Ag Wildlife Damage

Category 1C Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service

Ag Wildlife Damage

February 2013 Table of Contents Introduction ...... 4 Wildlife Damage Management ...... 6 Laws and Regulations ...... 8 Threatened and Endangered Species ...... 11 Nongame Species ...... 14 Wildlife Diseases and Humans ...... 18 Public Relations and the Wildlife Professional ...... 26 Coyotes ...... 26 Deer, Elk, and Antelope ...... 32 Rodenticides ...... 35 House Mice ...... 42 Native Rats ...... 46 Native Mice ...... 51 Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs ...... 54 Pocket Gophers ...... 59 Rabbits ...... 61 Ground Squirrels ...... 65 Birds ...... 67

Directions for Using this Manual

This is a self-teaching manual. At the end of each major section is a list of study questions to check your understanding of the subject. These questions represent the type that are on the certification exam. By studying this manual and answering the questions, you should be able to gain sufficient knowledge to pass the Kansas Commercial Applicators Certification examination. Correct answers appear on page 82.

Introduction wildlife damage problems can be In recent years, state and federal prevented with good livestock laws have been enacted to educate management and sanitation people about the safe use of practices. The primary aim should pesticides for effective damage be to prevent damage from control. Wildlife damage control occuring. is an area that deals with animals When it does occur, each problem with backbones (vertebrates), should be studied individually. excluding humans or domestic A pest manager should consider animals. This is a complex topic. damage severity and the The goal is to alleviate problems, recreational and ecological value not to eliminate wildlife. Many of the wildlife causing it. Species 4 and behavior; crop, season and economic benefit. A decision about duration of damage; biological when to control small rodent Introduction characteristics of the nuisance damage should be based on when animal; and legal status of wildlife the pest population is predicted will influence the choice of to reach a level at which control management technique. becomes necessary to prevent Mere presence of an animal economic loss. capable of causing damage does Preventive procedures are most not dictate control. Control level effective against species where must be balanced with cost, effort, damage can be predicted. Seasonal and value of the goods preserved. control is applied during the Damage may be obvious, but it can actual damage season and most be difficult to find objective data commonly for species that are a for a particular problem. problem at a specific time of year The pest manager should identify — coyotes at lambing time, for the damaging species, and then example. choose the appropriate control This manual does not discuss all technique. For example, traps problems and species that conflict may be needed to control beaver with agricultural production, or all damage, while a pesticide might be known control methods. A species a better choice for rats or mice. not covered in this manual is the Often, the species can be beaver. Information about how to identified from physical evidence control beaver damage is available at the damage site. Because most in the publication, Beaver Damage mammals are active at night, Control, http://www.wildlife.ksu. extensive damage may occur before edu/p.aspx?tabid=106. animals are noticed. Rubs, hair, For more information, applicators tooth marks, fecal matter, feathers, are encouraged to obtain a copy and tracks can provide evidence to of the handbook, Prevention and help with accurate identification. Control of Wildlife Damage, from Wildlife requires food, cover, the Cooperative Extension Service water, and space. Habitat must at University of Nebraska, 202 supply these needs. Negative Natural Resources Hall, Lincoln, habitat management or making NE 68583-0819 or contact the the environment inhospitable by nearest K-State Research and removing one of these essentials, Extension office. generally produces a lasting effect. Environmental manipulation may take a long time and be expensive. The economic threshold in wildlife damage control is the degree of damage that justifies control. Below this threshold, the cost of controlling a problem animal exceeds the probable loss, and control is not economically justified. When losses exceed this threshold, control provides an 5 The best wildlife damage manage- occur in response to decreased Wildlife Damage ment program is based on the density. Species that reproduce Management following principles: seasonally exhibit an annual cycle. • Most of the damage is caused During the reproductive period, by relatively few individuals, births normally exceed deaths, and not by all of them; the population increases. When reproduction ceases, mortality • When this individual(s) is exceeds recruitment, and the removed, damage will stop; population declines until the next and breeding season. A population • The people who experience change of two- to fivefold is not the problem are in the best uncommon during an average position to locate the animal animal cycle. Factors that affect and reduce losses promptly. this pattern include immigration, emigration, adverse weather, and Changes in management of the habitat disruption. The cycle is property being damaged may be most pronounced in species that needed to prevent further loss or a produce only one litter per year. recurrence of loss at a later time. Wildlife damage also fluctuates Considerable damage from wild with cycles. animals occurs directly to crops Damage is seldom a problem and livestock and as a health when populations are low. During problem to man and domestic peak years, damage may become animals. Nearly all wild animals severe and require frequent, in Kansas are native, and they intensive, control efforts. Disease provide equilibrium to the is undoubtedly a contributing environment. Managing only the factor in the decline of populations species considered to be good or under stress from other factors. endangered is not recommended. Mammalian predators respond Sometimes animals considered to an increase in prey with large to be beneficial can be equally litters and higher juvenile and damaging, such as deer in an adult pregnancy rates. Raptors orchard, squirrels in a pecan grove, respond with larger clutches. or muskrats in a pond dike. In reality, any animal can be either Weather also affects wildlife “good” or “bad” depending on the damage. When populations are situation. high, damage increases markedly during dry growing seasons. Crop Populations fluctuate due to damage is reduced during years environmental influences. Animals when native forage is readily change normal population available. For example, jackrabbits parameters to recover from the loss may or may not increase in actual of individuals. Because of these numbers during dry years, but compensatory responses, control they appear to be more numerous efforts will be less effective. In because they concentrate on good habitat, animal populations croplands. respond to removal with increased birth rate, decreased mortality, and Seasonal movement of waterfowl decreased emigration. Changes in and blackbirds often results in mortality, birth, and dispersal rates concentrations of these species

6 on ripening crops in late summer in the summer. Management and early fall. Problems associated techniques are dictated by the time Wildlife Damage with fall and winter concentrations interval. A fence may be necessary Management include blackbird roosts in for deer, while a repellent would be urban areas, and deer damage appropriate for blackbirds. to haystacks, nursery stock, and Wildlife cycles are important woodland plantings during periods to damage control planning. of heavy snow. Animal numbers normally reach Duration and season of the their lowest levels in late winter. damage determine the degree of Population reduction at this time, control needed. Protecting tree before young have been produced seedlings from deer browsing or become self-sufficient, removes may be necessary for six months not only adults, but also the young of the year for a decade, while those adults might have produced. protecting corn from blackbirds is This leaves fewer animals to cause only needed for two or three weeks damage later in the year.

Study Questions 3. Preventive techniques are most These study questions are designed effective against ____. to help you learn the material on a. long-cycle species pages 4 through 6. b. medium-cycle species 1. The objective of wildlife damage c. short-cycle species control is to ____. d. cycle length is of no concern a. alleviate a problem 4. To manage only species b. preserve wildlife considered good or endangered c. a and b above is ____. d. none of the above a. recommended 2. The first step in solving a wildlife b. not recommended damage problem is to ____. c. never a consideration a. shoot all wildlife in the d. none of the above damage area 5. Factors that affect wildlife b. trap all wildlife in the damage damage include ____. area a. weather c. poison all wildlife in the damaged area b. seasonal movement d. identify the wildlife species c. wildlife cycles involved d. all of the above 6. Wildlife cycles are important to damage control planning ____. a. T (true) b. F (false) 7 Wildlife is a publicly owned and Wildlife Services Laws and resource protected by federal and The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Regulations state laws. Before beginning a Service is responsible for the wildlife damage control program, Endangered Species Act of determine the legal status of 1973 (16 U.S.C.1531-1543; 87 the animal. Laws will influence Stat. 884) as amended, the Fish the selection of techniques to and Wildlife Act of 1956 (16 be used. Kansas Department of U.S.C. 742a-742: 70 Stat. 1119) Wildlife, Parks and Tourism, U.S. as amended, and the Migratory Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (16 U.S. Department of Agriculture- U.S.C. 703- 711; 40 Stat. 755) as Wildlife Services are the state amended, (Part 21, migratory bird and federal regulatory agencies permits and control of depredation to contact about laws related to birds). wildlife protection and wildlife damage control. State Anyone planning to solve a Kansas Department wildlife damage problem should of Wildlife, Parks understand federal, state, and city laws. For example, in dealing and Tourism The Kansas Legislature has with bird problems in Kansas the developed a policy statement 32- applicator should know that only 702 “It shall be the policy of the three birds are not protected: the state of Kansas to protect, provide, English sparrow (Passer domesticus), and improve outdoor recreation the starling (Sturnus vulgaris), and and natural resources in this state the pigeon (Columbia livia). and to plan and provide for the Federal wise management of use of the state’s natural resources, thus United States Department contributing to and benefiting the of Agriculture public’s health and its cultural, The U.S. Department of recreational and economic life.” Agriculture-Animal and Plant (K.S.A. 32-703), states that the Health Inspection Service- title of all wild animals (not held Wildlife Services (USDA- in private ownership, legally APHIS-WS) is the federal agency acquired) shall be in the state authorized and instructed to carry of Kansas. Primary legislative out predator, bird, and rodent directions guiding the Kansas control activities in cooperation Department of Wildlife and Parks with the various states. This are: Statutes Annotated 32-807, authority is stated in the Act of which lists Powers of the Secretary March 2, 1931 (46 Stat. 1468), and 32-1002 Taking or Dealing as well as in the Act of August in Wildlife. KSA 32-1002 further 14,1946 (60 Stat. 1080), and in states that this section shall not Public Law 99-190 as enacted by be construed to prevent “owners the U.S. Congress on December or legal occupants of land from 19, 1985. killing any animals when found in or near buildings on their premises United States Fish or when destroying property, subject to the following (A) The

8 provisions of all federal laws and control specialist to evaluate and regulations governing protected recommend certain toxicants Laws and species and the provisions of for use in prairie dog control in Regulations K.S.A. 32-957-32-963, and the Kansas. rules and regulation adopted there under; (B) it is unlawful to use, or Kansas Department of possess with intent to use, any such Health and Environment animal so killed unless authorized The Kansas Department of by rules and regulations of the Health and Environment is secretary; and (C) such owners charged with general responsibility or legal occupants shall make for protection of the public reasonable efforts to alleviate their health (K.S.A. 65-101), specific problems with any such animals responsibility for controlling water before killing them.” pollution detrimental to animal Further, the Kansas Department or aquatic life (K .S.A. 65-171a), of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism has and specific responsibility for authority to issue permits for the maintaining levels of air quality use of 1080, sodium cyanide, and that will protect human health and uses of poisonous gases (K.S.A. safety while, to the greatest degree 32-1003). practicable, preventing injury to plant and animal life (K.S.A. Most of the other important laws 65-3001). governing wildlife through the Kansas Department of Wildlife, Kansas Department Parks and Tourism are found of Agriculture within K.S.A. 32-701to 32-1312. The Kansas Department of Agriculture is responsible for Kansas State University enforcing the Kansas Pesticide The Kansas State University Law (K.S.A. 2-2438a et seq.), Cooperative Extension Service which regulates the safe and has been directed by and proper use of pesticides regarding entrusted with the responsibility wildlife damage control and for wildlife damage control in the certification of applicators. Kansas by the Kansas legislature Pesticide product labels are by the enactment of K.S.A. registered as required by the 76-459 through 76-464. This Kansas Agricultural Chemical Act responsibility in part is to (K.S.A. 2·2201). develop a statewide educational program for the control of County damage caused by wildlife. This Counties have some responsibility is to be accomplished, according in wildlife damage control. K.S.A. to legislative mandate, by (1) 80-1201 et seq. imposes a duty instructing farmers and ranchers, on the township trustees of (2) conducting studies, and (3) each Kansas township regarding supplying materials at cost. The the eradication of prairie dogs. Kansas State University extension The trustee of each township is wildlife damage control specialist empowered to purchase materials is also involved in parts of as needed for this task, including K.A.R. 115-16-2, which requires poison, with the cost met by an an extension wildlife damage additional levy upon real property 9 in the township. It is, however, In another town in Kansas, an Laws and within the home rule authority ordinance prohibits killing any Regulations of a county to provide for the songbird or squirrel within the city eradication of prairie dogs. A limits. In most communities it is county may adopt by resolution unlawful to discharge a firearm. those provisions of K.S.A. 80- 1202, which are otherwise Landowner applicable only to townships in State law (K.S.A. 32-1002) certain counties, cited herein: authorizes landowners and legal K.S.A. 1982 Supp, 19-101a(b), occupants of land (generally as amended by L. 1983, ch. 92, tenants) to kill animals found in I, K.S.A. 80-1202, L. 1969, ch. or near buildings on their premises 472, 1. (A.G. Op. No. 83-127, when those animals are destroying 8-30-83). property (this would include trees and crops). Any agent engaged by Domestic dog laws (K.S.A. 47-645 the landowner or tenant would through 47-646) are as follows: also be authorized to operate 47-645. Dog owners’ liability: under that law provided they have If any dog shall kill, wound, or a Nuisance Wildlife Damage worry any domestic animal, the Control Permit as authorized owners of such dog shall be liable in K.A.R. 115-16-5 and issued to the owner of such animal for according to K.A.R. 115-16-6. all damages that may be sustained, Animals killed cannot be taken thereby to be recovered by the into possession, sold, or utilized parties so injured before any court by the landowner. However, those having competent jurisdiction. operating under the provisions of 47-646. Lawful killing of dog: K.A.R. 115-16-5 may sell parts It shall be lawful for any person at of the wildlife except for the any time to kill any dog which may flesh. The raw fur, pelt, or skin of be found injuring or attempting to furbearers may be sold only to a injure cattle, swine, sheep, goats, licensed fur dealer and no part of a horses, mules, domesticated deer, migratory bird or waterfowl shall all creatures of the ratite family be sold or used for any purpose. that are not indigenous to this This state law is not applicable state, including but not limited to to federally protected species ostriches, emus and rheas, and any which may only be killed as other animal as deemed necessary authorized by federal permit, nor by the commissioner established to species of wildlife classified as through rules and regulations on threatened, endangered, or in need cattle, hogs, or sheep. of conservation under the Kansas Nongame and Endangered Species Local Act. Those species may only City ordinances may affect local be taken as provided by permit urban wildlife damage control issued by the Kansas Department efforts. For instance, within city of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism limits of one Kansas community (KDWPT). Animals considered it is (said to be) illegal to use any threatened, endangered, and in steel trap – subsequently poisons need of conservation are listed on are used in place of the safer pages 11–16. pocket gopher traps or mole traps. 10 Unless otherwise prohibited as Obtaining a Nuisance Wildlife described above, landowners, Damage Control permit as Laws and tenants, or those with wildlife required by regulation involves Regulations control permits (agent) cannot several steps. The applicant must be legally prohibited from killing take self-directed course work animals for doing damage in and and complete a written test with a around buildings. It generally has score greater than 80 percent. The been recognized through court test can be taken at local extension cases that damage by wildlife offices or KDWPT regional must be substantial or excessive. offices. If the test is passed and Incidental or inconsequential a background check shows the damage does not constitute applicant is not a habitual wildlife sufficient justification to warrant violator, a five-year permit is action by individuals. Obviously, granted. There is no charge for the considerable judgment is required permit but an annual report must by the Kansas Department of be made to KDWPT. A copy of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism to the rules and regulations governing determine if a landowner, tenant, the wildlife control permit is or agent has exceeded authority to available at http://www.kdwp. protect property. state.ks.us/news/other_services/ law_enforcement/regulations/ wildlife_damage_control.

Threatened and Endangered Species K.A.R. 115-15-1 (A) The following are declared Western fanshell mussel endangered species in Kansas. Cyprogenia aberti (1) Invertebrates (2) Fish American burying beetle Arkansas river shiner Nycrophorus americanus Notropis girardi Elktoe mussel Arkansas river speckled chub Alasmidonta margnata Macrhybopis tetranema Ellipse mussel Pallid sturgeon Venustaconcha ellipsiformis Scaphirhynchus albus Flat floater mussel Sicklefin chub Anodonta suborbiculata Hybopsis meekii Mucket mussel Silver chub Actinonaias ligamentina Macrhybopsis storeriana Neosho mucket mussel (3) Amphibians Lampsilis rafinesqueana Cave salamander Rabbitsfoot mussel Eurycea lucifuga Quadrula cylindrical Grotto salamander Scott optioservus riffle beetle Typhlotriton spelaeus Optioservus phaeus Many-ribbed salamander Slender walker snail Eurycea multiplicata Pomatiopsis lapidaria continued

11 Laws and (4) Birds Neosho madtom Black-capped vireo Noturus placidus Regulations Vireo atricapilla Plains minnow Eskimo curlew Hybognathus placitus Numcnius borealis Redspot chub Least tern Nocomis asper Sterna antillarum Shoal chub Whooping crane Macrhybopsis hyostoma Grus americana Silverband shiner (5) Mammals Notropis shumardi Black-footed ferret Sturgeon chub Mustcla nigripcs Macrhybopsis gelida Gray bat Topeka shiner Myotis grisescens Notropis topeka Western silvery minnow (B) The following are declared Hybognathus argyritis threatened species in Kansas. (3) Amphibians (1) Invertebrates Eastern narrowmouth toad Butterfly mussel Gastrophryne carolinensis Ellipsaria lineolata Eastern newt Delta hydrobe Notophthalmus viridescens Probythinella emarginata Green frog Flutedshell mussel Rana clamitans Lasmigona costata Green toad Ouachita kidneyshell mussel Bufo debilis Ptychobranchus occidentalis Longtail salamander Rock pocketbook mussel Eurycea longicauda Arcidens confragosus Spring peeper Sharp hornsnail Pseudacris crucifer Pleurocera acuta Strecker’s chorus frog (2) Fish Pseudacris streckeri Arkansas darter (4) Reptiles Etheostoma cragini Broadhead skink Blackside darter Eumeces laticeps Percina maculata Checkered garter snake Chestnut lamprey Thamnophis marcianus lchthyomyzon castaneus Common map turtle Flathead chub Graptemys geographica Platygobio gracilis Longnose snake Hornyhead chub Rhinocheilus lecontei Nocomis biguttatus

12 Redbelly snake (6) Mammals Laws and Storeria occipitomaculata Eastern spotted skunk Smooth earth snake Spilogale putorius Regulations Virginia valeriae elegans (C) It shall be unlawful to Texas blind snake take, attempt to take, possess, Leptotyphlops dulcis transport, export, deliver, (5) Birds carry, process, sell or offer for Piping plover sale, or ship, alive or dead, Charadrius melodus any threatened or endangered species of wildlife except as Snowy plover authorized in K.A.R. 115-15-1 Charadrius alexandrinus and K.A.R. 115-15-3.

