Wildlife thousand will ever see at first-hand this Sub-Committee on the Natural Environment nly one of the small predatory mammals belonging to the rich Who are these animals? Erkki Pulliainen OVillafranchium fauna which in­ habited Europe before the Ice Age, namely the badger ( Meies meles), has survived the past 2-3 million years. Martes martes moving house (Photo W. Lapinski) This species has been enough of a “generalist" in its living demands and habits (e.g. overwintering in dormancy) to tolerate the considerable climatic changes which have taken place here during the period in question. What, then, are these “small predatory mammals”? Since we do not speak about “medium-sized” carnivores, we can in­ clude in this non-systematic group all those carnivores which are not called Nyctereutes procyonoides, a newcomer (Photo W. Lapinski). “great predators", a group which in­ cludes the wolf (Canis lupus), the bear (Ursus arctos), the wolverine (Gulo gulo) and the two lynx species (Lynx lynx and L. pardina). Defined in this way, small carnivores can vary very much in size and weight from a tiny weasel (Mustela nivalis) (min. weight 24 g) to a fat badger weighing more than 20 kg.

nutrition that increases in their popula­ Predator-prey relationships Variety of species tions are usually connected with mass occurrences of small rodents. When Many of the small carnivore species The ten European mustelid species in­ small rodent populations are low, or such are useful from the standpoint of clude one which has been introduced, mammals are absent from a particular human economy in killing small rodents namely the American mink ( Mustela area, these small carnivores may also in considerable numbers. Biological con­ vison), which has been able to inhabit be absent. This leads to a pattern of trol would work extraordinarily well if more of the northern areas than its continuous emigration and immigration. these predators were able to cause a European counterpart, the European real crash in their prey populations, but Many of the Arctic fox populations are mink (M. lutreola). similarly dependent on small rodent this is not the case. In cyclicly or irregu­ larly fluctuating small rodent populations The Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) and populations, especially lemmings, but other factors than predators may ac­ the two viverrid species, the genet they may also utilise ungulate or sea complish this, but the predators can (Genetta genetta) and the mongoose mammal carcasses. Small rodents play only deepen the lows in their prey (Herpestes ichneumon), represent two an important, but not so decisive, role in populations. extremes in the distribution of European the diet of many other small carnivores, small carnivores. The Arctic fox inhabits although these generalists also con­ Predation on small rodent populations the alpine summits of the northernmost sume a variety of compensatory food by small carnivores together with birds mountains, the tundra lowlands and items. of prey and owls may be so pronounced in certain parts of Europe, however, some arctic islands, whereas the viver- Red foxes are well known for their rids occur only in the southwestern that the populations do not fluctuate catching of voles, but they are able corner of the continent. The jackal at all. This is the case in southern to kill a variety of other animals and Sweden, for instance. (Canis aureus) and marbled polecat may be carrion feeders. This habit (Vormela peregusna) are inhabitants of certainly helps populations to recover south-east Europe. after a rabies epidemic. The rapid cover­ Only three of the European small ing of rubbish dumps with soil and im­ carnivores inhabit the whole continent proved veterinary hygiene have reduced Questionable benefit or have done so during this century. their potential sources of food, however. from introductions They are the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Pine martens in the taiga forests feed otter (Lutra lutra) and the weasel. More mainly or solely on small rodents when The introduction of fur-bearing animals species are lacking from its northern these are abundant, but in their absence from other continents was commenced parts than from its southern parts, in­ will eat berries, mushrooms, other mam­ in the 1930s. Although congresses of dicating the severity of subarctic and mals, birds and all kinds of carcasses. game biologists some thirty or forty years north boreal conditions. The badger is an omnivorous feeder later have spoken about “fauna improve­ which will eat both vegetable and animal ment”, perhaps fortunately no notable matter during its nightly foraging trips. introductions were achieved. Food specialists and generalists The otter and the American and Euro­ One goal of such activities was to in­ pean minks are fish-killers, which may crease the number of pelts produced The smallest mustelids, the weasel also hunt small mammals and birds for the fur market. The pelt of an and the stoat (Mustela erminea), are on dry land. An American mink once American mink is not valued so highly typical food specialists, actually rodent killed a female Capercaillie (Tetrao as that of a mink bred in captivity, specialists. Although they are also able urogallus), weighing approx. 2 kg, in however, and the number of pelts of to kill young hares and birds, they are front of one of my field assistants, but wild minks produced each year has so dependent on small rodents for their this is a rare exception. remained low. Meies meles (Photo G. Lacoumette)

Struggle for life The American mink has thrived well in onslaught to which man will ultimately Future perspectives northern Fennoscandia, better than the be exposed as well. In areas of intensive native European mink or polecat (Mus- cultivation they are strongly subjected None of the small predatory mammals / E rik Zim en tela putorius). Just now the strong to poisoning by insecticides, rodenti- dealt with here are included in the IUCN American mink population is preventing cides and other biocides. Deliberate Mammal Red Data Book, but the popula­ the recovery of the European mink destruction of small predatory mam­ tions of the wild cat (Felis catus), otter, population in eastern Fennoscandia, but mals takes place especially often by badger and pine marten, at least, are viable populations of the latter still secondary poisoning through pollution declining generally within Europe. The occur in the USSR, France, Romania and the loss of acceptable habitats. The history of these species parallels that , : and Spain. The species spread to forests of Europe have undergone of the birds of prey. France from the east at the end of the drastic changes over the last few eighteenth century and has advanced hundred years. The cutting down of old Of the European small predatory mam­ 1 A fe know a lot about the behaviour, not been so “successful" with the smaller Europe. With the almost total cT59hancBritish Isles, it lost its general threat to wildlife in the world, rids and the canids belong to the Expectations were not fulfilled in the phants in Africa and also about is slowly changing today, but there is retreats there. Wolf-hunting became especially concerning those species species list of the CITES Convention. V V case of the introduction of the Asian the situation of tigers in India or of still a long way to go before sceptical more and more successful; yet It took which depend on mature forests for Much has been done, provided that raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoi- tolerance turns into genuine interest. several centuries of slow decline in ever their habitats. governments can really control the ex­ pandls in China. But there is amazing des). The species spread quickly, but tremely damaging trade in wild animals, igfrorance about certain of Europe's own On the continent at least (matters are smaller, isolated pockets of population appeared to cause considerable damage In the northern taiga forests the pine and that TRAFFIC succeeds in monitor­ indigenous animal species. Who is in­ different in the British Isles), research until the last wolf died in Scotland in to fields of oats, maize and melons and martens show a preference for spruce ing international trade in wildlife and terested for example in the behaviour into wild animals has traditionally been the 17th century. also to vineyards. Introduction of the of the pine-marten, the local occurrence done by hunters, and this explains why and mixed forests and avoid entering wildlife products, but this is not enough. On the confinent the wolf held out species into the USA has been forbid­ of the stoat or the population trends of we have a lot of catching-up to do in the areas with no overhead cover. In the As the otter example indicated, even longer. In Scandinavia large areas of den, for instance. the polècat? Ecblogical field studies of ecology of predators.,. Lake District in the British Isles, where though a species is protected by law, forest remain: but here, at the beginning our predators have indeed been made there was very drastic deforestation, its populations may be seriously threat­ This ignorance which has thus his­ of the 19th century, the wolf's main prey, here and there, but the gaps in our pine martens have been recorded in ened by the numerous decisive factors torically prevailed also has economic the elk (A/ces alces) became almost Man-predator relationships knowledge are greater than with any rocky.areas, but niche shifts of this kind involved in the “hard” and “heavy” consequences. I am thinking, for in­ completely extinct. The wolves then other family of animals. Why is this? are not possible everywhere where de­ stance, of the unsuccessful attempts—as had only domestic animals on which A species feeding on small rodents and technology of our civilised world. Much forestation take place. part of the campaign against rabies—to to prey, and even these were securely simultaneously producing a valuable needs to be done, and quickly, to steer these ultimate causes in a “softer” reduce the fox population by intensive locked up in winter. Certainly large- pelt for the fur market should naturally In central and southern Europe there A secretive life direction. hunting and gassing. Had we known scale wolf-hunting also had its effect; be managed according to the principle is another related species, the beech more about the population dynamics, but the ultimate cause of the sudden rapid of an optimum sustained yield. In many I sincerely hope that the old saying that marten (Martes foina) which lives al­ One reason is to be found in the be­ territorial behaviour and adaptability of disappearance of the wolf from great parts of eastern and northern Europe “man never learns from his own mis­ most exclusively in human dwellings haviour of the predators themselves. foxes earlier, rabies-prevention meas­ areas of northern Europe in the middle fur-bearing populations are still hunted, takes" is no longer true. E.P. and their immediate surroundings in­ They live very well hidden away, although ures with greater prospects of success of last century was lack of food, and and the hunting authorities, at least, cluding the margins of woods. It has often in close proximity to human beings. would have been chosen from the outset. the animal has survived only in small tend to take this principle into account been suggested that inter-species com­ They are mostly active only at night; vestigial populations in the northern in their decisions. The fox (Vulpes vulpes) has a special petition for habitats has pushed it into during the day they retreat into areas of reindeer region. place among Europe’s predators. No Wherever the trapping of fur-bearing these circumstances. dense vegetation. other species has been so successful The no less intensively hunted wolves of animals is practised in the civilised The otter is an apt example of an Although this ability of predators to use in adapting to human behaviour in land central Europe experienced a similar world, the demands for humane trap­ aquatic mammal whose populations land cultivated and developed by man developed and cultivated by man, whilst fate. All attempts to deal with them failed ping have increased. North America, have declined in most parts of Europe and in close proximity to human beings many other species are faced with im­ until here too reindeer and roe-deer with its trapline system, has been a due to changes and new dangers in largely unnoticed makes it difficult to minent extinction. had practically disappeared. In sparsely pioneer in this respect. Last winter a its living environment. It has suffered observe and study them, it is an ability populated areas of south-eastern Ger­ similar debate was conducted in the due to water pollution through industrial which is essential to their survival. many such as the Bavarian Forest or Finnish Parliament. The indiscriminate waste, organochlorine pesticides, heavy on the northern edge of the Alps, wolves killing of mammalian predators is said For they not only use the same space but Example of the extermination metals, etc., but many have also drowned managed to survive for another fifty to be a typical European attitude, having they often hunt the same prey as human of the wolf in fish traps. They have been killed years or so, but in the middle of last even involved the use of bait poisoned beings. And in accordance with our illegally by hunters or other people, and century they disappeared. Individual with strychinine, a practice which still anthropocentric view of the world, we The wolf provides a perfect example of also dogs and cars. They have suffered continues in some parts of Europe. label this competition “destructive”. After the development and effect of various animals managed to survive much from changes in landscapes through a struggle lasting thousands of years, causes of the extinction of an animal longer, on the other hand, in the densely Mammalian predators