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Home , Alex Bradford, Baby Workout, Bobby Byrd, Brother Joe May, Cosimo Matassa, Edgar Blanchard

OCk and ro11 has always been a hybrid music, and before 1950, the most important hybrids pop were interracial. Black music was in- 恥m `しfluenced by white sounds (, Ravens and Orioles with their sentimental ballads) and white music was intertwined with black (Bob Wills, Hank Williams

and two generations of the honky-tOnk ). ,Rky血皿and

gQ?pel, the first great hy垣i立垂a血QnPf †he囲fti鎧T臆ha陣erled within black Though this hybrid produced a dutch of hits in the R&B market in the early Fifties, Only the most adventurous white fans felt its impact at the time; the rest had to wait for the comlng Of in the Sixties to feel the rush of rock and ro11 sung gospel-Style. くくRhythm and gospel’’was never so called in its day: the word "gospel,, was not something one talked about in the context of

such salacious as ’くHoney Love’’or ”Work with Me

Annie.’’Yet these records, and others by groups like theeBQ聖二_ inoes-and the Drif曲 閣閣閣議竪醒語間監護圏監 Brown, and . Clyde McPhatter, One Of the sweetest voices of the Fifties. Originally a member of Billy Ward’s The combination of gospel with the risqu6 1yrics Dominoes, he became the lead singer of the original Drifters, and then went on to pop success as a soIoist (‘くA I.over’s Question,’’ (、I.over Please”). 諾箋護憲薫葦嵩叢 br皿ant years of singing pure gospel with , the

resulting schism among Cooke’s fans was deeper and longer

lasting than the divisions among Bob Dylan’s partisans after he

went electric in 1965. On the other hand,唾e introduc丘QILof 葦童童茎艶皿止‾車 At the time was dominated by vocal groups,

which were always ca11edくくquartets’’regardless of the number of singers. Such quartets as the , the Dixie Hummingbirds and the Soul Stirrers were quick to adapt the intense and melismatic style of singing popularized in the late Forties by and other gospel soIoists including Alex Bradford and . (くくMelismas’’are rapid successions of notes improvised by the singer to fit a single syllable of lyrics.) Quartets were also very big in R&B during the late Forties, thanks to the Ink Spots and their avian follow- ers: the Robins, and Ravens. All of these groups

鎗ng love SOngS SWeetly and lightly, and would never have been confused with such free-Shouting messengers of God as the Soul Stirrers.

Enter Bi11y Ward. Billy Ward wasn’t much of a singer, but he was a good musician and a better talent manager. In 1950, Ward organized a vocal group called the Dominoes and had the perspicacity to engage as its lead singer 17-year-Old Clyde McPhatter, Who had been brought up in the church and knew only one way to sing, the gospel way.

Clyde sang lead on one side of the group’s first record,二聖___

for Me.’’ Musically言t’s a gospel , the sIow tempo allowing for numerous melismas; lyrically, On the other

15 hand, it’s a proposition. McPhatter was opening a courtship With magical incantations previously reserved for the good

Lord. (The Dominoes weren’t entirely given over to the

rhythm-gOSpel idea; the group’s biggest hit, later in 1951, fea-

tured Ravens-Style bass singer Bill Brown on the ribaldく’,’’which was straight R&B.) / 垣監禁董萱義塾董篭葦詰寄 best-Selling R&B discs of that year. The title summarizes the Wholeく●Lord.’’In rhythm and gospel idea:くくBaby’’is fact, t曲はl辿哩-interchangeable with

With very er singers trade two-bar phrases through- Out the record・ eChoing脚f g曲Melodica11y and harmonica11y, though, it’s a Straight 12-bar blues-a form that gospel singers had always avoided like the plague. In the first chorus, McPhatter sticks close to the simple mel- Ody. From there on he improvises freely, muCh as a gospel Singer might. Often he strings out a phrase so that it overlaps

the background singers’response. The melismas are short (due to the fast tempo), but very abundant and often spectacular. While Clyde shouts his gospel-, the backup band takes SpeCial care of the rhythm. The tenor sax soIo that was de rigueur in those days is here stretched out for two choruses, While screams and some most sensual yeahs from the vocalists

help establishくくHave Mercy’’as a classic of its time. For

the coup de grace, Clydさbreaks down in tears during the fadeout. Indeed, McPhatter wept all the way through his next great 蒜霊霊薬器灘嵩窯業霊 With wrenching wails, While an R&B tenor sax honks rather unsteadily alongside a gospel organ; the accompanying har- monies steer an extremely curious middle course between gos-

Pel and blues changes. By this time, the group was being bi11ed on disc labels as くくBi11y Ward and his Dominoes.’’Considering Ward’s lack of

VOCal contribution, McPhatter could hardly be blamed for feel-

ing the wrong man’s name was being billed above that of the group, SO in 1953, he took a little gamble. He left the security of the now prestigious Dominoes (where his place was taken by ) to join a group just being organized. The new group was to be called because (according to an early press release)く’the members had done a lot of drifting

from one group to another.’’This might not have seemed like the most promlSmg Premise for a new group, but there was a waiting for the Drifters at , Which had already established itself as one of the steadiest ports in the R&B storm thanks to Joe Turner, Ruth Brown and a

group ca11ed t 醒回聖蛮習 matched

16 0ppos海均p.. Theくく5” Royales; middle.・ Hank Ballard and , 1955; Oo#om.・ The 萱蕗鴇垂皿吐嬰聖地聖畦蛙亜-gOS- belou・’盤諸蕩羅慧恕器羅諾謹書柴認諾葦諾鵠芳 Not only that, but Atlantic offered Clyde the instant glory of his own name on the label along with the group,s. Clyde was Midnighters’again. Ballard, Who had hits with destined to make only six records with the Drifters before くくWork with Me Annie′, and `Tinger Poppin, Uncle Sam got him in 1954, but every one of the first four was a Time’" also wrote and first recordedく‘The Twist,,′ the song that made Chubby Checker a star. SmaSh. First came皿4釦鱒HQ唯y,,, later a hit for EIvis.一Then, after the torrid ’連坐_旦_聖ght’’came the outragebus {くHQny

こ±聖,’’whose gasps, gruntS and sighs made radio executives even more uptight than would the drug lyrics of 1967. For hit number four, the Drifters mended fences with a strutting ver- Sion of "White Christmas.,,

the barriers between R&B and Were breaking down; he went soIo (one of the By the firsttime McPhattergroup members left to thedo so)amy and in enjoyed1956, Substantial if intemittent success for the next decade, Withく'A

Lover’s Question,, (1958) andくくLover Please,, (1962) as high-

1ights・ His style was prettier and less passionate than it had been, however, and next to an Otis Redding (who might have had a much rougher road to the top without McPhatter), McPhatter sounded dated and tame. He died, WaShed up at 38,

On June 13th・ 1972・ (The Drifters・ Of course, Went On tO great SuCCeSS in the early Sixties; but the group,s composition-and Style-had radica11y changed by then.) 董監護萱監護董警 固臆臆?p吐Several other gro平S from the early Fifties・ however, did achieve popularity slnglng in a gospel

Vein・ The ’’5’, Royales are best remembered today for such later

hits as ",, and {くDedicated to the One I Love,・, but their 器蒜紫t諾蒜豊謹書霊霊笥〆 andくくHelp Me Somebod r哩_○

And then there are the`重出s. After a s垣朝

里Pkeh an。 FfY血aLthis group struck it rich in 1954 wi高

:一Vo平With Mf」An正三’’Right in the middle of the song・s lengthy chart run’the Royals were forced to change their

nane「tO aVOid confusion with the aforementioned ‘'5・,

Royales・ Who presumably hadn,t noticed the Royals before their hit. The switch might have confused the fans, but there WaS nO COnfusion about the intent of the lyrics sung by the 詰荒業諾蒜禁書黒岩:霊 all my meat.’’

