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3 Biomonitoring of Freshwater Environment WITPress_BMTA_ch003.qxd 12/1/2007 13:06 Page 47 3 Biomonitoring of freshwater environment M E Conti 1 Principles of the Water Framework Directive The Water Framework Directive 2000/60 EC (WFD) [1] is an important opportunity to reorganize the basic integrated resource management. The key issue of the Directive is an extremely wide-ranging and integrated approach based on a sustainable use of the aquatic resource, 1. first of all, it introduces quality standards that will serve as points of reference for the quality assessment of bodies of water in the UE member countries. The objective is for the artificial and heavily polluted water bodies to regain a good ecological potential. In view of this, a ‘maximum ecological potential’ has to be established as a reference condition; 2. it therefore defines quality objectives to be met; quality classes have been ranked in a five-class-system ecological status (high, good, moderate, poor and bad); 3. it establishes criteria for the identification of significant water bodies and the assessment of their environmental quality status. The environmental quality status is defined on the basis of the chemical and ecological status of the water body. For superficial water bodies, the assessment of the chemical status is carried out on the basis of the presence – beyond a given threshold value – of harmful substances. The ecological status is the expression of the various components of the aquatic ecosystem (physical and chemical nature of waters and sediments, characteristics of the water flow, structure of the river bed). The use of bioindicators, as effective means for the evaluation of human impact on the water body, is provided for in view of a clas- sification of running water, within the framework of the definition of the ecological status. Other relevant key issues of the WFD are the preservation and the restoration of the health of the aquatic ecosystems and not to preserve the different aspects of water utilization as previously reported in other water-related EU Directives. WFD establishes that the assessment be based on biological monitoring approach, studying the aquatic communities, molluscs, algae, macrophytes, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish. WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 30, © 2008 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336 (on-line) doi:10.2495/978-1-84564-002-6/03 WITPress_BMTA_ch003.qxd 12/1/2007 13:06 Page 48 48 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING: THEORY & APPLICATIONS 1.1 Water indicators Many kinds of indicators are used for water quality assessment. The European Environmental Agency (EEA) has adopted the Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact- Responses (DPSIR) framework which represents a system approach of analysis of the relations between environment and human system. According to the DPSIR framework, developments of a financial or social nature are the underlying factors or “Drivers” exerting “Pressures” on the envi- ronment the Status of which – availability of resources, level of biodiversity or quality of the waters – change accordingly. These factors may have an impact on human health as well as on ecosystems; these processes require a response able to modify the driving forces, reducing pressure and impacts [2]. Fig. 1 shows a generic DPSIR framework developed by EEA. Responses Water use restrictions Alternative supplies Subsidised water prices Driving Forces Improved information Industry Demand-side management Energy Voluntary agreements Agriculture Regional conflicts Aquaculture Waste water treatment Households Ban on products Tourism Reservoirs Pressures Climate change Impacts Point-source pollution Loss of Diffuse source habitats/species pollution III healt Water abstractions Droughts/floods Physical intrusions Desertification Salinisation Loss of amenity State Coastal erosion Non-indigenous Water quantity species Ground water Eutrophication status Acidification Ecological status: Chemical Physical Biological Figure 1: EEA DPSIR framework for water (modified from Nixon et al. [2]). WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 30, © 2008 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336 (on-line) WITPress_BMTA_ch003.qxd 12/1/2007 13:06 Page 49 BIOMONITORING OF FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT 49 The DPSIR makes it possible to select water-specific issues in order to achieve relevant policy objectives. The EEA Water Assessment [2] has designed four rele- vant issues: ecological quality, nutrients and organic matter, hazardous substances and water quantity. Table 1 reports an abbreviated list of the EEA indicators for water. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) developed series of indicators related to environmental aspects linked to water, land, atmosphere and waste (Consultative Group on Sustainable Development [3]). Table 1 also shows UNEP indicators related to water. 