Research article Apuntes del CENES ISSN 0120-3053 Volume 34 - Nº. 59 January - June de 2015 Pages 93-124

A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá

Perfil espacial de la economía boyacense

Perfil do espaço na economia de Boyacá

Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez* Gabriela Antošová**

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.19053/22565779.3538

Date of reception: 1 September 2014 Concept of evaluation: 21 November 2014 Date of approval: 28 November 2014 ______* Doctorate student in Applied Economic Analysis and Economic History, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Master in Economic Science, Universidad Nacional de . E-mail address: [email protected] ** Doctor of the Czech University of Life Sciences, Humanities Departament. Prague, Czech Repulic. E-mail address: [email protected]

93 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

Resumen

Se intenta describir la economía boyacense en términos espaciales con la identificación de conjuntos de municipios, que por su contigüidad, pueden compartir algunas características productivas y geográficas comunes. Con las variables económicas georreferenciadas disponibles se aplican algunas herramientas de análisis espacial para determinar la tendencia de localización de las actividades agrícolas, industriales y de servicios. El desarrollo del tema corrobora las intuiciones teóricas que destacan la conformación de núcleos urbanos centrales que concentran actividades económicas y de zonas periféricas con baja productividad y sumidas en un estancamiento económico a causa de su aislamiento y la precariedad de la conectividad.

Palabras clave: análisis espacial, economía regional, estructura productiva, localización de la producción.

Clasificación JEL: C18, R12, R15

Abstract

This article aims to describe the economy of Boyacá, Colombia in spatial terms, identifying sets of municipalities that, due to their proximity, may share some common productive and geographical features. Using the available georeferenced economic variables, some tools of spatial analysis were applied, in order to determine location trends in the activities of , industry and services. The development of this topic corroborated with the theoretical assumptions regarding the formation of urban centers that concentrate economic activities, while peripheral zones show low productivity and remain economically stagnant, as consequence of their isolation and poor connectivity.

Keywords: spatial analysis, regional economics, production structure, location of production.

Resumo

Este trabalho tem como objetivo descrever a economia Boyacense em termos espaciais, com a identificação de grupos de municípios que, pela sua contiguidade podem compartilhar algumas características produtivas e geográficas comuns. Com as variáveis econômicas disponíveis algumas ferramentas de análise espacial geo-referenciadas são aplicados para determinar a natureza espacial das atividades agrícolas, industriais e de serviços. O desenvolvimento do tema corrobora conhecimentos teóricos que destacam a criação de centros urbanos centrais que concentram áreas económicas e periferias, com atividades de baixa produtividade e relegadas na estagnação econômica com resultado do seu isolamento e pobre conectividade.

Palavras-chave: análise espacial, economia regional, estrutura produtiva. localização da produção.

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INTRODUCTION spatial distribution of economic activity that can be seen in cartographic and The department of Boyacá is counted spatial analysis displays. among the four principal agricultural producers in the country (UNDP, 2011), This impact on spatial aspects underlines thanks to a long-standing tradition of rural the importance of the analysis of the economic production and a variety of location of economic variables, and the climates and natural conditions. In other possible persistence of certain phenomena circumstances, when nature does not localized spatially in particular places and allow for the exploitation of agriculture their surroundings. According to this, in a productive manner, municipalities there are common conditions shared by have sought to survive from services a number of municipalities, which helps activities, such as tourism, business, to understand the productive vocation crafts or pottery. of some particular region, and allows the determination of certain geographic In effect, the economy of Boyacá has or natural conditions that underlie these been characterized for being based spatial phenomena. predominately on agriculture and mining, although in recent years services have As is widely known, since the time of gained greater participation in the Alfred Marshall it has been discussed production of the department (Rodríguez, that the most elemental influence on the 2007). This sectoral change in its location of productive activity came from productive structure is reflected in the the natural conditions and the access to