(A) Definitions: (5) “Publicly funded” means any (1)  The definitions of terms in action wherein planning and K.A.R.115-15-3 shall apply to implementation are wholly this regulation. funded with monies from either federal, state, or local (2) “Action” means any activity units of government. resulting in a physical (6) “State or federally assisted” alteration or disturbance of means any action receiving aquatic or terrestrial wildlife or technical assistance or partial their habitats. funding from any state or (3) “Habitat” means the place of federal governmental agency. abode of an animal where it may generally be found and (B) Persons undertaking or where all essentials for its sponsoring publicly funded state survival and growth are present. or federally assisted action or any action requiring a state or federal (4) “Critical habitat” means the permit, which is likely to destroy specific areas within Kansas individuals of an endangered or that: threatened wildlife species or (a) are documented as currently their critical habitats, shall obtain providing the essential a permit from the secretary of physical and biological the Department of Wildlife, features supporting a listed Parks and Tourism prior to species initiation of such action. It is the responsibility of the action (b) are specific areas not sponsor to determine potential documented as currently impacts of the proposed action on supporting a listed species endangered or threatened species but are determined as and their critical habitats. essential by the secretary of the Department of Wildlife Parks and Tourism

13 Laws and Nongame Species 115-15-2 (2) Fishes (A) The following nongame Banded darter Regulations species are declared species in Etheostoma zonale need of conservation. Banded sculpin (1) Invertebrates Cottus carolinae Creeper mussel Bigeye shiner Strophitus undulatus Notropis boopsi Cylindrical papershell mussel Black redhorse Anodontoides ferusscianus Moxostoma duquesnei Deertoe mussel Blacknose dace Truncilla truncata Rhinichthys atratulus Delta hydrobe Blue sucker Probythinella emarginata Cycleptus elongatus Fatmucket mussel Bluntnose darter Lampsilis siliquoidea Etheostoma chlorosoma Fawnsfoot mussel Brassy minnow Truncilla donaciformis Hybognathus hankinsoni Gray petaltail dragonfly Brindled madtom Tachopteryx thoreyi Noturus miurus Neosho midget crayfish Cardinal shiner Orconectes macrus Luxilus cardinalis Ozark emerald dragonfly Common shiner Somatochlora ozarkensis Luxilus cornutus Prairie mole cricket Gravel chub Gryllotalpa major Erimystax x-punctatus Round pigtoe mussel Greenside darter Pleurobema sintoxia Etheostoma blennioides Snuffbox mussel Highfin carpsucker Epioblasma triquetra Carpiodes velifer Spike mussel Johnny darter Elliptio dilatata Etheostoma nigrum Wabash pigtoe mussel Lake sturgeon Fusconaia flava Acipenser fulvescens Wartyback mussel Northern hog sucker Quadrula nodulata Hypentelium nigricans Washboard mussel Ozark minnow Megalonaias nervosa Notropis nubilus Yellow sandshell mussel Plains minnow Lampsilis teres Hybognathus placitus Redfin darter Etheostoma whipplei 14 River darter (5) Birds Laws and Percina shumardi Black rail River redhorse Laterallus jamaicensis Regulations Moxostoma carinatum Black tern River shiner Chlidonias niger Notropis blennius Bobolink Southern redbelly dace Dolichonyx oryzivorus Phoxinus erythrogaster Cerulean warbler Slough darter Dendroica cerulea Etheostoma gracile Chihuahuan raven Speckled darter Corvus cryptoleucus Etheostoma stigmaeum Curve-billed thrasher Spotfin shiner Toxostoma curvirostre Cyprinella spiloptera Ferruginous hawk Spotted sucker Buteo regalis Minytrema melanops Golden eagle Stippled darter Aquila chrysaetos Etheostoma punctulatum Henslow’s sparrow Striped shiner Ammodramus henslowii Luxilus chrysocephalus Ladder-backed woodpecker (3) Amphibians Picoides scalaris Crawfish frog Long-billed curlew Rana areolata Numenius americanus Red-spotted toad Mountain plover Bufo punctatus Charadrius montanus (4) Reptiles Short-eared owl Alligator snapping turtle Asio flammeus Macrochelys temminckii Whip-poor-will Eastern hognose snake Camprimulgus vociferus Heterodon platirhinos Yellow-throated warbler Glossy snake Dendroica dominica Arizona elegans (6) Mammals Night snake Franklin’s ground squirrel Hypsiglena torquata Spermophilus franklinii Rough earth snake Pallid bat Virginia striatula Antrozous pallidus Timber rattlesnake Southern bog lemming Crotalus horridus Synaptomys cooperi Western hognose snake Southern flying squirrel Heterodon nasicus Glaucomys volans continued

15 Laws and Texas mouse any nongame species in need Peromyscus attwateri of conservation, except that Regulations Townsend’s big-eared bat such species taken during legal Corynorhinus townsendii trapping seasons, commercial fishing operations, commercial (B) Except as may be provided mussel collecting operations, by by subsequent regulations or hook and line or when legally by permit issued by the Kansas seining for bait fish shall not be Department of Wildlife, unlawfully taken if immediately Parks and Tourism, it shall released or returned to the be unlawful to take, possess, water. (Authorized by and transport, export, process, implementing K.A.R. 115-15-1) sell or offer for sale, or ship

If you have questions about conflicts with endangered, threatened, or need to conserve species in any wildlife damage control effort in which you are involved, please contact the state wildlife agency. For further information contact: The Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism. 512 SE 25th Ave., Pratt, KS 67124-8174

16 Study Questions 6. The term, “Action,” as used for These study questions are designed endangered and threatened Laws and to help you learn the material on wildlife regulations (K.A.R. 115- Regulations pages 8 through 16. 15-3) means _____. 1. Before beginning a wildlife a. the wildlife is actively moving damage control program you around should _____. b. any activity resulting in a. call the Department of Health a physical alteration or and Environment disturbance of aquatic or terrestrial wildlife or their b. call your state senator habitats c. determine the legal status of c. any action that results only in the animal the death of the animal d. determine the three-day d. any action that frightens the weather forecast animal 2. The Kansas Department of 7. The term, “publicly funded,” as Agriculture is responsible for used for endangered or threatened _____. wildlife regulations (K.A.R. 115- a. regulating the safe and proper 15-3) means: use of pesticides a. any action where special b. installing fences for coyote grant funds from a private control foundation are used for c. installing sparrow proofing on partial support of a wildlife farm buildings program d. applying prairie dog control b. any action receiving technical chemicals help or partial funding 3. Landowners can kill animals from any state or federal in and around buildings if the government agency animals are _____. c. any action wherein planning and implementation are a. sleeping wholly funded with money b. running past from either federal, state, or c. destroying the property local units of government d. all of the above d. none of the above 4. The following are declared 8. The following nongame species are endangered species in Kansas: declared in need of conservation: a. mucket mussel a. butterfly mussel b. sicklefin chub b. golden eagle c. cave salamander c. whooping crane d. all of the above d. all of the above 5. The following are declared threatened species in Kansas: a. Arkansas darter b. green frog c. eastern spotted skunk d. all of the above 17 Diseases of wild animals • Practice cleanliness when Wildlife Diseases should be of concern to anyone working with wild animals. Do and Humans who comes into contact with not eat or drink while handling wildlife, either in damage control or skinning animals and wash programs or through recreational hands thoroughly when you are pursuits. Many wildlife diseases finished. have public health as well as • If you become sick after working agricultural economic significance. with wild animals, contact a Some wildlife populations may physician and inform him of be “reservoirs” of infection for the contact occurring with wild transmissible diseases while others animals and the possibility of flea can serve as “vectors” for various or tick bites. diseases, providing a mechanism for transmission. Plague Wild animals are susceptible to Plague is an acute infectious a wide variety of infectious and disease caused by bacteria. parasitic organisms capable of The disease causes fever and causing disease. Many of these a painful, usually swollen, and organisms are specific and of often hot-to-the-touch lymph significance to only one or a few node, called a bubo. It is very species of wild animals. Others serious. Transmitted by fleas, it may be generalized and capable primarily affects wild rodents and of infecting a variety of wild and commensal rats. The disease can domestic animals or even humans. be transmitted to man through This section provides only a the bite of infected fleas and is general survey of a few of the known as bubonic or black plague. important wildlife diseases that In the Great Plains, plague has may be commonly encountered in been documented in wild rodents the field. Emphasis is placed on in New Mexico, Colorado, those wildlife diseases that may and the western portions of also be of significance to human Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. health. Transmission of plague in the wild occurs when fleas feed on an General Precautions infected animal, then later feed on A few general precautions, if an uninfected individual. Plague followed, will reduce the possibility involves such diverse wildlife as of becoming infected or suffering ground squirrels, wood rats, prairie serious illness from most wildlife dogs, chipmunks, marmots, rabbits, diseases. deer mice, and voles. The most serious plague problem in recent • Do not approach or handle years has been in prairie dog towns any wild animal that appears where it may occasionally lead to sick or is acting in an abnormal the rapid disappearance of entire manner, including animals that colonies. lack coordination, that show no fear of your approach, or that are active at unusual times of the day. • Always wear rubber gloves when skinning or examining any wild animal. 18 Adult Adult fleas emerge from Adults lay 25 to 40 Wildlife Diseases silk cocoons in 1 to 2 weeks. eggs per day on a pet. Delayed emergence can take up to and Humans 4 months.

Pupa Egg CatCat FleaFlea Life Cycle Average 21 to 28 days (range 12 to 180 days)

0.5 mm long

Larva

Larva pupate in the environment in 7 to 14 days. Eggs fall off the pet and hatch in the environment in 2 to 5 days. 1 to 5 mm long

Flea life cycle

Rocky Mountain and Missouri account for more Spotted Fever than 60 percent of cases. Numbers Rocky mountain spotted fever of reported cases in Kansas have (RMSF) is a severe rickettsial been increasing in recent years. disease caused by a tick bite. The disease occurs most frequently Typical symptoms include: in persons exposed to tick bites fever, headache, abdominal pain, and especially among those for vomiting, and muscle pain. A rash whom grooming facilities are might also develop but is often limited. Thus hikers, campers, absent in the first few days, and in sheep herders, surveyors, some never develops. The disease explorers, soldiers on maneuvers, can be severe or even fatal if not and forest workers are at risk treated in the first few days of of infection. Dog owners may symptoms. The organism causing become infected where suitable the disease is transmitted only host ticks are abundant. Infection by certain species of ticks: the may be contracted from ticks by American dog tick (Dermacentor crushing them as well as by their variabilis), Rocky Mountain wood bites. Rocky Mountain spotted tick (Dermacentor andersoni), and fever can be treated effectively brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineus). Although it was first described as being from the Rocky Mountain region, the disease is found in nearly all the contiguous states and is now most frequently recognized outside the Rocky Mountain area. North Carolina, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee, American dog tick 19 by a physician, particularly if the Trichinosis Wildlife Diseases disease is diagnosed early. Trichinosis is caused by a nematode parasite, which produces and Humans Tularemia the disease in man and many Tularemia is a bacterial, plague- other domestic and wild animals. like disease of rabbits and Evidence indicates that nearly rodents. It can be transmitted by all mammals are susceptible to ectoparasites or direct contact with infection with this parasite which other mammals, including man. encysts in the muscle of the host It is most commonly transmitted and is then transmitted by eating to man from infected rabbits, the raw or undercooked meat. As primarily cottontails. Jackrabbits would be expected, the disease is may be an important source of most common in wild carnivores infection locally, but overall are a and scavengers, but may also occur minor factor. Transmission most in domestic pigs. often occurs through an open If carnivorous wildlife such as wound during the process of bobcats, raccoons, or scavengers skinning the rabbit. It may also such as opossums are consumed by be contracted from incompletely man, the meat should be properly cooked meat, through bites of prepared by cooking, freezing, ticks or flies, or breathing in the or curing to destroy any viable bacteria, Francisella tularensis. trichinae. Some symptoms include sudden fever, chills, headaches, or diarrhea. The first symptoms include: Symptoms usually appear three to nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, five days after exposure, but can fever, and abdominal discomfort. take as long as 14 days. To prevent exposure, use insect repellent Rabies with DEET on your skin, treat Rabies is one of the oldest diseases clothing with repellent containing known to man. Despite this fact, permethrin, wash hands often, and little progress has been made for cook food thoroughly. its elimination or eradication. Our knowledge of this disease and Rabbits with tularemia behave disease control has been greatly oddly, run slowly, and can often be increased, but the high incidence captured easily. They often appear stresses our inadequacies in solving to be tame or in a stupor. Rodents, this problem. There has not been such as beaver, muskrats, and an organized eradication program voles are also apparently highly in the United States except for susceptible to the disease under dogs and cats. certain conditions. Rabies, a viral disease, affects the Tularemia of rabbits and rodents central nervous system and is cannot be eradicated. Attempts to often fatal. It occurs in all warm- reduce the numbers of susceptible blooded animals with the possible wild hosts are generally ineffective exception of opossums. Now more at reducing the incidence of the than 90 percent of the rabies cases disease. It has been reported from come from wild carnivores and all the continental U.S. (except bats instead of domestic animals. It Vermont). is considered fatal once symptoms have developed although there 20 have been reports of about can’t tell whether or not an animal is 10 human survivors. rabid just by its behavior. Wildlife Diseases The losses caused by rabies are Transmission: Rabid animals are and Humans difficult to determine. The primary the source of infection for other economic loss is from death of animals and humans. Transmission farm animals, pets, and the cost of from the sick animal to a healthy vaccination. Its most serious effect animal or human is by infected is its transmission to humans and saliva on broken skin or abrasions. the fears associated with it. Prevention and Control: Rabies is present in much of the Prevention should be based on United States. Rabies may be (1) vaccination of pet animals, present during any season of the (2) control of stray dogs and cats, year. The incidence is usually and (3) education of the public. highest in the spring and fall. Most authorities agree that the Commensal Rodent-Borne main reservoir of infection is in wild Diseases animals. Skunks, foxes, bats, raccoons, Rats and mice are responsible coyotes, and others may be the source for the spread of a number of of this disease. Rodents are of no diseases, either directly, as by the epidemiological significance. contamination of human food with their urine or feces, or indirectly, by way of rodent fleas and mites. Rats and mice have been implicated in more than thirty-five diseases.

Birds and Public Health Large roosting concentrations of birds can lead to potential public health problems. Their droppings create an objectionable smell, and the droppings and the weight of the birds break tree limbs and destroy vegetation. The droppings, when allowed to accumulate over a 3- to 5-year time span, may form a medium for the growth of bacteria and fungi. In addition, birds may act directly as carriers or vectors Striped skunk for some diseases. The skunk has the highest rate of infection. In Kansas more than 60 percent of the positive cases are from this animal. You should suspect rabies if a skunk is noticed wandering around without fear of dogs or humans. Be especially careful if the skunk chases dogs, cats, or humans near buildings during the daylight hours. Unfortunately, you European starling 21 Histoplasmosis In humans, histoplasmosis Wildlife Diseases infection can result from Sources of Infestation and Humans disturbing bird or bat droppings The fungus Histoplasma capsulatum which have accumulated beneath is widely distributed throughout tree roots, in attics and chicken the world. It usually is in soil houses, on buildings, lofts, or other where droppings from bats, sites. Most severe or symptomatic blackbirds, starlings, chickens, cases of histoplasmosis occur gulls, pigeons, or other birds have in persons who clean out silos, accumulated for three or more church towers, basements, or years. It may also be in or on attics; demolish or clean out old buildings. The fungus normally chicken houses; explore caves; grows in the upper two inches of clear underbrush; or cut trees the soil or accumulated droppings where birds or bats have habitually and, once established, can survive roosted. Infestation may also and propagate itself over a occur in persons who are near broad range of environmental such activities. Most cases of conditions. Birds are not infected histoplasmosis are acquired by by the fungus and do not carry persons who live in the vicinity the disease. Bats are susceptible to of active or previously inhabited infection and theoretically could bird roosts in which the fungus is infect new sites through their growing. Fortunately, if the roost is droppings, but this has never been not disturbed, these cases are mild, demonstrated. Once established producing no symptoms or causing in the soil or on accumulated a minor, transitory respiratory droppings the fungus persists for illness that elicits little or no many years even though the source concern. of the droppings is removed. Medical Information The fungus does not become established at all sites where Histoplasmosis affects man droppings have accumulated. and domestic and wild animals. Surveys made in the 1960s of The disease occurs when the blackbird roosts in Arkansas and spores of this fungus enter the Missouri indicated that the fungus lungs where an infection begins, was growing in about a third of usually resulting in a primary the roosts that had been active for lung lesion. The disease is not three or more years. The fungus considered contagious since it was not found, however, in some is not transmitted from man to roosts that had been used by birds man or from animals to man. for 10 to 28 years. Therefore, age Many infections are overlooked does not seem to be the only factor since they produce no symptoms which influences whether the or cause a transitory respiratory fungus will become established. illness with flu-like symptoms. Without sampling to determine Histoplasmosis may occasionally the presence or absence of the become chronic and persist fungus, discretion dictates that all for years or, rarely, enter the bird or bat droppings that have bloodstream and infect organs been accumulating for three or other than the lungs. Minor cases more years be considered to be require only supportive treatment. positive for Histoplasma capsulatum. 22 The rare chronic or severe cases for Disease Control, U.S. Public may require hospitalization. Health Service, Atlanta, Georgia, Wildlife Diseases Persons who have recovered from to determine the presence or and Humans histoplasmosis acquire some absence of Histoplasma capsulatum immunity to the disease, but in the samples. reinfection may occur in a few Persons who must come in contact individuals, especially if they inhale with soil mixed with bird or bat a massive dose of spores. droppings should make every Control effort to avoid inhaling the spores of this fungus. If possible, only A good way to prevent persons with positive histoplasmin histoplasmosis is to avoid skin tests should work in these accumulations of soil mixed sites, because they have acquired with bird or bat droppings or some immunity that others do not accumulations of these droppings. have. The National Institute for Unfortunately, this is not Occupational Safety and Health always possible. Because most (NIOSH) recommends wearing cases of human histoplasmosis a well-fitting part 84 particulate are associated with active or respirator certified by NIOSH. previously inhabited bird roosts, They should also wear coveralls, pay particular attention to the caps, rubber boots, and plastic or management of these areas to rubber gloves. When leaving the minimize their importance as a site, they should wash droppings source of infection. off boots and remove clothing Avoid active or previously and place it in a plastic bag. inhabited bird roosts if possible. Clothing can be decontaminated Individuals or groups who by drenching it with formaldehyde are likely to come into close followed by washing it in contact with roost soils should detergent. know about the possibility of Moving bird or bat droppings contracting histoplasmosis if the that have accumulated in or soils are disturbed and should be on buildings is often necessary. encouraged to keep out of the Consider all such accumulations roost site. If the roost site is being as positive for Histoplasma used often by the public or if the capsulatum. Workers should wear area will soon be developed, test respirators and protective clothing. the roost site for the presence of Dampen dry droppings with Histoplasma capsulatum. If the water containing a wetting agent fungus is present, decontaminate (surfactant) to minimize spore the site. Decontamination is dispersal. As they are removed, wet especially important if the roost the droppings thoroughly with 3 site is located in an urban area. percent formaldehyde solution, seal Collecting soil samples in the roost in heavy plastic bags, and dispose site and forwarding specimens of in a landfill. In some situations for fungal isolation should be disinfecting droppings with performed under the direction formalin before removal may be of the State Health Department. possible. Exercise extreme caution Most states rely on the Division due to the hazardous nature of of Mycotic Diseases, Centers formalin. If the final cleanup 23 involves vacuuming, use only Dispersing birds from a roosting Wildlife Diseases cleaners with a water filtration site is an obvious way to prevent and Humans system to prevent spores from the roost from becoming positive becoming airborne. for Histoplasma capsulatum. Because roosts must be occupied Prevention for three or more years (rarely The probability of contracting two) before favorable conditions histoplasmosis can be minimized develop for fungus growth, birds by preventing the accumulation roosting at a site for the first of bird or bat droppings in or winter should cause little concern. on buildings or in the vicinity of If birds return the following fall homes or populated areas. Bat or winter, take steps to move and bird-proof the buildings them. In some instances the birds to prevent them from entering. can be moved by altering the If they are already roosting in roosting site. Thinning the stand, a building, begin a program to removing thickets of understory move them out then close all shrubs, trimming hedges, or entrance points. Contact K-State pruning the tree canopies often Research and Extension or the moves birds from an established Kansas Department of Health roost and discourages them from and Environment for help in selecting the site as a roosting developing a program to rid area in the future. buildings of bats or birds.