2 Freshwater ecosystems As mentioned above, the philosophy underlying the directive 2000/60/CE [1] aims at defining the ecological status of water bodies, focusing the attention on biolog- ical quality elements, also backed by hydro-morphological and chemico-physical elements. This crucial conceptual turning point leads to considering rivers as ecosystems in their own right, that is “living systems” provided with structures and functions that need to be recovered and preserved in order to guarantee a sustainable environ- mental management. In this context, aquatic biological communities (benthic macroinvertebrates, water plants, fish) are the objects of safeguard actions and at the same time they are the markers of the health of water bodies. People are becoming more and more aware that only the safeguard of the ecological integrity of rivers could guarantee the use of water in view of the sustainability and renew ability of this resource. Rivers are generally heavily exposed to loads of polluting substances that can come from punctual (sewers, effluents of purification plants) or diffuse discharges (drainage of agricultural lands). In order to evaluate the quality of running waters it is necessary to take into account many chemical and physical parameters, such as pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, calcium and magnesium concentrations, total hardness, alkalinity, suspended matter, dissolved oxygen, organic and nitroge- nous substances, COD (chemical oxygen demand), BOD5 (biological oxygen demand), etc. Chemical and bacteriological analyses, however very important, cannot yield enough information on the whole of the river ecosystem. There are many variables in this kind of ecosystem, from the head to the mouth of the river: flow, turbulence, typology of sediments, chemical composition, structure of the river beds (whether they are straight or winding, wide or canalized), the riparian ecosystem populat- ing the riverbanks and functioning as a filter or buffering zone, in that it retains and transforms, both physically and biologically, sensible levels of substances drained from the surrounding territory. In some instances, chemical analyses may not detect the presence of a given contaminant due to the dilution phenomenon. Hence, the importance of using bioindicators able to provide information integrated over time. WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 30, © 2008 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336 (on-line) WITPress_BMTA_ch003.qxd 12/1/2007 13:06 Page 50 50 BIOLOGICAL MONITORING: THEORY & APPLICATIONS Table 1: Water-related selected indicators of EEA and UNEP reports [2, 3]. EEA UNEP Physical and Chemical Water Quality Water transparency in lakes; Biochemical oxygen demand in Nutrients in waters; water bodies; Discharges of organic matter from Releases of nitrogen (N) and point sources; phosphorus (P) to coastal waters; Use of fertilizers; Discharges of oil into coastal Number of livestock; waters. Consumption of pesticides and pesticides in surface water and groundwater; Heavy metals in rivers; Hazardous substances in lakes and rivers; Accidental, legal and illegal discharges of oil; Legislative compliance. Biological and Ecological Water Quality Development of urban waste water Wastewater treatment coverage; treatment; Concentration of faecal coliform Legislative compliance; in freshwater; Chlorophyll in coastal and marine Algae index; waters; Maximum sustained yield for Loss of habitats; fisheries. Non-indigenous species; Environmental impact of fishing; Biological effects of hazardous substances on aquatic organisms; Hazardous substances in marine organisms; Legislative compliance. Water Quantity Indicators Groundwater levels; Groundwater reserves; Available water; Annual withdrawal of water; Water exploitation index; Domestic consumption of water Total water abstraction; per capita; Water consumption index; Density of hydrological networks; Sectorial use of water; Population growth in coastal areas. Agricultural water use; Water use by households; Overall reservoir stocks; Saltwater intrusion; Water prices; Water use efficiency; Water leakage. WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 30, © 2008 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336 (on-line) WITPress_BMTA_ch003.qxd 12/1/2007 13:06 Page 51 BIOMONITORING OF FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT 51 The biomonitoring natural fresh running water environments affects the use of indicator species or communities. Generally benthic macroinvertebrates, fish, algae and a number of water plants [4] are used. However, macroinvertebrates are the most frequently used [5–8]. By macroinvertebrates we mean all invertebrate organisms – adults or larvae
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