Hot on the heels of "Work・・ came the first of its many se-

quels-くくAnnie Had a Baby’’(く{Can,t work no more... that,s What happens when the ge誼n, gets good”). Sequels soon

flowed in from everywhere, mOSt nOtably ・s '.The

17 wallflower,,・ the record tha=aunched her long career∴エ垂 斬scog輪p巾

Wa11flower’’was better known as.(Roll with Me Hen Donrince8, '.Do Something for Me当Federa白2001' r☆6. 1951) 。on玉細さ the range of R B stations may Minute Man‘当Fedeud 12(彪: r*1. 1951)・ Dominoe8・ "l Am w-th You’‘住=二 Henry Ballard); r☆8, 1951). Dominoe8’..That.s What You're Do-ng tO Me‘‘ (Federa=2館± ‾ Dominces,..Have Mercy Eabyii (Federa1 12068' r☆ 1・ Dominoe8;.I・d Be Sa‘isfied'. Oiedera1 12105‘ r☆8‘ 1952) Billy Ward a=立見 inoe8,..The関Is'. (Federal 12114; r☆6' 1953)..5,, Royales・ ’’Baby・ニェ (Apollo 443. r*1. 1953). “5・・ myales・.'Help Me Somebedy.’b/W t= 電離 crazy・・ (Apello 446: r*l. 1953) Billy Ward and His 。ominoe8・ T王室 trate the pop consciousness of 1955. ThlngS Remind Me of You'. ouera1 12129: r☆5i 1953). '《5,, Royales- = Lovin‥' (Apo11o 4‘峨r*4. 1953). Drifter8,..Money‘ Honey’’(AtlantlC 10挺‾臆 R&B initiates, meanWhile, Smirked atくくAmie’s Answer’’(くくI BlliヽWardllilくIHiふDo重n!i10eさ. lii` li ’ li、i-i i i lg: ‾ ain・t had no baby,,) by AI Smith’s Combo with Hazel McCo11um and the EI Dorados. Berkeley・s Music City label chimed in with ∴∴ ・∴.〇・∴ くくAnnie Pulled a Humbug,, (く‘That’s not my kid … Can’t be

min。 ’cause he,s got a bald head’’) by the Midnights・ A label

note in very small type said: 'くNot to be confused with the

Midnighters recordings・,, The Midnighters themselves・ mean- while, PurSued the idea far past the point of diminishing re-

tums with sequels-tO-Sequels like 'くAnnie,s Aunt Fannie’’and "Henry・s Got Flat F`eet (Can,t Dance No More).’’One of these

followups deserves a morsel of immortality for its title alone: くくSwitchie Witchie Titchie:’

Hank Ballard went on to new fame in the Sixties with such

early soul dance hits asくくFinger Poppin, Time,, and tくLet’s Go,

Let’s Go, Let,s Go.,・ Dancers remember him best・ though, for a

simple little tune he composed in 1959 to飢the back side of くくTeardrops on Your Letter,・・ something calledく一The Twist.’’

Chubby Checker・s cover of this song・ nOt aS nicely sung but more danceably produced and tirelessly promoted, aChieved the

unique feat of being Number One on the pop charts two sepa- The CIovers. Early records likeくTool, Fool, Fool” rate times, mOre than a year apart. had a fine gospel feeling; yearS later’they cashed in on the pop style ofくくIJOVe Potion No. 9.” But Hank Ba11ard got less credit for 'くThe Twist’’than he deserved. With the exception of脚the other rhythm-gOSPel pioneers had even less luck in the Sixties, a decade that belonged to a new generation of gospel-influenced

black singers・ There was one very big difference: the hybrid

was no Ionger nameless・ And I sometimes wonder what the course of might have been if someone had dreamt

up the nameくくsoul music・, while Clyde McPhatter was sti11 in his prime. A scant few voices made the difference in detemining how

rock ’n’roll sounds, and why it is so powerfully different from Other kinds of music. On an autumn day in in 1955・ an unknown・ Struggling young blues singer named Rich- ard Penniman suddenly found a voice which set America on its ear. In an unprecedented burst of sighs, mOanS, SCreamS,

Whoos・ and breathless panting, opened whole COntinents of energy and expression for others to expIore. AIong with EIvis・ Fats , Chuck Berry and ,

Richard’s work defined what rock ,n, roll was all about. That he himself was able to lay claim to only a small comer of the territory he helped pioneer makes small difference now. Those Who came after-, , Creedence Clearwater, and countless others-Carry his legacy in every

SOng・ Any list of rock immortals which does not include Little Richard near the top has gotten too sophisticated. Richard Pemiman was born December 5th, 1935, in Macon,

Georgia・ One Of 12 children in his family. According to the story he now tells, his grandfather and two uncles were preachers,

his father a seller of bootleg whiskey・ As a boy, Richard sang gospel music and leamed to play piano in a neighborhood Church. But his growmg hunger for music was thwarted by his

parents.く’I came from a family where my people didn,t like ・ Bing Crosby,くPennies from Heaven,, E11a Fitzgerald, WaS a11 I heard. And I knew there was something that could be louder than that, but I didn,t know where to find it. And I found it was me.,, Evidently, he made this discovery at a very young age. on One OCCaSion Richard ran away from home to join one of the traveling medicine circuses working the South during that period. By the time Richard was 13, his father had become so disgusted with the boy,s noise, Strange CIothing and wild antics that he threw him out of the house. Black music often bestows the name '.Little,, upon perfomers who show their style and talent early on. Some who eamed this title-Little Esther Phil-

1ips and Little ’for example-later dropped it as they sought a more mature public image. It is slgnificant that

Penniman never abandoned hisく'Little・・ and that the outra- geous figure we saw at the birth of rock and roll and now see at the onset of middle age was already showing his 'くthing,・ in the

StreetS・ Churches and dubs of Macon in the late Forties. After Richard had been booted from his home, he went to live with a white couple, Ann and Johnny Johnson, Who ran a Macon night spot, the Tick Tock Club, The Johnsons took

Care Ofhim’Put him back in school and let him perform in their

Club・ To this day・ Little Richard gives them credit for being

SeCOnd parents and for givlng him his chance. The songく・Miss

Ann’’is・ aCCOrding to Penniman, for and about Ann Johnson.

48 In 1951, at age 16, Richard perfomed at an audition orga- nized by Daddy Zenas Sears of WGST in Atlanta and won a recording contract with RCA Victor. During the next two years, Richard cut eight sides for RCA. The songs from this

period一くくEvery Hour・,‥くGet Rich Quick,,白くAin’t Nothin’Hap-

pening:・ and others-are Skillfu11y done small-band jump blues numbers in the style of Roy Brown. Richard’s voice and habit of wavering around a note before hitting it are clearly developed even though there is little particularly original or exciting about the tunes.

Richard・s next recordings were made in around

1954, On ・s Peacock label, With the Tempo Toppers and the Dueces of Rhythm, tWO backup groups handling vocals and . Tunes from this period show Little Richard

approaching his later rock ’n, roll breakthrough from the di-

rection of orthodox rhythm and blues・ In an easygoing doo-WOp

swlng he croons,くくAin・t that good news; I,m wild about the

blues.・・ There is a great deal of fun in songs like tくRice・ Red

Beans and Tumip Greens・・ andく'Fool at the Wheel,’’but none

of the raw power that marks his later work・ In early 1955, penniman went on to reCOrd four sides with the orchestra, also on the Peacock label. None of these early efforts

on RCA and Peacock sold well・ Down on his luck, Penniman made a demo tape of rhythm Six inches of hair in July, 1965’and that,s not all . ‥ the Handsomest Man in Rock ’n’Ro11. and blues songs and mailed it to of in ・ According to one story・ he then went back to Macon, WaShed dishes in a Greyhound bus depot and waited

seven months before hearing from Specialty・ Rupe found con-

siderable promise in the tapes・ He had been scouting the musi- cal scene in New Orleans and thought it would be a fine idea to

have a voice as sharp as Penniman’s backed by a solid Crescent

city ・ He hired Bumps Blackwell as producer and booked ,s J&M Studios for a session" On September 14th, 1955, the musicians gathered for what was destined to be a crucial turning point in American music.

AIong with EIvis Presley’s early sides for Sun Records・ Little

Richard・s first day with Specialty gives us the chance to say, "Rock ,n’roll begins right here・,, Ironically, a11 the tunes from

that first session, With the exception of one’are Painfully dull: Richard is still trying to wring mileage out of an umnSpmng

rhythm and blues idiom. Then’almost as an afterthought’the players tum to a song based on an obscene ditty Richard liked to wail during the breaks・ Revised for lyrical purity by New

orleans Dorothy La Bostrie・ 'くTutti-Frutti’’leaps

out as something audacious and new. Suddenly・ a11 of the re-

straints and vanities of imitation are gone from Richard’s sing- ing. What we hear is a kind of comic madness which requlreS a gleeful, bombastic voice, Chaotic piano playing and hard charging drums, guitars and saxophones・くくI’ve got a gal/

Named Daisy/ She almost drives me crazy/ Whoooooo. ‥ ” At

long last Little Richard found (or・ Perhaps more accurately・ stumbled into) his groove. 工漢書漢書喜寒看園丁霊

49 'くTutti-Frutti,・ was exCiting enough to get played on white

pop music stations, innocuous enough to prevent it from get. ting banned. For youngsters who had never heard black per- fomers sing at full throttle, the effect was hypnotizing. Even

though the words had been cleaned up・ the pure sexual excite- ment of the song came through as plain as day-eVeryOne knew that behind a11 that foolishness lurked a tum-On SOmeWhere. parents who might well tolerate EIvis Presley balked at the prospect of having Little Richard howI on the family phono-

graph. Yet the record soon sold 500’000 copies and had an impact far beyond its sales・ Other black performers of the era・