24 Study Questions 6. Histoplasmosis should be suspected These study questions are designed in all cases where bird or bat Wildlife Diseases to help you learn the material on droppings have accumulated for and Humans pages 18 through 24. _____. 1. General precautions to reduce the a. 1 to 6 months chance of getting wildlife diseases b. 7 to 12 months include _____. c. 1 to 2 years a. always wear rubber gloves d. 3 or more years when skinning or examining 7. To reduce the chance of getting wild animals histoplasmosis, individuals or b. practice cleanliness when groups should _____. working with wild animals a. avoid active or previously c. do not overcook wild animal inhabited bird roosts meat b. kill all birds in the area d. a and b above c. decontaminate the roost site 2. Plague is transmitted in wild with alcohol animals by______feeding d. smoke a cigar when entering on infected animals. an infected bird roost site a. dogs 8. The probability of contracting b. skunks histoplasmosis can be minimized by c. fleas _____. d. coyotes a. preventing the accumulation 3. Most cases (60 percent) of Rocky of bird or bat droppings Mountain spotted fever are b. bat- and bird-proof buildings reported in _____. c. moving birds from roosting a. North Carolina and sites in less than three years Oklahoma d. all the above b. Arkansas, Tennessee, and Missouri c. Virginia d. a and b above 4. Trichinosis is caused by a _____. a. fungus b. nematode c. virus d. bacteria 5. In Kansas, more than 60 percent of the rabies cases are found in _____. a. foxes b. skunks c. coyotes d. dogs 25 Public Relations Public Relations and the animal populations and wildlife Wildlife Damage Control damage control, but people and the Wildlife Professional usually are not interested until Even though Kansas is considered they experience a problem. Then, Damage Control an agricultural state, more than with limited knowledge, myths Professional 90 percent of Kansans live in urban and attitudes of early settlers may centers, and many agricultural guide decisions. workers are not descendants of Professionals should be aware of farm families. When regulations attitudes that affect acceptance and governing wildlife damage control implementation of wildlife damage are formulated on a national control programs. To minimize or even on a state level, urban- conflict, damage prevention should oriented values, emotions, and be emphasized. Minimal population knowledge may dominate the reduction should be recommended wording of laws and regulations. only if necessary, using the safest Almost all of the vertebrate methods. Wildlife damage control animals in abundance now professionals should explain how will probably remain relatively animals compensate to resist abundant until major land uses population reduction attempts and change or environmental disasters why an effort to kill all animals in occur over wide areas. With a favorable habitat might not not control efforts limited to very few succeed. sites, slight reductions in local populations of nontarget animals Coyotes will have no long-lasting adverse Coyotes are members of the effects on total populations. Killing dog family and resemble small or injuring nontarget animals is of German Shepherds. Both males great concern to many people. and females are primarily brownish gray-colored, with variations from When settlers began to establish nearly white, to reddish-brown, homes, they encountered many to nearly black; the underbelly wild creatures. They had little is a lighter color. Most have choice but to kill offending black guard hairs over their back animals. Attitudes developed that and tails. Color variations seem still exist in the rural population somewhat related to the type of such as, “There are good animals, habitat in which they live. To be and bad animals. If bad animals successful in using any control (the ones not useful to people) method, basic knowledge of coyote harm something, kill them all habits and behavior is necessary. if you can because they are not useful.” Coyotes are the principle predator of sheep and goats. Documented On the other side of the issue is losses among all sheep raised in the view is that all living species Kansas average from less than and each individual within each 1 percent to 3 percent per year. species should be preserved. Coyote predation on other types Wildlife damage control of livestock has been documented professionals can help reconcile and, although not of the magni- these differences by providing tude of sheep losses, it can be information. A lot is known about serious in localized situations.

26 Coyotes tend to live in territories. grow into reproductive capacity Any device, tool, or control at an earlier age and increases Coyotes method that is used continually the number of pups per litter. over several years, in a given area, These biological facts suggest that will sooner or later decrease in attempts to control the coyote effectiveness because coyotes adapt population in some areas may be to control measures. Use only one of help in keeping a population or two methods of lethal removal of coyotes healthy, abundant, and at a time and use these sparingly. productive. After removal of the coyote(s) Coyotes usually breed in January responsible for causing losses, and February and produce litters discontinue control measures. about 60 to 63 days later, in April and May. Average litter size is five to seven pups, although up to 13 in a litter have been reported. Coyotes crossbreed with dogs to produce the coy-dog hybrid. Hybrids are fertile, although their breeding seasons do not usually correspond to those of coyotes. Distemper, parvovirus, and mange Coyote are the most common coyote Reproductive Capacity diseases. Rabies and tularemia also of Coyotes occur and may be transmitted to other animals and humans. Some The percentage of female parasites of coyotes are mites, ticks, coyotes capable of breeding and fleas, worms, and flukes. successfully whelping is perhaps one of the most important Habits variables in the reproductive Coyotes are found from Central capacity. To know litter size, age of America to the Arctic, including maturity, and breeding capabilities all the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. of the animal is fundamental to Kansas has maintained a high, wise management. In Kansas, relatively stable coyote population 75 percent of the female coyotes for many years. Timber, brush, are sexually active under good open prairie, and desert areas are conditions, but less than 36 favored habitat types, but coyotes percent attempt mating when are highly adaptable and are also conditions are less favorable. Most found in farming areas, suburbs, of the variation appears to result and cities. from the frequency with which females become reproductively Coyotes are most active at night mature in the first year of life. in hot weather, and during early The greatest influence in local morning hours, especially where population productivity results human activity occurs. With from significant changes in the minimal human interference, or percentage of females capable during cool, cloudy or foggy, rainy of bearing young. Some coyote weather, they are active throughout control helps young females the day. They bed in sheltered

27 areas, but they may seek temporary Coyote physical abilities include Coyotes shelter underground in severe good eyesight and hearing and an weather or when closely pursued. exceptionally keen sense of smell. Coyotes follow regular paths and They have been clocked at speeds crossways, and they prefer high up to 40 miles per hour and can hills or knolls from which they can sustain slower speeds for several view their terrain. They establish miles. regular scent posts along their Food paths. They depend on their ears, noses, and eyes to sense danger. As carnivores, 98 percent of the average coyote winter diet is Den Life animal matter and 2 percent is Coyotes do not normally utilize vegetable matter. However, coyotes dens except when raising young. feed heavily on cedar berries, Dens are found in steep banks, prickly pear fruits, wild plums, rock crevices, sinkholes, and cantaloupes, and watermelons in underbrush, as well as in open the summertime. areas. Usually they are in areas Coyotes normally kill lambs by selected for protective concealment. biting the head or neck, but on Coyote dens are often holes that older lambs and adult sheep, have been used by badgers, skunks, kills are usually made by biting foxes or other animals, with the throat just in back of the entrances enlarged to about 1 foot jaw and ear. The major cause of in diameter. Dens vary in depth death is probably damage to the from 4- to 5-feet to as deep as 50 trachea and/or to nerves affecting feet. Dens usually have only one respiration, blood pressure and opening. They are usually less than heart rate, rather than the loss 1 mile from water, but can be found of blood. They usually feed on a much farther away. carcass at the flanks or behind the Extensive travel is common in ribs and first consume the liver, hunting, although coyotes hunt the heart, lungs, and other viscera. same areas regularly if plenty of The rumen and intestines may food is available. An adult coyote be removed and dragged away can hold up to 7 pounds of food from the carcass. On very small in the stomach. Both parents hunt lambs, the upper canine teeth may and bring food for the young. penetrate the top of the neck or They usually regurgitate it for the the skull. Calf predation by coyotes pups until they are several weeks is most common when calves are old. Pups begin coming out of young. Calves attacked, but not the den by three weeks of age and killed, exhibit wounds in the flank, are weaned by six weeks. Within hindquarter, or front shoulders; two months, they follow adults often their tails are chewed off on short hunting trips or to feed near the tip. They usually kill on large prey. The family usually calves by eating into the anus or remains together until late summer abdominal area. Mature deer are or fall. Some coyotes will leave killed in a manner similar to that overpopulated home ranges and used on adult sheep. Large animals travel to less populated areas. may be grabbed by the throat, but often are pulled down from

28 behind. Fawns usually are bitten • ground shooting through the neck or head. Deer • calling Coyotes carcasses often are completely • foot-hold traps dismembered and eaten. • snares Dogs usually kill by attacking the • guardian animals hindquarters, flanks, and head and (dogs, donkeys, llamas, etc.) rarely kill as cleanly as coyotes. Badly torn and slashed animals • trail hounds with damage to the head, ears, and • sight hounds sides are typical of dog predation. • lighting Domestic dogs are generally • parked vehicles indiscriminate killers of livestock, • propane exploders attacking or harassing all age groups of any kind of livestock. • annoying sounds, and Dogs eat small amounts of the • electrical fencing kill, if any at all, and often kill or All of these techniques have wound many individuals at once. proven economical and practical Red foxes kill and feed on in some situations but not all small lambs much as coyotes techniques are labeled in every do, but larger sheep often show state. For example, the M-44 many teeth marks in the throat. device, livestock protection collars, Occasionally, foxes pull wool loose and carbon monoxide cartridges from flanks and hindquarters or are not registered in the state of damage the head as dogs often do. Kansas, and therefore it is illegal to use them. Skinning the hide away from the wound with a sharp knife and Specific knowledge of the field exposing the flesh is a reliable way activity is important with predators to properly identify the extent and predator damage control. of damage and locate places of Observe: hemorrhaging. • tracks and droppings Coyote track comparison • howling, barking • times of day when seen Control • places seen, travel routes Coyote Damage Control direction • number seen • kind of livestock killed, age, sex, size, behavior of livestock • frequency of killings, numbers killed/wounded in each attack • date killing started • loss record

Alternatives

29 Coyotes, and most other • Level terrain lends itself to Coyotes Kansas wild predators, kill with effective use of sight hounds discrimination. Generally, one during cooler months. animal is killed per attack, and Livestock Management Factors these attacks occur at regular intervals. Wild predators tend to Management practices are equally attack smaller individuals: lambs, important. Before a decision is kids, calves. They will usually pick made on control, consider: For additional information one kind of livestock animal and • Were the attacked animals regarding coyote damage kill in one place, pen, or pasture. penned at the time of attack? control, refer to the following Other information needed: • If attacked at night, were there K-State Research and Extension lights over penned animals? publications: • type of wounds • amount eaten, places carcasses • Were lambs in pasture? How to Trap a Coyote, C660 eaten • Does lambing occur in How to Call a Coyote, C400 • victim carried off or not, pastures? revised returns to carcasses the next • What is the condition of Use of Snares for Capturing day fencing? Coyotes, C698 • method of disposal of dead • How long will the kind and size of animal being killed be Managing Predator Problems, animals, place disposed of present in the area of attacks? C620 • time of attacks, other predation in area • Where are dead livestock Understanding the Coyote, C578 • travel routes used by predators disposed of (location)? in area of kills • How long are dead livestock • terrain where loss is occurring left in pastures or pens? Parasites and diseases may be • size of area wholly or partly responsible for • use of adjacent land losses. • vegetative cover in area of loss Ask about recent efforts to control and adjacent land losses. What predator control • trails of predator methods were used and how • fence crossing used by predator successful were they? Individual • temperature coyotes can adapt to control • weather methods and may become trap, snare, or predator-call shy. • time of year They may overcome their fear • expected weather conditions of killing in lighted pens and of during time of control scaring devices. In such cases careful Consider these factors to select the consideration will allow the manager most effective control method: to choose the most appropriate methods. Broad knowledge of • Traps work fine in dry weather control methods is needed for and on dry soil. effective control. • Snares are useful in trails under fence crossings, but not necessarily in pastures with livestock or in high use areas where deer are abundant.

30 Study Questions 5. Domestic dogs generally: Public Relations These study questions are designed a. are indiscriminate killers. to help you learn the material on b. attack all age groups of and the Wildlife pages 26 through 30. animals. Damage Control 1. Kansas is considered an c. eat small amounts, if any, of agricultural state, but what the kill. Professional percentage of Kansans live in d. all the above. urban centers, which affects their thoughts about wildlife. 6. Knowledge of field activities of predators includes ______. a. 60 percent b. 70 percent a. howling and barking c. 80 percent b. places seen d. 90 percent c. behavior of livestock d. all the above 2. Coyote control should use lethal methods _____at a time. 7. Some factors that influence the method of predator control include: a. 1 or 2 b. 3 or 4 a. dry weather and soil favor traps. c. 5 or 6 b. level terrain is best for sight d. 7 or 8 hounds. 3. One of the most important c. a and b. variables in coyote reproduction is: d. the phase of the moon. a. the number of males. 8. Concerning previous predator b. the number of females. control attempts, an important c. the percentage of females question is ______. capable of breeding and a. What were the previous successfully whelping control methods? d. the presence of field mice for b. Were owls present the night food. of the kill? 4. Coyote pups begin coming out of c. Were there flies found on the the den at ______of dead animal? age. d. What happened two weeks a. 1 week after the attack by predators? b. 3 weeks c. 4 weeks d. 6 weeks

31 Deer, Elk, and Antelope land uses. This includes areas Deer, Elk, Overpopulations of deer, elk, and where other techniques are not and Antelope antelope can have adverse effects effective in reducing damage and on agricultural production and an annual problem is anticipated maintenance of habitat for other unless numbers are reduced. Urban wildlife. Damage to fences by deer areas and areas of high human often results in secondary damage populations where wildlife damage by permitting livestock access to is common are most difficult to other areas. resolve because hunters cannot effectively harvest the problem When buck deer are rubbing the animals. As much hunting pressure velvet from their antlers, they may as is tolerable by the residents scar saplings, break limbs, and should be applied annually to hold bruise bark. Any of the antlered the problem animals at as low a animals will leave this evidence of level as possible. the approaching rutting season. The rub will be confined to the trunk Repellents area between 1½ feet and 3 feet Pronghorn antelope above the ground. Small trees may Specially formulated repellents be killed. This damage can be have been effective in reducing or important economically when it eliminating damage to gardens, occurs in orchards and the value flowers, ornamental shrubs, berries of the individual trees is high. and fruit trees for varying lengths of time when used according Twigs or plants nipped by hoofed to the instructions. Continuous animals do not show the neat, application of repellents on large sharply cut edge left by rabbits commercial orchards is expensive and most rodents, but instead for the operator and a more show a rough, shredded edge, and permanent solution should be usually a square or ragged break. considered. Some repellents are The stems browsed by deer and elk not registered for use on edible show no appreciable difference in plant parts, but may provide good appearance. Deer seldom browse protection during the dormant higher than 6 feet from a standing Whitetail deer season when animals have position, but are able to reach adequate alternative foods. 8 feet or more by rearing upon their hind legs. Deer rarely browse Apply repellents at the first sign on branches more than an inch in of damage to prevent deer from diameter. establishing a feeding pattern in fields. Control Methods Scare Devices Hunting One of the keys to success with Hunting seasons should be repellents or scare devices is to considered the best method to take action at the first sign of a reduce or resolve deer, antelope, problem. It is difficult to break or elk damage problems caused a deer’s behavior pattern once Elk by an overpopulation of animals established. in an area where existing populations of these animals are Gas exploders (and possibly strobe not compatible with existing lights with siren) set to detonate at irregular intervals are the most 32 common scare devices. They are only and less troublesome to install effective for 1 to 2 weeks and should and maintain than individual Deer, Elk, be used only for temporary control. cages. Tree shelters are plastic or and Antelope Propane cannons are another cardboard tubes that are placed option. These noise-making over the tree at planting time and devices may be used as a first actually create a microclimate that attempt to frighten deer away from enhances tree growth and survival. the damage area. These cannons Fencing allow the user the ability to place them and have timed explosions Simple, inexpensive electric fences occurring for several hours. are useful in protecting garden and field crops during snow-free Haystack Panels periods. Deer are attracted to Preconstructed 8- by 8-foot wood these fences by their appearance or or 16-foot wire and wood snow smell, and are lured into contacting fence haystack panels are useful the fence with their noses. This to prevent deer, elk, and antelope causes an effective shock that from feeding on the hay. The trains them to avoid fenced areas. panels are placed around the stack Where a large number of deer by the owner and wired together at annually cause damage to a high- the edges to create a solid wooden value crop (fruit trees, irrigated protective fence around the stack. alfalfa, and similar crops) and other When the stack is removed, the preventative techniques are not panels are stored to be used the effective, a permanent fence may following year. be the only solution. The electric shocking power and unique fence designs present both psychological and physical barriers to deer. The disposition of public hunting on the land involved must be analyzed before any commitment. An 84-inch high fence for repelling deer and a 96-inch fence Wooden panels for elk are recommended.

Tree Cages/Shelters Tree cages can be used to protect young fruit trees from persistent damage by deer or elk in cases where repellents or a kill permit are ineffective. A cage consists of a 10- or 15-foot length of 47-inch Deer exclusion fence woven wire with 10 gauge bottom and top wires and 12 ½ gauge Trapping and Immobilizing filler wires with 6-inch stays. If Trapping or immobilizing and a large acreage of newly planted moving animals to resolve damage fruit trees requires protection, a complaints is not practical. permanent fence around the entire Trapping is time consuming and orchard may be less expensive 33 expensive. Individual deer, elk, Artificial Feeding Deer, Elk, or antelope with livestock, in This technique can be towns, or accidentally driven into and Antelope implemented during the winter confined areas, can be removed using a good grade of alfalfa hay by use of a tranquilizer gun. To to attract a herd of elk to a feeding tranquilize an animal, a trained site located at least 1/4-mile from person must be able to approach the damage site. Transporting the within 50 yards of the animal. hay to the proper site is usually a Greater distance decreases the major problem that discourages accuracy of the gun. this activity. Deer cannot be Permanent Stackyard Fence effectively diverted from green hay or grain fields by this technique. A permanent stackyard where many stacks, bales, or loaves of For additional information on hay are annually stored can be deer damage control, refer to the protected at minimum cost and following K-State Research and manpower to all concerned by Extension publication: construction of permanent fence. Deer Damage Control Options, The standard fence is 84-inches C728. high.