have also been amelioration or elimination of their the larger beasts of prey have finally species. Until the late Middle Ages the populated areas of the Rhine, Moselle the first to suffer from the biochemical riparian habitats. been largely driven away. But we have wolf was widely distributed throughout and the Saar, and also on the southern fringe of the Alps. Thanks to the mild (M. putorius) has already gone through masters of adaptation; and they are climate, domestic animals could be put this phase of dramatic falls in popula­ accordingly probably less threatened as out the pasture throughout the year—a tion. Like so many other species, it a whole than many other groups of practice that was life-saving for the found villages and their surroundings animals. last of the wolves but often threatened congenial to live in, particularly where the livelihoods of the small farmers. A prerequisite of any process of adapta­ humid biotopes were still to be found. tion is variability and selection. Vari­ On the one hand hunted for stealing ability presupposes a large number of chickens, but on the other tolerated, individuals. Species must accordingly Extermination mechanism like the stoat and cats, as being good be protected before the phase of rapid at keeping mice down, it was to be found falling populations begins. All too often, in nearly every farm. But like the stork, though, protection measures are taken Accordingly there is no single factor but dormouse, rat, barn owl or frog, it has a whole complex of different causes only when the species is already on the been hard-hit by draining, asphalting, red list. And then the first concern is to which doom an animal species to ex­ straightening, walling up and tidying in eliminate every conceivable mortality tinction in land cultivated and developed and around villages, and it is now ac­ by man. As in the case of the wolf, factor; the selection necessary for adap­ cordingly in the phase of slow decline. tation cannot be allowed to occur. The various phases in the struggle for exist­ For the time being it will no doubt be ence can be distinguished. To begin animal becomes a beneficiary of the able to survive in a few isolated oases affluent society—dependent on human with, the species in question is widely which progress has passed by. distributed. Adequate rates of repro­ beings and no longer able to maintain duction compensate even for mortality It looks as though the otter (Lutra lutra) its existence by its own endeavours. due to human intervention. Only when will soon have come to the end of that That too is a form of extinction. there is a combination of direct hunting, phase; its extinction is imminent. Un­ Consequently, in the long term, we shall decreasing numbers of prey and/or like almost any other predator, the otter only be able to maintain the surviving extensive changes in biotope do falls in is tied to a specific biotope—streams, wealth of species in Europe’s land­ the population come about in Phase 2, rivers and lakes. And in central Europe scapes that have been cultivated and at first locally and later over a wide area. this habitat has been altered, polluted developed by man if we refrain from These usually lead very rapidly—in just or destroyed by man as no other has. progressively making optimum use of a few years—to the breaking up of the The second species to have been wiped this land. We must maintain on our con­ population into small, isolated pockets. out in central Europe by the destruc­ tinent a dense network of varied natural In these retreats the remaining popula­ tion of biotopes—the mink—is also and man-made biotopes. This implies characteristically tied to a watery habitat. tion can in certain circumstances hold Martes foina (Drawing Pierre Déom). large-scale internationally co-ordinated out for some time (Phase 3). But without The land predators which live in Europe today By comparison with the foregoing, the local restrictions on human use of land. any exchange between the separated are classified into 6 families: position of species which are being E.Z. communities, chance factors such as a - the m artens (M ustelidae), 12 species; eliminated by being directly hunted by succession of early summers with cold, - the canines (Canidae), 5 species; man is less serious. No doubt wolves - the felines (Felidae), 2 species; damp weather, or temporary food short­ and bears will not be found hunting in - the bears (Ursidae), 2 species; ages or an epidemic can, in a fourth central Europe again in the near future. and final phase, carry off the remaining - the viverrines (Viverridae), 2 species; and The beech-marten too takes advantage Our observation in Saarland do not con­ - the racoons (Procyonidae), 1 species. But the lynx, which has settled again in groups—which will in any case mostly of human building activity in the country­ firm this view. As everywhere else, the The distribution of 8 of 24 species only just central Switzerland, is rapidly spread­ be at the limits of their survival capac­ side. Although fitted for living in rocky badger population at the beginning of touches Europe; in southern Spain, foring over the western Alps and has al­ ity—one after the other until the species terrain, it has found a substitute biotope the 1970s was very small after the first instance, the African mongoose (Herpestes ready become re-established in large is completely wiped out. in villages, and so far as may be judged rabies epidemic and years of gassing ichneumon), in Greece and southern areas of the Swiss and French Jura. Yugoslavia the jackal (Canis aureus), and the from our rough estimates of the popula­ earths. The badger was accordingly marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), or inEven the wildcat (Felis silvestris), which tion, this greatly appeals to it. Latterly protected from hunting all the year the far north the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) was once seriously threatened, has ap­ it has probably also benefited from a round. At the end of the 1970s, rabies Species that could maintain and the Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus). parently recovered in recent years and decrease in hunting. Modern farms do broke out again with devastating results themselves A further 3 species were brought to Europe to is again penetrating into areas it had not have chickens running around and for the fox population. The gassing of be farmed for their furs and then became wild: previously deserted. Hunters’ increasing there are hardly any hunters left who are earths, however, was abandoned. Nor racoons (Procyon lotor), racoon dog (Nycte- Of the 13 terrestrial carnivores indige­ tolerance of competing predators also still masters of the time-consuming art would it be much use, because 8 out of reutes procyonoides) and the American mink nous to central Europe, only five occur appears to be having a beneficial effect of trapping. 10 of all our occupied earths this spring (Mustela vison). In central Europe there are over a wide area in adequate numbers: accordingly only 13 indigenous species ofin reducing the number of accidental were being used by badgers. The fox the fox (Vulpes vulpes), the beech- The pine-marten simply has not had to terrestrial carnivores (Carnivora), and even ofshootings due to confusing wildcats has become rare, albeit undoubtedly marten ( Martes foinai), the pine-marten adapt particularly. Its biotope—wood­ these there are 5 which have become extinct with stray domestic cats. only temporarily. The badger, however, (Martes martes), the weasel (Mustela land—has so far changed least of all over a wide area: the wolf (Canis lupus), the despite the rabies, has made a magnif­ These examples, like that of the badger nivalis) and the badger (Metes meles). the habitats in land cultivated and devel­ bear (Ursus arctos), the lynx (Lynx lynx), the icent recovery, although we occasionally otter (Lutra lutra) and the European mink or the successful réintroduction of the oped by man. So far! The prospect of Let us take the smallest of these first. found badgers which had died from (Lutreota lutreola). sable (Martes zibellina) in Russia, show dying forests in the next few years Like all the members of the marten the epidemic. But the badger was now that by directly hunting individual spe­ bodes ill for many of those who inhabit family, the weasel likes to live in small, cies man can wipe them out over large them. spared what was clearly the main cause strongly structured habitats such as of the first decline in its population areas but that if hunting stops, the hedgerows, piles of brushwood or The last of the successful ones is the —poison gas. animal populations recover within a short stones, fallow land, fields of stinging badger. Admittedly, only some years time. Loss of a biotope, however, is nettles, old sheds or other mostly man- ago, it was well into the phase of rapid irrevocable. made biotopes such as were frequently population decline. The 1960s and early to be found until recently in the proximity 1970s were a time when gassing of Threatened species of villages. Modern farming and efforts earths took place annually in order to Adaptation faculty to make villages more beautiful have decimate the fox population: but it was Let us turn now to the threatened spe­ led to the disappearance of many of the badgers, more closely tied to their cies. We know little about the stoat But animals can also adapt to new living these habitats. The weasel, however, setts, which suffered—not from the (Mustela erminea). There is much to conditions, and happily there are many seems to be able to make do with such poison gas, according to the veterinary suggest, however, that in many places such ecologically flexible species among small remains of earlier disorder that surgeons, but from the rabies itself, it is becoming rarer. It is probably at the predators. The daily new challenges its population is not yet endangered. carried by the foxes. the beginning of Phase 2. The polecat of hunting have turned them into past Appendix II of the Convention lists strictly protected fauna species. These Legislation include the Arctic fox, otter and Euro­ pean mink. Where these species are concerned the Contracting States have Peter Dollinger to prohibit all forms of deliberate cap­ ture, keeping and deliberate killing, deliberate destruction of breeding or resting sites and deliberate disturbance of the animals. Possession of and in­ ternal trade in animals, dead or alive, including goods such as stuffed animals or furs, are also to be prohibited if this will add to the effectiveness of the other protective measures. Appendix III lists partially protected fauna species, including the badger, ermine, weasel, European polecat, pine marten, beech marten, European genet and wildcat. The Contracting Parties undertake to regulate the exploitation Mustela putorius(Photo Dr. K. Robin). of these species in such a way as not Mustela putorius, an ever rarer appearance (Photo W. Lapinski). to endanger the population level. In particular closed seasons or other ways of regulating exploitation (e.g. fixed as well as all methods likely to cause ing Greenland and the Faroe Islands, ormerly small predatory animals ities in the relevant states *. The fol­ federal structure of the country notwith­ quotas) are to be prescribed, and where the local disappearance or serious dis­ Greece, the United Kingdom, Ireland, were simply considered pests. They lowing degrees of protection are dis­ standing, minimal protection of indi­ appropriate there must be temporary turbance of the populations of any of Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Fenjoyed no legal protection, and tinguished: vidual animal species is laid down by or local bans on exploitation and, if those species. Prohibited means and Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Sweden, indeed the killing of them was en­ the Confederation; the cantons merely necessary, restrictions on possession and methods of killing, capture and other Switzerland) and the EEC. In order to couraged by the state. For instance, the have the possibility of adopting stricter internal trade. forms of exploitation are given in Ap­ conform to the Convention several states pendix IV of the Convention. will have to make changes, quite con­ Swiss Game Act of 1925, which was in T = total protection. measures than those provided under In the case of the species named in siderable ones in some cases, to their force up to 1965 in cantons with a system F = far-reaching protection; ani­ federal law. For example, the European Appendix III all indiscriminate means of So far the Berne Convention is being polecat is today totally protected in 11 national legislation. of hunting preserves, in no way restricted mals may be captured or killed capture and killing are to be prohibited, applied by 12 states (Denmark, except­ the pursuit of furred predators, while only to a very limited extent out of 26 cantons. the Fisheries Act of 1888 stated: "Ex­ and only by special licence. The game laws of individual countries termination of the otter, the common P1 = partial protection; hunting and vary considerably, not only in respect heron and other animals particularly capture are permitted only of species protected and the hunting harmful to fisheries is to be encouraged during a certain season, under season; there are also substantial differ­ to the utmost”. To this end the Con­ certain conditions or in certain ences regarding permissible and pro­ federation subsidised the bounty paid Table 1. — Protection of small predators in various countries. parts of the country. During hibited methods. While in Hungary, for out by the cantons by up to 50 %, until the breeding and rearing sea­ instance, only poison bait is prohibited, CSSR ** the European otter was almost wiped son the animals are under Czechoslovakia, its neighbour, also pro­ Country A * B CH D DK F FL GB GR H I IRL L N NL S SF out. It was then placed under protection