95 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová natural resources. The observations of in the geographic body corresponded to the the British author arose from the curiosity agricultural production of municipalities. sparked by the location of industry in In the case of the manufacturing industry, England at the end of the XIX century statistics on the local level of production, (Marshall, 2005). In this context, the aggregated value or employment do not department of Boyacá possesses fertile exist. As a way of approaching this sector, soils which accommodate a variety of municipal information on the number of productive activities, but also, in some productive units was used; which was regions soil erosion and the deterioration found to be duly georeferenced. Finally, of topsoil has left an imprint on some for the services sector the study included desertic areas (see map 2). Further on, it data on the number of units of services for will also be seen that in the most fertile each municipality. Given the advantage zones and with suitable soils, there are of having municipal statistics on the some municipalities that stand out for aforementioned terms, it was possible their productivity, especially in certain to apply a series of geostatistical tools products. to determine the characteristics and the spatial patterns of the variables in Regarding the above, this article analyses question and draw very specific and local the spatial distribution of the economic conclusions. activities of Boyacá, for which some basic spatial analysis tools are applied. In this way, the article manages to explore The georeferenced information was some spatial aspects of the production downloaded from the application SIG-OT, of Boyacá and attempts to identify the which is available from the webpage of municipalities that play a set role in the Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi the location of economic activity in (IGAC)1, personalizing the data for the the department. Precisely, in Appendix department of Boyacá. The information 1 that accompanies this document, the has the virtue of being available for codification of the municipalities and municipalities, although for the same the political division of the department degree of detail, statistics in the fields of are presented, to guide the location of manufacturing and services do not exist. the municipal jurisdictions repeatedly Nevertheless, substitute variables were mentioned in this analysis. incorporated that, in an indirect manner and with high fidelity, offered directories The structure of the article is comprised of what was originally intended to study. of five parts. After this introduction, a section that puts forward some ideas In terms of variables of analysis, the most concerning the problem of the location complete and direct information consulted of economic activity are presented

______1 Agustín Codazzi Geographic Institute. For further details consult: http://sigotn.igac.gov.co/sigotn/

96 Apuntes Cenes Vol. 34, Nº. 59, ISSN 0120-3053 January - June 2015, Pages 93-124 following a useful classification applied location into the basic theoretical corpus by the Nobel Prize winner Krugman of economic science. (1995), although emphasis is made on the conceptual schemes of Von Thünen, the The classification that Krugman (1995) usefulness of which comes to light when proposes of the traditions of thought, in observing the spatial disposition of the order to explain location, has as its starting economic variables consulted. In effect, point the recognition of the importance the cartographic display exhibits centers of placing oneself in the context of of production and economic activity in increasing returns to fully understand the main cities of Boyacá, surrounded the unequal distribution of economic by a group of close municipalities, which activity in the space. On the contrary, if gravitate in turn to those in accordance working in a context of constant returns with their particular productive vocation. and if there are transport costs, the world In the third section, some methodological would reveal a panorama dominated by a tools are introduced, like a toolbox to collection of self-sufficient dwellings in interpret the subsequent results. The which each producer would do so for their fourth part presents a basic spatial analysis own satisfaction in an autarchic manner, of the georeferenced variables available in what has been referred to as backyard for agriculture, the manufacturing capitalism (Krugman 1992, 1995; Fujita industry, and services; and finally, some et al, 2000). This metaphor highlights the conclusions are proposed. fundamental role of economies of scale as a force for location, according to which companies are established in few places THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK where the existence of a large enough market is detected, so as to produce large The spatial form that productive activity volumes, exploiting some production assumes has caught the attention of conditions dominated by increasing geographers as well as economists. From returns. the contributions of the German school of location to the recent developments In this sense, the proven existence of of the new economic geography, much spatial concentrations of economic has been written and researched on the activity and an unequal distribution of phenomenon of agglomeration and its production is an irrefutable sign of the spatial location. To make an account of lack of validity of backyard capitalism. the contributions of some magnificent The objective of Krugman (1995) in exponents on the topic, the description identifying the five traditions in the proposed by Paul Krugman (1995) will spatial economy demonstrates the intent be followed. This description is focused of this field of science to embed itself in on emphasizing the difficulties that arise the central core of conventional economic when incorporating the line of studies of science.