Study Questions 3. Tree cages are effective for ______. These study questions are designed a. controlling widespread to help you learn the material on damage from deer or elk pages 32 through 34. b. protecting entire orchards 1. Deer damage includes ______. c. protecting individual trees a. breaking branches and from deer or elk. bruising bark by rubbing their d. a and c above antlers 4. Permanent fences are effective in b. eating tops of 15-foot trees controlling deer or elk damage: c. puncturing livestock watering a. to high value crops tanks with their antlers (commercial fruit and d. browsing on large branches vegetables, etc) (more than 3 inches in b. when other preventative diameter) measures are not effective 2. Frightening or scaring deer away c. a and b above from danger areas can be done by d. none of the above using ______. 5. To artificially feed elk, the feeding a. car horns site should be ____mile from the b. propane cannons damage site. c. scarecrows a. 1/4 d. bright-colored paint b. 1 c. 3/4 d. 1

34 A rodenticide is defined as a toxicants for rodent control. pesticide intended to kill rodents. Rodents die from internal bleeding Rodenticides They are often called poisons, because of loss of the blood’s toxicants or rat baits. The concept clotting ability and capillary of using rodenticides is not a new damage. Before death the animal approach. Aristotle reported using is weak, but the appetite may strychnine for rodents in 350 B.C. remain. They have a slow action, so There are many rodenticides on bait shyness may not occur. First- the market but relatively few active generation anticoagulants include ingredients involved. One task for warfarin, pindone, diphacinone the user is to select the rodenticide and chlorophacinone. They are that is the best suited for the project. multiple feed rodenticides that EPA has published a document are chronic in action. It requires “Potential Risks of Nine multiple feedings for the rodent to Rodenticides to Birds and consume a lethal dose, so the bait Nontarget Mammals: A should be continuously available. Comparative Approach, 2004” First-generation anticoagulants (http://www.fluoridealert. pose secondary risks to birds and org/pesticides/EPA-HQ- mammals. OPP-2006-0955-0005.pdf) that can Second-generation anticoagulants guide producers in their selection of include brodifacoum, difethialone, the proper rodenticide. difenacoum, and bromodiolone. It is important to remember that no Second-generation anticoagulants rodenticide is perfect. Rodenticides may be the most potent are products designed to kill small rodenticides currently available. mammals, and they are not selective A lethal dose is obtained in a to the target species. They must be single feeding although death used in a manner that minimizes is delayed 4 to 5 days for some risk to children, pets and nontarget rodents. Second generation wildlife. There are advantages anticoagulants have secondary and disadvantages to using any of hazards to nontarget wildlife. the products. By understanding Non-anticoagulants include differences between the first- and bromethalin, cholecalciderol, and second- generation anticoagulants zinc phosphide. These rodenticides and the acute toxicants, a proper can provide a lethal dose in a match between good efficacy single feeding and are much less and low risk to nontargets can be likely than the anticoagulants to selected. Efficacy of any product be retained in significant amounts depends somewhat on the in the body tissue of rodents that attractiveness and palatability of consumed the bait. Primary risks the bait matrix. This may differ are high to nontargets that may between species and even between consume those baits. individuals that are the target of the The EPA document concludes rodenticide program. No rodent with a summary table for bait is universally highly acceptable. comparing overall risks to birds Anticoagulant rodenticides were and mammals. The lower the first discovered in the 1940s and number, the lower the risk. are now the most widely used

35 Primary Primary Secondary Secondary mg Summary Rodenticides Rodenticide Risks Risks Risks Risks ai/kg Values Birds Mammals Birds Mammals Brodifacoum 50 5.58 1.25 8.60 6.76 5.55

Bromoadiolone 50 0.10 0.71 3.03 4.40 2.06

Bromethalin 100 0.10 0.10 2.20 0.44 0.71

Chlorophacinone 50 0.07 0.08 0.03 7.62 1.95

Cholecalciferol 750 0.12 0.18 2.00 2.00 1.07

Difethialone 25 4.15 0.45 6.29 4.82 3.93

Diphacinone 50 0.01 0.22 3.18 8.42 2.96

Warfarin 250 0.04 0.83 1.72 1.32 0.98

Zinc phosphide 20000 7.81 10.00 0.00 0.69 4.63

Conclusions from the EPA highly toxic and persistent second- document: generation anticoagulants. Brodifacoum and difethialone Mammalian predators and stand out as the two rodenticides scavengers are at risk from feeding posing the greatest potential on animals poisoned with overall risk to birds and anticoagulant baits. nontarget mammals, followed by Rodenticide users must follow bromadiolone and diphacinone. label directions carefully. Some Zinc phosphide also ranked rodenticides, for example high for overall risk based on the those that contain the active comparative analysis modeling, ingredients chlorphacinone and primarily because of high potential diphacinone, are legal to use in primary risks. outdoor areas. These products Brodifacoum, difethialone, and can be used to control field zinc phosphide pose the greatest rodents such as gophers, voles, and potential primary risks to birds ground squirrels. Other rodent that eat bait. A single zinc bait products, such as those that phosphide or brodifacoum bait contain the active ingredients pellet provides more than an LD50 broadifacoum, bromodialone or dose for a small bird. In contrast, a difethialone, can only be used small bird would need to eat more to control rodents found within than twice its body weight in bait structures, such as rats and mice. pellets to ingest a comparable dose Read product labels carefully of a first-generation anticoagulant before using any pesticide, and in a single feeding. follow directions exactly. The available data indicates that Check daily for dead rodents. the first-generation anticoagulants Wearing gloves, collect the are less hazardous than the more carcasses as soon as possible, place 36 in plastic bags, and dispose of second-generation anticoagulants them in garbage cans with tight brodifacoum, bromadiolone, Rodenticides lids that other animals cannot difenacoum, and difethialone. open. Wear protective gloves when Products containing these active handling dead animals. ingredients will only be available Rodenticides can harm wildlife, for commercial use and for pets, and children, and should residential use by professional be used carefully. The EPA has pest control operators. Up-to-date implemented steps to protect information about these changes consumers and wildlife from may be obtained from the EPA exposure to rodenticides. Starting website at http://www.epa.gov/ June 4, 2011, the agency banned the pesticides/mice-and-rats/consumer- sale to residential consumers of the prod.html. most toxic rat and mouse poisons, as well as most loose bait and Nonnative rodents Norway rats and house mice pellet products. The EPA is also consume millions of bushels of requiring that all newly registered grain each year. They destroy it rat and mouse poisons marketed to in the field, on the farm, in the residential consumers be enclosed elevator, mill, processing plant, in bait stations that render the store, home, and in transit. In pesticide inaccessible to children addition, these rodents waste and pets. Wildlife that consume many more millions of bushels bait or poisoned rodents will also be by contamination. Food may be protected by EPA’s actions. severely contaminated because each EPA is strengthening protection rodent drops 25 to 150 pellets every of children, pets, and wildlife from 24 hours, voids 10 to 20 cc of urine, rodenticides used in and around and constantly sheds fine hairs. the home. As a result of EPA’s May Rats are omnivorous. They eat 2008 Risk Mitigation Decision nearly every kind of grain, fish, for Ten Rodenticides, household fruit, meat, milk products, and rodenticide products must meet vegetables. These rodents can new risk-reduction goals. destroy hundreds of chicks in Some changes include the one night. They attack broilers requirement for use of bait and even adult hens, ducks, geese, stations. All rodenticide bait and wild birds. They have been products marketed to residential known to seriously injure newborn consumers must be sold as a pigs, lambs, and calves and may block or paste bait, packaged with kill caged chickens. Health an EPA-approved bait station. departments, nationwide, annually Products marketed to residential report hundreds of human consumers may contain no more babies being bitten by rats. Many than 1 pound of rodenticide bait. viral and bacterial diseases are While several pesticide active transmitted to humans by rodent ingredients will still be allowed on feces and urine, which contaminate the homeowner market, products food and water. marketed to residential consumers Rat gnawing causes considerable will no longer contain the most property damage. Fires are toxic and persistent pesticide sometimes started by these rodents active ingredients, that is, the 37 when they damage the insulation Young rats can be distinguished Rodenticides of electrical wiring. They may also from mice by their blunt tails use flammable materials such as and smaller ears. The best way oily rags and matches for building to control rats is by following nests, which may cause fires the five-step method. While not from spontaneous combustion. every step applies to all situations, Extensive damage is sometimes control will generally be most done when Norway rats burrow successful if multiple methods are under buildings. Foundations and applied simultaneously. lower floors of buildings have been Step 1: Habitat Alteration: weakened and some have collapsed Sanitation: Where rats have no when rats burrowed under them. place to hide or nest, they cannot Concrete slabs crack when burrows thrive. Eliminate all accumulations undermine them. Burrows into of trash, debris, etc., inside and out. dikes and outdoor embankments Clean up all spilled food and litter cause erosion and floods. as soon as possible, but at least once daily. Do not allow pet food to be left where it can be eaten by rats. Store all materials, lumber, boxes, pipe, etc., on stands at least 18 inches above the floor. Keep all foods in metal containers, which are tightly closed. Place equipment, appliances, cabinets, etc., flush against the wall Norway rat or out far enough to allow cleaning behind them. Norway Rats Use metal garbage cans with tight- Norway rats depend on humans fitting lids. for food and shelter. The most effective population reduction techniques are good sanitation and rodent-proofing. Rat signs: • greasy smear marks along travel routes and the edges of holes through which they enter structures • oblong droppings 11/4 inch long or longer Refuse containers with lids • gnaw marks on surfaces Step 2: Acute toxicants (zinc • spilled or partially eaten food phosphide, bromethalin, cholecalciferol) and single-dose • burrows about 2 inches anticoagulants (bromadiolone, in diameter or larger brodifacoum, difethialone, and difenacoum): The best population reduction technique for large 38 numbers of rats in areas where fumigated and its size determine food is abundant, such as feedlots, the concentration and amount to Rodenticides is the use of acute toxicants or be used. Specific directions can single-dose anticoagulants on baits be found on the label. Where rat the rats will eat. Bait stations may burrows in the soil can be located, be required. Read and follow the label. burrow fumigation is an effective To be sure the rats will eat the and quick method to reduce rat bait, pre-bait the area. If grain numbers. It is also a useful follow- baits are suitable, the ready-to-use up to a poison bait application. For commercial poison baits can be structures, fumigation is seldom used. Some poisons are available recommended because of human commercially in concentrated hazard and high cost. The area form. Fresh baits made of diced to be fumigated must be made apples, sweet potatoes, ground air-tight. The liquid concentrate meat, fish, or fish-flavored canned can then be piped into the area or pet food can be used for mixing poured onto crumpled absorbent poisons in concentrated form. material that serves as a wick. Wear Combine toxicants directly with safety masks of the type specified bait and stir until thoroughly on the label. After fumigation is mixed. Use immediately. completed, air out the area for several hours before use. Do not breathe dust and always wear gloves when mixing or Step 3: Multi-dose anti- handling poisoned bait. Also coagulants (chlorophacinone, wash hands, face, and all utensils diphacinone, warfarin, and immediately after use. pindone): Rats consume several doses of bait over several days Single-dose acute poison baits before dying. Single doses of these should be placed in quantities poisons rarely kill. Keep away specified on the label wherever from children, pets, and food or evidence of rats is seen, especially feed. Read and follow all label down burrows, but where children directions. and domestic animals cannot reach them and there is no danger Most commercial poison baits of contaminating food or feed. available are multiple-dose types. Cover single-dose anticoagulant Be sure to choose good quality, fresh baits. If necessary, use bait stations. products that will compete well with Most single-dose baiting will be the rat’s existing food sources. more effective if pre-baiting with Multiple-dose poison food baits unpoisoned bait is done for three should be placed in 4 to 16 ounce days. Use more than enough bait quantities wherever evidence and collect all uneaten baits after of rats is seen. If required by three days. Dispose of all dead rats. the label or to protect children, Most single-dose poisons should pets or nontarget wildlife, use not be used again in the same area bait stations. A bait station is a for six months or one year. Single- box with entrance holes large dose anticoagulants may be left for enough for rats, a tamper-proof a longer period of time. lid secured by a latch and fastened Poison gases are effective fumigants tightly to the site. Label the box for rats. The kind of area to be “poison.” Check all poisoned baits daily and replenish or replace 39 if moldy or rancid. Continue Step 5: Exclusion: Rodent Rodenticides baiting for at least 10 days or proofing: Close all openings until bait consumption ceases. Try 1 inch in diameter or larger with alternative locations if no bait is concrete, sheet metal, or heavy consumed. Dispose of all dead rats. screening. Water containing a multiple- Cover all edges of doors, window dose poison may be an effective sashes, etc., with sheet metal or rat poison bait because rats hardware cloth to prevent gnawing have to drink water. All other and subsequent entry. Extend water sources should be made rodent proofing to a height of unavailable to rats. Commercial 36 inches above the ground or concentrates are available to mix 12 inches above the level of piled with water. Such baits must be materials. exposed in non-metal containers Where utilities enter concrete, or water fonts such as those used stuff steel wool or hardware cloth for chicks. Replace water baits if in holes and fill with concrete, cloudy. and where utilities enter wood, Single Trap Step 4: Trapping: The most fit sheet metal tightly around the versatile and inexpensive rat utility openings. traps are live traps, glue boards, To rat-proof an isolated structure, rat-size wooden base snap traps, such as feed storage sheds or corn 110 conibear, or #0 leghold traps crib, attach a skirt of ½ inch wire available in many stores. Always mesh at least 3 feet wide to the use several traps, but if rats are structure. Bury the bottom edge numerous, many more traps are 12 inches in the ground and cover necessary. Some excellent baits the top edge with an 8-inch strip are raisins, nut meats, fresh crisp of sheet metal and fasten to the bacon, and a peanut butter- structure. Treat doors and windows oatmeal mixture. as suggested above. Attached Snap traps can be made more structures, such as feed storage effective by enlarging the trigger rooms, will have to be completely or pan with a square of thin, stiff lined with hardware cloth. Double set cardboard cut slightly smaller Concrete foundations should than the snap-wire. Smear the extend at least 18 inches below cardboard with peanut butter for ground to prevent rat burrowing. bait. Place traps where rats are Foundations less than 18 inches seen, heard, and most likely to deep will require an L-shaped run: along walls, under appliances curtain extending outward and cabinets, and if necessary, from the foundation to prevent along rafters and pipes. Set traps burrowing beneath the foundation. perpendicular to rat travel routes. Use obstacles to force rats over the Keep floor drains tightly covered enlarged triggers of traps. If several with metal grill work to stop entry Double set parallel traps are used at once, the rats can from sewers. usually be eliminated before they become trap-shy.

40 Study Questions 5. Most single-dose rat poisons should These study questions are designed not be used again in the same area Rodenticides to help you learn the material on for: pages 35 through 40. a. 1 to 4 months. 1. Efficacy of the anticoagulant b. 6 to 12 months. products depends on the ______. c. 18 to 24 months. a. attractiveness d. more than 2 years. b. timing 6. The fifth step in a five-step rat c. palatability control program is ______. d. both a and c a. trapping 2. Which anticoagulant has the b. using single-dose poison greatest primary risk to mammals? c. exclusion a. warfarin d. using multiple-dose poison b. zinc phosphide 7. ______-inch wire mesh, 3 feet c. brodifacoum wide, can be used to rat-proof sheds d. bromethalin and corn cribs. 3. Rats eat ______. a. 1/4 a. grain and fish b. 1 b. fruit and meal c. 3/4 c. vegetables and milk products d.1 d. all of the above 8. Concrete foundations should extend at least_____ inches below 4. In Norway rat control, the first ground to prevent rat burrowing. step of the five-step program is ______. a. 6 a. shooting the rats b. 16 b. poisoning the site c. 18 c. sanitizing (cleaning up) d. 24 d. using a big cat

41 House Mice important ways from the control House Mice House mice can consume and of Norway or roof rats. Mice are contaminate food, destroy smaller and can enter narrower property, and spread disease. They openings, making rodent-proofing depend on humans for food and more difficult. They have limited shelter. Population reduction areas of movement (home range) techniques will be more effective and require little or no free water. when food and shelter are reduced Although they have greater first by good sanitation and rodent reproductive capability than proofing. rats, house mice are usually less sensitive (often far less sensitive) to many rodenticides. Those who do not take these differences into account when attempting house mouse control can expect poor results. Step 1: Habitat alteration: Sanitation: Mice cannot thrive where they have no place to hide House mouse and nest. Eliminate accumulations of trash, debris, etc., inside and out. Mice leave greasy smears along Clean up all spilled food and litter their travel routes and at the as soon as possible, but at least edges of entry holes, small oblong once daily. droppings about ⅛ inch long, gnaw marks on surfaces, and • Store all materials, lumber, boxes, spilled or partially eaten food. pipe, etc. on stands at least House mice can be identified 18 inches above the ground or by grayish brown color, grayish floor and 1 foot from walls. belly, and uniformly gray, naked • Store food and feed in metal, tail. The five steps previously rodent-proof containers, if described for Norway rat control possible. Otherwise store on also can be applied to house mice stands at least 18 inches above control with minor modifications. floor. Keep all food containers Control of house mice differs in tightly closed.