1ike Screamin’Jay Hawkins, may have been wilder and more exotic; but Richard succeeded in building strong ties to an

audience that included hordes of white as well as black kids・

During his amazing rise to stardom’Little Richard cut about

three dozen sides for Specialty, many Of which became rock ’n’

roll classics.くくLong Tall Sally,・・くくSlippin’and Slidin,’,,くくRip It Up,・‥くReady Teddy・・・ 'くThe Girl Can’t Help It,,)くくSend Me Some

Lovin’,,‥くJenny, Jenny,,・くくMiss Ann’,,くくKeep A Knockin’,’’ く・Good Golly, Miss Molly,・‥くOoh! My Soul,, and "True・ Fine

Mama” were all successful on the pop charts and established Little Richard as one of the leading forces in the revolution which had overtaken American pop music. Some of his sorigs employed a great New Orleans band-Earl Palmer (drums)・ Lee

Allen (tenor sax), AlvinくくRed・・ Tyler (baritone sax)’Frank

Fields (bass), and guitarists Edgar Blanchard’Justin Adams or Emest McLean; Other cuts used Los Angeles studio musicians

l ヽ 11 賀●富一 ′・ヽ幸へ示/l重:iてこ capable of putting down equally hard-rOCking sax and guitar riffs. (Whether or not Richard himself played piano on all of his hits is still a subject of controversy; aCCOrding to his producer, Bumps Blackwell, there were four different planO Players- HueyくくPiano・・ Smith, James Booker・ Edward Frank and War-

ren Myles, a SuggeStion Penniman himself vehemently denies・)

period is his work in three motion pictures, each of which betrays a d誼erent side of the Complementingstar・s ebullientRichard,s personality・ recordings All offrom them this fea- ture Little Richard standing at the planO in front of his band

singing (actually lip-SynCing) his hits・ The first’Don ’t Knoc居Jhe

Roc亙shows Richard as the Great God Pan・ a COmbination of

imp and 。own. When he singsくくHe duck back in the alley・’’ Richard spins away from the piano and dives back as if to hit the note right on time. With the saxophonist blowing a chorus while kneeling on the grand piano, Richard puts his foot up on

the lid and begins exaggerated hip and body undulations葛

acceptable in public only under the guise of rock ,n’roll dance. 77ze Giγl C&n・i HeゆJL released in December 1956・ Shows a

totally different Richard-a Serious・ SOmber・ Vaguely threat- ening figure standing at the piano staring out into space. He looms as a great black force seeking his essential contact with

50 the world’the rock ,n, roll equivalent of a blues singer haunted by dark obsessions.

Richard’s last film, M短er Roc居ond Boll, adds yet another dimension to our understanding of what the man is about. Here We find him reeling about the stage rolling his eyes in a coy,

beguiling pose which later fashion would term 'くgay.” He wears

a sweet but totally maniacal smile. There’s more than a faint hint of something demented in his manner. Then the camera

ZOOmS in for a cIose-up・ Can it be? Little Richard is wearing mascara! Those who think that Pemiman,s camp antics were bom of a later period should take a cIoser look at this intriguing Segment. In 1957, at the very peak of his fame and less than a year and a half after his meteoric rise had begun, Little Richard

Suddenly quit rock ’n’ro11 and disappeared from the scene. Specialty Records did its best to conceal the fact, and continued to release records from his earlier sessions言ncludingくくKeep A

Knockin’,’’which recording engineers pieced together from a Short take Richard and his road band had blasted out at a

Washington D.C・, radio station in 1957・ But essentially, Rich- ard’s career as a rock ’n’roller of the first rank was over, He Withdrew into a world of religious study, eVangelism and gos- pel singing, Only to reemerge seven years later. As is true of almost all aspects of Little Richard,s career, the StOry Of his decision to retire is shrouded in myth. The most POPular account of the circumstances, One Which Richard him- Self tells in widely differing versions, Places the tumlng POint at a powerful conversion experience which seized him on tour in Australia. A horrifying dream showed him the Apocalypse and the ugly stain of his own damnation" On an airplane flight soon after (which may or may not have been threatened by a fire on board), Richard prayed to God to hold that plane in the air. Evidently, the Lord in His infinite wisdom obliged, When Rich- ard reached safety, he threw his jewelry into the harbor at

Sydney, Australia・ and vowed to cease his evil ways・ He quit rock recording and touring and enrolled in Oakwood Co11ege, a bible school in Huntsville, Alabama, Where he studied proph- ecy, reVelation and God’s message for our troubled times. From there he began a career which he hoped would make him a major force on the American evangelical circuit. A song he recorded somewhat later tells the story:

I7n qu紡n ’shou) busi硲$" I “’antわgo stmをht I枕gOingわseγC’e my Loタ宏b〔畑re巧めo /ate,

ゲIdわのhile I7n Jn my sin, I居nou) Zhatjesus uon初et me Zn.

J7n quittin’shou, I u)ant io go stmをhi.

Whether or not one believes this story, the fact is that Rich- ard went the better part of a decade without offering a rock ’n’ roll song under his own name. In the late Fifties, he appeared anonymously on some lackluster remakes of hits done by his former road band, the Upsetters, On Little Star. But

51 ular music and crystallized an era・ For white America he sug- .gested whole new arenas of experience and served as a sym-

bolic encapsulation of that experience: SpOntaneOuS, "natural・’’

狐d irremediably flawed. To Frank Sinatra he was ’くthe only

genius in the business.・, Tb Charles: "Art Tatum-he was a

genius・ And Einstein. Not me`’’ was bom Ray Charles Robinson on September

23rd, 1930, in Albany, Georgia. His family moved to Greenville・ FIorida, When he was small, and he has vivid memories of his

father, his mother, his younger brother・ and a neighbor‘ Wylie 豊富器諾諾蓄詣鷲譜 was six, after traumatica11y witnessing his brother’s death by

drouning in the tub his mother used for take-in washing’that 璧箋護憲薫㌢ Artie Shaw and住里些」 He left school at 15, When his mother died (SeVeral years after い e け」-⇒ it S、らー左一㌦{轟 (旧 でづトー汀.寄 his father’s death), and drifted around FIorida・ making money

off his music for the next couple of years・ In 1947・ he took his savings of $600 and moved as far away as he could get-tO Seattle, Washington. In Seattle he quickly resumed the life he had led in FIorida▼

gigging at places like the Elks Club’the R9Cking Chair・ the Black and Tan. The music he played was very much in the vein ated cocktail swing, of black popular music of the day一 the King Cole Trio and Johnny Moore’s Three 己種こか土子二頃み∴」 with an occasional Louis Jor-

軸roun in.‾転五o generally took a decorously bluesy lead, guitar held back and chorded・ PrOViding tasteful

糾s, and bass took the rhythm・ While Ray Charles (he didn’t want to be Ray Robinson because of Sugar Ray' the great

middleweight boxer) sang in a crooning・ SOOthing・ COnVentional

nightclub style’aS SmOOth and polished as his mentor・ Nat .くKing’’Cole.

Around 1949, Jack Lauderdale of Swing Time Records of- 整襲襲薫箋〆 that record he went on the road with blues singer Lowell Ful- 鋤笥籍麓霊能豊諸富藍 son who was riding high with his own hit on Swing Time' .'Every Day I Have the Blues・, (a song B.B. King would later Woman," he defined soul-in 1955, ten yearS before it became fashionable. adapt for his theme). Ray Charles played piano for Fulson in the

lO9 band, Which included on tenor and Earl Brown on alto. When Atlantic took over his Swing Time contract in 1952, the music Charles played was not much different from what he had been playing at the start of his career-a little bluesier

perhaps, under Fulson’s influence, but still smooth, SOphisti- cated, We11-mannered and welトbred. It’s hard to say what Ahmet Ertegun, Herb Abramson, and the Atlantic staff saw in Ray Charles at this point. He had made some good derivative records; he was obviously a very capable journeyman musician; but he had showed no hint of originality. In 1952 and 1953 he did a couple of sessions, Which

yielded a boogie-WOOgie classic (くくMess Around’’), a nOVelty number (’《It Should’ve Been Me’’), and some fine blues (くくLosing

Hand,’’‘くFunny:’Lowell Fulson’sくくSinner’s Prayer’’); they demonstrated a harder edge of emotionalism than anything he had previously recorded. In this period he put together a band for Ruth Brown, then at the height of her popularity (and also Atlantic), and played briefly with Moms Mabley・ B±亜望__ not until he went to New Orleans in 1953 that he established musical identity of his own. Guitar Slim (real name, Eddie

