Copyright by Stephen Michael Ward 2002 The Dissertation Committee for Stephen Michael Ward Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “Ours Too Was a Struggle for a Better World”: Activist Intellectuals and the Radical Promise of the Black Power Movement, 1962-1972 Committee: Toyin Falola, Supervisor Juliet Walker James Sidbury David Montejano Edmund T. Gordon “Ours Too Was a Struggle for a Better World”: Activist Intellectuals and the Radical Promise of the Black Power Movement, 1962-1972 by Stephen Michael Ward, M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2002 For my parents, Cheryl June Ward and Michael Harold Ward, who each in their own special way, taught me the value and joy of learning and To the memory of my Grandmothers, June Ellen Springs Ward, Mary Howe Granberry, and June Fisher White, who did so much—more, in fact, than I will ever know—to make sure that I received a good education, in school as well as in life. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There is a pleasant irony in writing this acknowledgement page: though it is a formality which seemingly bears no relation to the researching and writing of the dissertation, I find it to be, in a profound sense, the most rewarding part of this project. This is the case, in part, because this page is one of the final tasks which mark the completion of the dissertation writing process. Most importantly, however, writing the acknowledgements is especially satisfying and rewarding because it is an opportunity to extend thanks and to express my deep gratitude to people who are dear to me. Furthermore, it is an opportunity to acknowledge debts that were incurred well before the first page was written, as well as those acquired along the way. Accordingly, I have chosen to break with the convention of “saving the best for last.” While it is customary to reserve the author’s most heartfelt words for the end, thanking the people most dear to her or him at the conclusion of the acknowledgement, I trust that the reader will forgive me as I reverse the order. I offer the sincerest thanks to than my grandmothers and my parents, to whom this work is dedicated, for their unwavering love, support, and guidance. Though they are not hear to see the end result, the love and labor of my grandmothers has, in a very real sense, made this work possible. Long before I knew what a dissertation was, they laid the foundation for this endeavor by instilling in me a sense of justice and a respect for knowledge. My parents, too, are responsible for sparking in me a v passion for learning. I am truly thankful for my mother’s guidance and wise counsel through which I have found direction, purpose and strength, and for my father’s wisdom and vision which has helped me to grow in so many ways (and when I speak of my father, I of course include his wonderful wife Tigi, for they are a beautiful team). Each of my parents has quietly set a wonderful example, models worthy of emulation. Throughout my travels, both literal and figurative, and especially during the often lonely process which led to the completion of this dissertation, I have also been sustained by other members of my family. In particular, my brothers and sisters—Geoffrey, Toussaint, Tamiyah, Caryn, and Nisa—have been a constant source of support and encouragement. Their words and deeds have kept me going more times than I can remember, rejuvenating my spirit and motivating me to continue working. Because of my family, I have always been able to retreat to the solace of ‘home,’ and for that I am immeasurably grateful. I must also thank my life-long friends, Desi Bryant and Damon Woodruff. They have quite literally kept me connected to the place I call home during the many years that I have been navigating (and at times, it seems, wandering) through the often alienating graduate school experience. Our friendship helped sustain me throughout the process of learning, writing, and living which has resulted in this work. They are my brothers in the best sense of the word. I owe a debt of gratitude to many fine people at the University of Texas. Toyin Falola was not only a wonderful dissertation advisor, but many other things vi too. From day one, he has been a master teacher and kind friend. Well before I began the dissertation, he shared his time and wisdom with me, remaining one of my greatest supporters throughout my graduate school career, and through it all his encouragement and criticism, support and guidance were constant. He is, simply, a gentleman and a scholar. I am also glad to recognize the rest of my dissertation committee: Juliet Walker, Jim Sidbury, David Montejano, and Ted Gordon. Ted Gordon and Jim Sidbury deserve special recognition for their constant support at various points during my graduate school career. Juliet Walker and David Montejano were gracious and accommodating, as well as insightful and helpful critics. Other faculty members, too, were there when I needed them, and for that I am truly thankful. Most notably, this includes Harry Cleaver and the inspiring John Warfield (“Doc”). Materially and otherwise, the Center for African and African American Studies enabled me to grow as a scholar and provided support for this work. Research grants and other support from the Center helped at crucial points to move this project along. Additionally, the Center afforded me the opportunity to teach and interact with many students, who in turn helped me to grow as a teacher. Betty Nunley and Jenny Jones kept the Center going, and made it both rewarding and enjoyable to be there. In addition to the Center, several friends, colleagues and mentors at the University of Texas helped make graduate school bearable, and at times enjoyable: Jemima Pierre, Aime Ellis, Jason Husbands, Vincent Woodard, vii Brenda Burt, Barbara Harlow, Bryant Guidry, Felicia Enuha, Robyn Citizen, and Miguel Gomez. The writing of this dissertation was greatly facilitated by a fellowship at the University of Rochester’s Center for the Study of African American Politics. I am especially thankful to Professors Fred Harris and Valeria Sinclair-Chapman, who were gracious hosts, ensuring that my time there was smooth and productive. It was a wonderful opportunity to spend a year in Western New York, free from the heat of Texas and the stress of teaching. My time at the University of Rochester was enhanced by the Frederick Douglass Institute for the African and African American Studies. I especially thank Ghislaine Radegonde-Eison and Larry Hudson, who together make the Institute run, for their help and encouragement. I would like to also acknowledge a few people who I met towards the very end of my graduate school journey. During the last trying months of writing the dissertation, Cedric Johnson and Fanon Wilkins offered encouragement and advice at opportune moments. Fanon’s generous sharing of his research material proved to be invaluable to this project, and his timely words of encouragement helped me more than he will know. In sharing his dissertation and his experiences with me, Cedric too helped me to see the light at the end of the tunnel. Sekai K. Mutunhu, in her own way, lifted my spirits and provided inspiration and encouragement at just the right time. I am grateful to have met her when I did. I will end with a return to convention: I again offer my deepest gratitude to my family, and in particular to my parents. They have been my beacon and my viii salvation, my strongest supporters and my greatest inspiration, my alpha and my omega. All that I am and might aspire to be is because of them. They gave me the strength to spread my wings, and if I should ever learn to fly, it will because they are the wind beneath my wings. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Toward a Reconceptualization of the Black Power Movement: An Introduction in Three Parts.................................................................... 1 Chapter 2 The Shape of Things to Come: James and Grace Lee Boggs, Detroit Activism, and the Roots of the Black Power Movement, 1962-1964...............................................................................25 Chapter 3 James and Grace Lee Boggs as Theorists and Architects of Black Power, 1964-1969 .......................................................................90 Chapter 4 The Context and Content of Black Power-era Feminism: Fran Beal, “Double Jeopardy,” and Black Power Thought .......................158 Chapter 5 The Third World Women’s Alliance and the Practice of Radical Black Feminism, 1969-1972 .......................................................223 Chapter 6 “Revolutionary Scholarship”: Vincent Harding, the Institute of the Black World, and Intellectual Leadership During the Black Power Movement, 1967-1972 ........................................................268 Bibliography............................................................................................310 Vita .........................................................................................................326 x Chapter 1 TOWARDS A RECONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT: AN INTRODUCTION IN THREE PARTS Because we all must struggle we all must try Because somewhere in the future we ALL…must die! But to leave a legacy that will long unfurl, That ours too was struggle for a BETTER…World! --Umar Bin Hassan This is a study of ideas and the people who developed them within the context of the Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s. The study focuses on activist intellectuals in three distinct organizational and political settings and presents an account and analysis of their writings, organizational forms, and other efforts to advance radical visions of political struggle and social change during this period.