A 12-inch (30.5-cm) white band painted on the floor next to the wall serves 42 as a reminder to keep items away from walls. It also will allow you to detect rodent droppings or other signs more easily. • Set equipment, appliances, increase bait acceptance. Zinc cabinets, etc., flush against the phosphide baits are not designed House Mice wall or out far enough to allow to be left available to mice for cleaning behind them. more than a few days, because • Use metal garbage cans with continued exposure is likely to tight-fitting lids. result in bait shyness within the population. Be sure to follow label Regular removal of debris and recommendations on any specific control of weeds from around product to achieve best success. structures will reduce the amount of shelter available to rodents. Oatmeal, ground or rolled wheat, In some instances, a strip of rolled barley, ground or rolled milo, heavy gravel placed adjacent to and corn have been successfully building foundations or other used as chief ingredients of toxic structures will reduce rodent baits for house mice. Grass seed, burrowing at these locations. Keep such as whole canary grass seed the perimeter of buildings and (Phalaris canarienses), is often other structures clean of weeds highly accepted by house mice and and debris (including stacked can be very effective as a principal lumber, firewood, and other bait ingredient. In general, the stored materials) to discourage fresher the bait, the better it will rodent activity and to allow easier be accepted by mice. Rodent baits detection of rodent signs. should always be made from high- quality food materials, and baits Step 2: Non-anticoagulant should be replaced or replenished rodenticides and single-dose regularly. anticoagulants: At present, three non-anticoagulant rodenticides are Place poison baits at 8 to 12 feet registered by EPA against house intervals in areas where evidence mice: bromethalin, cholecalciferol of mice is seen. It is best to use a (vitamin D3), and zinc phosphide. bait station; check often and keep All are potentially useful for bait fresh. A bait station is a box controlling anticoagulant-resistant with entrance holes large enough populations of house mice. for mice and a tamper-proof lid secured by a latch. Fasten box Of these active ingredients, securely so it cannot be moved. bromethalin and cholecalciferol Label box “poison.” Use 1/4 to are formulated to serve as chronic 1 ounce of food bait per bait site. rodenticides, applied so that house All poisoned baits should be mice will have the opportunity checked daily and replenished or to feed on the baits one or more replaced if cloudy, moldy, or rancid. times over the period of one to Baiting should continue for at least several days. Bait acceptance is 15 days or until bait consumption generally good when formulations ceases. Try alternative locations if appropriate for house mice are no bait is consumed. Dispose of all selected. Zinc phosphide differs dead mice. from the other two compounds in that pre-baiting (offering mice Step 3: Multi-feed anticoagulant similar but nontoxic bait before rodenticides: Anticoagulants applying the zinc phosphide- (slow-acting, chronic toxicants). treated bait) is recommended to House mice are susceptible to

43 all of the various anticoagulant decisive. Mice seldom venture far House Mice rodenticides, but they are generally from their shelter and food supply, less sensitive (often far less so traps should be spaced no more sensitive) to the active ingredients than about 6 feet (1.8 m) apart in than are Norway or roof rats. areas where mice are active. If many It usually requires a few more traps are used at once, the mice can feedings to produce death with usually be eliminated before they the first-generation anticoagulants become trap-shy. If mice become (such as warfarin, diphacinone, and trap-shy, hide the trap except for chlorophacinone) than with the the baited trigger, with a layer second-generation anticoagulants of flour, soil or sawdust, and use (such as brodifacoum and several different kinds of bait. bromadiolone). All anticoagulants Multi-Capture Traps: Multiple- provide good to excellent house capture (automatic) mouse traps mouse control when prepared in are available from some hardware acceptable baits. and farm supply stores as well Step 4: Trapping: Snap Traps: as from pest control equipment The simple, inexpensive, wood- distributors. These traps work based snap trap is available in most on the principle that mice enter hardware and farm supply stores. small holes without hesitation. Traps should be baited with a small Such traps may catch many mice piece of nutmeat, chocolate candy, in a single setting, but should be dried fruit, or bacon tied securely checked and emptied periodically to the trigger. Peanut butter or so that mice do not die of marshmallows also may be used starvation or exposure in the traps. as bait. Because mice are always Sticky Traps: An alternative to in search of nesting materials, a traps are glue boards, which catch small cotton ball will also work as and hold mice attempting to cross a bait when attached securely to them, much the way flypaper the trigger. Food baits that become catches flies. Place glue boards stale lose their effectiveness. Snap wherever mice travel—along walls traps can be made more effective by or in established runways. Do not enlarging the tripper or pan with a use glue boards where children, square of thin, stiff cardboard cut pets, or desirable wildlife can slightly smaller than the snap-wire. contact them. Glue boards lose Smear the cardboard with peanut their effectiveness in dusty areas butter for bait. Set traps close to unless covered, and temperature walls, behind objects, in dark places, extremes may affect the tackiness and in locations where mouse of some glues. They are considered activity is seen. Place the traps so less effective for capturing rats that when mice follow their natural than for mice. Glue boards can be course of travel (usually close to a purchased ready-to-use, or they wall) they will pass directly over can be made. the trigger. Set traps so that the trigger is sensitive and will spring Step 5: Exclusion: Close all easily. Set traps perpendicular to openings 1/4 inch in diameter mouse travel routes. Use obstacles or larger with concrete, sheet to force mice over the enlarged metal, or screening to achieve trippers of traps. Use enough traps rodent-proofing. to make the campaign short and 44 Cover all edges of doors, window or corn crib, attach a skirt of 1/4-inch sashes, etc., with sheet metal or wire mesh at least 3 feet wide to the House Mice hardware cloth to prevent gnawing structure. Bury the bottom edge and subsequent entry. 12 inches in the ground and cover the top edge with an 8-inch strip To prevent climbing, tightly fasten of sheet metal and fasten to the a 12-inch square of sheet metal in structure. Treat doors and windows all corners at least 12 inches above as suggested above. Attached the floor. The square should lie flat structures, such as feed storage against both walls. rooms, will have to be completely Where utilities enter concrete, lined with hardware cloth. stuff steel wool or hardware cloth For additional information, refer in holes and fill with concrete and to the following K-State Research where utilities enter wood, fit sheet and Extension publication: metal tightly around the utility. Controlling House Mice, MF1123. To rodent-proof an isolated structure, such as feed storage sheds

Study Questions 3. The fourth step in a five-step house These study questions are designed mouse control program is ______. to help you learn the material on a. sanitation pages 42 through 45. b. trapping 1. House mice can be identified c. exclusion by their ______. d. using single-dose poison a. grayish brown color 4. To mouse-proof a storage shed or b. grayish belly corn crib, attach a ¼ inch wire c. naked tail mesh at least __ feet (foot) wide d. all the above to the structure. 2. Multiple-dose mouse poison means a. 4 the mice must consume ______. b. 3 a. 3 doses within 30 minutes c. 2 b. 5 doses within 5 hours d. 1 c. 2 doses within 2 hours d. several doses over several days

45 These rats include the wood These animals have a strong Native Rats rat, cotton rat, and kangaroo rat. collecting habit and form bulky They all live in different habitats houses that are about 2-feet high, of and consume different foods and sticks, cactus, cow dung, bones and exhibit different behaviors, which other debris. Somewhere within the are important in control methods. house or below ground, the wood rat makes a cup-shaped or ball-like Wood Rats nest of fibrous materials. The native wood rat, also locally named pack rat, and brush Controlling Wood Rat Damage rat, superficially resembles the common Norway rat. Troublesome wood rats may be discouraged through exclusion, Wood rats do not frequent towns destruction of dens, or the use of or cities as often as do their repellents. Population reduction, cousins the Norway rats, but often when necessary, is most often live in the vicinity of farmhouses accomplished by trapping. or summer homes. Occasionally they become a nuisance by Exclusion involves primarily invading dwellings and other the proper construction and buildings to construct nests or maintenance of buildings to search for food. prohibit their entrance. Pack rats may be permanently excluded from buildings and stored foods by the same methods directed toward the common Norway rat (described previously). Because several species of woodrats are agile climbers, all entrances to buildings, including those at the attic level, must be closed. Cracks and openings in building foundations, and any Eastern woodrat openings for water pipes, electric Though not often injurious to wires, sewer pipes, drain spouts, crops and agricultural enterprises, and vents must be sealed. Also occasionally wood rats become check for openings in attic vents, numerous enough to do limited broken roof shingles, or other gaps damage to crops in fields and next to the eaves. No hole larger gardens. In some regions they have than 1 inch (1.3 cm) should be been known to inflict injury to left unsealed. Make sure doors, orchard trees. Valuable nut crops windows, and screens fit tightly. are sometimes carried off by these If gnawing is a problem, edges rodents. Wood rats occasionally can be covered with sheet metal. strip bark from the crowns of trees Coarse steel wool, wire screen, for nest material. This type of and lightweight sheet metal are injury generally occurs in dense, excellent materials for plugging 15- to 30-year-old stands and gaps and holes. is seldom widespread. They also Some of the available commercial cause problems in some buildings repellents used against rabbits by fouling stored materials and and mice may, in some creating unsightly messes. situations, prove effective in 46 reducing wood rat damage to can be minimized by inverting a young trees. Objectionable wooden crate over the bait tray. Native Rats odors from substances like Baiting sites should be located mothballs (naphthalene), or tacky near existing wood rat runways, substances, may make an enclosed feeding sites, or nests. area temporarily less desirable for Wood rats that frequent buildings wood rats, as for other mammals. can be taken through the use of Likewise, noxious tastes may ordinary live traps, glue boards, or make an item less palatable. No wooden snap-type traps. Wood wood rat repellents, however, are rats are among the easiest animals registered by the EPA. In general, to trap. Good baits include nut chemical repellents are not meats, bacon rind, peanut butter considered a practical solution to and oatmeal, prunes, raisins and wood rat problems. other dried fruit, and biscuits. Anticoagulants are effective for Seal all points of possible wood wood rat control and are especially rat access to prevent re-entry. suited for use around structures Many producers have good success because of their low hazard to catching wood rats in small cage pets and children. Most baits traps baited with a small ball of formulated for commensal rats aluminum foil. and house mice give effective In areas where wood rats are a wood rat control. Anticoagulants particular menace, foresters and work by interfering with the ranchers will sometimes burn blood-clotting mechanism. Death their dens. This practice should be usually occurs four to five days attempted with extreme caution after feeding on bait begins. With to avoid accidental fires. Burning most anticoagulants, such as will prevent reoccupation by chlorophacinone or diphacinone, new rats and will lengthen the feeding must occur daily for four problem-free period. to five days. Finely ground or meal-type anticoagulant baits Cotton Rats are recommended. Because Cotton rats resemble a half- wood rats have a tendency to grown Norway rat. Cotton rats pack away items, pellet bait are dependent upon a dense stand should be avoided as it is often of vegetation for both food and cached at the nest site. Cached protection from predators. Within bait is probably not effective in their range, cotton rats occupy minimizing reinvasions of the grassy fields and meadows, marshy area, so it is essentially wasted and areas, wastelands and roadsides, and may present hazards to nontarget ditch banks overgrown with weeds. species. Anticoagulants are usually On occasion they inhabit cropland. put out in bait boxes, but wood rats tend to fill boxes with sticks Where cotton rats occur they may and other debris. Therefore, use be detected by their well-defined open bait containers. Bait exposed runways and connecting burrows. in this manner must be placed Runways are about 3 inches across so nontarget species, pets, and and burrows are correspondingly children do not have ready access larger. Indications of active areas to it. Access to the bait by pets are runways with small piles of freshly clipped vegetation and 47 scattered or small piles of ½ inch- high value, a sheet metal barrier Native Rats long droppings. 18 inches (46 cm) tall may be used The amount of damage done to exclude cotton rats. Bury the by cotton rats depends on their barrier about 6 inches (15 cm) abundance and the type of crop to prevent cotton rats from attacked. After a crop begins to burrowing under it. grow, the rats move into various Cultural Methods: Remove parts of the field and build up dense cover by burning, mowing, their runway and burrow systems, plowing, or using herbicides to remaining as long as food and reduce habitat and prevent large shelter are available or until population increases. Habitat appropriate control methods are modification is best as a preventive administered. Cotton rats are measure, since this control method known to damage a wide variety will have little effect on the of field crops. These include ensuing damage once a population grasses, alfalfa, grains, sugar beets, reaches its peak. vegetables, fruits, squash, corn, Trapping: Small rodent live traps sweet potatoes, and melons. The or rat-sized snap traps are effective flesh and seeds of tomatoes are for catching a small number of also eaten. animals. The traps should be baited with a mixture of peanut butter and oatmeal or a piece of fresh carrot or sweet potato. The trap should be set in the runway at a right angle to the direction of travel. Cotton rat populations in Kansas have not reached a high enough peak to cause significant Cotton rat widespread damage since the Controlling Cotton Rat Damage mid-1950s, but isolated local population increases are Control through natural means not uncommon. is of assistance when populations are at a low ebb. Cotton rat Kangaroo Rats populations are affected by Kangaroo rats, also known as sand predators such as foxes, dogs, rats, are distinctive rodents with coyotes, raccoons, badgers, small front legs, long powerful weasels, mink, domestic cats, owls, hind legs, and long tufted tails. hawks, and snakes. Coccidiosis is Brown or tan back, pure white common, and plague and murine under parts, and a pair of external, typhus have been found occurring fur-lined check pouches like those naturally in cotton rats. During of pocket gophers. The kangaroo times of high population, a fungus rat occurs in most areas of sandy disease aided by wet weather, takes soil in central and western Kansas. a great toll on the rats. Exclusion: If the area is small or the crop to be protected is of

48 Kangaroo rats live in short, practical for small areas of high- shallow burrows in sandy or soft value crops, such as gardens, but is Native Rats ground. Occasionally they may impractical and too expensive for be found in areas of harder soil. larger acreages. Kangaroo rats mainly eat seeds but Cultural Methods: Alfalfa, corn, may occasionally eat plant parts sorghum, and other grains are the and insects. Kangaroo rats are most likely crops to be damaged nocturnal and never active during by kangaroo rats. When possible, the day. They do not hibernate but planting should be done in early will store large quantities of seeds spring before kangaroo rats for use in inclement weather. become active to prevent loss of Where farming is practiced in seeds. Less palatable crops should sandy areas, kangaroo rats may be planted along field edges damage the outer rows of grain that are near areas infested with crops by digging up and eating kangaroo rats. the seeds. When present in high High kangaroo rat numbers most populations, kangaroo rats may often occur on rangelands that be scattered in small colonies have been subjected to overuse by throughout the field. Kangaroo livestock. Kangaroo rats usually are rats will also feed on the tops not abundant where rangelands of young corn plants and may have a good grass cover, because do considerable damage if large many of the forbs that provide numbers of rats are present. seeds for food are not abundant in dense stands of grass. Thus, changes in grazing practices accompanied by control programs may be necessary for substantial, long-term relief.

Trapping Live Traps: Trapping with box- type (wire cage) traps can be Kangaroo rat successful in a small area when a small number of kangaroo rats Controlling Kangaroo are causing problems. These traps Rat Damage can be baited successfully with Exclusion: Exclusion is most various grains, oatmeal, oatmeal often accomplished by the and peanut butter, and other baits. construction of rat-proof fences One problem is the disposal of and gates around the area to be kangaroo rats after they have been protected. Most kangaroo rats trapped. They usually die from can be excluded by 1/4-inch exposure if they remain in the (1.3-cm) mesh hardware cloth, trap for more than six hours. If the 30 to 36 inches (75 to 90 cm) rats are released, they should be high. The bottom 6 inches (15 cm) taken to an area more than 1 mile should be turned outward and (1.6 km) from the problem site. buried at least 12 inches (30 cm) The release site should provide in the ground. Exclusion may be suitable habitat and be acceptable

49 to everyone involved. Do not when large numbers of seed-eating Native Rats release kangaroo rats in areas songbirds are in the area. where landowners do not want Other Methods: If kangaroo rats them. from only one or two mounds are Snap Traps: Trapping with causing the problems, and water is snap traps is probably the most available, they may be flushed from efficient and humane method for their burrows and either killed or kangaroo rats. Mouse traps will allowed to go elsewhere. Collapse suffice for the younger smaller the mounds after the kangaroo animals, but rat traps are needed rats have been driven out. This for larger kangaroo rats. Successful not only levels the surface but baits include whole kernel corn, also allows you to detect burrow peanut butter and oatmeal, and reinvasion by other kangaroo oatmeal paste, which are placed rats. Use caution when flushing on the trigger mechanism. Place burrows with water or trapping traps near, but not inside, the kangaroo rats. The burrow burrow entrances or along runways entrances are sometimes used by between mounds. Check traps rattlesnakes seeking to escape each day to remove dead kangaroo heat and direct sunlight during rats. Reset tripped traps and hot days. Even on warm days, replace baits that may have been rattlesnakes may be found near removed by ants or other insects. mounds because kangaroo rats are Do not use whole kernel corn a source of food for them.

Study Questions 3. Cotton rats resemble _____. These study questions are designed a. house mice to help you learn the material on b. wood rats pages 46 through 50. c. half-grown Norway rats 1. Wood rats are occasionally found d. kangaroo rats living near _____. 4. Predators of cotton rats include a. cities _____. b. towns a. coyotes and foxes c. meadows b. badgers and raccoons d. farmhouses c. owls and hawks 2. ______are among the easiest d. all the above animals to trap. 5. The bait for kangaroo rats a. wood rats should be _____. b. kangaroo rats a. grain c. house mice b. peanut butter d. Norway rats e. crisp bacon d. cheese

50 This group includes white- vole may attain a population of footed mice, voles, pocket mice, 1,000 per acre. Native Mice jumping mice, harvest mice, and grasshopper mice. Definite identification should be made (by an expert, if necessary) because methods, materials, and necessity for control vary for the different mice species.

Meadow vole

Controlling Damage Field mice can cause damage to young trees in windbreaks, orchards, Christmas tree plantings, and nursery stock. Mice damage White-footed mouse trees by girdling roots and stripping bark, usually in late Voles winter when other food is scarce; Meadow mice or voles, of the however, green-barked young trees genus Microtus, are the most are preferred while older trees common species causing the generally receive less damage. damage to small trees and Begin watching for signs of orchards. Other native mice are increased mouse populations in nearly always neutral or beneficial early autumn. Look for nests and in their habits. All mice of the runways in accumulated grass or genus Microtus are much alike. duff covering the soil. Fresh grass Their common names are field clippings, chewed fruit, feces, mouse, meadow mouse, and and frequent sightings of mice meadow vole. They have short are other indicators. A good way legs and tails, comparatively long to detect the presence of mice in and coarse fur, heavy bodies and orchards is to place a fresh apple short rounded ears. They are on the ground near the tree and dark-colored and are sometimes examine it several days later to mistaken for young moles. They see if it has been chewed on. If prefer low-lying fertile lands, uncertain about the species of grassy meadows, prairies, and mouse present, use a wooden- similar places. Breeding three to based snap trap baited with apple four times a year, they are very to capture one for identification. prolific, producing litters of two to six each. Great numbers of mice are eaten by hawks, owls, foxes, coyotes, Small rodents are characteristically skunks, weasels, mink, and snakes. short-lived and tend to fluctuate These enemies provide some widely in numbers, a characteristic natural control over the mouse based on their ability to breed population. Although predators rapidly when conditions are right. seldom control rodent population At the peak of its cycle the prairie cycles, they do reduce the extreme

51 peaks of rodent abundance that Baits: Zinc phosphide is a Native Mice otherwise might occur. Harsh commonly used toxicant for vole weather conditions, food shortages, control. It is a single-dose toxicant and diseases may also reduce available in pelleted and grain bait mouse populations. formulations and as a concentrate. When natural controls do not Zinc phosphide baits generally suffice, artificial methods must be are broadcast at rates of 6 to 10 used to control mouse outbreaks. pounds per acre (7 to 11 kg/ ha), These efforts should be applied in or are placed by hand in runways late fall because they are ineffective and burrow openings. Although after snow has covered the ground. prebaiting (application of similar nontreated bait prior to applying One or more of the following toxic bait) is not usually needed methods should be effective in to obtain good control, it may be protecting trees and shrubs from required in some situations, such as damage by mice. when a population has been baited several times and bait shyness has Control Options developed. Zinc phosphide baits are Habitat management: Eliminate potentially hazardous to ground- high grass cover through repeated feeding birds, especially waterfowl. mowing. Maintain a 3-foot Placing bait into burrow openings radius grass-free area around may reduce this hazard. the immediate base of trees Anticoagulant baits containing and shrubs. This vegetation chlorophacinone or diphacinone may be scalped by hand or with are also effective in controlling mechanical equipment, or may be mice. Anticoagulants are slow- killed with herbicides. Cultural acting toxicants requiring from practices have definite limitations, 5 to 15 days to take effect. particularly in areas where snow Multiple feedings are needed for provides winter cover for mice. most anticoagulants to be effective. Mouse guards: Encircle the The most effective period for trunks of fruit and ornamental bait application is late fall after trees with 1/4-inch mesh hardware the grass cover has dried and just cloth or hail screen. This should be before snow cover is expected. set into the ground 8 inches at the Select a warm, clear, quiet day as base of the tree and should extend voles are most active under these at least 20 inches above the soil conditions. surface. Higher guards should be constructed where deeper snow is Certain baits may be hazardous expected. to nontarget species. Sickness or death can result in other animals Repellents: Use chemical repellents that eat the bait or consume bait- for home use or in orchards but killed mice. Apply all baits in strict do not rely on repellents alone. accordance with label directions. Under stress conditions mice may even feed on treated bark. For For additional information, refer best results, combine with other to the following K-State Research procedures such as mouse guards or and Extension publications: spot baiting. Controlling Voles in Lawns and Landscapes, MF2975 52 Study Questions 4. Mouse guards should be made of These study questions are designed ______inch mesh hardware Native Mice to help you learn the material on cloth. pages 51 through 52. a. 1/4 1. Native mice include _____. b. 1 a. white-footed mice and voles c. 3/4 b. pocket mice and jumping d. 1 mice 5. For best results, repellents for c. harvest mice and grasshopper mouse control should be used in mice combination with _____. d. all the above a. mouse guards 2. Mice damage trees by _____. b. no cultural practices a. eating the seeds c. spot baiting b. eating the leaves d. a and c above c. girdling the roots 6. Mouse baits are most effective d. nesting in the branches when applied in _____. 3. Cultural practices for mouse control a. late fall are limited where _____. b. mid-winter a. there is tall grass c. early spring b. snow provides winter cover d. summer c. orchard trees are close together d. children are present