Jones), a bluesman on the club circuit. According to , Charles worked cIosely with Slim for some time. Then on September 26th Slim had a

session for Specialty Records. He cut six or seven titles・ One of them was " That I Used to Do,’’a blues that sold n灘11塑聖COpl♀宣」聖堂 ,ha,e a blues standard.R。y The pia-

Charles had sought to become in his musical career to date: crude; untutored; muSically unsophisticated; POSSeSSed of a

primitive, Perfervid style that most resembled the gospel shouting of the Baptist Church. Even the melodies and titles of

his songs (くくTrouble Don’t Last,’’’くReap What You Sow”) seemed lifted from the church tradition. To Ray Charles it must have been like a revelation of something he had known a11

along・ The and mode of Guitar Slim’s hit-With

gospel changes, homs ri飴ng like a soulful choir’and above all the impassioned, emOtionally charged tone of Eddie Jones’s

voice-Were tO Set the pattem for much of Ray Charles’s sub- Sequent SuCCeSS. In December of 1953 Jerry Wexler and Ahmet Ertegun were in New Orleans to cut騨g J〇e T耽耽エLWe ran into Ray at /寵襲藷襲護憲Cosimo’s famous small studio, and Ray asked us please (!) to do

ing version of Guitar Slim,s '《Feelin, Sad,’’but it was the next session, Cut in an Atlanta radio station, Which ultimately con- SOlidated the style.

110 くくrY己皇ot a臆WQ哩ヰCut in Atlanta, WaS the consummate mamage Of a11 the elements which up till then had simply failed to coalesce in Ray Charles’s musical makeup. It featured, of course, hiiJ迦皿皇_gQS曲P 閣 言 語圏聖堂顎星藷麗頴麗 t曲単五h a皿1-throated rasI2.些 …聖堂P些_些e畦.±nse of wild臆a垣畦2机Charles t。tally.emoved himself from the polite music he had made in , the past. There was an u蝉to the new Ray 蝕むes「血壬」塑ヰhi哩挙辿wトil〇五wnlll」 nn† h角ve吐合n- f鱗器器器議案し曲丁of g曲almost臆jedu-

Forties, had even suggested this mix of styles, though Little Richard was soon to fo11ow and raise a hopped up version of the same hybrid to undreamt of heights. No one who had listened to the Soul Stirrers or the Five Blind Boys or Professor Alex Bradford could miss the connection, however. 対韓持汀-あく.

慧黒岩蒜‡露語票誓誌レ/ Charles’s subsequent success. The Pilgrim

Travelers’ttI’ve Got a New Home’’became くくLonely Avenue’’; t‘T ittle Girl of Mine’’took SOmething くくThis Lit壁書Light of Mine’’and the Cara一 園語国語国語圏 deliberate evocation of holiness feeling. Over the next six years Ray Charles enjoyed a period of extraordinary creativity in which a11 the various strands of his musical heritage were brought together; and he was given the

oppo血nity to show his true genius which, if it lay more in the realm of assimilation than originality, aS Can nOW be seen, WaS

inspired assimilation nonetheless・ He did blues and funk; at Newport; reVivals of old standards with and without strings; 諾鰹畿董董‾even, in "I,m Movin, On,,, a good rocking stab at country and in the process, of a whole new phase of black music which artis take Ray on their own church back the pinnade 園薗琵琶園田監諸岡国困惑語 rhythm and a gospel feel and six and a half minutes of the most

JOyOuS.Celebration of an utterly profane love. A kind of secular i ∴十 iii」ii「 i i evocation of an actual church service, COmplete with moans,

111 groans, and a congregation talking in tongues, the record was Discog輪p巾 banned on many radio stations and was Ray Charles’s丘rst .’Baby Let Me Hold Your Hand’‘ (Swlng Tlme 250. r☆7, 1951)∴’Kiss Me Baby’‘ (Swmg million-Seller. Time 274: r*10, 1952) ’-It Should’ve Been Me“ (Atlan[1C 1021, r☆7. 1954) ’’Don’t You Know,, (AtlantlC lO37; r☆10. 1954). ’’I’ve Got a Woman’’(AtlantlC lO50. r☆2, 1955) ’’A In November 1959, On the strength of this success, he signed Fool fo「 You” b/W ’’This Littie Glrl of M周ei’(AtlantlC 1063; r☆2・ 1955) ’’BlackJaCk’’ (Atlantic 1076; r☆8, 1955) ’’Drown m My Own Tears‘’(Atiant-C lO85・ r☆2・ 1956)・ With ABC Records for a sizable advance and the promise of an --Ha鴫lujah I Love Her So” (AtlantlC 1096. r☆5, 1956) ’’Lonely Avenue’’(AtIantic llO8: 巾8. 1956)∴.Am-t That Love’’(AtlantlC 1124, r☆11, 1957)∴’Swanee RIVe「 R∝k” economic independence to match the creative freedom he had (Atlantic l154; r☆14, ☆42, 1957)∴’R∝khouse-Part 2.’(AtlantlC 2006; r☆14. 1958)∴(The Right Time’’(A[lantic 2010: r☆5, 1959)∴一That‘s Enough’’(Atiant-C 2022' r☆19‘ 1959) always enjoyed. In 1962 he cut his landmark country and west- ’.What’d l Say’’(AtlantlC 2031. r☆1. ☆6, 1959) ’’I’m Movin‘ On’’(AtlantlC 2043; r☆u' ☆40. 1959)...Don’t Let the Sun Catch You Cryln‥’(Atlantic 2047; r☆17, 19co) ’’Just for em which included two big hits, the biggest of which (く’I a Thrill,} (AtlantlC 2055, r☆ 16. 1960) ’’StlCks and Stones’’(ABC-Paramount 101 18; r☆2. ☆40. 1960)∴-Tel=he T則th’’(AtlantlC 2068. r☆13. 19co) ”Georgla On My Mlnd‘’ Can’t Stop Loving You’’) sold over 3 million records. When (ABC.Paramount 10135, r☆3. ☆l. 1960) ’一Ruby’’(ABC-Paramount 10164‘ r☆10‘ ☆28‘ 19coL l'Them That Cot’’(ABC.Pa「amount lO14l. r☆10, 1961) ’’One Mmt Julep’’ reporters asked Ray Charles how he had come to invent this ampulse 200, r☆1, ☆8, 1961) Tve Got News for You-’(Impulse 202昔☆8' 1961) ’’H重t the Road Jack.‘ (ABC・Paramount lO244: r*l, ☆ l. 1961)・ ’’Unchain My Heart’’(ABC-Para. new trend’h曲m72d Ol脚 mount lO266, r☆1. ☆9, 1961) ’’Hide ‘Nor Halr” b/W ’’At the Club’. (ABC-Paramount lO314; r☆7, ☆20, 1962) ’’1 Can’t Stop Lovlng You’i b/W ’’Bom to Lose” (ABC.Paramount he was a child. 10330; r☆1, ☆l, 1962) `’You Doれ’t Know Me’’(ABC.Paramount lO345; r☆5, ☆2. 1962)・ .'’’b/W "Your Cheating Heart’‘ (ABC-Paramount 10375号☆ l' ☆7.

For the rest of the Sixties, and up to the present day, he has 1962)∴-Don-t Set Me Free’’(ABC-Paramoun=O405, r☆9, ☆20. 1963L ’’Take These Chains from My HeartT (ABC.Paramount 10435; r☆7. ☆8. 1963) ’’No One’’b/W COntented himself with what have come to be virtually MOR "Wlthout Love (There Is Nothing)’I (ABC・Paramount 10453: r☆9, ☆21, 1963) ”Busted’’ , broad-based, inoffensive, a Sterile mix of heavenly 羅葦岩盤宰器葦詳誌禁書若紫隷書ま営 Choirs, Beatles hits and nostalgic show tunes, bland arrange- (ABC.Paramount lO571, ☆50. 19(勘’’Makin’Whoopee’‘ (ABC・Paramount 10609; r☆14. ☆46. 19es)..Crying Tlme’● (ABC.Paramount lO739. r*5, ☆6, 19(灼’一Together Agaln’’ ments and syrupy strings. Only once in a while, Cutting (ABC-Paramount 10785, r☆ 10, ☆19, 19(剃・ ’-Let’s Go Get Stoned’’(ABC 10808・ r* l‘ ☆31・ 1966) ’.I Chose lo Sing the Blues’’(ABC 10840. r☆22, ☆32. 1966)∴’Here We Go Agam’‘ (ABC 10938; r☆5. ☆15. 1967) "n the Heat of theNlght’‘ (ABC 10970' r☆2l' ☆33・ 1967) through all the slush, aS On ’くI Don’t Need No Doctor’’(1966), do -,Yesterday’’(ABC =009. r☆9. ☆25, 1967)∴●That’s a L-e’’(ABC l1045. r☆11' 1968). --Eleano「 Rigby’’b/W ’一Unde「standing’’(ABC 11090. r☆13. ☆35. 1968) ‘’Laughln’and you hear that aching, almost painfully raw voice which in- CIownm=, (ABC l1259.鴫18. 1970) ”IfYou Were Mme’’(ABC l1271. r☆19, ☆41, 1970) Spired Joe Cocker, Eric Burdon, Stevie Winwood and a genera- ●●Don't Change on Me’’(ABC l 1291: r☆13. ☆36, 1971)- ”Feel So Bad’’(ABC l1308` r☆ 16. 1971). tion of white rockers. In recent years he has seemmgly re- (Chart posltions taken from Joel Whitbum‘s j?eao,d Reseaタのcomp'led from B拙めard Pop chart. unless otherwise indlCated: r☆ = POS‘tion on B鵬oa,d Rhythm and Blues tumed to the cocktail music of his youth, the music of Charles Cha巾.)