total protection. hibits iron traps of any kind, gins and CSR SSR (1962). P2 = partial protection; as P1 above, anaesthetics, but permits the use of Alopex lagopus T *** T F but without full protection dur­ poison gas to reduce the fox population Nyctereutes procyonoides P1 (1) U (1) U U U U U U U ing the breeding and rearing in areas infected with rabies. Austria National conservation measures season. leaves it to its federal states to deter­ Vulpes vulpes P1 (1 )U (7) U/P2 P1 U U U P2 U P1 U U U P1 U U P2 U P1 U U= unprotected; killing and cap­ mine what methods of trapping and Procyon lotor P2 (1) U (1) P2 U U P1 U U U Nowadays most of the European coun­ ture of animals is permissible, killing are not permissible. The Federal Lutra lutra T (6 )U (1) F T T F T T T T F U F T F T F T T F tries have a more discriminating ap­ at least by a recognised meth­ Republic of Germany and Switzerland, proach. At least those species that avoid od, throughout the year in the on the other hand, have federal bans M artes foina P1 (3) P2 (3) F P1 P1/2 P1 P1 P1 P2 P1 U P1 T P1 T a man-made environment, and whose whole country or large parts on spring guns, poison bait, nooses, P1/U (1) F P1 P1/2 P1 P1 T P2 P1 U F T T P1 P1 T P1 P1 very existence is threatened, are now of it. steel traps and various other means. Martes martes U(1) almost everywhere totally or at least Liechtenstein has similar regulations to Metes metes P1 (3) P2 (4) U (1 ) F P1 P1/2 P1 P1 P1 U P1 F U F T T T P1 T P1 U extensively protected. In most countries Switzerland. Sweden and Switzerland M ustela erm inea P2 (2) U (5) U/P2 P1 F /P 2F /P 2 P1 P1 P2 P1 U F T T P1 P1 U F P1 even the more frequent species which, too have restrictions similar to those M ustela eversm anni F because of their adaptability are not en­ In countries with a federal structure of the central European countries, al­ dangered, enjoy partial protection. Feral hunting usually comes under the jurisdic­ though in northern Finland the use of M ustela lutreola T (1) F T T T F cats, 71,000 of which were killed in tion of the individual federal states. Thus strychnine is still permitted. Mustela nivalis T(1) P2 (1) U (5) U P1 F F/P2 P1 T P2 T U U P2 P1 P1 T U T F 1982 in Hungary alone, and immigrants in Austria and Czechoslovakia the fed­ P1 P1 P2 T P1 U T P1 T P1 P1 U such as the racoon, racoon dog and eral states have different regulations. Mustela putorius P2 (1) U (6) U P1 U U American mink are, however, considered On the other hand, in Switzerland, the The Berne Convention Mustela vison U P2 U U undesirable and are not protected at U all, or at the best minimally. Vormela peregusna On 19 September 1979 the Council of Genetta genetta T Table 1 shows the status of protection * I wish to express my warm thanks for the support Europe Convention on the Conserva­ of the following: Felis catus (wild) U P2 U U for individual small predatory species A: Ulrike Goldschmid (Vienna); CH: Hansjiirg Blan­ tion of European Wildlife and Natural in various countries. The data on coun­ kenborn (Berne); CSR: Milada Leiskâ and Jaroslav Habitats was concluded in Berne. The Felis silvestris T (3) U (3) F T F P1/2 T T T U U F T T tries in the European Communities were Hromas (Prague); SSR: Anton Lucinkiewicz, Lip- Convention requires the Contracting taken from the publication by Nowak tovskÿ MikülàS; FL: Felix Nascher (Vaduz); H: States to take appropriate measures to Ervin Szenes (Budapest); N: Peter Schei (Oslo); * Numbers in brackets: number of federal states for which data are available. (1981); other data were made available S: Sven Johansson (Jönköping) and Ulf Weinberg protect certain species, which it names ** P1/2 and F1/2: killing and capture in pheasant preserves allowed at any time (CSR = Bohemia Moravia; SSR = Slovakia). by the game or nature protection author­ (Solna); SF: Esko Jaakkola (Helsinki). in Appendices l-lll, and their habitats. *** On Spitzbergen (Svalbard): P1. The Washington Convention an Eastern European country were being tries should therefore aim at preserving Miguel Delibes offered for sale. at least the small cousins of the larger beasts of prey which have disappeared The demand for certain animal products, Appendix II includes wildcats and jungle from many parts of our continent. such as furs, leather and ivory, can have cats among protected species. How­ extremely negative effects on the wild here are two carnivores of African ever trade is allowed in both species Not all the game and nature protection animal population unless adequate pro­ origin living in the south west of with a permit. In 1979, 65 wildcat pelts laws existing today meet this require­ tective measures and controls are avail­ Europe not found elsewhere on the were exported from Albania and 1,975 ment. Adjustments are urgently needed T continent. They are the genet (Genetta able. As it is relatively easy to evade from Bulgaria; approximately 50 exports in many areas. Non-selective means of existing national regulations in inter­ genetta) and mongoose (Herpestes ich­ of live specimens were reported world­ killing and capture should be pro­ national trade, the Washington Con­ neumon), belonging to the Viverridae (Photo Varin-Jacana) wide. In 1979 too the export of 1,080 hibited as quickly as possible. Fumiga­ vention on International Trade in En­ family. Both species are recent arrivals and the re-export of 16,200 jungle cat tion of fox-earths as a means of com­ dangered Species of Wild Fauna and having probably succeeded in reaching pelts was recorded. The great majority bating rabies has a devastating effect Flora was concluded on 3 March 1973. Europe with the help of man. of the pelts came however from the part on the badger population and should The aim of the Convention is to prevent of the jungle cat range lying outside be replaced by intensified hunting or transfrontier commercial trade in ani­ Europe. by peroral injection of foxes. Acutely mals and plants, alive or dead, or in A “European" animal endangered species such as the Euro­ Other small predatory animals in Europe any readily recognisable parts or prod­ pean otter should be placed under total ucts of animals and plants of endangered are not protected by the Convention. A number of ancient chronicles recount protection, and species which are declin­ species and to bring such trade in that genets were introduced into the At present the Washington Convention ing in numbers, as the polecat is in Iberian peninsula and France by the themselves by scratching and biting, and poverishment of the fauna and almost potentially endangered species under on endangered species covers 81 states. many areas, under extensive protection. supervision. The Convention contains Arabs, who used their skins in saddlery. clearly find rodents irresistible, pursuing always the disappearance of the genet. The European states among these are All other native species need to be According to these reports, Charles them mercilessly. precise, directly applicable provisions Denmark, the Federal Republic of Ger­ managed in such a way as to ensure In the last 15 years, moreover, the price governing the conditions under which Martel obtained at the battle of Poitiers many, the German Democratic Republic, healthy and viable populations. Gener­ fetched by genet pelts has risen, and very substantial spoils in the form of import and export are permissible and Finland, France, Liechtenstein, the Unit­ ally speaking no bounty should be this, coupled with unemployment and the information which permits and cer­ genet skins, which prompted him to ed Kingdom, Italy, Monaco, Norway, offered for capture or shooting; rather Useful but hunted... the economic crisis, has prompted some tificates must contain. found the Order of the Genet, to which Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, should proven damage be made good, people to supplement their incomes by in due course Pippin the Short and the Soviet Union and Cyprus. as is done in the case of damage to In the last few years research has been capturing genets, foxes, and martens Species listed in Appendix I of the Charlemagne belonged. Historians are crops by hoofed game. And, last but carried out into the feeding habits of the in particular. Convention are to be considered as nevertheless somewhat sceptical about not least, care should be taken to genet in different parts of the Iberian endangered; those in Appendices II or this theory. It was not custom ary in the Conclusions preserve the largest possible appro­ peninsula, the Baléares and France. III as potentially endangered. eighth century, they say, to take spoils priate habitats. Using the bodies of snared animals sent The situation is not desperate Small predatory animals are not merely in battle, and the Order of the Genet does to taxidermists and furriers, researchers Of the small predators in Europe only vital to the balance of nature; it is also The Berne Convention of the Council not appear in the codes in which me­ have contrived to analyse hundreds of It would be wrong, however, to imagine the otter is strictly protected. It was in­ a worthwhile experience for anyone to of Europe is a considerable step to­ diaeval orders were listed. Certain ar­ specimens of gastro-intestinal contents from this that the situation of the genet cluded in Appendix I in 1976 at the meet them in field or wood. Moreover, wards achievement of this aim, and.it chaeologists and palaeontologists, on and thousands of specimens of excre­ in Europe is desperate, or even critical. request of Switzerland, after it had as suppliers of pelts they represent an is to be hoped that it will be put into the other hand, have found what they ment. Findings converged in almost all It is one of the com m oner small car­ been observed that considerable num­ economic dimension which should not effect by the European states as soon consider to be remains of genets in pre­ cases. Genets are omnivorous and in­ nivores in the western half of the Iberian bers of live otters and otter skins from be underestimated. The laws of all coun­ as possible. P.D. historic deposits, but it has inevitably discriminate predators, but the basis of peninsula, and in the rest of the area turned out that either they were not their diet is small rodents, especially in which it is found it is not a rarity. It can authentic genets or, if they were, that field-mice (Apodemus sylvaticus). Small produce its young in any month of the they appeared out of context on the and medium-sized birds, certain eggs, year (but generally does so in the spring, surface, so that they were extremely dif­ lizards (particularly in the Baléares), with at most one second but smaller ficult to date correctly. We do not know amphibians, insects, occasionally small litter in the autumn), and each time two precisely, for that reason, when or how fish, scorpions, centipedes, fruit (partic­ or three baby genets are born; one spe­ genets “crossed" the straits of Gibraltar. Table 2. — Hunting seasons. ularly figs), also appear in their diets. cial feature is that a female which loses In any event, today the genet is a fully- Generally speaking, then, it is an animal its young can again reproduce imme­ Country CH a CSSR FL H N S SF fledged European carnivore, occupying serving a useful purpose, each individual diately. As a rule the other European Alopex lagopus 01.11-15.03 6 • • the whole of the Iberian peninsula, being capable of consuming in a single carnivores do not have this capacity, France as far as the Loire and the Rhone, year between one and two thousand which enables the genet to improve its Nyctereutes procyonoides 01.01-31.12 01.01-31.12 01.01-31.12 and the islands of Mallorca, Ibiza and rodents. In spite of this, as with other chances of survival, especially since Vulpes vulpes 15.06-28.02 01.01-31.12 ° 01.01-31.12 15.07-30.04 01.08-15.03 01.01-31.12 Cabrera (Baléares). Sightings of isolated carnivores it has a bad name and is ac­ its slow growth (it takes the genet almost Procyon lotor 01.01-31.12 d individuals in the north of France, Ger­ cused, on very inadequate grounds, of twelve months to grow to its full size) many, Switzerland and northern Italy damaging the cynegetic capital (red M artes foina 01.08-15.02 01.11-31.01 ° d and failure to achieve reproductive ma­ suggest that the species is currently partridges, rabbits, etc.). This means turity until the second year of its life M artes m artes 01.08-15.02 01.11-31.01 6 01.12-31.01 01.11-15.03 01.09-28.02 01.09-31.03 extending its area of distribution, al­ that many specimens are killed and otherwise hamper its chance of survival. Metes metes 01.08-30.12 6 01.01-31.12 though in some cases those observed poisoned in game preserves. 