97 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

The first proposed tradition corresponds occurred in the United States in the mid- to Germanic geometry2, developed XX century, which aimed at elaborating among German language writers and was a set of algorithms that represented the known of in the Anglo-Saxon context relationship between population and only until the mid-XX century. In this range of cities, and the utilization of the tradition can be included the model in market potential. These tools turned out which companies seek to address various to have a high level of practical precision markets, having one or more suppliers, so and sufficient capacity to explain certain they have more than three sites to choose empirical regularities in the subject of a location from. Likewise, the theories of location. central-place are relevant, which end up proposing geometric type solutions with The definition of the rule of size-rank3 an agricultural population homogenously related functionally the distribution of distributed, the results of which could the size of cities with the rank order lead to a hexagonal distribution of the following demographic criteria. The agricultural population or a hierarchical aforementioned rule was defined as: plan of cities. k N = i Rb The issue with these types of models is j that they are geometric descriptions of N being the population of the city N, R its the location, instead of explanations of an rank order according to the demographic economic type according to conventional criteria and b acting as an exponent close analysis. They also exhibit a fundamental to 1. lack of a micro-founded framework, in which appears an explanation of Continuing with the algorithms associated individual decisions and a definition of with social physics, an expression of the market structure in which context the gravitational type appears in which model develops. In summary, the main the populations, their distances, and lack of these approaches consists of the the volume of the transactions made fact that it is not possible to explain the intervene. A way of representing it is as existence of a central place, disregarding follows: the market power of imperfectly Ni Nj competitive companies (Krugman, 1995). Tij = k b D ij The second tradition reviewed by Krugman Where T represents the transactions (1995) is known as social physics and is carried out between cities, D is the identified with developments which distance, and b is an exponent.

______2 In this category theorists like Weber, Lösch and Christaller are classified. 3 Also known as Zipf’s Law

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A third algorithm was defined in terms This logic applied to the development of market potential to identify entities theory could make predictions of what that demonstrate that they have a strong would happen on a territorial scale market, as vital information for firms of regional scope. In these terms, if a at the time of localizing. Therefore, an market was big enough so as to promote index was created that incorporated the economies of scale, an import substitution purchasing power of the markets and the process could begin that would favor distances, as follows: local production. Later on, and in the presence of free movement of factors, Y p = k j immigration would increase the number i Σ b j D ij of workers and would give rise to a new expansion cycle of production. With similar parameters to those presented above, but including Y representing Then, Krugman appeals to technological purchasing power of a certain market. influence and the spillovers which are at These tools, which are focused on market the base of the fourth tradition known power, were appropriately adjusted, and as local externalities. The economist, coincided in locating with precision the whose contribution is most recognized points in which industrial agglomeration in this respect is Alfred Marshall (2005), and the focus of the market were back-fed. with his emphasis on the transfer of knowledge between companies as a The third tradition of spatial economy result of spatial closeness. Although, in corresponds to cumulative causation4, principle, his contributions limited the which made emphasis precisely on the definition of some purely technological circular dependence that is generated externalities, these were included as one between the market potential and the of the centripetal forces of industrial location of the companies. With these agglomeration. arguments, it was intended to explain the self-reinforced dynamic, which is present Finally, in the fifth tradition of the analysis in the growth of cities as a response to of spatial economy, Krugman alluded industrial development, originated, at the to studies based on land rent and land same time, in urban growth. This circular use. In order to develop this tradition, process was captured in some empirical he concentrates on the theoretical model works that were consistent with this of concentric rings around an isolated hypothesis. city5.

______4 Important exponents are Harris, Lowry, Pred and Myrdal. 5 The discussion is particularly focused on Von Thünen`s contribution.