Brown and Nat ’くKing’’Cole. I remember seeing Ray Charles several times in the early The Raelettes, Whose call-and-reSPOnSe intensity Sixties. It was always the same. The big band opened with gave songs like ‘くWhat’d I Say” a frenzied edge. blasting evocations of the swing era-Ray Charles’s vacal appear- ance, in the timehonored fashion of the R&B revue, Came Only after an intermission. The show ended with an orgiastic per- formance ofくくWhat’d I Say,’’with Ray Charles writhing puppet- 1ike in a spastic trance and some couple inevitably moved to get up out of their seats and dance. It was at this point, at all the performances I saw, that the cops moved in, the band wound down, and someone led Ray Charles away from his suddenly

Silent piano to safety backstage. It was great少eateL警Creating the revivalistic fervor of his early performances and simulta- neously retaining a faint edge of cool, a kind of reserve, Which

Seemed suspicious, brittle, and perhaps even contemptuous・ There is no question that for white audiences Ray Charles WaS a rOmantic figure whose first well-publicized heroin bust in 1965 (which led to his commitment to a Califomia sanatorium, a period of cleaning out, and a year-long retirement from per-

forming) did little but extend the image of B皿e Holiday, Charlie Parker and Bud Powell, tWisted black geniuses whose

mythic role it was to die for white people’s sins. Ra予Charles, however, has always gone his own way. He survived, and he

Still resists personal, aS Well as pusical, CategOrization∴ふ Started using stuff when I was 16 and first started in show

business,’’he has said in reference to his habit.くtEvery experi-

ence I’ve had-gOOd and bad-has taught me something. I was

bom a poor boy in the South, I’m black, I’m blind, I once fooled

around with drugs, but a11 of it was like going to schoo」and

I’ve tried to be a good student. I don’t regret a damn thing.’’

112 singer Sam Cooke.. ‥ Both chapels, eaCh holding about 300 people’Were飢ed

shortly after the doors opened, and the urgency of many to ’《get

a last look at Sam・・ resulted in near chaos, With young and old

being crushed in the process‥ ‥ when the plate glass in a front door of Leak,s chapel gave

way under the pressure of the crowd, Spencer Leak・ a SOn of

A.R. Leak Sr., Shouted, tくThere are just too many Of them.’’ one emotional woman when crushed while attempting to

step over the threshold screamed,くくPlease let me in. I’ve never

seen anything like this in my life.”

cooke・s coffin was covered with glass, tO the disappointment

of many・ A blind woman・ Who came to pay her respects and

perhapsくくtouch・・ her singing idol, WaS rammed against a door frame and had to be pulled over the entranCe by funeral parlor

employees・ 一7he Chicczgo D〆ende7; December 19th, 1964

sam cooke died on December llth, 1964. Gunned down in a Los Angeles motel room under mysterious and unsavory cir- cumstances, he nonetheless died a martyr,s death. To black America, he was a hero.

Yet Cooke, a true PIOneer Of black music・ has rarely received

the recognition accorded Ray Charles・ Or SuCh early rock stars as Little Richard and Chuck Berry. The neglect is misleading;

sam cooke, aS muCh as any R&B artist of the Fifties・ PaVed the way f。r the soul expIosion of the Sixties・適垣里聖堂空聖二 e轄Ameri。。,s fav。rlte gOS。el 墓園聖霊堅堅塁園団 蔑露盤盤露盤豊野簿 Stirrers had been one of the most popular gospel groups, thanks King,, Cole to and beyond’Showing new ways to sell black music to white people. 1argely to Harris・ Whose qulVering tenor was the forerunner of the modem soul falsetto.

It’s not hard to imagine the intense pressure Sam must have

felt on his first Sunday aftemoon with the sextet・ aS the crowd murmured its displeasure at the Soul Stirrers beginning their

program without Harris・ From the sanctuary Of the group’Sam stepped forward for his first soIo, Perhaps Professor Alex Brad. 護襲讃葦叢襲 through plaintive dirges・ eXuding a gentle world-Weariness・ moved the congregation to a standing ovation. During Cooke,s tenure with the group・ t畦旦吐塾r堅$ジー corded for Art Although Sam’s voice ways retained the purity of the early days, his gospel records

113 on specialty capture his finest vacal moments: he never sang songs that were more erotic or buoyant than the love songs he

sang about his Lord・ While other gospel singers often let them-

s。Iv。S get 。arried away in the emotion of the moment,夏生e’s 国語圏墓園圏頴 they crucified my Lord?’’ For almost six years, Sam and the Soul Stirrers crisscrossed the country. For the folks flocking to the big ha11s and store-

fronts, Cooke・s pure, SanCtified singing・ SmOOth features ahd lithe body offered the same combination of religious charisma and sweaty sexuality that Marjoe and the like exploited in the white Bible Belt.

J.W. Alexander, Sam・s cIose friend・ manager and business 詳霊嵩霊謹書譜霊岩壁叢二 was a whole world out there, mOre OPenly that had to be ripe for Sam’s physical and vocal One can guess that Cooke himself was more than eager the transition. The years on the gospel trail had given Sam the

perspective and maturity he needed to tackle pop・ and it seemed that he already had the right idea in 1956・ When he sat d。Wn With his guitar and recorded his ±

玉b皿The record, released under the name of Dale Cooke so as 梱酬酬側馴馴馴酬 not to offend Sam,s gospel following・ Set the pattem for the pop

records that followed. Singing noticeably higher and lighter・ cooke imbued the song with a purity familiar from his church

music. Cooke・s almost wispy delivery is balanced by a huge, d。。Wah 。h。ral backup, and their meeting place is t畦血瓦ve 副酬酬酬鮎 career, the place middle ground Sam staked out most of his where the 離s not happy with cooke・s pop ambitions・ When Rupe walked into the studio one night and saw the white choral group Sam and producer Bumps

Blackwe11 were using in theirくくbleached,, approach, he sold Blackwell the right to take Cooke,s pop output elsewhere. Rupe missed a gold mine. The song that came out of that

session wasくくYou Send Me.,, Released as Cooke,s next single’it

sold l.7 million copleS in 1957 on the tiny Keen label・ It was also

the catalyst for Cooke・s meteoric rise as a pop singer.

J.W. Alexander has 。aimed he intended from the outset that sam cooke would eventually become the kind of idol to black

teenage girls that white girls had been used to having for years・ cooke had been with Keen almost two years when the first and most ambitious of their schemes was realized: Sam signed

Aboq;e, !op: Barbara Cooke’Sam,s wife, at the 蕊豊置蓋霊堂葦霊霊蓋慧 蒜露盤認諾S謹霊葦告man 薯蒜霊荒慧諾意r。uS. Sam s,ill d。P。nded 。n ‡豊島議書経絡密語認 hi屯. the R&B market as his base, and RCA was virtually without

l14 COntaCtS there. But Cooke and Alexander were counting on the

Strength of Sam’s name to generate black , While the RCA label provided Sam with a seal of legitimacy for the wider white audience.