15.06-15.01 01.09-31.12 21.08-31.03 01.08-15.02 Genets are not totally protected by the had certainly escaped from captivity. M ustela erm inea 01.08-15.02 • » 21.08-31.03 01.09-28.02 01.12-31.03 Another direct threat to genets comes law in the Iberian peninsula, but being M ustela nivalis 01.08-15.02 • 6'c e • e e Genets weigh between one-and-a-half from the destruction of its habitats, al­ regarded as game species (in Spain) and two kilos, their fur is light grey with though here too the species proves ex­ they can only be captured (in theory) Mustela putorius 01.01-31.12 01.08-15.02 01.01-31.12 e e 01.09-28.02 01.01-31.12 dark spots, and their tails are resplend­ tremely adaptable, being able to settle between October and February. If this Mustela vison 15.07-30.04 01.01-31.12 01.01-31.12 ent with between sixteen and twenty in wooded or rocky places or heathland. restriction is observed, if there is a ban Felis ca tus 01.01-31.12 01.01-31.12 01.01-31.12 alternate light and dark rings. Like cats, The greatest numbers, however, are on the use of poison and the number they have retractable claws (although in found in the Mediterranean forests of that can be captured is controlled, it is Felis silvestris • 01.12-28.02 6 = e the genet they do not disappear com­ holm oaks and cork oaks in south west reasonable to hope that this fine pletely when retracted) and their pupils, and central western parts of Iberia, and nocturnal hunter, possessing agility and a Applies to cantons with hunting ground tenancies; in cantons with permit hunting and shooting, maximum for all species 1 September- in relatively large eyes, are vertical. This in the temperate woods of oaks and rapidity, which is alleged (perhaps 15 February, except for the badger where the maximum is 1 September-15 January. means that their appearance recalls chestnuts of the north west. Many of wrongly) to have performed the role b At any time in pheasant preserves. that of a small feline, and it is customary these forest areas have been trans­ = Applies to Slovakia only. of the dom estic cat in ancient tim es in d At any time except the reproductive season. for this resemblance to apply to other formed, with the original stands being eliminating mice from human habita­ e Applies to Spitzbergen (Svalbard) only. aspects. Genets in fact utter an abrupt replaced by exotic species, such as the tions, will never disappear from our • No limit. cry when they are displeased, defend Eucalyptus, producing a general im­ fields. M.D. Otters mark their ranges with their and otter signs were found at 92 %. In tters are related to stoats, martens faeces (called, in English, spraints) or contrast, in England only 6 % of 2,941 and badgers but differ from them with anal secretions. Since they lead sites produced signs. in being adapted to an amphibious The otter, symbol ofO rather solitary lives the spraints serve way of life. The European otter (Lutra In southern Europe a series of field as a form of chemical communication. lutra) is 100-120 cm in length, the males, surveys has been carried out since 1980. Spraints are easy to recognise, espe­ larger than the females, weighing around Italian fears were confirmed and the cially when fresh, since they have a our threatened fauna10 kg. The fur is thick and waterproof, otter is now highly endangered in that pleasant sweet-musky smell and usually dark brown on the back and lighter on country. In France populations have contain fish bones and scales. Fre­ the under-parts. The feet are webbed become fragmented and declines have and the tail is broad and slightly quently spraints are deposited at con­ occurred in Spain and Yugoslavia. Only spicuous places such as large boulders flattened. The ears are small and these, in Portugal and Greece has evidence in the water, on fallen trees or at stream together with the nostrils, can be closed been found of healthy and widespread when the animal dives. A profusion of confluences. The same sites may be populations. used year after year and the nutrients vibrissae are found on the muzzle help­ ing the otter to detect prey in murky from the spraints can result in patches of lush, darker grass. Spraints are the waters. commonest field signs of the animal’s Pesticides and other pollutants Otters live on rivers, lakes and marshes presence but the 5-toed print can be and, in Scotland, Ireland and Norway, on seen in mud or snow. Sometimes otters Sheila Mcdonald and Nicole Duplaix A combination of factors has caused the rocky sea coasts. They feed largely on scratch up little mounds of sand or alarming declines in otter numbers and fish. Otters on Welsh rivers may tackle vegetation and scent mark them. The not all the factors are yet understood. adult salmon ( Salmo salar) while on significance of this behaviour is not Investigations in Britain suggested that the coastal marshes of eastern England understood. the initial sharp declines occurred in they prey on small sticklebacks (Gasfe- the late 1950s and early 1960s with the rosteus aculeatus). Slower-moving fish, In most places the otter is nocturnal and is very seldom seen. When field surveys widespread application of organochlor- such as cyprinids, are easier to catch are carried out to determine distribution ine pesticides. Dieldrin was pin-pointed and otters have a clear preference for as the major culprit because at the time eels (Anguilla anguilla). The diet is sup­ it would be a waste of time to look for the animals themselves—only the tell­ of the otter population crash it was being plemented with amphibians, crustaceans extensively used in agriculture as a and the occasional small mammal or tale signs reveal their presence. In the past, circulated questionnaires were cereal seed dressing and in sheep dips. bird. In southern Europe water snakes Persistent pesticides build up in the are eaten. On the west coast of Scot­ usually used as the basis of regional surveys but it is now becoming accepted food chain so that top predators like land otters can be seen searching the otters can receive heavy doses. Even sea-weed for intertidal fish and crabs that such results may be quite mislead­ ing. Hunters and fishermen tend to if the chemicals do not prove lethal, and many a cub has a bloody nose after reproduction is affected and popula­ its first encounter with Carcinus. assess an animal's status to suit their own interests and, where a species is tions can be drastically reduced. During It is thought that the European otter supposedly protected, local people can the period when organochlorine pes­ can breed at any time of year although be wary of giving information. Surveys ticides were being used in Britain they workers in Sweden and Scotland sug­ conducted in the field will not detectwere equally popular in many European gest that there may be a peak of births every otter range but results generally countries with advanced agricultural sys­ in late winter and spring. One to three provide a more reliable picture of dis­ tems like Germany and the Netherlands. cubs are born and may stay with the tribution. Published statements of actual It may be significant that in Portugal, female for up to one year. The repro­ numbers of otters in a region or country where otters still thrive, the agricultural ductive rate is thus rather slow. must be treated with caution since the output is one of the lowest in Europe carrying-capacity of small areas may while in Greece agricultural advance­ differ widely. ment has been relatively recent. The organochlorine pesticides have now Home ranges been phased out of agriculture and in •m Declines in numbers Britain today analyses of fish tissues Otters live within home ranges. Pioneer­ have suggested that these chemicals are ing work in this field was done in Sweden no longer present at high enough levels Until recently most of the information on in the 1960s. By means of tracking otters to affect otters. Nevertheless, these the distribution and status of Lutra lutra in snow it was concluded that a male compounds are used illegally and there derived from northern Europe and over­ patrolled about 15 km of waterway and are occasional spillages into rivers. all the situation seems bleak. The otter that one or two females occupied smal­ Earlier this year a large quantity of is rare and still declining in England, ler areas within this range. In a recent dieldrin polluted a river in south-west West Germany, the Netherlands and radio-tracking programme on a Scottish England killing many fish but it is, as Denmark. In Norway good populations river an adult male was found to use yet, too early to assess effects on local are still to be found on the northern 40 km of river while the ranges of otters. coasts but the species is far less com­ females averaged about half this length. mon in the south. The Swedes claim In Sweden recent analyses of dead otters The age and social status of an individual alarming declines in otter numbers. Field revealed high levels of PCBs (poly­ The otter, one of the mammals most threatened with extinction in Europe (Photo W. Lapinski). will affect the size and position of its surveys in northern Europe have reveal­ chlorinated biphenyls), chemicals which range. Range size will also vary accord­ ed only two countries where otters are are used in industrial processes and ing to available resources including the still abundant—Scotland (and there, which have now been found world-wide potential of the habitat for resting sites most animals are found in the Highlands, in the bodies of animals. There has been and the quality of the food supply. On on the north and west coasts and on little work on other persistent pollutants. Norwegian fjords the availability of fresh the Islands) and Ireland. Indeed Ireland In Britain a recent analysis of fish tissues water during severe winter conditions now holds the healthiest of the known has suggested that concentrations of may affect the distribution of ranges. otter populations with animals making mercury, cadmium and lead may be suf­ Where den sites and food are abundant, use of every type of waterway. During ficiently high to adversely affect otters as on the Scottish coast, an otter may 1980 a total of 2,373 sites was surveyed although analyses of otter tissues have (Photo W. Lapinski) occupy only about 5 km. 15 The predators Large or small, they are indispensable

■' few the causes for decline. There are, Unfortunately, there is little experience however, certain positive measures in this field. An attempt to re-establish which can be taken. It is essential that otters in Switzerland in 1975 was un­ remaining otter habitats be conserved, successful. In Britain and West Germany a formidable task in the face of agri­ otters are being bred in captivity and in cultural advancement with subsidised in­ July 1983 three of these animals were centives. However, studies in Spain, released in eastern England to initiate Greece, Portugal and Britain all show a long-term re-introduction programme. clearly that otter distribution is closely Because the European otter is notori­ related to the existence of suitable ously difficult to breed it may well be habitat. In Britain conservationists are more effective to translocate animals now involved in constant negotiations from countries such as Ireland with with water resource managers to try healthy, natural populations. It has been to minimise destruction of riparian habi­ argued by purists that this could result tats. Private landowners are approached in the mixing of different stocks or even to establish otter havens. These are of races, while some may question the areas known to be regularly used by morality of interfering with healthy popu­ the animals where disturbance is mini­ lations. However, otters are almost (Photo W. Lapinski) mised and bankside habitat is retained everywhere under threat. If some of or even improved by planting trees and Europe’s protected wetlands, such as the scrub. The preservation of existing den Camargue in France, could again sup­ sites is considered to be of prime im­ port otters, we should surely not vacillate portance. Artificial resting sites made but take action. Inter-state co-operation of piles of logs are created and ponds in the USA has led to sucessful trans­ close to rivers can be stocked with fish. locations of Lutra canadensis. C o­ operation between conservationists on Most conservation effort is being made a European scale could be equally not yet been undertaken. The sublethal In Britain the animals frequently find Human disturbance in northern Europe where many otter effective. S.Med. and N.D. effects of persistent pollutants, partic­ shelter within the root systems of mature populations are dwindling. In the south, ularly when several occur together, may bankside trees, especially oak, ash and As their habitat is lost otters become in countries like Greece and Portugal be more important than direct mortal­ sycamore (Quercus spp., Fraxinus excel­ more vulnerable to human disturbance. where healthy, widespread populations ities but the mechanisms are poorly sior and Acer pseudoplatanus). These So long as they have security and can still remain, public interest in the species understood. Cumulative chemicals at species have open root systems sus­ vanish at a moment’s notice, they will is negligible. There are few field biol­ low doses are known to affect the ceptible to erosion by fast-flowing or tolerate a certain level of human activity. ogists trained to recognise otter signs or reproduction and behaviour of several spate waters. Deep caverns and tun­ On the Scottish coast otters can be seen to monitor their populations. The gen­ species but it would be morally repre­ nels are formed between the roots swimming in harbours amongst fishing eral public has little commitment to, or hensible to carry out the required ex­ providing safe, dry places. Piles of flood boats and on Portuguese rivers their even an awareness of, wildlife conserva­ periments on an endangered species. debris on river banks, field drains and signs are everywhere despite the big tion. Yet it is conservation of healthy broken masonry are also used as resting Parts of northern Europe suffer severely gypsy camps, the roving feral dog packs populations which makes most sense. sites. In quiet places otters sleep above from acid rain which is eliminating fish and the ubiquitous washerwomen. The A large programme of public education ground in dense riparian scrub or in otters’ nocturnal habits in most countries stocks and thus may reduce the habitat is a prerequisite for conservation in Phragmites beds. In the flat agricultural are probably a reaction to long years available to otters. Increased acidity southern Europe but Portugal is not plains of northern Greece otters are of persecution. The species is now legally may increase the concentrations of toxic even represented in the World Wildlife common in the irrigation ditches and protected in most of Europe although metals in waters. Fund. In Italy the Gruppo Lontra Italia can find shelter in the dense growths enforcement of the law is often neglected was formed in 1982 and already the Coastal otters in both Scandinavia and of Rubus on the banks. In Yugoslavia or an impossible task. Little can be done resultant publicity has led to sudden Scotland are