99 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

In the present analysis, said report will of the model. Another implication is that be complemented with a graphic analysis the increase of distance has an effect presented in the work of Cabral (2011), in of gradual reduction on the agricultural which an illustration of the Von Thünen rent, coinciding with the need to raise rings appears in a study of the location of wages due to the increase in the price of the timber and forestry industry. Similarly, urban goods. Additionally, the differential a more formal development of the model nature introduced by the distance affects of concentric rings will be consulted. the agricultural production systems and This was presented in the magnificent the type of crop in each ring, keeping contribution made by Samuelson (1983) intensive agriculture in the central rings who, when approaching the model, and distributing the extensive activities develops a remarkable mathematical and in the zones furthest away. analytical refinement. The model assumes important criteria. In The starting point of the model is the the words of Cabral (2011): functionality of the agricultural organization around a central city, addressing various • It is located on flat land with uniform economic and geographic restrictions, soil quality surrounded by an outer such as the distance with respect to an ring of wilderness. urban center, factorial intensity (land and • There are no movements of exportation work) of the crops and transport costs. or importation beyond the forest. Under these circumstances, the spatial disposition of the model shows a number • The farmers are homogenous as regards of surrounding rings that accommodate their cultural level. agricultural production, according to the uses of the soil in each spatial segment. • The farmer produces for the market, aiming to maximize profits. Each farmer has similar characteristics to those of their peers, but the differentiating • The only possible market to sell their element is the geographical position and products is the urban market. the distance with respect to the central place, a circumstance which introduces • The products are transported to the city the cost of transport as a central criterion by animal-drawn vehicles.

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Figure 1. Von Thünen`s rings Source: Taken from Cabral (2011).

In Figure 1, Cabral graphically develops livestock production would be relegated the configuration of the productive rings to the sixth ring (Cabral, 2011). which are derived from Von Thünen’s model and his “theory of agricultural In the model of Von Thünen in Samuelson’s location.” In the spatial distribution it is (1983) style, it is assumed that the city reasonable that the products that are most specializes in the production of clothing, expensive to transport are cultivated in and also in two agricultural crops, which the most central rings, applying a criteria are located in their respective rings. On of economic efficiency to this decision. the one hand, the vegetables that are most delicate to transport and, consequently, In accordance with the above, the that bring about greater costs; and, on organization of the agricultural production the other, grains with low transport costs. would locate the vegetable, legume and In these circumstances, the vegetables fruit crops in the most central ring; will be grown on the limited zones that the second ring would be used for the are contiguous with the city, while the production of timber and firewood; in grains will be planted in the plains further the third ring would be put the rotation away, due to their ease of transport. crops of cereals and root vegetables; in For reasons of economic efficiency, the the next ring, a rotation system of cereals production would make more economic and grass would be organized; the fifth use of land the more central the ring. This ring would be adapted to a three field explains why the production would tend system, composed of winter crops, spring to progressively make more intensive use crops and fallow land. Finally, extensive of the land as the distance increases, given

101 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová that land becomes the most relatively intensively used (the relationship between abundant factor, while in the more central the factors L/T will decrease with the rings the factor of labor would be most distance from the urban center).

Figure 2. Variables’ behavior in the model, according to distance. Source: taken from Samuelson (1983).

In Figure 2 the functioning of the variables The presented model is a master work in of the location model are represented, in assigning the use of land in an efficient accordance with the distance R, from the way and offers very reasonable criteria perspective of the analysis of Samuelson. for the functioning of an agricultural The first frame represents the fact that system, applying a system of differential the prices of the urban goods delivered rent in relation to distance. As Samuelson to a certain distance from the city should (1983, p. 1481) pointed out: “…charging increase linearly. At the same time, the competitive land rent is what leads to price of the agricultural goods delivered normative social efficiency.” to the city, will experience a continuous reduction to the extent that the distance METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS requires the crossing of the outer ring. In the third illustration, the rent of the land Nearly all of the socioeconomic in terms of grain is represented, which phenomena are distributed in an unequal has a tendency to decrease. If the land is way in the space. Some aspects affect some a static factor, the relative rent of the land places more intensely than some others, in terms of grain will continually reduce and the maps that represent the simple in contrast to the rent of the lands located display of variables are always shaded closer to the city. Lastly, the fourth frame in different colors or use symbols which represents wages in terms of grain, which denote differences on the geographical have a tendency to increase, so the wages plane. The merit of the spatial analysis need to adjust to the increase in order to consists of managing to identify the compensate for the higher price of the thematic reasons and the underlying facts urban goods; the further the distance from which lead to the differentiation of the the center, the higher the increase. economic variables within the space.