The first RCA release, a SaCCharine ditty titled ”Teenage

Sonata,’’did reasonably released in August 1960. From that point on, Cooke was rarely without a Top 40 hit. ’くChain Gang’’was a catchy record that never quite rang

true, With its male chorus oohing and aahing over clinking

Steel spike hammers, but ’くSad Mood,’’released in December 1960, WaS a COmPlete reversal of fom, depending more on

blues idioms and phrasing. Unlike earlier 45s (’.Wonderful

World,’‥くEverybody Likes to Cha Cha Cha,, andく'Only Six-

teen’’),く’Sad Mood’’didn’t seem to hold obvious appeal to a teen Or eVen POP audience; the surprlSmg COmmerCial success of the record must have indicated to Cooke and his arranger Rene

Hall that the market for 'くsoulful,, music was wider than they, had anticipated.

le his output on Keen centered on light bal- S and novelty items, at RCA聖Q±」 draw more on blues and gospel arrange- W⊆ntS, COuPled with POPular black slang ex- he most successful record along these lines w云s 言謹話(“,’’a timeless song built on a simple,

laconic piano figure and Sam’s weary vocal, eChoed in true Call-and-reSPOnSe fashion by Lou RawIs. Upon release in the 器蒜‡霊蕊詩語嵩書誌誓亡謹言: influential songs C∞ke ever cut, matChed in impact only by the

SenSualくtThat’s Where It’s At.’’ Unlike his peers-and only Jackie Wilson and Little Willie

John came cIose to rivaling Cooke’s vocal virtuosity-Sam’s destiny was always firmly within his control, artistically and 祭器‡蓋蓋蓋豊諾藷芸 he also owned his own 裟蓋盤蒜篤嵩萱 establishtid itself as a successfu=ndependent almost immediately after its first

soul release. Sar, incorporated in 1960 and discontinued shortly after

Cooke’s death, WaS at first conceived as a gospe=abel for the

Soul Stirrers, Whose popularity had declined after Cooke’s de- Parture ( was the lead singer for the group at the time). But the sanctity of the label didn’t last for long. Within a

year, Cooke and Alexander had "tumed out’’a number of their gospel prot6g6s by having them record the type of blues and SOul that Sam seemed most comfortable with as a songwriter and producer. Among Cooke’s discoveries were the Womack Brothers, including , from Cleveland, Who be-

115 came ; Billy Preston; Johnnie Taylor; the Sims Discogmp巾 Twins; Mel Carter (who re-Created Sam,s early imocence with '... (Keen 34O13; ri}1, ☆l. 1957). "I.11 Come Runnlng Back to Youii a song sam wrote, (くWhen a Boy Falls in Love’’); and finally 簿露盤磐器苅露盤蓑露語嵩器鵠盤 Your Love for Me.' (Keen 2(XX5; r*4, ☆33, 1958)..Love You Most of All’’(Keen 2008; Lou RawIs, Whom Cooke and Alexander signed to Herb AIpert r* 12, ☆26. 1958) '・Everybody Likes toCha Cha Cha'i (Keen 2018T☆2・ ☆31・ 1959)∴’" (Keen 2022古☆ 13, ☆28. 1959)∴《There‘ I,ve Sald It Agaln’’(Keen 2105・ T*25・ and ,s Shardee label, Where it was hoped he would 1959) "Teenage Sonata.i (RCA Victor 47-770巾☆33. ☆50' 19coL ’’Wonde血1 World” (Keen 2112詳☆2, ☆12, 19co).・Chain Gang・・促CA V-CtOr 47-7783昔☆2・ ☆2・ 196O)∴’Sad duplicate Sam’s pop success・ Mood"促CA VICtOr47-7816詳☆23, ☆29. 19co}.・That's It-I Quit-重●m Mov~n’On’’(RCA vICtor 47-7&53,巾25. ☆3l, 1961) '.Cupid,●促CA Victor 47-7883' r*20‘ ☆17' 1961)・ During his lifetime, Cooke established a public personality of '・Twistinl the Nlght Away'岬CA Victor 47-7983; r* 1' ☆9' 1962)∴-Bmg It On Home to grace and poise, yet the court record of the events surrounding 苔藍措諾葦もぷ諾巣篭等・ (蔀霊諾意豊諾 1962)..iSend Me Some Lovm‥・促CA Victor 47-8129'巾2・ ☆13' 1963L ’Another his death is brutal in presentation, and in sharp contrast to the saturday Nlght・・偶`CA Victor 47-8164: r* 1' ☆ 10' 196打.Frankle and Johnny’’(RCA victor 47_8215; ,*4, ☆ 14. 1963)...Llttle Red Rooster’’促CA VICtOr 47-8247‘ r*7‘ ☆ 11・ genial public image he presented. 1963) "Goed Newsi, RCA Victor 47-82ee' ☆ 11・ 19(勘∴《Goed T~meS’‘ b/W ’.Tennesse According to the testimony, Cooke, at the time married to his waitz・・ QCA VICtOr 47-8368, ☆ 1l. 19{籾∴●Cousin of Mlne’’b/W ’‘That‘s Where Il’s At” high-SChooI sweetheart Barbara Campbell, had picked up a 22- 篤露盤等欝1盤霊豊諜’絹で藍轟霊豊艶嵩 鴫15, ☆41, 1965)∴・Suga「 Dumpling"促CA Victo「 47-8餅; r* 18. ☆32' 1965)

year-Old woman named Elisa Boyer at a party on the night of (Chart pceltions taken from J∞1 Whitbumls Reco研aesc鋤九COmPiled from B胸oa′d pop chart, unless otheIWISe indlCated詳☆ = POS-tlOn On B棚ca7d Rhythm and Blues December lOth. Although he had promised her a ride home, he chaれ) instead drove her to a motel on South Figueroa in Los Angeles,

where he registered the two of them asくくMr. and Mrs・ Cooke:’ Miss Boyer testified that she walked up to the registration desk and asked to be taken home. But Cooke managed to force her

into a motel room; there, She daimed, Cookeく'began to rip my cIothes off.,, She escaped when Cooke went into the bathroom

and fled with Cooke,s cIothing. According to her testimony・ he pursued her, dressed only in a sports coat and shoes" While Elisa Boyer phoned police from a nearby booth, Cooke pounded

on the door of the motel・s manager, 55-year-Old Bertha Frank-

1in; demanding to know Miss Boyer,s whereabouts・ Cooke al-

legedly broke the door open and assaulted Mrs・ F‘ranklin. Dur-

ing the scu餌e, Mrs・ Franklin pulled out a.22 caliber pistol and shot Cooke three times. When the wounded singer charged Franklin, the motel manager picked up a stick and clubbed

him. By the time police arrived, Sam Cooke was dead・

other hand, his stature was almost comparable with that of

Malcolm X and Martin Luther King・ His death, like theirs, Only enhanced his standing. 繋叢諾叢葦襲撃 ingly blacker, retuming to its gospel roots" When Bertha Franklin shot Sam Cooke in that Los Angeles motel, he died his

own man, unbought and unbleached・ A few weeks after his death, RCA releasedく'A Change Is

Gonna Come.・・ Curtained with shimmering strings and an-

chored by a dirgelike drumbeat,くくChange・,, like Martin Luther

King・s final speech, in which he told his fo11owers that he had been to the mountaintop, WaS apPrOPriately ominous, aS if to

anticipate the turbulent years facing black America・ Dignified and transcendent, it made a fitting final statement from a fallen hero.

116 thing special, With a rare visit fro痩堅milto曲 譜窯業’書誌昔e蒜豊,誓書蕊 Why.’’But as the warmup acts went through their paces, all

WaS nOt Well backstage; the show’s was on the phone

jabbering frantica11y to Roy Hamilton’s agent, Who had no idea Where his singer was. It soon became clear that Hamilton

wouldn’t show. Fearful of the wrath of the fevered crowd if one of the head- 1iners failed to appear, the promoter urgently whispered in

Jackie Wilson’s ear as he prepared to go on; Wilson, after a moment’s pause, agreed. Bounding onstage, he grabbed the mike, SPun arOund and raced into a blistering version of くくThat’s Why.” For over an hour, Jackie Wilson played to the

SCreammg audience, teaSing the women clustered in front of

the stage. Suddenly, in the middle of "Shake! Shake! Shake!,’’ he jumped into a sea of outstretched arms. With mike in hand, he attempted to sing, but women, Clawing ravenously, Shred-

ded his shirt. Finally, Wilson’s body disappeared. The theater WaS in turmoil; the audience pressed forward, hoping to catch a glimpse of what was gomg On. After minutes of pushing and Shoving, the police escorted Wilson to safety. The lights were tumed on and everybody ordered out. No one missed Roy Hamilton. In his prime, Jackie Wilson was that kind of performer: he COuld stop a show at the drop of a hat-SOmetimes, Without even trying. A contemporary of and Sam Cooke, he

睦、 his debut as in 1957 The comparison 4/ With two of black music’s most influential figures is not unflat- tering: aS a Showman,輿ls9p WaS the製ua如f BrQ:双P遭艇長as

?里QCalist, he could match CoQke’s rapge and then some. Yet While both Brown and Cooke became wealthy men, honored as Pioneers, Jackie Wilson suffered a checkered and enigmatic Career. Despite his popularity in the late Fifties and early Six- ties, his recordings rarely reflected his talent. 蓋護整整三警護聾 蔓叢誤詩誌霊薬諸芸警護叢塁 ular lead singer, Clyde‾ Mcphatte里車軸一WaS-lcok垂寝9± a 蜜亘nt:鞘堂臆至上e哩撃退g鍾上han 警慧蓋,豊i請書蒸器宝島器霊 ager became the Dominoes’new . The Dominoes never quite regained their stride with Wilson at the helm; though they were able to play Las Vegas and the

Copa on the strength of their earlier hits, it wasn’t unti1 1956

117 that the Dominoes retumed to the charts, With boyant interpretation Therese of the gave a temporary shot in the arm to the 千5高話es・ faltering fortunes; but Jackie Wilson usedくくSt.