vulnerable to oil pollution. wide margins of impenetrable Salix at present to control trigger-happy widespread interest and concern for In 1978 at least 13 otters died after an scrub provide cover while the same hunters especially in Italy and France. the otter amongst scientists and the oil spill in the Shetlands. species of otter in North Africa finds While otters are still shot because of general public. Clearly many forms of water pollution seclusion in denseNerium oleander. fears that they compete with fishermen are affecting otter survival and while Bankside habitat is everywhere under many more are accidentally drowned in some countries are making efforts to threat. In Britain trees and scrub are fish traps. In a recent study on the Nor­ clean-up rivers gross pollution, both removed by the authorities responsible wegian coast 80 % of known deaths Re-introduction of species organic and industrial, is still a common for flood prevention. In southern Italy resulted from drowning. In Poland a J v / * * feature of many European rivers. Anti­ many river banks are practically devoid third of 192 dead otters had been drown­ Another approach to otter conservation a ? * pollution laws are often flouted. of vegetation due to regular cutting and ed in fish traps. A positive conservation involves re-introduction of the species. Q, ___ * because of intensive gravel extraction. measure should involve adapting fish There are regions throughout Europe The bulldozers and heavy lorries leave traps to prevent otters from entering. where the animal is now absent but where it might, once again, thrive. In Habitat destruction behind wide, bare shingle beds and waters thick with sediment. Light is im­ the Camargue the last otter was record­ peded and fish suffocate. Throughout ed in the 1950s and yet this wetland The otter, like so many other species, Conservation measures Europe wetlands are drained to provide wilderness appears ideal. In northern is also threatened by habitat destruction. additional farmland. Widespread de­ Italy too, pockets of suitable habitat still The animal requires safe sleeping places Conservation measures for the otter forestation in southern Europe has af­ remain. Clearly before any re-introduc­ % are now well established in many coun­ and the females in particular need very tion programmes could be initiated, as­ fected water flow and fish stocks. tries including France, West Germany, % 6E W # secure dens. Many forms of shelter can sessments would have to be made of Scouring torrents are typical in winter Belgium, the Netherlands and Britain. be used by otters. On the coasts of Nor­ fish populations and fish tissues would while in the summer river beds are dry. Such countries are attempting to prevent way and Scotland dens are found among have to be analysed for pesticides and further attrition of already fragment­ rock falls or in caves, and in peat banks It can be seen that the otter has proved metals. Increased control of hunting and highly vulnerable to both pollution and ed populations, populations which, in dens can be extensive and resemble fishing within release areas would have badger setts. Broken rock is also used habitat destruction. It is, therefore, a places, are still declining. The ultimate to be implemented. Despite these dif­ on river banks and such dens can be good indicator of the ecological health viability of remnant populations is doubt­ ficulties it seems that for such sites found on Spanish and Portuguese rivers. of the wetland environment. ful and it is clear that we understand too re-introduction is the only solution. A varied diet So, the wide variation in home range A complex social life sizes seemed to be partly explained The quest to explain this wide variation by local variation in the abundance of Further study of these red fox family in movements led to a study of fox diet. food available to the foxes. The inter­ groups indicated that amongst the We scoured the countryside searching face between farmland and suburbs females there was a dominance hier­ for fox faeces. Luckily, red foxes use turned out to be especially rich in food archy and that sometimes this had con­ their faeces as scent marks and often and the home ranges were small, siderable bearing on their breeding position them aloft prominent sites, mak­ whereas food was more scarce in the behaviour. Despite the fact that all red ing them easier to find. We collected, uplands and ranges large. However, fox vixens are reproductively adult at dried and teased apart thousands of radio tracking revealed not only the ten months old, some of the socially sub­ samples, to find undigested traces of sizes of home ranges, but also their ordinate vixens in the family groups prey and fragments of bone, hair, beetle pattern and this held some interesting did not breed. Indeed, they took on an Vulpes vulpes (Photo G. Lacoumette) legs, feathers and fruit pips. The analysis surprises. Despite the wealth of rural active part in the rearing of their domi­ revealed quite different diets from one lore which maintained that foxes are nant relative’s cubs. The helpers played study area to the next (and sometimes solitary, antisocial creatures, we found with and groomed the cubs and even even from one home range to the next). that their ranges can be arranged into took food to them. Furthermore, cases In general, the foxes seemed to be be­ groups. Up to six adults (including only have been reported in the wild where having opportunistically, making the one male) may share the same group when a breeding female was killed a new o the ancient Greeks the red fox to +40 °C—the ancient Greeks were most of whatever food was available. So, territory, overlapping widely in their breeder adopted and reared her cubs! was the epitome of versatility. Me­ right about its versatility. in the northern hills rabbits were the movements, but overlapping very little Fox social life is certainly more com­ diaeval Europeans embodied in the plex than we thought. T The red fox is largely nocturnal and part principal prey, followed by grouse and with comparable neighbouring groups. fox qualities of guile, wit, devilment and of its knack for survival stems from its small rodents. On farmland the diet was In the suburban study area there were Although interesting for its own sake, one revolution—impressions passed from secretiveness. That same trait had varied, including small birds, rodents, an average of 4-5 adult foxes in each might ask if the new understanding of A special generation to generation in the lines of thwarted biologists until the invention farmyard carrion, lots of fruit in season, group and it seemed that they were fox behaviour really matters. The answer Le Roman de Renart and other epic of radio-tracking—a technique which together with abundant beetles and family groups, probably a mother and is that it does matter, because of its poems. Europeans have been writing enables even the most wary animal to earthworms. In suburbs the picture was successive generations of daughters. relevance to various “fox problems” about red foxes for some two thousand case be followed from a distance and undis­ different again and earthworms were The foxes gave the impression of being and because new knowledge is clearly years—long enough, you might think, to turbed. The animal to be studied is amongst the most important prey! This solitary, because they travelled and eroding some entrenched views on fox draw some reasonable conclusions. In­ equipped with a miniature radio trans­ might seem an improbable prey for often sought shelter alone. However, management. Fox problems, real or deed, many countrymen will readily mitter, often fitted to a collar so that the foxes, but under carefully maintained they met up fleetingly during their imagined, include depredations on offer a very emphatic conclusion—the radio hangs below the neck like a brandy lawns there are huge populations of nightly travels and doubtless kept in game, poultry, lambs, trapping for fur, D avid W. M cdo na ld only good fox is a dead one! It comes as these worms—the question was how touch through scent marking and vocal­ hunting and shooting for sport and far something of a surprise to find that, cask on a St. Bernard dog. The biol­ do the foxes get at them? isations. and away the most significant, rabies. despite such longstanding interest and ogist with a radio receiver a kilometre or more away detects the “bleeps” emit­ strong opinions, little is known of foxes, Using night vision infra-red equipment D.W.Med. ted by the transmitter and by triangula­ and that those glimpses we do have of I stalked the fields by night, following tion with a directionally sensitive antenna the fox’s private life paint a very different the radio-tagged foxes and trying to can pinpoint his subject’s location. To­ picture to that of the villain of our fairy­ ambush them in order to see how they Rabies serious blemish on the relationship gether with my colleagues in the so- tales. hunted. Soon it became clear how they between men and wildlife. Throughout called “Foxlot” in Oxford University’s were catching earthworms. In the shad­ All mammals are susceptible to the most of Europe traditional methods, Department of Zoology, I have spent a owy picture of the infra-red binoculars, rabies virus, but foxes are particularly that is killing foxes, have failed to decade tracking foxes, with a principal foxes could be seen slowly criss-cros­ so. In Europe the red fox is the most eradicate or even contain the disease. aim of understanding their great adapt­ A wide geographical range sing pastures and lawns. More than important vector and victim of the The foxes’ adaptability and resilience ability. The most clearcut difference in once a minute the fox would pause, listen disease. Once infected by a bite has thwarted the control efforts, which behaviour to emerge among foxes radio intently whilst staring at the ground, wound the fox incubates the disease anyway did not take into account the The red fox is an extraordinary animal. tracked in different habitats is in their then plunge his snout into the grass. for about three weeks before itself great variation in fox numbers and It has the widest geographical range of movements. On mixed farmland in An accelerating upward movement of the becoming infective. At that stage virus behaviour between habitats, nor the any member of the family Canidae—the Oxfordshire each resident adult fox fox’s head would then draw the worm starts proliferating in the rabid fox's effect on the rate of contact (and thus dog-like carnivora. This one species might travel a home range of 200- taught and then, forced from its burrow, salivary glands and shed into its saliva. infection) among foxes in societies prospers throughout the northern hemi­ 300 hectares. Not far away, in the city the victim would curl helplessly around Within a few days the fox is dead. In disrupted by the killing schemes. Re­ sphere from Arctic tundra to Arabian suburbs where farmland and scattered its captor’s muzzle. But foxes could only 1982 some 15,000 red foxes were cently, however, a new idea, being desert, from mountain to marshland, residential areas meet, the average hunt for earthworms in this way on reported rabid in Europe, but the tested in Switzerland, shows great and from forest to city centre. The red home range was much smaller at certain nights—when the air was moist reported cases may be only a small promise. The idea is to feed wild fox is found in North Africa, throughout about 40 hectares. In fact, some foxes and the breeze still—because only then fraction of those actually dying from foxes with an oral vaccine against Asia to Japan and throughout North there lived in little more than 10 hectares did the worms emerge from their bur­ the disease. Happily, human deaths rabies, in this way reducing the popula­ America. They were deliberately intro­ —an area they could run across in a rows and become available for capture. from rabies are very rare in the devel­ tion of susceptible animals to below duced into Australia in the mid 19th cen­ matter of seconds! In contrast, foxes On other occasions these suburban oped countries, but the disease re­ the threshold at which the disease tury and have spread over most of that tracked in the Pennine hills of the north foxes scavenged bones and scraps from mains a heavy financial burden, a can persist. There is thus hope that continent. The species’ range embraces of England travelled ranges of 1,000 garden bird-tables or gorged themselves extremes of temperature from -40 °C threat to people and stock, and a rabies may one day be overcome. hectares or more. on apples or blackberries. Arctic fox and livestock signs of a slight recovery during the last they have been studied elsewhere. This five years. difference is likely to be of a genetic Pâli Hersteinsson The Arctic fox In bygone days, sheep were allowed to nature. Other, less obvious, but equally In the meantime the foxes go about their important differences may be discover­ graze a great deal in winter, and if spring daily business of trying to stay alive and ed soon, if only Man the Conservationist came early, the livestock was put out to reproduce in a habitat much poorer than will be allowed to have a little say in pasture up in the mountains even before 1,100 years ago. Those living by the the management of the Arctic fox the lambing. But Icelandic weather is coast still feed on seabirds, seal car­ population in Iceland in the future. P.M. very unpredictable. There can be sudden casses and various invertebrates, such an you imagine a Europe without As time went by, vegetation covered the So why is the attitude so different in blizzards, even in spring, and the sheep as mussels and kelp-fly larvae, while the red fox? Well, neither can I, barren wastes of Iceland, and 9,000 years Iceland? Ever since Man and his do­ would soon become too exhausted to those living in the interior catch ptarmi­ Cbut the Neanderthal man probably