53 Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs apart with conspicuous mounds Black-Tailed Prairie dogs are social mammals surrounding them. In a typical Prairie Dogs that live in colonies on short- and town with 25 holes per acre (this mixed-grass prairie. Of the four may vary from 10 to 120), the species native to the United States, amount of bare soil exposed on black-tailed prairie dog is the one the mound and the area around found in Kansas. it is less than 4 percent of the total area. On the gently sloping The black-tailed prairie dog is a short-grass range where most thickset, burrowing squirrel with prairie dogs live, this amount of a black-tipped tail. The fur has denudation probably does not a distinct reddish tan cast, the cause severe soil washing but eyes are large, and the ears are may increase wind erosion of soil; inconspicuous. The legs are short however, where cover is poor, with five toes on each foot and the prairie dogs lay bare a higher head is broad and round. Adults percentage of ground. In essence, vary from 10 to 12 inches in where harmful erosion has started, length and weigh between 1½ and prairie dogs may make it worse. 2½ pounds. Rarely are they a primary cause of Prairie dog colonies, called erosion. Most prairie dog colonies towns, house from only a few to thrive on short and mixed grass thousands of individuals. Within prairie that is in fair condition. a town, prairie dogs form small On poor range, the colonies are social groups known as coteries. common but sparsely inhabited. They are active only during the Prairie dogs thrive on short-grass day and do not hibernate but range of any condition. may go into extended periods of torpor or stay below ground for extended periods during severe winter weather. Between four and five per litter are born each year in March or April. They are highly susceptible to plague, which kills many of them annually. The population of dogs per acre is greatest during the spring after the young are born and lowest in Prairie dog late winter. The population density of black-tailed prairie dogs varies Controlling Damage from five per acre in late winter to In many cases, overgrazing by 15 or more per acre in the summer. domestic animals on rangeland will encourage prairie dogs. Prairie Effects on Soils and Range dogs may disappear if the pasture is These rodents increase the water brought into a good range condition holding capacity of soil. By by normal or above normal rainfall bringing subsoil to the surface or deferred grazing in the mixed where it weathers, they accelerate grass prairie region of central natural soil formation. Their Kansas. On short-grass range, direct burrows are about 10 yards control is usually necessary.

54 Use of toxicants, when done in Grazing Management: Proper accordance with product labels, range management can be used Black-Tailed does not pose a serious hazard to to control prairie dogs in areas Prairie Dogs livestock or nontarget wildlife. with adequate rainfall. Use Misuse of poison bait can create stocking rates that maintain unnecessary dangers to both sufficient stand density and mammals and birds. Fumigating height to reduce recolonization of burrows kills all wildlife inside, previously controlled prairie dog including beneficial species such towns or reduce occupation of as cottontails, burrowing owls, and new areas. The following general black-footed ferrets. recommendations were developed with the assistance of extension Black-Footed Ferrets range management specialists and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service research scientists. issued a recovery permit to allow Stocking Rate: Overgrazed the reintroduction of the black- pastures are favorable for prairie footed ferret into several locations dog town establishment or in Kansas. These ferrets are not expansion. If present, prairie dogs designated as “experimental” as should be included in stocking rate allowed under section 10(j) of calculations. At a high population the Endangered Species Act, and density of 25 prairie dogs per acre therefore are fully endangered as (60/ha) and dietary overlap of 75 defined. Because the black-footed percent, it takes 6 acres (2.4 ha) ferret is an endangered species, of prairie dogs to equal 1 Animal signs of its existence should Unit Month (AUM) (the amount be explored thoroughly before of forage that one cow and calf undertaking a control program ingest per month during summer for prairie dogs. If a ferret is [about 900 pounds; 485 kg]). suspected of inhabiting the area, report its presence to state wildlife Rest/Rotation Grazing: Rest authorities before undertaking pastures for a period of time prairie dog control. during the growing season to increase grass height and maintain Ferrets are found exclusively in desired grass species. Instead of prairie dog towns because they season-long continuous grazing, prey upon the prairie dogs. Look use short duration or rapid for ferret ramps, long, narrow areas rotation grazing systems, or of overturned soil. In the snow, even total deferment during the look for ferret tracks wandering all growing season. Livestock can be over prairie dog towns. excluded from vacant prairie dog towns with temporary fencing to help vegetation regain vigor and productivity. Mid- to tallgrass species should be encouraged where they are a part of the natural vegetation. In semiarid and shortgrass prairie zones, grazing strategies may have little effect on prairie dog town expansion or Black-footed ferret establishment.

55 Grazing Distribution: Prairie When using zinc phosphide, Black-tailed dogs often establish towns in watch the weather forecast. On a Prairie Dogs areas where livestock congregate, day with calm, sunny weather, use such as at watering sites or old the pre-bait to treat each burrow homesteads. Move watering with clean, unpoisoned oats. Then facilities and place salt and in two or three days, when pre- minerals on areas that are bait is eaten, in sunny weather, underutilized by livestock to thoroughly treat the entire colony. distribute livestock grazing When scattering the oats, apply pressure more evenly. Prescribed the amount indicated on the burns in spring may enhance product label on the hard, clean regrowth of desirable grass species. ground around the burrow. Do not Cultivation: Prairie dog numbers place the bait on the mound, or in can be reduced by plowing or disking the grass away from the mound. towns and leaving the land fallow Do not put the grain in lumps or for 1 to 2 years where soil erosion is piles. Only treat pastures where not a problem. Establish tall grain livestock have been removed. crops after the second year to further Delay treatment if rain is discourage prairie dogs. Burrows predicted. Usually a large can be leveled and filled with a percentage of the prairie dogs will tractor-mounted blade to help slow be destroyed. Any animals that reinvasion. Flood irrigation may survive then can be destroyed by discourage prairie dogs. fumigation.

Poisoning Results are better when the poison is scattered in the early morning. If population reduction is necessary, Wind and rain drastically reduce the most workable method now the effectiveness of the treatment. known is baiting with rodenticides. All burrows in a large colony must During the spring and summer be treated. Grain can be scattered when the prairie dogs feed almost conveniently by walking or with entirely upon green food, they are the use of an all terrain vehicle very difficult to poison. After the (ATV), which can greatly increase grasses and roots have become the acreage treated. One person dried, the prairie dogs will consume with an ATV and placing the bait poisoned grain; therefore, late fall in the burrow can treat 160 acres or early winter is the best time to daily. A person on foot can cover use poison grain baits, when green about 80 acres daily. Wear gloves food is no longer available. Many and after distributing the poison producers seem to prefer the use baits, stay away from the area for at of chlorophacinone treated wheat least 24 hours. (Rozol) to control prairie dogs. Efficacy is good and prebaiting is Fumigating not required. Rozol is placed at least Prairie dogs surviving the use 6 inches down into the burrow so of poison grain baits can be nontargets such as grainivorous birds killed with a fumigant. A permit are unlikely to consume the bait. Any is required from the Kansas carcasses found on top of the ground Department of Wildlife, Parks and must be removed, so follow up is Tourism (KDWPT) before using necessary and required by the label. fumigant. A permit application 56 must be signed by the extension Products used in prairie dog wildlife specialist at Kansas State control may be hazardous to Black-Tailed University before being considered other wildlife. The user of any Prairie Dogs for issuance by KDWPT. On a control method is responsible small scale, fumigating is neither for following the label to too expensive nor laborious. minimize negative impacts to Fumigate only burrows known or nontarget species. All poison strongly suspected to be occupied. grain and fumigant material Mark all burrows to be treated with used in controlling prairie dog wooden stakes, turf paint, or soil damage must be registered by conservation engineering flags. As the Environmental Protection the burrows are treated, the markers Agency and the state of Kansas. can be removed or pushed over. If you use these materials, follow The burrow should be tightly instructions on the label. For closed with soil after fumigation to additional information, refer make the gassing more effective. to the K-State Research and Frequently, one fumigation will kill Extension Publication: Prairie Dog all of the prairie dogs. If any burrows Management, MF2702. are reopened or activity is noted after treatment, the active burrows should be re-fumigated. Much labor is avoided and a better estimate of control can be made if retreatment is done the day after treatment. There are some limitations on the use of fumigants. Fumigant tends not to be effective in dry soil. Fumigation fails sometimes because of configuration of the burrow system, length of the burrow system, absorption of gasses into ground cracks or interconnecting burrows. Fumigation, when carried out as the initial control method on large prairie dog colonies, is expensive, laborious, often disappointing, and therefore, not recommended. Prairie dogs are much less abundant in late fall and winter than in the spring and summer; therefore, population reduction should be started in the fall or early winter. Prairie dog populations can be controlled, but persistence is important. Prairie dogs can repopulate an area rapidly.

57 Study Questions 4. An endangered species found Black-Tailed These study questions are designed in prairie dog towns is the _____. Prairie Dogs to help you learn the material on a. kangaroo rat pages 54 through 57. b. black- footed ferret 1. Prairie dog litters are born each c. burrowing owl year in _____. d. red mink a. January–February 5. A permit for fumigating prairie b. March–April dogs is required from the _____. c. June–July a. U.S. EPA d. September–October b. U.S. Department of 2. The effect of prairie dogs Agriculture on the soil is _____. c. Kansas Department of Health a. to increase water holding and Environment capacity d. Kansas Department of b. to bring subsoil to the surface Wildlife, Parks and Tourism c. a and b above 6. Prairie dog poisons and fumigants d. none of the above must be registered by the _____. 3. Fumigation for prairie dogs a. U.S. Environmental can also kill ______in Protection Agency the burrow. b. State of Kansas a. cottontail rabbits c. U.S. Food and Drug b. black-footed ferrets Administration c. burrowing owls d. a and b above d. all the above

58 Pocket gophers get their name from their fur-lined (pocket-like) cheek Pocket Gophers pouches in which food is carried. An adult plains pocket gopher weighs about one pound and is 10 ½ to 12 inches long, of which the sparsely haired tail constitutes one-fourth. The two cheek pouches are used for carrying food to storage chambers but are not used Gopher mounds in transporting soil. Beneficial Activities In Kansas when pastures are overgrazed, the grasses are partly replaced by weeds with large roots which have special adaptations permitting the plants to live under adverse conditions. These large roots constitute an abundant food supply for pocket gophers which Plains pocket gopher thrive and multiply. The action of For most of the year, pocket the pocket gophers in “plowing” gophers are solitary. Only a the soil and actually destroying the few cases have been recorded weeds hastens the return of grass if of multiple inhabitants in one overgrazing is controlled. With the burrow. They occured in the spring return of the grass, pocket gophers when a male and female would decrease in number. be expected to occupy the same burrow briefly for mating. Harmful Activities The burrow systems of the plains Many complaints against pocket pocket gopher consist of both gophers stem from damage they deep and subsurface runways. The do to alfalfa plants or the nuisance subsurface runways, some of which they constitute in those fields. are several hundred feet long, are Eating the roots of alfalfa can kill the more extensive. Usually there plants, and serious damage results is a single major subsurface runway from the gopher gnawing all the with shorter runways branching root crowns. The mounds of soil off of it. Mounds on the surface of thrown onto the surface of the the ground are thrown out from ground may kill alfalfa plants and short, lateral tunnels. These flat, create a nuisance by plugging and fan-shaped mounds of soil are in dulling mower sickle-bars and contrast with the volcano-shaped reducing the forage available to mounds pushed up by moles. be harvested. Subsurface runways are 9 to 10 Pocket gophers can damage tree inches below the ground. Deep plantings. Infested roadways, runs lead to nests or end blindly. power line rights-of-way, and They may reach a depth of 4½ to meadows adjacent to plantings 5 feet and are not connected to the will ensure a much greater rate surface except for subsurface runs. of infestation of the planting site. 59 Root damaged trees are frequently Trapping is the most effective Pocket Gophers unnoticed until crowns turn yellow way to control small numbers of and then brown in summer. Five- gophers or gophers in lawns or to 10-foot tall trees seem healthy gardens. In most areas autumn is until tilted at odd angles by the the best season to trap because this wind. Once discovered, they can is when gophers are most active be easily pulled up to reveal root in bringing soil to the surface of cutting and barking. the mound and, as a result, can be Pocket gophers forage above located most easily. Traps should ground and tunnel in snow to gnaw be set at sites with freshly worked off tree branches. Coniferous trees soil. The next best season for have been found stripped of bark trapping is spring. to a height of 11½ feet by pocket gophers working under the snow. Bark injuries caused by pocket gophers show small tooth marks. This differs from the distinct broader grooves left by porcupines and the finely gnawed surface inflicted by voles. Gophers also fill some of the snow passages with soil, thus forming long tubular “casts” which remain after the snow melts. When these casts are deposited on Pocket gopher trap placement young trees 2 to 4 years old, severe deformity may occur. Over large and heavily infested areas, poison grain can be used. Orchards offer suitable habitat Poison placed underground is not for pocket gophers in areas where likely to be picked up by other weeds become established among kinds of wildlife; however, it is the trees. The trees are damaged possible for an animal to obtain a or killed by the gophers feeding on lethal dose of certain toxicants by the roots. eating poisoned gophers. Often a Pocket gopher burrows have caused poisoned gopher will have some dams and roads to wash out as well of the bait in its cheek pouches as water loss from canals. Pocket or undigested in its stomach. An gophers sometimes gnaw into animal eating these gophers may underground cables and pipelines. eat the poison bait also. Exposed Gophers create a nuisance and bait should not be left lying around. cause damage to lawns and gardens Poison bait can be placed in the by destroying garden plants and burrows by hand or by using a creating mounds in lawns. tractor-drawn machine known as Control Methods a “burrow-builder.” The burrow- builder makes an artificial burrow Control operations can best be for the pocket gopher and at the conducted during seasons when same time places poison bait in the pocket gophers are most active this burrow. near the surface. This usually is indicated by the presence of fresh The burrow-builder is most useful mounds of dirt. in alfalfa fields containing large 60 numbers of gophers. Follow-up By burying the line higher in the applications with a hand-baiting ditch, it may be possible to “hide” Rabbits probe or trapping can help prevent the cable from the gophers. another buildup of the gopher For additional information on population. controlling pocket gopher damage, refer to the following K-State publication: Managing Pocket Gophers, MF770.

Rabbits Pocket Gopher Bait Dispenser In Kansas, there are two major Trapping: Trapping is extremely lagomorphs. Cottontail rabbits effective for pocket gopher are represented primarily by control in small areas and for the eastern cottontail; and the removal of remaining animals hares or so-called jackrabbits are after a poisoning control program. represented by the black-tailed For effective trapping, the first jackrabbit. requisite is to find the tunnel. Rabbits and hares may damage It may be necessary to experiment or completely destroy a wide with trap type and placement. variety of tree plantings, gardens, Some trappers have success leaving ornamentals, agricultural crops, tunnels completely open when and rehabilitated rangeland. They they set traps; others, when they can also strip bark from established place traps in the main, close off fruit trees and conifers. the tunnel completely, and when trapping the lateral, close most of the tunnel with sod. Traps can be marked above ground with engineering flags and should be anchored with a stake and wire or chain so a predator does not carry off the catch and the trap. Trapping is most effective when gophers are pushing up new Black-tailed jackrabbit mounds, generally in spring Both rabbits and hares produce and fall. If a trap is not visited similar clipping injuries to tree within 48 hours, move it to a seedlings. Clipped trees have a new location. Leave traps set in clean oblique knife-like cut on a tunnel system even if you have the stem. They usually clip stems trapped a gopher in spring and off 1/4 inch in diameter or less at early summer, when gophers are a height not more than 20 inches most likely to share their quarters. above the ground. Repeated When burying underground clipping will deform seedlings. cables or plastic pipelines, dig the Quite often, rabbits or hares ditch deeper than the intended may be observed doing damage. depth of the line. Pocket gophers Evidence of their presence are are thought to dig along the fill tracks and trails leading to and dirt at the bottom of the ditch. 61 from the damage area, as well the following techniques. Trapping Rabbits as droppings at the base of the with the box or similar type trap is damaged area. often an effective control method Natural enemies of rabbits and for cottontails. It is not a successful hares include hawks, owls, eagles, method for controlling jackrabbits coyotes, bobcats, foxes, weasels, because of their reluctance to enter dogs, and domestic cats. Man traps or dark enclosures; but they hunts them for food and destroys can sometimes be driven or herded many young in nests by mowing into large traps. and by burning “waste” areas. Another similar type of trapping operation is the construction of a small corral along a rabbit-tight fence surrounding a protected field. Another short strip of fence is constructed at a diagonal to the main fence, funneling the rabbits to a one-way gate into the corral. Daily inspection of the corral can then be made and trapped animals removed. Eastern cottontail rabbit In some situations, rabbit damage can be suppressed or eliminated Control Options by selective shooting of the Removal rabbits doing damage. Where feasible, the encouragement of No poisons are currently registered sport hunting of problem rabbits for killing rabbits in Kansas. provides a desirable solution to Damage can be controlled by using the problem.