Therese’’as a stepping-StOne tO a SOIo career. Shortly after its

release, he left Ward to sign with Brunswick, an a億1iation he has maintained to this day. ’’Wilson’s first soIo effort, WaS released in 1957. :聖生壁遼 Penhed_by a struggling SOng, featured Wilson . 、′二二〇〇〇○○○○ 唯i垂c互ing里中i曲 For Gordy, the record marked his first hit as a (he would

later found Motown); for Wilson, On the other hand,くくReet

Petite’’inaugurated an oddly aimless soIo recording career that, in the course of 18 years, WOuld meander through count- less musical styles, Pitting Wilson against slipshod orchestra- tion and material that was often mediocre if not absurd.

Although Dick Jacobs arranged Wilson’s first record言{Reet

Petite,’’it was Milton DeLugg, an aCCOrdionist/bandleader, 蕊嵩霊窯諜霊嵩諾‡1豊富富 Lugg’s melodramatic scores and heavy-handed choral accom-

paniments a触cted most of his productions, Wilson somehow managed to surmount such obstacles through the sheer power Of his amazmg VOCals and a knack for knowing what to do with 罵圏岡田圏琵琶謹圏壁壁里 心ng stri重工曲 w嵩違器量誓書監謹三豊豊慧霊

Paradox of his recording career. ’くDoggin’Around’’was one of his rare songs to take a direct, bluesy approach. Though marred by an obtrusive (and defiantly white-SOunding) chorus,

the record is one of Wilson’s finest moments: urged on by a

POlite blues piano, he soars through the song, StretChing and wrenching notes like a true virtuoso. It is one of the few Jackie Wilson records from the early Sixties that does not sound hopelessly dated today. But while Jackie sang the blues on one side, the flip was pure SChmaltz. Flaunting his operatic range,

ht’’in his best Mario accompanied by scads of rings. Wilson obviously enjoyed such showstoppers, though; by choice, he recorded a number of standards throughout his く’Danny Boy.’’Here Wil- Career, including transcenden t son exhibited the ful extent of his abilities, transformmg the hoary ballad into a stunning display of vocal gymnastics.

While Wilson’s recorded material often consisted of dreary SuPPer Club fare, his live performances from the period be- 1onged to another world entirely.聖上6L雌n Abo彬: Brooklyn, 1969. He brought an operatic range to songs like ".” B砂hき.. G置oves cha 垣mes Brovyn, v匹亙里 Backstage at the Apollo with a talent contest ability to slides and へWlnner.

118 Discography 諾器諾諾慧祭器霊霊票 .3愛t Petlteii (Brunswick 55024, ☆62' 1957).’To Be Loved‘. @runswick 55052詳☆ ll‘ rarely failed to bring his audience to a state of frenzy. The =里1958).'Lonely Teardrops" Orunsw‘Ck 55105' r虹☆7' 1958L ’’That‘s Why’’ ○ ○ ● 日面SWick 55121。☆2. ☆ 13, 1959)同一Be Sa‘一Sfied.. (BrunswICk 55136詳☆6・ ☆20. 1959) an aura of violence around him, ThPetter Know It" OinnswICk 55149両1. ☆37' 1959)..Talk That Talk’‘ (Brunswick 議磐蕊常盤王宮需/濫盤薄絹篤豊 誉詫土器害慧霊票蒜お面テ軸male 畠田SWick 55167, r*1, ☆12. 19coL ’.Am l the Man・・ b/W.'Alone at Last" a3runswick friend in a N料予稿l. 認識嘉欝‥悪罵嘉島薄塩盤p藍豊鵠S盤 一T噺ugh Wilson, in an attempt tO keep up with new fashions, 出血On Back to You.' (BrunswICk 55216了☆9. ☆ 19‘ 1961)..You Don‘t Know What It 誓濫s霊露盤霜書き誓震品程藍盤需 cut a few ill-COnCeived gospel-Shout singles in the mid-Sixties・ it 9診.'Baby Workout.. @runsw‘Ck 55239再1. ☆5‘ 1963)..ShakeI ShakeI ShakeI●’ wasn’t until r遼重辿逃Sagging蝉rily [e‾ 日放SWick 55246告☆21. ☆33, 196:"∵Danny Boy・・ Orunsw-Ck 55277"☆25. 19(湖∵’No 蚕中軸lhe Naked City).. @runswICk 55280直25' 1965)..Wh‘SPers‘’@runsw一⊂k 55300. vived, by Carl Davis, the =主食11, 1966).'I Don¥ Want to Lose You・・ (B皿SWICk 55309再1l・ 1967) "(Your with two quick mi11 ion-Sellers , L揮Keeps l.1ftlng Me) H-gher and Hlghe「・・ @runswICk 55336詳☆ l` ☆6. 1967)∵S‘nCe W清正‾i而‾-砧を高‾ 了Ⅲ SllOWed Me How to Be Happy・・ @runs刑Ck 55354. r*22・ ☆32' l酬’’I Get the '・Whispers,・ andくく笹ur Love Keeps Lifting Me) Higher and scIP§elest Feellng'・ (BrunswICk 55381証12・ ☆34‘ us8). "Helpless’‘ a3runswICk 55418. =i3L 1969).・ThlS Love -s Rea一・' (B…SW-Ck 55443: r*9' 1970). ’’Love Is Funny That 了琴「βrunswICk 55461: r* 18. 1971) Higher,,・ easily Wilson・s best later efforts・ Sadly・ the hits didn’t ⊂をt posltions taken from Jcel Whltbum‘s Rccord J?esea励comp‘1ed from鋤疑rd last; Davis couldn,t seem to find appropriate material. By 1970, 彊dlart, unless otherwISe lndlCated告☆雪POS,t-On On B棚00′d Rhythm and Blues 二重丸) wilson was an aging, SeCOnd-rate SOul star’unSuCCeSSfully aping contemporary trends and finally consigned to the oldies circuit,葦露襲撃 as a member of Dick Clark・s Good Ol, Rock ’n’Roll Gordy wrote Jackie・s first few hits and was once a 。ose friend・ wilson never benefited from Gordy,s success at Motown. Wil- son would have been a logical choice to head the Motown

roster, but instead he remained at Brunswick・ a label with a dubious reputation and few facilities for promoting his career. wilson himself has been deliberately hazy in interviews about

the specifics of his career: One Of the great unfu皿ed talents of soul music, he is also proof of the music,s exploitative potential. In October 1975, Jackie Wilson suffered a serious heart at- ta。k 6i両e-でtage Orthe La。n C泰i面iri_℃両手郵, New

J議e打vhere he was appearing with th叩ick Clark revue. The likelih融is些敵地壁上垂oina読下手稲詰れwill prove t6 have been his last.

119 a red jumpsuit with the word sEX Stitched across the front. His head jerks to the beat, his hips shimmy, and suddenly he,s

Snaking across the stage on one foot・ his other leg windmilling

along with his Iong, limber ams・ He does a split, eruPtS into a

Pirouette, Whirls like a dervish, and ends up at the microphone

just in time to shriekくくbayba-a-ay,, as the band modulates into the introduction to his latest hit・ As Brown moves into his late

40s, the dates become more selective’the act slightly less acro. batic. But the energy, the pandemonium, and the great, rend- ing buzz saw voice remain.

the develo 豊艶from show Iate-Fifties/early-Sixties output-くくThink,,,く'Night Train,・・ and くくShout and Shimmy,, were a few of the hits-PaVed the way for the emergence of Otis Redding, Wilson Pickett, and the other SOul shouters who

recordin Brown was injecting some of サ菩諸藩慧器慧慧霊誌ix,i。S, h。 has

Shaped the music of the Seventies even more profoundly. The

Chattering choke-rhythm guitars・ broken bass pattems, eXplo-

Sive horn bursts・ One-Chord drones, and evangelical vocal dis- COurSeS he introduced during the mid-Sixties have become the lingαa加nαrof contemporary black pop, the heartb。at 。f the discotheques, and a primary mgredient in such far-flung musi- Cal syntheses as Jamaican and Nigerian Afro.beat. Var- ious producers and arrangers have added lush string arrange-

ments・ flugelhorns, bass trombones, and sighing female Choruses; , the Isley Brothers, and others have over_

laid whining・ distorted guitars, Wah-Wah clavinets, mOre COm-

plex cross-rhythms, Or Chunkier drumming, aCCOrding to their tastes. But the basic band tracks」{the wheels of the car,・, to

borrow a metaphor from R&B producer Willie Mitchel」COn- tinue to follow Papa James,s directions.