after the end of the Ice Age, between mestic stock began denuding Iceland fight the snow, wind and sleet, and be­ gan in winter and migrant birds, such as did. During his reign in Europe the 25 and 40 % of the country was covered 1,100 years ago, lamb carcasses have come completely bogged down. At such waders and geese, in summer. small mammal predator with whom he in birch and willow shrubs. The island been turning up at breeding dens. It is times the fox was able to attack and kill was most familiar was the Arctic fox was teaming with bird-life, including impossible to tell now what proportion them, or even eat them alive—a horrible Consequently, there are some differ­ (.Alopex lagopus), and any self-respect­ numerous migrants, such as waders of these lambs were actually killed by sight for those who happened upon it. If ences in the evolutionary pressures on ing Neanderthal man certainly would and passerines, as well as ducks. The the foxes and how many were scaveng­ the weather deteriorated around the foxes in coastal and inland habitats. have worn a piece of clothing made from most important species to the Arctic fox, ed. We can only be sure that both hap­ time of lambing, the newborn lambs Thus the "blue" morph, which remains dark throughout the year, is in a majority Arctic fox skin. And imagine all those however, and probably one of the first pened. Arctic foxes have always been often died in large numbers. These were Neanderthal babies clutching a security to settle in the country following the efficient scavengers, but they evolved scavenged by the foxes, who were in coastal regions, as camouflage against "blanket" made from the softest fur climatic change, must have been the in the absence of sheep or any other promptly accused of killing them. the background of the littoral zone, which available, Arctic fox skin. rock ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus), due herbivore of that size. Arctic foxes have rarely freezes and is the main source to its presence there throughout the a narrow snout and weak bite, com­ Only in exceptional cases did foxes of food, is more important than camou­ But all good things come to an end, and year. There is little doubt that only pletely different from wolves and most attack completely healthy lambs or adult flage against the snow. The latter, how­ so did the Ice Age. Modern men and because of this tough little tetraonid was dogs. They are therefore extremely inef­ animals. When they did, they usually ever, is more important in the interior red foxes invaded and took over Europe. the Arctic fox able to inhabit the interior ficient sheep-killers. went for the sheep’s muzzle, often maul­ regions of Iceland, and the “white” morph What became of the Neanderthal man of Iceland at all seasons. At that time, ing it so severely that the animal bled to (white in winter, grey and brown in is anybody’s guess, but Arctic foxes death or was unable to feed, which also this volcanic island near the top of the summ er) is more comm on there. still persist in the far north. They have world must have seemed like an Arctic meant it was doomed. The hatred to­ not changed much during this time, and ward the foxes therefore went far beyond fox paradise: no red foxes to compete are still adapted to a cold and inhospit­ (Photo Dr. K. Robin) the financial loss caused, which was still with, no Man to be hunted by, and birds- Breeding biology able environment, where they carved out regarded as substantial. a-plenty. The Arctic fox was lord of the a niche for themselves long ago, hunting land. It is generally agreed that damage caus­ small mammals and birds, as well as Some 10,000 years of virtual isolation ed by Arctic foxes nowadays is unim­ scavenging from reindeer carcasses left Then suddenly there was a change. Man from other Arctic fox populations should portant, but opinions differ as to the by larger predators, such as wolves the Inventor, in the form of Viking sea­ have given the Icelandic fox population principal reason for this. Farming prac­ and wolverines. farers, had built seaworthy ships, and ample time to adapt to local conditions. tices have improved dramatically in Man the Agriculturalist moved to Ice­ Scientists have hardly begun to address For centuries, an uneasy truce has existed recent decades; winter grazing belongs land 1,100 years ago. themselves to this question, but already between the two closely related fox spe­ to the past, and most lambing takes a major difference has been discovered cies, with the smaller (3-5 kg) Arctic place indoors under human supervision. between the breeding biology of Ice­ fox inhabiting the treeless arctic and Causes of mortality at that stage are Extermination landic foxes and other Arctic fox alpine tundras of northern Europe, where therefore known rather than being populations. it could persist due to its low metabolic automatically blamed on the fox. Simi­ The ptarmigan, which is the mainstay demands, and the larger (5-8 kg) and The Arctic fox was king of the country no larly, lambs are not exposed to the of the winter diet of the inland foxes stronger red fox, with its higher metabolic more. His status was quickly reduced to mountains and moorlands until they are in Iceland, experiences 10-year popula­ needs, monopolising the rest of Europe. that of a useful furbearer, whose skin 2-3 weeks old and large enough to tion cycles, and the foxes’ food avail­ became legal tender along with lamb intimidate the much smaller foxes. skins and other wares. This state of af­ ability in winter varies accordingly. The Persecution of the foxes continues, how­ Survival and “reign” in Iceland fairs did not last very long either, as at migrant bird species, however, which some stage during the first 300 years ever, as most farmers feel that if the form the major part of the foxes’ food of human settlement in Iceland it had fox population were allowed to increase during summer, do not experience such During the relatively rapid change from acquired pest status by law. Then, in to carrying capacity, damage would cycles, and prey availability is con­ Ice Age to the milder climate that we A.D. 1295, a law was passed which made soon reach unacceptable levels. sequently extremely stable from sum­ take for granted, the ice bridge which, it every farmer’s duty to kill one adult mer to summer. The foxes have adapted for at least a part of each year, had or two juvenile foxes each year or else to this by producing litters, the size of connected Greenland and Scandinavia pay a tax which would then be used to which varies remarkably little with the via Iceland, broke up. The Arctic fox, The conditions of existence pay foxhunters to do the job. The law availability of ptarmigan, since it is in which had become somewhat of a spe­ are difficult remained virtually unchanged for the fact the prey availability in summer cialist in catching sea-birds and scaveng­ which determines the maximum litter next six centuries. In fact, the present- In the 20-year period 1958-78, the fox ing from polar bear kills among the ice­ size which can be reared. This litter day law still refers to the extermination catch was reduced by over 70 % in spite floes, was left stranded in Iceland. In size is close to 4.0, which is very small of the species, and instead of only of a relative increase in hunting intensity spite of the undoubted barrenness of compared to the mean litter sizes found individual farmers paying for the hunt­ due to the advent of telescopic rifles the island at the time, and the absence of in lemming areas (e.g. North America ing effort, the state now foots two-thirds and snow-scooters. It is of interest that any other terrestrial mammals, such as and Scandinavia) in years of lemming of the bill for the fox-hunters’ wages it was probably the attitude of the fox­ rodents to feed on, and the lack of left­ population peaks (9-12 cubs per litter). and bounties. hunters themselves which reversed this overs from large predator feasts, the In the latter areas, the vixens’ fertility decline. Most of them do not want to see Arctic fox survived this difficult period, At the same time the species is com­ seems to respond to lemming avail­ the complete extermination of the spe­ as Iceland gradually emerged from pletely protected in Fennoscandia, the ability in winter, as this is generally a underneath a giant ice-cap. The survival Russians have been trying for half a cies, as not only do they enjoy the good indicator of the food in the following hunting, but it is also a substantial source of the Arctic fox there is undoubtedly century to find ways of increasing the rearing season. due to the presence of various sea-birds Arctic fox population in the USSR, and of income to them. Consequently, many along the coasts, such as guillemots and in other countries they can only be of them did leave a few known breeding It is clear that in the respect of their eiders, in addition to the occasional seal hunted by licensed trappers during a earths alone, to replenish the population, breeding biology, Icelandic Arctic foxes and whale carcass washed ashore. limited trapping season. and fox numbers have been showing differ from their conspecifics where Hunting techniques often the mustelid starts searching for foraging, i.e., the animal tries to have another prey before having a meal. the greatest possible difference between Caching is a characteristic part of the the cost and the benefit of its hunting. A foraging mustelid spends most of its small mustelids’ foraging behaviour and In doing so, it has to make several deci­ time searching for prey by means of provides a continuous supply of food sions about which kind of prey to hunt hearing, sight and smell. A mustelid that is needed to fuel their high meta­ for, and where to hunt. In a study in having traced a prey by listening some­ bolic rate for temperature regulation and southern Sweden, two species of voles times finds the entrance of a burrow their energy-expensive hunting behav­ (the field vole, Microtus agrestis, and too narrow to pass through and so the p iour. Each day a weasel has to eat food the water vole, Arvicola terrestris) were predator tries to force the rodent to leave comparable to one-third of its body the preferred prey of female stoats the refuge by intense scratching at the weight and normally it has a meal every throughout the year. In spring and sum­ opening and by vigorous stamping with three hours. Access to cached food mer however, when vole densities were R the back legs. In cases where the is therefore important especially since low, other prey were also included in mustelid can enter the burrow system, not every hunt is successful. A small the diet. The larger male stoats, on the the prey is pursued and killed in the rodent quarry provides food for two or other hand, showed a preference for E burrow or sometimes the prey is forced three meals. the bigger vole (the water vole), and to leave the refuge and caught just out­ males changed their feeding habits dur­ side. The quarry is usually carried to a In theory, an animal is assumed to ing the year, having as additional prey D secluded place close to the nest but maximise its net energetic profit when young rabbits in spring-summer and field voles in autumn-winter. A Microtine rodents generally occur in high densities in habitats such as wet meadows, abandoned fields, and clear- T cut areas. Such habitats are favourite hunting grounds for weasels and stoats. Hunting occurs in short periods inter­ Mustela erminea (Photo Dr. K. Robin). rupted by rests throughout day and 0 night, and a period of hunting often lasts for about half an hour. Total hunt­ ing time during a 24-hour period usually R amounts to 4-5 hours. During that time a stoat has to catch on average two or I three small rodents having the size of a field vole, which means that a stoat spends on average two hours hunting P per catch. R Defence mechanisms of the prey The prey attempts to avoid being taken by the predator in different ways. Large E and aggressive rodents, such as the brown rat, often are able to defend themselves successfully. In feeding ex­ Y redator-prey interactions can be narrow burrows in pursuit of rodents periments, unexperienced stoats were studied from the view-point of an in their tunnels. Female weasels and even chased by the rat after an attack Pindividual predator and its prey stoats have to collect large amounts by a stoat. Smaller and less aggressive animal by observing the predator’s hunt­ of food when rearing the young so they prey try to escape by taking refuge, by ing behaviour and the fugitive reac­ must be well designed to be efficient running away or climbing up in trees tions of its prey, or the study could focus optimal-sized small rodent predators. or by becoming immobile for a period on the populations of predators and The body size of small mustelids greatly of time, “freezing behaviour”. Each spe­ prey by examining the numerical effects varies over each species’ geographical cies has a repertoire of fugitive reac­ of the interactions. range, and it has been suggested that tions which they make use of in dif­ female sizes are adjusted to the sizes ferent situations and the frequency of The small mustelids, the weasel (Mustela of their predominant prey and to the their use varies between the species. nivalis) and the stoat (M. erm inea), are width of the preys’ burrows. Male In tests, wood mice Apodemus ( flavi- small-sized carnivores; in some regions weasels and stoats are much larger collis) often escaped by running and a female weasel weighs less than than the female, weighing almost twice climbing up a tree generally followed 50 grams and her body size is not larger as much. Males probably are larger as by freezing behaviour, whereas field than a finger. Here, some aspects of a result of sexual selection; large males voles usually took refuge in tunnels. these small mustelids’ interactions with are selected as they are dominant and Mustela nivalis only