Tom Butzen rabbit trap 62 Exclusion place early in the morning when Rabbits Exclusion is most often plants are covered with dew or accomplished by the construction immediately after a rain. Repeated of rabbit-proof fences and gates applications may be necessary after around the area to be protected. rains have washed the powder Exclusion by fencing is desirable from the foliage and as new plant to keep cottontail rabbits out growth takes place. of gardens. When a spray repellent is used Fencing is one of the most reliable against rabbits, the upper surfaces ways of controlling jackrabbit of the leaves should be thoroughly damage. Rabbit-proof fences that covered with the substance. A are properly built and maintained compressed air sprayer works well. greatly reduce the jackrabbit Mild soap or some commercial impact on crops for many years spreader should be used with regardless of population densities. liquid repellents. As with dust Standard 20-gauge, rust resistant repellents, liquid forms should be poultry netting, for example, reapplied after a heavy rain and at lasts about 10 years or more. A 10-day intervals to make certain 17-gauge, stucco netting will last new plant growth about 20 years or longer. Fencing is protected. for jackrabbit control is a good Some repellents applied to garden Hardware cloth or wire mesh investment but may require annual plants are not recommended for maintenance. application to leaves, stems or fruit The use of individual protectors of plants to be harvested for table to guard the trunks of young trees use. Check the label and as always or vines may also be considered a follow the label. form of exclusion. Among the best Trees and shrubs: Several good of these devices are cylinders made commercial repellents are available from woven wire netting. for trees and are more effective than home concoctions. Treat Repellents all stems and low branches to a Various chemical repellents are point above which rabbits cannot offered as a means of reducing or reach while standing on top of preventing rabbit damage to trees, the estimated snow cover. One vines, or farm and garden crops. application made during a warm, The purpose of rabbit repellent dry day in late fall should suffice is to make the protected plants for the entire dormant season. less desirable by treating with a material distasteful to the rabbit. Lure Crops Also a satisfactory repellent must With the use of a lure crop, such be non-injurious to trees when as ear corn, alfalfa hay, etc., placed applied at any time of the year. away from the damage area, rabbits Repellents are most effective when and hares may be drawn away from alternative foods are available. the area to be protected. Garden crops: In all control operations that involve the use of powder repellents, the dusting of garden crops should take 63 Study Questions 6. Hares are represented in Kansas Rabbits These study questions are designed by the: to help you learn the material on a. blacktailed jackrabbit. pages 61 through 63. b. whitetailed jackrabbit. 1. The two cheek pouches on pocket c. cottontail rabbit. gophers are used for: d. western jackalope. a. carrying soil. 7. Rabbits and hares damage seedling b. carrying food. trees by: c. carrying keys to the burrows. a. eating the needles in the d. keeping their front feet warm summer. in the winter months. b. eating tree roots in their 2. The more extensive runways burrows of the pocket gopher burrow systems c. clipping off stems and twigs. are the: d. eating the leaves in August. a. subsurface runways. 8. In some situations, rabbit damage b. deep runways. can be controlled by: c. surface trail runways. a. scarecrows. d. left turn runways. b. selective shooting. 3. Harmful effects of pocket gophers c. complete vegetation control. include: d. use of a tiny parasitic wasp. a. damage to alfalfa roots and 9. Rabbit repellents in gardens should crowns. be applied during the ______b. damage to tree roots and to be most effective. plantings. a. evening c. mower sickle-bars dulled by dirt in mounds. b. night time d. all of the above. c. early morning d. mid-afternoon 4. In most areas, ______is the best season to trap gophers. 10. An example of a lure crop for rabbits is: a. summer b. autumn a. dried lettuce. c. winter b. alfalfa hay. d. spring c. carrot tops. d. bean leaves. 5. The use of a “burrow builder” for pocket gopher baiting is most useful in: a. meadows. b. small grain fields. c. alfalfa fields. d. home lawns.

64 Although three species of ground Damage Control squirrels are native to Kansas, the Ground Squirrels Methods include trapping, thirteen-lined ground squirrel is shooting, poisoning and the most widely distributed and fumigation. the one most commonly seen. The adult’s upper parts are striped with Trapping narrow bands of alternating dark on buffy white. Total length of Trapping is an effective control the adult is about 11 inches, with method in lawns, gardens, and no apparent differences in size or around buildings. A rat-sized coloring between sexes. Seldom snap-trap is recommended. The found far from their burrows, trap can be set by inverting it over they give the appearance of being the burrow entrance or by baiting with peanut butter. To avoid nervous and excitable. They Thirteen-lined ground squirrel frequently sit on their haunches to catching nontarget animals, place feed or observe an intruder. The traps inside boxes with 2-inch thirteen-lined ground squirrel is diameter holes drilled in two or found throughout the Great Plains more sides. Check all traps daily. region and its burrows consist of openings about the size of a silver Shooting dollar hidden in the grass with no Small numbers of ground squirrels conspicuous mound of dirt. in fields or other thinly populated Ground squirrels do little open areas may be selectively economic damage but are destroyed with a day’s shooting sometimes considered a nuisance during the periods of greatest in lawns, cemeteries, and golf activity. courses. Where ground squirrels are abundant adjacent to cultivated Poisoning fields, they can sometimes do Approved poisons on grain baits considerable damage by digging up can be used for controlling larger seed grains at planting time. numbers of ground squirrels. Large grains such as oats are less likely Life History to be taken by smaller, seed-eating Ground squirrels hibernate in birds than cracked wheat or grass Kansas beginning with the onset seed. Commercial bait stations or of colder weather in late fall. The those constructed of wood and hibernating animals reappear in homemade can often be used early spring, depending on the for placing the bait so it will be weather. inaccessible to other species of Though ground squirrels are wildlife. mainly vegetarians, they are Fumigating particularly fond of such insects as crickets, grasshoppers, caterpillars, In some cases it may be necessary and cutworms. The ground squirrel to control ground squirrels by has a long list of natural enemies, fumigation of burrows with especially hawks, weasels, badgers, an approved fumigant. After and man. a fumigant has been applied, all burrow entrances should be plugged with soil.

65 Study Questions 4. Shooting ground squirrels can Ground Squirrels These study questions are designed be done _____. to help you learn the material on a. only at dusk page 65. b. only between 11 p.m. and 1. The thirteen-lined ground squirrel 1 a.m. is found _____. c. only at sunrise a. throughout the Great Plains d. during periods of greatest region activity b. only in extreme northwestern 5. After applying a fumigant Kansas to a ground squirrel burrow, c. only in south central Kansas you should _____. d. only in southeastern Kansas a. place some oat seeds in the 2. Ground squirrels hibernate in entrance Kansas beginning in _____. b. place an apple slice in the a. late fall entrance b. mid-winter c. plug the entrance with soil c. early spring d. wait for the animal to come out so you can shoot it d. late summer 3. A good bait for ground squirrel traps is _____. a. lettuce b. chocolate c. peanut butter d. bacon

66 Many bird species have learned that losses are actually being to take advantage of agricultural caused by birds. Because birds Birds activities, particularly the growing are fairly large and feed by day, of crops. In some cases, crops are they are usually conspicuous in a replacement for natural bird crop fields, particularly when they foods that enable these kinds of occur in large flocks. Birds are birds to winter in greater numbers often blamed for lower yields that than were formerly found in this may be attributable in part or in country. Unfortunately for U.S. whole to plant diseases, insects, producers, most crops ripen in the wind, and, quite commonly, to postbreeding season of most birds. nocturnal mammals. In a few Bird numbers and food demands cases, bird control has been are near the annual peak because attempted where birds were not young have been added to the damaging crops, but were actually adult population. performing a service by feeding The seriousness of bird damage is on harmful insects. Identification related to the stage of crop growth. of the bird species causing If the preferred stage for a species is damage and the proportion that the sprouting or ripening crop, then each is contributing to the total serious damage often occurs, the is important because control period of vulnerability to damage methods often vary for bird species will be long, and many plants will that may be damaging the same be destroyed or damaged as the milo head or ear of corn. birds satisfy their daily nutritional Species Causing Loss requirements. If the preferred stage is the mature crop, less damage A necessary aid to better crop usually occurs. A properly timed protection is a bird identification harvest ends the damage, and the book. Most field guides have birds are usually welcome to glean color illustrations not only of both crop residuals. When a considerable sexes but also of immature and monetary loss to birds is expected, adult plumages. Many bird species producers should seek control that damage crops are small and methods to reduce damage. quite wary, and field glasses or binoculars may be necessary for identification.

Amount of Losses Determination of the amount of loss to birds is not an easy task even in an individual field. It requires effort, and it is expensive to derive countywide, statewide, or nationwide estimates. Yet loss determinations are essential for the Red-winged blackbird development and use of specific methods for alleviating crop losses Identification of Damage Factors to birds, both for growers and Before attempting bird control for others concerned with the measures, one should make certain profitability of developing and

67 encouraging the use of bird control of the field where damage has Birds methods. been most severe in previous years. Three methods of estimating While making this check, birds losses are available to the grower: are frequently encountered at close (a) estimating bird numbers in range in the act of damaging the a field at the time of damage crop. and having information on Gathering information about the maximum potential of an a crop will be worth the time individual bird to do damage to of the individual gathering it that crop, (b) checking the most and, if pooled with that of other severely damaged portions of individuals, will help in developing the field, and (c) checking the suitable control methods to protect proportion of the crop being lost crops from bird damage. in all areas of a field. Legal Status of Control Available daily consumption of Problem Species estimates for some specific birds and crops are listed in Table 1. The proper federal and state Observations of crop fields for permits, if needed, should be damage and identification of the obtained before attempting to species responsible pay dividends control birds damaging crops. for the time the grower invests and K.A.R. 115-16-03 states, “a often guide selection of the best nuisance bird control permit control method. A good use of the shall be required to use any lethal grower’s time is to check portions method of control that involves

Table 1. Daily Consumption and Damage Estimates of Individuals of Selected Species of Birds to Specific Maturation Stages of Some Kansas Agricultural Crops Crop Species Ounces Damaged Corn, sprouting Ring-necked pheasant, male 3.50 Corn, sprouting Common grackle .82 Corn, milk and dough stages Red-winged blackbird, male 1.40 Corn, dented Common grackle .50 Grain sorghum, dough stage Red-winged blackbird, male .50 Grain sorghum, dough stage House sparrow .36 Feedlot feed ration Starlings .99 Sunflower, green bowls Red-winged blackbird, male 1.42 Sunflower, yellow bowls Red-winged blackbird, male .89 Wheat, mature Mallard, male 2.56 Wheat, mature Blue-winged teal .96 Wheat, mature Canada goose 6.56

68 Table 2. Federal and Kansas poisons or chemicals for controlling Permit Requirements nuisance birds other than feral Birds for Scaring or Killing pigeon, English sparrows, or Birds Damaging Kansas starlings. A synopsis of the federal Agricultural Crops* laws pertaining to individual species Scaring is given in Table 2. Not required Methods Available All species except endangered or threat- to Reduce Damage ened species (see Sect. 17.11, Title 50, Code of Federal Regulations) Methods for reducing bird damage to agricultural crops can Killing be placed in four broad categories: Not required (a) ecological, (b) cultural, Pigeon, Domestic or Feral (Rock Dove) (c) mechanical, and (d) chemical. Sparrow, House A variety of methods under each Starling, European of these categories are listed in Table 3. Cultural and ecological Other undesirable exotics listed at Federal methods should be considered first Register / Vol. 70, No. 49 / Tuesday, and are discussed in detail under March 15, 2005 Notices specific crop headings. Mechanical Not required when committing and chemical methods are or about to commit depredations necessary when cultural and Blackbird, Brewer’s ecological methods fail to alleviate Blackbird, red-winged damage sufficiently or are not feasible. Blackbird, yellow-headed Cowbird, shiny The applicator should consider all methods available for a Cowbird, brown-headed particular problem and choose Cowbird, bronzed one or more that are likely to be Crow, American most effective. Methods available Crow, fish for consideration are heavily Crow, northwestern influenced by their costs in relation to damage levels and per acre crop Grackle, boat-tailed values. Grackle, common Grackle, great-tailed Grackle, greater Antillean Magpie, black-billed Magpie, yellow-billed Required Generally for all other species NOTE: See Sections 21.44, 21.45. and 21.46, Title 50. Code of Federal Regulations for exceptions applicable to the horned lark, goldfinches, house finch, and meadowlark * At the time of this writing, the Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks and Tourism does require a permit before killing any birds other than feral pigeons, house sparrows or European Starlings. 69 Birds Table 3. Methods Available to Protect Kansas Agriculture Crops from Bird Damage Methods

Ecological 8. Provision of alternate 1. Destruction of key habitat bird foods • Crop diversification • Nesting • Loafing • Buffer plantings (including watering) • Delayed tillage • Roosting 9. Ripening synchrony 2. Supplemental feeding to 10. Early harvest reduce attractiveness of field 11. Use of dryer 3. Management to increase specific predators Mechanical 1. Exploders, acetylene, Cultural propane, carbide, sirens, 1. Site selection and whistles 2. Crop selection 2. Pyrotechnics 3. Variety selection for bird • Shell-crackers resistant characteristics • Bird bombs • Long husks or glumes • Bird whistlers • Pendant ears • Whistle bombs • Low plant height • Racket bombs • Thick or plastic seed coats • Rope fire-crackers • Smaller or larger seeds 3. Shooting than preferred by species • .22 Rifle causing damage • Thick rinds (fruits) • Large caliber rifle • Preference by birds • Shotgun 4. Planting synchrony 4. Patrol 5. Alteration of planting • Walking (and ripening) dates • Mobile to avoid bird migration 5. Amplified calls • Early dates •m Alar • Late dates • Distress 6. Seeding depth • Escape 7. Wide-row planting 6. Electronic noise production • AV-Alarm 7. Traps •y Deco • Nest box 70 8. Protective netting 3. Toxicants Birds 9. Predator models • Feeding site baitings • Stationary scarecrows 4. Reproductive suppressants • Moving scarecrows • Feeding site baitings 10. Revolving lights, 5. Insecticides balloons, flags • To reduce crop Chemical attractiveness to birds 1. Repellants 6. Herbicides and dessicants • Seed treatments • To reduce crop • Crop sprays attractiveness to birds • To reduce period of crop 2. Frightening agents vulnerability • Feeding site baitings

Reducing Bird Damage The common grackle is second in to Specific Crops importance. The common grackle, and its close relative, the great-tailed Ripening Field Corn grackle, with its much more restricted range, appear to prefer the dough, Damage to corn in the milk, dent, and mature stages of corn. dough, dent, and mature stages is chiefly caused by members of the blackbird family. The red-winged blackbird is the most numerous species of blackbird in the country, with substantial populations in every state, and may be responsible for more damage to ripening corn than all other species combined. The red-wing prefers the milk and Common grackle dough stages of ripening corn to The yellow-headed blackbird is a dented corn. A minute portion of distant third in importance. Like damage by red-wings occurs before red-wings, yellow-heads prefer ears reach the milk stage. the earlier stages of ripening corn. Other birds, with the possible exception of the house sparrow and common crow do relatively little damage to ripening corn. Some species, such as the starling, brown- headed cowbird, and Brewer’s blackbird, sometimes associate with foraging flocks of red-wings, grackles, and yellow-heads, but feed mainly on the ground or on ears Red-winged blackbird opened by other species.

71 The amount of damage an Birds individual blackbird can cause daily is greatest in the milk and dough stages (Table 1, Page 68). Although they consume only about one third of the amount damaged, the grower still suffers this amount of yield reduction. As corn reaches maturity and Brown-headed cowbird male kernels increase in weight, this level of damage decreases, approaching ½ ounce daily or about 10 percent of the body weight of a large grackle. Protection of Ripening Field Corn: The cultural practice most likely to prevent severe bird damage at the various ripening stages is to time planting so Brown-headed cowbird female the field ripens at about the same time as most other fields Blackbird damage always starts in the locality. Planting hybrid at the tip of the ear, and usually varieties with thicker husks that on its upper surface. Damage by completely cover kernels or extend red-wings and yellow-heads in the substantially beyond kernels is milk stage is recognizable by the helpful in reducing bird damage manner in which they open the if that variety ripens at the same ears, slitting the husk into time as others in the locality. ⅛ to ½-inch strips and peeling Elimination of weeds or insects these back over the remaining sometimes reduces bird damage kernels. In the milk stage, kernels in a particular field, but these are punctured and the soft seed are alternate foods for blackbirds coats then quickly dry and are during the period they feed on blackened by fungus. In the dough ripening corn. It is doubtful stages, birds also puncture the that weed control and insects by kernels and remove most of the themselves will reduce damage contents, but leave the cellulose in all fields within the range of a seed coats of the kernels adhering blackbird roost. to the cob. Grackles also damage kernels in this manner in the Nearly all corn farmers with dough stage, but more often blackbird problems are aware of remove the entire kernel in the the value of frightening birds from mature and dent stage. Mature cornfields by patrolling them with kernels are also taken by red- rifles and shotguns, or by using wings and yellow-heads but are exploders and pyrotechnics. not preferred. All three types of They also know this activity damage can be seen on some ears. requires several hours each Ears with severe damage resemble morning and evening, and a peeled banana with the peel occasionally all day. Corn is still attached. most vulnerable to birds for 72 approximately three weeks. The most severe damage by red-wings Birds often takes place in about a one- week period in the early dough stage; therefore, protection of cornfields by mechanical means is especially profitable during the late milk-early dough stage of ripening. Persevering farmers can nearly fully protect their crops by patrol. Birds can be moved effectively and economically by firing a round from a .22 caliber rifle above the Frightening birds feeding birds to flush them and then immediately firing a series from the plane in the crop instead of rounds behind the departing of leaving the field, and they are flock. Because rifle rounds can extremely difficult to move from be hazardous up to 1 mile, good loafing cover, such as shelterbelts, judgment must be used. with a plane. In addition, the cost of flying has increased much Use of a “shell-cracker,” which is a faster than crop value, making this 12-gauge shotgun shell containing approach steadily less attractive. a powerful firecracker instead of a shot, is a second effective Gas-powered (propane or means for moving flocks of birds. acetylene) exploders probably have A 12-gauge shotgun launches saved more ripening corn from the firecracker, which explodes birds to date than any other means. above the birds, about 100 yards The exploder produces a sound from the gunner. Blackbirds, from about nine times louder than a their long association with hawks, shotgun blast. Some exploders instinctively pay attention to have solar cells that turn them on things above them. Shell crackers at daylight and off at dark, thus are far more effective than regular reducing maintenance time. For shells for moving birds, and greatly best results, however, exploders increase the range and versatility should be moved frequently so of a person patrolling the field. birds do not habituate to them The cost of shell-crackers, quickly. Cannons and alarm and however, is nearly double that distress broadcast systems are of standard loads. Two or more available with motion detectors gunners complement one another that trigger the devices when in protecting large fields with birds enter the field. Because shell-crackers. the frightening devices are not operating continually, the birds A gunner attempting to kill birds are more likely to be frightened with a shotgun, where state laws away and the devices should be permit them to be killed, is one of more effective for longer periods the least effective and most costly of time. One exploder can nearly of all methods of patrolling. fully protect about 10 acres of crop, Patrol by aircraft has not been and has beneficial effects over a effective. Birds often take refuge larger area. Mounting the exploder