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To the effect of the present analysis, some are identified; they are characterized by very basic and standardized tools of spatial groups of contiguous municipalities. This analysis are applied with the purpose of technique is very useful to efficiently identifying location patterns and pointing point out where certain behavior of out the names of the municipalities the variable takes place (Universidad which have a particular economic and Nacional de Colombia, n.d.). productive characteristic. Given that the spatial behavior of agriculture, industry, On occasions, a high value of the variable and services is intended to be approached, is detected, but it might be isolated from it was considered illustrative to focus on the rest of the high values that belong to the identification of municipalities that other spatial entities. Therefore, the tool had a specific role in the behavior of seeks certain value in the context of the some productive variable, proposing an neighboring entities. In order to form hot interpretation of the geographic patterns spot, the spot must have high values and displayed by the cartographic tool. be surrounded by entities which show equally high values. As was previously noted, the data was taken from the Instituto Geográfico Additionally, a widespread contrast Agustín Codazzi, whom you can consult of this type of analysis has also been through their webpage. This data has applied. It is known as Moran`s spatial the advantage of being on a municipal autocorrelation (Ord & Getis, 1995), the territorial scale, for this reason, a very purpose of which is to measure the degree detailed analysis can be carried out. of spatial dependence of the values of However, as is logical, not all the desired each variable between neighboring areas variables were available and so, other and determine if there is a spatial pattern data closely related to the phenomenon which accompanies the distribution of the in question was used. At the same variable. In fact, for the spatial analysis, time, Appendix 1 presents a map of the it is essential to detect if the variables municipalities and a table with their follow a spatial pattern or not; in other respective names in order to facilitate the words, if the variable is distributed cartographic location of the localities in randomly or if the data forms a cluster of Boyacá. With respect to the cartographic similar values in a fraction of the plane. display and the spatial analysis tools applied, they were processed using the These phenomena of spatial contiguity ARCGIS software, ARC MAP 10.1. can be attributed to the existence of a ”contagion effect”, as a consequence The first spatial analysis tool consists of the geographical vicinity and the of the application of hot spot in which transmission of externalities (Chasco, clusters of high values or low values of 2008), the final result of which is the the variable in spatial neighborhoods display of a group of spatial entities that

103 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová show a certain pattern, grouping high test, and if the calculated values belong to values and low values of the variable in the area of acceptance or rejection of the question. null hypothesis. For the present analysis, the purpose is to find out if the spatial This phenomenon of spatial correlation distribution of the variables responds can be contrasted through Moran’s test, to a random distribution in the space or as Chasco (2008) describes: if it is run by some association pattern (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, n.d.).

SPATIAL BEHAVIOR OF THE ECONOMY OF BOYACÁ

Where I is Moran’s index, yi is the value of the variable in the location i, Several points of interest stand out in Von yi is the average value of the variable Thünen’s model, which was superficially y, wij represents one of the elements of presented in the theoretical part. Production the spatial weights matrix w and where demands that in the areas closest to the s0 is a factor of equivalent scale to the urban centers, the land be used more sum of all the elements in the matrix w. efficiently for more productive crops and This last matrix has an n order, where with technologies that maximize the use n is the number of municipalities in thereof, while in the more remote areas the department (123), which contains the production can be less land-conserving information of the contiguity relationships and involve more extensive activities. At among the observations. greater distances from the urban center, wages in terms of agricultural goods The interpretation of Moran’s index is have to be readjusted to the increase, carried out against the contrast of the null recognizing that the price of the urban hypothesis of no spatial autocorrelation. goods also increase because of the distance; Therefore, the values of Moran’s Index simultaneously forcing the drop in rent of (I) that the test shows are interpreted in the land in the more remote rings. comparison to the values that would be expected in case that the null hypothesis A summarized conclusion of the concentric was not rejected, reinforced by the rings model has been described in the respective values z and p of the probability following terms: “….the expensive land (Chasco, n.d.). close to the center would be reserved for crops with high transport costs and/or Similarly, the spatial autocorrelation crops that gave a high value per hectare; analysis is accompanied by a Gaussian the outer most ring would be dedicated to bell-shaped report with the objective of crops intensive in land use or to harvests of observing the contrast of the hypothesis cheap transport” (Krugman, 1995, p. 51).