James Brown言{the hardest working man in show dance routine from the Brown stage show. Nathan relented; business," ready to stom the stage of the Apollo James Brown records that were both more visceral and com_ Theater’1964. A complete performer-Singer, dancer’bandleader-he put on the greatest live mercial followed. Shows in the history of rock.

136 By 1964, the Cincimati-based King company, Which had Soul Brother ♯1, On drums, With his original grown up with band blues, VOCal groups, and hillbilly boogi6 back-uP VOCalists, , at left, rehearsing in the mid-Fifties. He cut his first - during the late Forties, WaS functioning more and more like an R&B hit言くPlease, Please, Please,” in 1956, and antique from R&B’s golden age, failing to distribute and pro- had many more afterward. But he had to wait unti1 1965 to crack the Top Ten. He did it with mote Brown’s records on a scale commensurate with his popu- く`Papa’s Got a Brand New Bag." larity as a live performer. Brown retaliated by forming Fair Deal Productions, and by giving his next set of recordings to Smash, a Subsidiary of Mercury. One of the sides included in the package was ’くOut of Sight,,, and with Mercury’s more thorough and up-tOdate distribution network behind it, the record became one of Brown,s biggest hits, Selling to white listeners as well as to the blacks who had been supporting him for years.

土egal battle with King ensued. Brown held fast, and after a in compl垂

that finally made him a superstar and defined the rhythmic direction R&B would take during the next decade, the epochal ’くPapa’s Got a Brand New Bag’’(1965). Toward the end of the

Sixties・ Brown became his own manager, and in 1971 he fomed his own record production company, With Polydor as

distributor・ He had come a long way since the days when Syd

Nathan supervised his sessions・ Every step had been a battle, but Brown fought hard and, eVentually, he won. What drives a man like Brown, a man Who could have retired in 1965 or 1975’but who has kept on trying to outdo himself instead? Perhaps the goal has been forgotten and the struggle

itself is the reward・ Perhaps it always was・ The very beginning

) 、嘗 一! WaS a Struggle. Brown was born in 1933 in Georgia; he grew up POOrer than poor, Picking cotton, Shining shces, dancmg for

閏 Pennies in the streets・ Later came refom school, boxing, Semi- PrOfessional baseba11, and-after a leg injury scotched his am_ bition to become a big league pitcher-a VOCal group, the Famous Flames. The Flames began to attract attention around Macon during the mid-Fifties, Signing with King early in 1956

On the strength of tくPlease, Please, Please.・・ But the first ten Singles failed to attract much notice outside Georgia, PrObably because・ aS C皿White writing for別ec居脇`Sわhas pointed out,

they sounded like.くa pastiche of the Midnighters, the '5’ Royales and with a dash of Little Richard.,, In 1958, "Try Me,,, a laboriously sIow, Churchy ballad, Went to Number 48 in Billboa,d" It wasn,t a huge hit, but it enabled Brown and the Flames, the vocal group he now dominated COmPletely, tO keep working one-night stands in the South, and to secure the services of a good national booking agent, Ben Bart, Brown,s manager-tO-be. Soon Brown had a regular road

band’an increasingly tight show, and an entire revue, With members of the troupe doubling as opening acts; by 1960, he WaS attraCting a growlng audience in the North. In 1963,・署 B7.Oun Shou Liz/e 。t Jhe album chart 藍砦器諾謹詩誌霊鵠誓 anybody anywhere with a few do]lars and a phonograph could get a taste of the show that was earning James Brown the nickname.'Mr. Dynamite.・, It was during this period that Brown eamed another reputa-

tion・ that of the当hardest working man in show business.・, His rapidly expanding James Brown Revue traveled constantly, Crisscrossing the country, Playing for all-black audiences which became ever larger and more ecstatic. His band was the tough-

est, loudest・ and most together (as well it should have been, Since fluffed notes were reportedly penalized by heavy fines). His cIothes were the flashiest, from the shiny suits of the late Fifties to the waist-length jackets with matching vests and SuPertight pants of the mid-Sixties. His dancing was the wild-

est, the most spectacuIarly acrobatic・ the most perfectly con- trolled. The show itself was programmed down to the last second for maximum impact. During the early Sixties, for example, Brown perfected the finale captured in the 1965 film, 7V!e TA・MI Sfeo鋤As he wrenched out the pleading refrain to く’Please・ Please・ Please,, he would sink sIowly to his knees,

Writhing to the tune,s lugubrious rhythm until finally, Still

Singlng・ he collapsed in a heap. Famous F`lames , Bobby Bennett and LIoyd Stallwo血would approach him hesi- tantly. One would preduce a purple cape and, reVerently drap- 1ng it over the fallen singer,s body, help him to his feet and SIowly escort him offstage. Brown, Still holding the micro-

Phone, WOuld begin to drag his feet, Struggle and, after a dra- matic pause, Shake off the cape and waIk deliberately back to Stage Center. There he would launch into another chorus, Only to drop to his knees again, his voice a hoarse sob. The routine

WaS repeated・ this time with a gold cape. Once again Brown Waited until the last minute, Shook off his attendants, returned

to the front of the stage, began singing, feigned collapse. F‘i- nally, a jet black cape was produced and Brown and the F1ames

left the stage・ While the band played on. The audiences, abso- 渇。罰樹黒血部姦龍一ぷ鵠男性疎都心部書、誠っ璃磯鶏1 ~i- lutely spent by Brown,s hysterically energetic hour onstage, WOuld shout themselves hoarse for more, WOndering all the

While how Brown could possibly top what he・d already done. And then Mr. Dynamite would appear, Wearlng a neW Suit, a PrOP Suitcase in his hand, PrOPelling himself across the stage on One foot, thumb out as if hitching a ride to the next town.

uring this period the most striking thing about Brown,s music was his voice, One Of the harshest in R&B. His tom and frayed tonal D quality wasn’t unique; the Sensational 一叢鵠霊also came from 藍警藍箋箋箋輩 重富需i

139 畦畦e. But Latin cross-rhythms had crept into some of the records as early asくくGood Good Lovin,,,’and the Brown band’s lead guitarist, Jimmy Nolan, had been working on a choked style of rhythm playing which melded beautifu11y into the band’s rhythmic thrust. The bass parts had been growing more and more staccato, in keeping with the increaslng PerCuSSive orientation of the music, and so had the hom lines. By 1964, these elements had coalesced into a distinctive new sound which caught America off guard.

The change was probably determined, at least in part’by the structure of Brown’s new songs. He continued to work in gospel and blues forms, but he also added another kind of composition: Brown would sing a semiimprovised, loosely organized melody that wandered while the band riffed rhythmically on a single chord, the homs tersely punctuating Brown’s declamatory Phrases. With no chord changes and precious little melodic to sustain listener interest, hm became everything, instrument and voice if each were a bursts that were often sprung against the downbeats. The bass lines were broken up into choppy two- or three-nOte PattemS, a PrOCedure common in since the Forties but unusual in R&B. Brown’s rhythm gui- tarist choked his guitar strings against the instrument’s neck so hard that his playing began to sound like a jagged tin can being scraped with a pocketknife. Only occasionally were the homs’ organ or backing vocalists allowed to provide a hamonic con- tinuum by holding a chord. The chugging push-pull of the Brown band’s Brand New Bag was the wave of the future. Its impact was obscured initia11y by the English invasion, Which consisted of white bands covermg R&B hits from the previous decade; and by the Memphis sound, which resembled Brown’s music in its gospel orientation and hamonic simplicity but had a much more conservative rhyth- mic bias. By 1968, however, PSyChedelic rock was replacing the older English R&B styles, and the Memphis sound was becom- ing diluted. Sly and the Family Stone were purveying a psy- chedelicized, mOre rhythmically complex variant of the Brown sound, and Brown himself was at the height of his powers,

preaching stream-Of-COnSCiousness semons like ’くCold Sweat・’’ く'I Can,t Stand Myself,’’andくくSay It Loud-I’m Black and I’m

Proud,’’a11 of them pulsating with polyrhythmic power. During the late Sixt主蛙1 became a politici生些f s些 black capitalism, hobnobbing with would-be pres- ident Hubert Hump Africa, entertaining the troops in Vietnam and Korea, urging rioting ghetto youths to cool their passions and build instead of burn. He acquired a large house, a fleet of cars, a jet, SeVeral radio stations and other . Militants, SuSpicious of his vested interest in the system, aCCuSed him of Tomming・ The ghetto ignored them and bought more and more of his records, eVen after they had begun to sound alike, aS if each were merely another insta11-

140