73 on a stand above the crop gives an interview with ATF. You must Birds the best deterrent effect. A small, notify your local fire authority thin steel drum, with the ends immediately upon possession of removed, mounted just beyond the the pyrotechnics. Federal, state, barrel of the exploder, will serve and local agencies are not required as an amplifier and increases the to possess a permit or license, but effectiveness of the exploder. must maintain proper storage and Rope firecrackers are effective for record-keeping in accordance with small acreages and short damage ATF regulations. Some screamer periods. Flash-salute firecrackers, siren devices do not require an known popularly as bulldogs, ATF permit. cannon crackers, cherry bombs, or Amplification of recorded distress, salutes, are used in a firecracker alarm, and escape calls of blackbirds rope. Fuses of the firecrackers as well as calls of their natural are inserted at intervals between enemies, such as hawks, have strands of a loosely twisted cotton been used to protect corn crops. rope, one end of which is tied Electronically generated amplified to the apex or a tripod made of sounds also have been used by some wooden stakes. The free end of growers. Use two speakers per the rope is ignited, and as it slowly 5 to 10 acres or use mobile speakers. burns, the ignited firecrackers Broadcast alarm and distress cries drop from the rope and explode. are more effective if used only Timing of explosions is regulated when birds are in the corn and if by spacing the firecrackers along broadcast from mobile speakers. the rope. A metal container such as Alternate the broadcast of alarm a wash tub should be placed below and distress cries with the broadcast the smoldering rope, to avoid fires of the sound of static, steam in dry fields and to amplify the locomotives, urban traffic, etc. sound. Approximately 10 acres of A variety of other bird-frightening standing corn can be protected devices, including helium-filled with one rope firecracker assembly. balloons tethered in fields, As of May 1, 2011, the Bureau radio-controlled model planes, of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, reflecting tapes made of mylar, and Explosives (ATF) requires and various types of scarecrows, a Federal Explosives Permit for are also occasionally used to the use of Explosive Pest Control rid fields of blackbirds. The Devices (EPCDs). The application effectiveness of these devices is is the same for a license and a highly variable, depending on permit. ATF requires a permit. Go the persistence of the operator, to http://www.atf.gov/explosives/ the skill used in employing a how-to/explosive-pest-control- device, the attractiveness of the device-requirements.html for crop, the number of birds, and the additional information or to availability of alternate feeding download forms. sites. As mentioned with regard You will need a Type 4 storage to propane exploders, birds tend magazine and must maintain to adjust or adapt to frightening records of removal from the devices. It is usually best to use two magazine. You must know local or more devices than to rely on a zoning and state requirements for single device. 74 In recent years, mechanical fungal invasion and these empty frightening methods have glumes quickly blacken. Birds sometimes been replaced by Like corn, the amount of damage chemical frightening methods. per day that an individual Avitrol is an example chemical. blackbird can cause is greater in When applied to the corn field, the dough stage than when mature. Avitrol will kill a small number At this stage, red-wings often of crows or blackbirds in such a feed on the embryos (seed germs) way as to frighten the rest of the only and drop the remainder of flock from the field. Avitrol treated the kernel, leaving the soil littered grain bait may be applied from with partially eaten seeds. A aircraft or from high clearance considerable portion of very early ground equipment. Apply at the damage is compensated by the recommended rate, but for best plant if damage does not exceed results, apply in three separate 25 percent. swaths that cover ⅓ of the field. If another treatment is necessary Protection of Grain Sorghum: within 5 to 7 days, reapply in three The cultural practice most likely separate swaths to another ⅓ of to prevent bird damage to mature the field. seeds is to harvest them as soon as practical. Dryers are especially Grain Sorghum (Milo Maize) recommended. Bird-resistant Bird damage to ripening grain varieties have found more favor sorghum in the U.S. is caused with grain sorghum growers chiefly by the red-winged than growers of other crops, but blackbird, house sparrow, common most of these varieties, known as grackle and brown-headed brown sorghums, contain enough cowbird. tannins at harvest to reduce their palatability, digestibility, and nutritional quality to livestock. Some varieties, however, are resistant to birds in the early stages of kernel development. They have been well accepted by grain growers and have good nutritional qualities for livestock. Much of the discussion of mechanical means for protecting House sparrow ripening corn is appropriate for grain sorghum also. Patrol of Bird damage to ripening grain ripening grain sorghum fields is sorghum is readily identifiable. more productive than patrol of Most species begin feeding on the cornfields because feeding birds are uppermost kernels or the head seldom obscured by crop foliage. leaving the empty glumes attached. Shooting with a .22 caliber rifle Damage becomes progressively from the field border is the most greater as lower kernels are cost-efficient mechanical means. removed. Early removal of kernels Patrolling is largely ineffective for from glumes is often followed by house sparrows causing damage.

75 Large numbers of sparrows can takes place within two weeks Birds be taken in small decoy traps and after ray petals begin to wither. then destroyed. The method may Sometimes within a week and be effective in fields near isolated occasionally within three days, farm buildings; however, traps do red-wings discontinue attacking a not provide effective protection field in favor of finding one where from sparrow damage when fields the outer whorl of seeds is just are located near towns and cities beginning to fill. Yellow-heads where a reservoir of newly hatched and grackles often feed in fields young regularly appear to replace that have the seeds filled, and trapped birds. grackles may actually prefer the Chemical means for protecting more advanced stages of sunflower ripening grain sorghum appear ripeness, as they do in corn. to hold the most promise for Blackbird damage in sunflower eventually relieving the most fields is greater in the soft seed severe damage to this crop. stage (green or yellow-green bowls) Repellent sprays and chemical- than later. Bird damage can be frightening agents both have the differentiated from wind shattering potential to satisfactorily reduce by noting that seeds on the soil severe damage. surface will be split and the kernel extracted if damage is caused by Sunflowers birds. Birds deposit many empty Wild sunflower has been found hulls in the bowl formed by the in the diets of many species of inverted head, but wind soon birds in numerous food habit removes many of these. If feeding studies. Cultivated sunflower is an on heads occurs early and is light, acceptable food in the diet of many this feeding is sometimes missed species of birds. because outer bracts of the heads slump to cover the areas where Blackbirds are the principal family seed has been removed. Often the of birds that damage ripening plant compensates for this early sunflowers. The red-winged damage by increased weight in blackbird probably damages undamaged seeds. more sunflowers than all other species of blackbirds combined. Other important species of blackbirds damaging sunflower are the Common grackle and the yellow-headed blackbird. Many other species, including the house sparrow, blue jay, brown thrasher, and common crow, take seed from standing heads, but none, other than house sparrows, cause noteworthy damage. Damage to sunflowers sometimes begins even before ray petals American crow fall, and continues until harvest. The most severe damage often Protection of Sunflowers: Growers should avoid planting sunflower 76 adjacent to shelterbelts, groves, or and some insects from crop other woody areas regularly used stubbles. The probable benefit Birds by blackbirds for loafing cover. of blackbirds reducing weeds Within 100 yards of such cover, and insect numbers while feeding a grower should substitute a crop in grain stubbles is not well that blackbirds do not harm, such established, but leaving grain as wheat, flax, sugar beets, potatoes, stubbles near blackbird roosts soybeans, or pinto beans. If farmers reduces crop damage. After cannot select an alternate crop or harvesting sunflower, the stubble designate a site to grow sunflower with its shattered seed should far enough from trees to provide be left as alternate feeding areas a degree of bird protection, they until all sunflowers in the area should plant at a lower rate to are harvested. produce large heads that are less Most applicators are aware of susceptible to bird damage. the value of frightening birds The cultural practice most likely from sunflower fields by patrol to reduce bird loss is an early with rifles and shotguns, or using harvest. In some years, harvest can exploders and pyrotechnics. be accomplished before the peak Pyrotechnics include whistle of blackbird migration, if blackbird bombs, shell crackers and breeding seasons have been 15 mm rockets. Use of these delayed. Use of dessicants and devices requires several hours driers is especially recommended. each morning and evening and Early varieties sometimes mature occasionally all day. Because before the peak of blackbird sunflowers are vulnerable to migrations. Birds prefer certain birds for approximately six weeks varieties of cultivated sunflower. – longer than any other crop - Surprisingly, the oilseed cultivars protection of sunflower fields by are preferred by most birds over mechanical means is an especially confectionery varieties or even those formidable task. Nevertheless, cultivars specifically planted for the persevering applicators can nearly bird feed market. Growers suffering fully protect the crop by patrol. high bird losses of oilseed sunflowers Methods for using mechanical might consider growing non-oilseed means to protect sunflowers from sunflower to lower losses. blackbirds are nearly identical to those used in ripening field corn. The most underrated cultural practice for relieving bird damage Chemical frightening methods are is both effective and simple. replacing mechanical frightening A major portion of harvested methods. The discovery of cropland near blackbird roosts chemical frightening agents that should not be plowed or tilled cause some species of birds to until most or all sunflower fields emit cries during distress-display have been harvested. Delaying flights has led to a new method of tillage of nearby cropland is protecting sunflowers. As in corn, practiced by many of the wiser using chemical frightening agents farmers and is recommended to is more promising than attempting reduce damage to sunflower. Birds, to reduce populations of blackbirds especially blackbirds, consume by poisons. Ripening sunflower great quantities of weed seeds seeds are preferred by blackbirds 77 over all baits tried and getting a Birds majority of blackbirds to accept a poison bait in a ripening sunflower field is even more difficult than in a ripening cornfield. Other chemical methods to protect sunflowers also have many disadvantages. Repellent sprays appear to have little use in sunflowers because most of the European starling repellent sprayed on heads in the The European starling is soft seed stage falls on the florets responsible for most losses of which are sloughed off as heads livestock feed from troughs and ripen. Heads turn downward at often selects the more costly high later stages of maturity, effectively protein supplements or starch preventing the repellent from components from rations. Starlings reaching the seed coat which birds may take up to 1 pound of grain must open to feed on the seeds. per month directly from the feed bunk. All species of wintering Feed Grains blackbirds, principally the common Bird damage to the grain does not grackle, red-winged blackbird and stop when the grain is harvested. brown-headed cowbird also feed These grains, along with protein at livestock feeding areas in large supplements are fed to cattle, numbers, but they obtain much hogs, and poultry in livestock of their food from grains spilled feeding areas where wintering or wasted by livestock feeders or congregations of granivorous birds their animals, or from undigested sometimes cause serious losses grain in cattle manure. The house and foul livestock feed. Damage sparrow and the rock dove are has been particularly severe at present at many feeding areas and cattle feedlots where rations are also take some food from troughs. continuously available to beef Protection of Feed Grains: animals in open troughs. Natural, Prevention of loss of livestock preferred bird foods are scarce rations to birds for small for several months during winter, producers can sometimes be easily especially when the ground is accomplished. Pulling feed wagons frozen or snow covers it, making into buildings or covering them livestock feeding operations quite with tarpaulins denies birds access attractive to hungry birds. Damage to ration stocks and averts one is less at hog feeding areas where source of loss. Repair of self-feeder feed is usually supplied in flip-top covers at hog lots is another. self-feeders and feed is available to birds only when a hog is feeding or The following methods might when the feeder is in disrepair. be of value in reducing starling feeding: • making feed available later in the day, following prime feeding time for starlings,

78 • feeding under sheltered areas January, baiting with starling (roofs or overhangs), poison has been very effective. Birds • increasing particle size of Baiting effectiveness increases feeds so they are too large for over the broadcast method to starlings to eat, and exposing baits in containers such • elimination of water sources at as rubber pans or small troughs. feedlots, and making water less Placing these atop cattle self- available by lowering the water feeders and buildings where level in the waterers. starlings are loafing. Baiting large concentrations of starlings in One study done at Kansas State pre-roosting or staging areas is University showed that the effective for reducing losses of amount of feed delivered increased livestock rations and far easier by 36 percent for cattle that were than baiting the many individual fed a traditional meal type ration lots within range of a roost (up to compared to cattle that were fed 30 miles). Roost movement may a total diet in an extruded ration. break birds into smaller flocks and The extruded ration was too large reduce concentrations of birds a pellet for the birds to consume. at feeding sites if new roosts are Electronically-generated noise has formed beyond the range of the been effective at cattle feedlots daily movement of the birds. where starlings were the principal Chemical frightening agents species causing losses. Exploders are particularly useful against also frighten other birds for short migrating starlings or migrating periods, but these and other or wintering blackbirds in feedlots. noisemaking devices often lose In late fall or late winter, starlings effectiveness during the long period. may be present in livestock Chemical agents are the preferred feeding areas for only a few days method of control for the most or weeks and it is much easier to serious problems at livestock obtain quick relief for a problem feedlots. Because of the long by affecting a small percentage period that starlings visit lots, an of starlings with a chemical acceptable bait for this species frightening agent than to attempt can usually be found. For stable to poison a larger percentage of populations in December and these populations.

79 Study Questions 5. No permits are ever required Birds These study questions are designed to kill ______. to help you learn the material on a. pigeons and sparrows pages 67 through 79. b. blackbirds and cowbirds 1. Bird damage is high for U.S. c. crows and grackles. producers because ______. d. magpies and meadowlarks a. all birds will damage all crops 6. ______methods should b. most crops ripen in the post- be used first in bird control. breeding season of most birds a. Mechanical and chemical c. there is no way to control b. Cultural and ecological damage c. Frightening and netting d. birds do not eat anything but crops d. Shooting and chemical 2. Bird identification often requires 7. Ecological methods to reduce bird ______. damage include ______. a. field glasses (binoculars) a. destruction of habitat (nests, roosts etc) b. a bird handbook on identification b. crop selection c. two people to frighten the c. use of repellents birds so you can see the color d. use of amplified calls of the wings 8. Mechanical methods to reduce bird d. a and b above damage include ______. 3. Estimating bird loss in fields can a. supplemental feeding of birds be done by ______. b. early crop harvesting a. estimating the number of c. use of reproductive birds in the field and knowing suppressants how much damage each d. use of exploders, patrols, traps, individual bird does and revolving lights b. checking the most severely damaged portion of the fields 9. The second most damaging bird species to field corn is the ______. c. checking the proportion being lost in all areas of the field a. red-winged blackbird d. all the above b. common crow. 4. The red-winged blackbird can c. common grackle damage __ ounces of sunflowers in d. starling the green bowl stage per day. 10. Birds actually consume only a. 50 about __ of the amount damaged. b. 1.42 a. 1/4 c. 2.11 b. 1 d. 3.00 c. 1 d. 2/3

80 11. The best cultural method to use 16. The most underrated cultural to reduce blackbird damage to practice in sunflower bird damage Birds ripening field corn is ______. control is ______. a. early harvest a. variety selection b. seeding depth b. seeding depth c. planting date c. wide-row planting d. site selection d. delayed tillage or plowing 12. ______have probably saved of harvested cropland near more ripening corn than any blackbird roosting areas other method. 17. Bird damage to cattle feedlot rations is particularly severe a. Using .22 rifles during the ______. b. “Shell-crackers” a. fall c. Repellants b. winter d. Gas-powered (propane or acetylene) exploders c. spring 13. An example of a chemical d. summer frightening agent for some bird 18. ______are the preferred species is ______. method of control for the most serious problems in livestock a. Counter. feedlots. b. Furadan. a. Ecological methods c. Diazinon. b. Mechanical methods d. Avitrol c. Chemical agents 14. The cultural practice most likely to prevent bird damage to d. Cultural methods sorghum is ______. a. site selection b. planting date c. early harvest d. wide-row planting 15. The bird species which does the most damage to sunflowers is ______. a. common crow b. blue jay c. red-winged blackbird d. starlings

81 Answers to Study Answers to Study Questions Pages 4–6 (Introduction and Pages 42–45 (House Mice) Questions Wildlife Damage Management) 1. d, 2. d, 3. b, 4. b 1. c, 2. d, 3. a, 4. b, 5. d, 6. a Pages 46–50 (Native Rats) Pages 8–16 (Laws 1. d, 2. a, 3. c, 4. d, 5. a and Regulations)

1. c, 2. a, 3. c, 4. d, 5. d, 6. b, 7. c, Pages 51–52 (Native Mice) 8. b 1. d, 2. c, 3. b, 4. a, 5. d, 6. a Pages 18–24 (Wildlife Diseases and Man) Pages 54–57 (Black-tailed Prairie Dogs) 1. d, 2. c, 3. d, 4. b, 5. b, 6. d, 7. a, 8. d 1. b, 2. c, 3. d, 4. b, 5. d, 6. d

Pages 26–30 (Public Relations Pages 61–63 (Pocket Gophers and Coyotes) and Rabbits) 1. d, 2. a, 3. c, 4. b, 5. d, 6. d, 7. c, 1. b, 2. a, 3. d, 4. b, 5. c, 6. a, 7. c, 8. a 8. b, 9. c, 10. b

Pages 32–34 (Deer, Elk, Page 65 (Ground Squirrels) and Antelope) 1. a, 2. a, 3. c, 4. d, 5. c 1. a, 2. b, 3. c, 4. c, 5. a Pages 67–79 (Birds) Pages 35–40 (Rodenticides) 1. b, 2. d, 3. d, 4. b, 5. a, 6. b, 7. a, 1. d, 2. b, 3. d, 4. c, 5. b, 6. c, 7. b, 8. d, 9. c, 10. b, 11. c, 12. d, 13. d, 8. c 14. c, 15. c, 16. d, 17. b, 18. c

82 Credits for Photographs and Illustrations Credits for Bob Gress, BirdsInFocus.com, University of Michigan, Photographs and brown-headed cowbird male and Animal Diversity Web, http:// female, European starling 1 and animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/ Illustrations 2, red-winged blackbird 1 and 2, Susan Hoffman, Miami cowbird cover University, Department of Bob Gress, Great Plains Nature Zoology, Oxford, Ohio, house Center, gpnc.org, eastern woodrat, mouse prairie vole and prairie vole 1, Phil Myers, University of plains pocket gopher, plains pocket Michigan, Museum of Zoology, gopher 1 meadow vole Centers for Disease Control and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Prevention, Rodents, Images of National Digital Library, http:// Rodents, www.cdc.gov/rodents/ digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/ resources/images.html, cotton rat, white-footed mouse; Orkin, Inc., John Collins, striped skunk Norway rat Ryan Hagerty, black-footed University of Georgia, Bugwood ferret Network, Bugwood.org Thomas G. Barnes, common Deena Chadi, William grackle Paterson University, Bugwood. Steve Thompson, coyote org, house sparrow Lewis Gorman, eastern Ken Hackman, Bugwood.org, cottontail rabbit kangaroo rat Gary Zahm, elk R. L. Hamblen, Bugwood.org, deer exclusion Gary M. Stolz, black-tailed prairie dog Terry L. Spivey, Terry Spivey Photography, Bugwood.org, James C. Leupold, pronghorn American crow antelope Matt Pound, USDA Steve Hillebrand, white-tailed Agricultural Research Service, deer Bugwood.org, American dog tick Alfred Viola, Northeastern University, Bugwood.org, thirteen-lined ground squirrel USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area Archive, gopher mound U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Archive, black-tail jackrabbit

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Frannie L. Miller Pesticide Coordinator

Authors Appreciation is expressed to the following for the preparation of the material in this manual: Charles Lee, Wildlife Specialist; Michelle Moses, Research Assistant, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University

Acknowledgments Appreciation is expressed to the following for cooperation in the commercial applicator training program: Jeanne Fox, Certification and Training Section Chief, Pesticide and Fertilizer Program, Kansas Department of Agriculture

Brand names appearing in this publication are for product identification purposes only. No endorsement is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar products not mentioned. Publications from Kansas State University are available at: www.ksre.ksu.edu Publications are reviewed or revised annually by appropriate faculty to reflect current research and practice. Date shown is that of publication or last revision. Contents of this publication may be freely reproduced for educational purposes. All other rights reserved. In each case, credit Frannie L. Miller, et al., Ag Wildlife Damage, Kansas State University, February 2013. Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service S5 February 2013 K-State Research and Extension is an equal opportunity provider and employer. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, John Floros, Director.