needs a passage of 2.3 cm (as shown) to hunt rodents Freezing behaviour also was shown by their prey will be considered. so will obtain a relatively higher num­ (Drawing P. Déom). voles in tests with the weasel as the ber of matings (the mating system of predator but not in tests with the stoat. Examples of two predators: the small mustelids is a promiscuous Thus, the voles seemed to react dif­ the weasel and the stoat one without any long-lasting pair bonds). ferently to the two predators. As could A male’s larger size prevents him from be expected, prey reactions that were Sam Erlinge They are morphologically and behav- entering smaller burrows that are ac­ successful in evading the predators, iourally adapted to feed on small rodents. cessible to a female and this causes e.g., running away followed by freezing The mustelids' long and thin bodies some sexual differences in foraging in wood mice, were also frequently used with short legs permit them to enter behaviour. by the species. Unpalatability can be a defence mecha­ the rodents’ dynamics, however, is less nism. Relative to their abundances, clear. Neither the mustelids nor any other shrews (Sorex sp.) are eaten by the predators seem to be able to prevent Trapped, gassed, small mustelids to a low extent. This vole populations from increasing to is probably due to distasteful prop­ high densities in certain areas but high erties. In feeding tests where killed predation rates during rodent popula­ poisoned... P,em Plemr shrews and various species of small tion decline might result in levels near rodents were offered weasels and stoats, extinction and delay the recovery. the shrews were rejected. The mustelids also showed little interest in shrews when hunting. Unpalatability as a defence A Swedish experience an’s relationship with small and “Death at any time and by any con­ mechanism could have arisen through medium-sized carnivorous mam­ ceivable means”: when dealing with kin selection. If a predator, from sam­ In other systems however, predation Mmals has never been the same as “vermin” the ethics and laws of hunting pling one or a few of a brood, learns to could have a regulating effect on small his relationship with other animals. are no more applicable than interna­ avoid other members of that group, then rodent numbers. Such a system was Whereas most living creatures, except tional conventions and humanitarian those which can be of service to him a gene for distastefulness can increase examined by a research team at the rules are when soldiers are fighting in frequency. University of Lund in southern Sweden. and hence arouse in him a desire to sub­ maquisards or guerrillas rather than a jugate them, leave him indifferent, his regular army. Whereas all so-called Ten predator-species were included and attitude towards small and medium­ the dominating predators in terms of game animals are left in peace during sized carnivores has constantly been the breeding season, whereas it is con­ Interactions between predator eaten prey biomass were common buz­ dominated by passion. Naked and sidered very unseemly to shoot a hare zards, red foxes and domestic cats. and prey populations defenceless, he feared them, despite in its form or a pheasant on the ground These predators were sustained mainly their modest size, and envied their (“that’s not hunting, it’s murder... you’ve by rabbits but preyed on small rodents Predator-prey interactions have numer­ amazing skill in capturing the prey that got to give the animals a chance”, say especially during periods of high rodent ical consequences on population sizes. he too coveted. When he became an the hunting fraternity), for carnivores it densities. The annual production of The density of prey influences the feed­ increasingly efficient hunter and sub­ is a case of the end justifying the means, small rodents was harvested by the ing rate and the number of predators, sequently a stock breeder, he regarded and the means are not lacking! In spring predators during each autumn and and predation could have a negative them as challengers and rivals and his as in autumn, by day or by night, inside winter and this brought rodent numbers influence on prey numbers and might possessive instinct inspired in him a or outside their burrow, hole, earth or down to low levels each spring. In this even limit or regulate prey densities. fierce hatred. set, they can be shot, gassed, poisoned system, the small mustelids played an One generally considers two kinds of and trapped by a multitude of methods unimportant part. Every spring female influences exerted by the predators to which veritable encyclopaedias have weasels and stoats faced a low density that can change prey densities, i.e., an Universal hatred been devoted and which give a quite of small rodents and so had difficulties individual predator can increase its astonishing idea of the ingenuity of their to rear many young. Thus, the number consumption rate as a response to in­ This hatred is universal and found inventors. Some crush the animal, others of small mustelids in this area was creased prey density (a functional re­ throughout our oral and written tradi­ mangle limbs and leave the animal to probably limited by a shortage of food sponse), and predator numbers can tion. Anything conjuring up the appear­ agonise for hours if not days. Other types due to interspecific competition from change due to variable prey densities ance or behaviour of a carnivore is strangle the victim, suspend it by one mainly the generalist predators. S.E. (a numerical response). Together the pejorative: to be weasel-faced, to look paw, stab it with sharp spikes or tear functional and the numerical responses like a ferret, to smell like a polecat, to its jaws apart! determine the extent of predation. be as wily as a fox, etc. Even scientists Individual weasels and stoats react to feel obliged to satisfy public opinion high rodent densities by increasing the by using such phrases. Brehm, the great No quarter... predation rate which sometimes results 19th-century zoologist, for instance, ex­ in their killing many more prey than they pressed his obvious, but at that time The Christian concepts of suffering and can consume. Caches containing up to unavowable, admiration for the beauty pity do not apply to “vermin” and, until twenty small rodents have been ob­ and grace of the ferret and the marten only a few years ago, the famous Manu- served. Also, the small mustelids have thus: “they are admirably proportioned france catalogue still featured and most a high reproductive potential and can for a life of brigandage and rapine”! armourers still stocked the dreadful “corkscrew”, a long, pointed, coiled shaft therefore rapidly transform an increased Throughout history, and particularly over which was screwed into the bodies of number of voles into more predators. the last two centuries of technological foxes and badgers to pull them out of For instance, litter size in stoats having triumphs, man has had a sense of mis­ their earths and sets! To salve their one litter per year can be up to thirteen. sion, that mission being to control nature consciences and justify all these horrors, Weasels can produce two litters per year and rectify what he considered to be its hunters have completely twisted the and young of the first litter can be shortcomings. He paraded as an arbiter, concept of “vermin” to suit their interests. sexually mature and reproduce the same applying to the animal kingdom his As for mankind’s best interests, the most season. However, compared to their universal distinction between good and elementary common sense would want prey (small rodents) the reproductive evil, between the good and the bad, weasels and stoats, which specialise in capacity even of a weasel is low, and and even went so far as to incorporate in killing voles and field mice, included the predator’s response also means statute the concept of useful animals among the useful animals, while hares some time-delay. In the laboratory, a and vermin. Carnivores were naturally system containing one predator and included among the latter and justice in and deer might at times be more ac­ curately classed as vermin. one prey population has been found to all its rigour had to be meted out to fluctuate in a cyclic way. Similarly, in them: “there is nothing to stop you, you For hunters, however, the reverse ap­ north-temperate and arctic areas many are entitled to pass sentence of death, plies and, despite the fact that they small rodent populations show fairly without right of appeal, at any time by constitute only between a hundredth and regular changes in numbers with the any conceivable means”. These are the a thirtieth of the population of the dif­ small mustelids fluctuating in synchrony very words used in a very serious en­ ferent European countries, the law does with three or four years between peaks. cyclopaedia edited in the inter-war years their bidding! “Less vermin, more game” Thus, small rodent numbers have a deci­ by a French forestry commission warden has been the motto of the vast majority sive influence on the number of mus­ Mustela erminea ' and judge of appeal, who knows what of hunters since the beginning of the telids. The effect of the mustelids on (Drawing P. Déom). the law says! century and is the alluring sub-title of a %

Manuel du piégeur (trapper’s hand­ derives both from a revolt against in all European countries that have re­ book) published between the wars under earlier generations and their prejudices introduced the lynx. Whereas the ac­ the auspices of the eminent Saint- and from a rejection of hunting and climatation of the wild sheep, the sika Can they adapt? Roland M. Libois Hubert Club de France. “Ceaseless particularly hunters, an unconscious deer and even the coypu and muskrat trapping and destroying are thus the identification with the “unloved” victims, has never caused the slightest dispute, first and foremost requirement... the i.e. the predators, and a slightly Rous- the acclimatation of this humble feline very foundation of all cynegetic improve­ seauist, idyllic view of nature and its has divided public opinion and—in the ments”, and it should be remembered famous balance, a balance which had case of France alone—has given rise that “maintaining (!) vermin on a shoot at all costs to be respected or restored, over the past five years to an avalanche is tantamount to feeding a team of if it had had the misfortune to be of writings and speeches out of all pro­ poachers” ! destroyed. portion to the possible effects of the operation and worthy, in some instances, At the present time a few hunters who of inclusion in an anthology of human are both objective and astute observers folly. of nature are nonetheless trying to com­ Hunters and ecologists bat this collective hysteria. One of them True scientists began serious studies he many studies and reports deal­ The otter is essentially a piscivorous for the survival of this species and will courageously admits that he has “no of predation only a decade ago. Their ing with the dangers to which our animal, and the dramatic decline of the The leading lights of the hunting world have to be taken into account in any hesitation in claiming that the damage interim conclusion is that the presence fauna is exposed often mention species throughout western Europe was were at first thrown into disarray by the T attempts to improve rivers or rescue the caused by predatory animals has al­ of carnivores does not affect the density possible remedies for the current pre­ probably initially brought about by the ecologists’ virulent and often talented, species. ways been grossly exaggerated... natu­ of populations of so-called game spe­ dicament of various species threatened merciless campaign waged against it by if not always scientifically exact, cam­ rally established game can perfectly cies, whose numbers multiply rapidly with rarefaction or extinction. The hunters, trappers, fishermen and fish paigns but they quickly recovered their At the other extreme, we find, for well co-exist with such animals... At the in protected areas without there being remedies very often include legal pro­ breeders around the turn of the cen­ poise, adopted their detractors’ strategy instance, the red fox and the stone beginning of the war... no one bothered any need to destroy the predators which, tection for the species and its corollary, tury. In Belgium, 2,048 otters were killed and even their ecological vocabulary and marten. These animals can eat prac­ to kill mustelids and predators, and yet through a whole set of physiological the protection of habitats. It would clearly between July 1889 and December 1895. proceeded to use them for their own tically any type of food. Despite his game was abundant”. The same writer and behavioural mechanisms, them­ be pointless to introduce legislation to Yet, despite this intensive campaign ends. They no longer talk of vermin but predilection for rabbits, the fox managed later gives a lucid analysis of attempts selves “regulate” their numbers per­ protect species without making an effort waged from 1889 to 1965 with official of predators or problem animals (!), no to survive the extermination of one of to brainwash public opinion: “Because fectly. Scientific studies of the diet of at the same time to preserve their support (in the form of rewards), the longer destroying but of “regulating", its favourite preys by myxomatosis. In rewards are very high... and because a small and medium-sized carnivores environment. Unfortunately, however, as otter managed until about 1960 to main­ and consider themselves too to be in­ the Belgian Ardennes, for instance, good trapper can make an enormous show that it is made up principally a result of constant human pressure the tain small groups of individuals scat­ vested with the duty of restoring those where rabbits have practically disap­ profit on the sale of pelts..., it is in and sometimes almost exclusively of habitats around us all too often evolve tered around the country. Ever since, mythical biological balances. peared, the fox survives quite happily the gamekeeper’s vital interest that his rodents which severely damage crops. in a way which is altogether detrimental however, the situation has steadily by eating larger quantities of small employer be made to understand that At the present stage we can therefore True scientists are amazed that the fate to the biological communities inhabit­ worsened, in parallel with the serious rodents. Elsewhere, it will resort to rub­ carnivores are responsible for the dis­ say that each of the two sections of the of species which are, if anything, bene­ ing them. Although nature reserves and deterioration in the quality of all our bish bins, if necessary well into urban appearance of large quantities of game". public concerned with these problems ficial to man and whose appearance is parks effectively fulfil their role of pre­ watercourses for fish breeding purposes. areas, such as the suburbs of Paris, The soundness of this analysis was borne is standing its ground, as impassioned always graceful and behaviour always serving habitats, it is important to avoid This may be attributed mainly to different London and Liège. The stone marten out clearly in 1979 when the sale of as ever, despite the fact that each claims curious should still rest with a vocal the pitfall of believing that whatever lies forms of pollution (industrial waste, or­ also has a very broad feeding range Mustelidae pelts was banned in France more or less valid scientific support minority rather than with a body capable outside such protection can be trans­ ganic pollution) and to frequent works, and will move easily from one type of under the Nature Conservation Act: so for its stance. The existence of these of managing our natural environments formed or degraded without giving rise such as the straightening of water­ prey to another according to availability. many gamekeepers stopped laying traps, two opposing camps is starkly revealed rationally. P.P. to problems in the short, medium or courses, reprofiling of banks, scraping With a diet of eggs or fruit and occasional because they saw that there was little long term, for the survival of wildlife. of river beds, etc. The few otters that visits to chicken runs or rubbish bins, to be gained from it, that the hunting How do small carnivores react to what survive are found only in the occasional the stone marten displays great flexibility federations became alarmed and im­ rivers and ponds where there is suf­ sometimes amount to brutal changes in in its feeding habits and easily adapts mediately asked that right to sell such ficient fish. The food factor is decisive to any new situation. pelts be restored! their environment? Are they doomed to vanish or can they adapt to new con­ Trapping of weasels (Photo J.-C. Chantelat). straints? In fact, there is no single or Apodemus agrarius - a favourite prey (Photo W. Lapinski). simple answer. Every species has its Rewards own requirements, which will to a large extent determine its response to change. The sinister rewards system, which dates Any attempt to foresee what will happen back to the days of wolf-hunting, is in must rely on detailed knowledge of the fact the greatest single cause of the ecology of individual species, especially destruction of carnivorous mammals and as regards their feeding habits and the birds of prey in Europe. The French parameters which govern their choice forestry commission warden mentioned of habitat. Although these factors are earlier says so in no uncertain terms: generally connected, we shall consider “These rewards are essential; they act them separately for the sake of con­ as an incentive to gamekeepers and venience. trappers... It would even have been preferable to pay high rewards and relatively low wages... no matter how high the price per head that had to be Food requirements paid”. Such ideas have a certain piquancy when uttered by one of the Roughly speaking, small carnivores leading managers of our natural environ­ found in our regions can be classified ment! into two types: stenophagous (narrow It was not until ecology emerged in the feeding range) and euryphagous (broad aftermath of 1968 that these splendid feeding range). The two will be dif­ certainties and particularly these out­ ferently affected by changes in food dated methods came to be challenged resources. The former will be unable to by a sizeable section of the population adapt to new food sources, while the and notably by young people. This at­ latter will put them to immediate use, as titude is in many cases affective too and the following examples show. %

Choice of habitat most threatened. Besides the otter, they mainly include the European mink and, Here too it is possible to divide small to a lesser extent, the wildcat. Species National Agencies of the Centre carnivores into species with very strict with a broad diet and restricted habitat, requirements, which are only to be found such as the pine marten or the genet, in very specific environments, and spe­ are also very sensitive. Species with a AUSTRIA ITALY MALTA cies with broad requirements, which will narrow diet but a broad habitat are par­ Univ.-Prof. Dr. Franz WOLKINGER Dr ssa Elena MAMMONE Mr George SPITERI colonise practically any type of habitat ticularly dependent on variations in their Österreichische Akademie Ministero dell’ Agricoltura Department of Health food resources. For instance, the diet der Wissenschaften Ufficio delle Relazioni internazionali Environment Protection Centre provided that some of their fundamental Contributors Institut für Umweltwissen­ 18, via XX Settembre Bighi requirements are met. of the stoat and weasel consists mainly schaften und Naturschutz I - 00187 ROMA M - KALKARA of voles, the numbers of which tend to to this Heinrichstraße 5/III The pine marten probably belongs to A - 8010 GRAZ vary considerably from one year to an­ LIECHTENSTEIN THE NETHERLANDS the form er. It is m orphologically very other. Lastly, the species which are the issue: Ing. Mario F. BROGGI Dr. F. J. KUIJERS similar to the stone marten and its diet most accommodating in terms of both BELGIUM Liechtensteinische Gesellschaft Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is also extremely varied (fruit, birds, diet and habitat (such as the red fox Ing. Marc SEGERS für Umweltschutz Chief Directorate for Nature Eaux et Forêts Heiligkreuz 52 Conservation and Outdoor Recreation squirrels, small rodents, etc.), but its and the stone marten) are so flexible 29-31, chaussée d'lxelles Postfach 254 Postbus 20401 presence is strictly linked to large areas that they are likely to take advantage of Mr. Peter Hardy, M.P. B - 1050 BRUXELLES FL - 9490 VADUZ NL - 2500 EK THE HAGUE of woodland. It appears to have a marked any change in their environment, or at House of Commons GB - London SW1A OAA preference for mature deciduous or least adapt to it without too much dif­ LUXEMBOURG NORWAY mixed forests. According to a number ficulty. It is also quite likely that they will Prof. Erkki Pulliainen, Ph.D. CYPRUS M. Charles ZIMMER Mrs Irene SIGUENZA Direction des Eaux et Forêts of studies made in the USSR, the popula­ Head of Department Nature Conservation Service Ministry of the Environment benefit from the elimination of other 34, avenue de la Porte-Neuve Dean of the Faculty of Ministry of Agriculture and Myntgaten 2 tion density of the pine marten tends to more fragile species competing with B.P. 411 Natural Sciences Natural Resources P.O. Box 8013 fall after mature forests have been felled L - LUXEMBOURG-VILLE N - OSLO 1 them for some of their resources. University of Oulu Forest Department and replaced by young trees. Such prac­ Kasarmintie 8 CY - NICOSIA The deterioration of environments and tices as the intensive cultivation of SF - 90 100 Oulu 10 PORTUGAL spruce, short rotation periods and the the trend towards greater uniformity DENMARK M. Rui FREIRE DE ANDRADE Dr. Erik Zimen establishment of regeneration areas on will therefore have the effect not so much Miss Lotte BARFOD Presidents da Direcçâo of eliminating small predators but of Freyhauserhof National Agency for the Liga para a Protecçào da Natureza wooded land in the middle of forests (as D - 6653 Blieskastel profoundly upsetting the structure of Protection of Nature, Estrada do Calhariz de Benfica, No. 187 in Belgium) are therefore bound to have Monuments and Sites P - 1500 LISBOA a harmful effect on the species. their populations. The more demand­ Dr. Peter Dollinger Ministry of the Environment ing species will be eliminated either Office vétérinaire fédéral Fredningsstyrelsen Division trafic international SPAIN The stone marten, on the other hand, gradually or suddenly, as the case may 13 Amaliegade et protection des animaux DK - 1256 COPENHAGEN K M. Fernando GONZALEZ BERNALDEZ will colonise the most varied types of be, and will be replaced by species which Thunstrasse 17 Centro de Estudios de Ordenaciôn environment, so long as it finds the right are at home anywhere and whose num­ CH - 3000 Bern 6 del Territorio y Medio Ambiente Ministerio de Obras Püblicas y kind of shelter, that is, one with good bers may even increase. The final out­ FRANCE Dr. Miguel Delibes Direction de la Protection Urbanismo thermal insulation. It is to be found on come will be a greater degree of uni­ Estaciön Biolögica de Donana de la Nature Paseo de la Castellana 63 the edge of forests, occasionally deeper formity in the biocenosis of carnivores. Paraguay, 1-2 Ministère de l'Environnement E - MADRID 3 in the woods, but mostly in rural areas, If such is the case, there are likely to be E - Sevilla 12 14, boulevard du Général-Leclerc where it lives very close to humans, in F - 92524 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX SWEDEN more problems of “co-existence”, such Dr. Sheila Mcdonald Mrs Anne von HOFSTEN ruins, old barns, piles of logs, attics, as have occurred already with starlings Biologist National Swedish Environment straw hangars, etc. It has even been The Vincent Wildlife Trust FEDERAL REPUBLIC and pigeons in towns. Protection Board Baltic Exchange Buildings OF GERMANY sighted in some towns, where it often has P.O. Box 1302 In conclusion, it may be said that, while 21 Bury Street Deutscher Naturschutzring e. V. no trouble finding shelter (in attics and Bundesverband für Umweltschutz S - 171 25 SOLNA it is highly important to set aside certain GB - London EC3A SAU abandoned houses) and food (rats, mice, Kalkuhlstraße 24 strictly protected and if necessary man­ Postfach 32 02 10 Dr. Nicole Duplaix SWITZERLAND pigeons, etc.). D - 5300 BONN-OBERKASSEL 3 aged .areas to ensure the survival of a 1752 Shepherd Street, N.W. Dr Jürg ROHNER The badger lies somewhere between few seriously threatened species, it must Washington DC 20011 Ligue suisse USA these two extremes as far as its choice be remembered that these special areas GREECE pour la protection de la nature of habitat is concerned. Although it is will never amount to more than a tiny M. Byron ANTIPAS Wartenbergstraße 22 Dr. David W. Mcdonald Secrétaire général Case postale 73 less particular than the pine marten, proportion of the land area as a whole. University of Oxford Société hellénique pour la CH - 4020 BÂLE it does not have the extraordinary flexi­ It is therefore just as im portant to Department of Zoology protection de la nature South Parks Road 9, rue Kydathineon bility of the stone marten, and while it manage rural and forest areas in a way TURKEY GB - Oxford OX1 3PS GR - 119 ATHENES accepts a broad range of environments, which is compatible with the survival Mr Hasan ASMAZ it depends for its burrow on certain basic of rich, diversified and balanced bio- Dr. Pâli Hersteinsson President of the Turkish Association for the Conservation of Nature requirements: cenoses. Better knowledge of the eco­ University of Oxford ICELAND Department of Zoology Mr. Jon Gauti JONSSON and Natural Resources logical requirements of species making — soil which is easy to dig and well South Parks Road Director Menekse sokak 29/4 up the communities is essential before GB - Oxford OX1 3PS Kizilay drained or crevices in rocks; Nature Conservation Council precise rules of management can be Hverfisgötu 26 TR - ANKARA — a supply of litter nearby, such as fern Dr. Sam Erlinge established, but there is one funda­ ISL - 101 REYKJAVIK or hay; Department of Animal Ecology mental principle, that it is advisable to UNITED KINGDOM — ground nearby yielding a plentiful Ecology Building aim for the greatest variety of landscape University of Lund IRELAND Miss Shirley PENNY supply of earthworms (the badger's main Mr John McLOUGHLIN Chief Librarian possible so that rural areas should con­ S - 223 62 Lund prey), such as humid meadows, leafy Department of Fisheries and Forestry Nature Conservancy Council sist of small plots, hedges, copses and Forest & Wildlife Service Calthorpe House woodlands, etc.); Dr. Pierre Pfeffer wooded embankments, rather than vast, Maître de Recherche au CNRS Leeson Lane Calthorpe Street — good plant cover (forest) or at least GB - BANBURY, Oxon, OX16 8EX treeless stretches of countryside, while Président du WWF-France IRL - DUBLIN 2 effective cover for its burrow, such as 6, square Port-Royal forests should contain mixed popula­ thick hedges, tall heather or the edge F - 75013 Paris tions of trees rather than large planta­ of forests. tions of the same age and type. R.M.L. M. Roland M. Libois Laboratoire d’éthologie Generally speaking, species with a nar­ Université de Liège row range of both habitat and diet are quai Van Beneden 22 the most vulnerable to any degradation B - 4020 Liège Information concerning Naturopa, the European Information Centre for Nature Conservation or the Council of Europe may be obtained from of their environment, so that in European the Centre or the National Agencies listed above. terms these are the species which are Naturopa 45 E - 1983