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Below, the layout on the map of some agricultural production, contextualizing economic variables will be cartographically the spatial performance of this enterprise described, making particular emphasis with respect to the distribution of other on the spatial characteristics of the branches of activity.

Map 1 . Boyacá Population by municipalities. Source: elaborated by the authors with data from the system SIGOB of the GIAC and the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE).

Map 1 shows the municipalities Colombia. Other important populations with concentrated populations in the that also stand out in the region are department and that, at the same time, and Puerto Boyacá. act as provincial urban centers and which offer a number of economic From this perspective, as described by services to their surrounding areas. The Medina and Bermúdez (2007), Boyacá is most prominent figure represents , sociologically characterized by a marked the capital, followed by Sogomoso, predominance of a rural component in its , and Chiquinquirá. This last population, demographic stagnation; and city is considered to be the market center in the economic sphere, the persistence for from the mining zone and of areas dominated by a widespread rural is known as the religious capital of economy, and with scarcity of capital and

105 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová technology. For his part, Cruz (2007) attraction to workers are Tuta, Cómbita, identifies certain typical characteristics Samacá, Toca, Soracá, Sora, Chivatá, of the rural regions of Boyacá with , , Chiquinquirá, Saboyá, the outermost rings of Von Thünen’s , Maripí, , model, which in practice tend to be less , , Villa de productive, with extended periods of Leyva, Sutamarchán, , , inactivity of the land and few crop cycles , Santa Rosa, Paz del Río, and little production per year. Tasco and Socotá, among others.

The department continues to demonstrate According to the above, the role that a predominately rural economy with the different municipalities have subsistence crops that involve some assumed reflects the prevalence of some 200,000 families according to the recent tendencies in the reality of the approximated calculations of Medina department, in the sense of maintaining and Bermúdez (2007); a phenomenon the continuation of agricultural and which is recognized in the small villages mining centers, and the force that services and in the focal points of human activity have taken, especially governmental where the countryside meets the city services. in the departmental centers of Tunja, Sogomoso, Duitama, and Chiquinquirá. The economic structure of the department has produced some recent innovations. In a recent work, Arias (2011) applied Firstly, the upturn in the services sector the first stage of the methodology of is observed, mainly in what refers to industrial districts for Boyacá, with government services and the financial data on the movement of commuters sector (Rodríguez, 2007). This outsourcing reported in the 2005 census. There, the is a phenomenon that belongs to the municipalities that attracted workers from contemporary economy and coincides other jurisdictions to their labor markets with a decline in the involvement of were identified. This situation indicated industry and the agricultural sector. that those municipalities were developing as points of attraction regarding work, Some municipalities that are conditioned either for housing government offices or by their natural environment lack legal entities, or for being well defined agricultural or industrial activities and have areas of economic exploitation, for dedicated themselves to the development example, the zone and some of pottery and tourism, as is the case touristic municipalities. As well as the of the ten municipalities that make up municipalities mentioned in the previous the intersection of the desert of the La paragraph, others that appear as places of Candelaria (Medina & Bermúdez, 2007).

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Map 2. Boyacá, degree of erosion by municipality Source: elaborated by the authors with data from IGAC

Map 2 represents the state of erosion in renowned Western Boyacá Province, a the municipalities and corroborates the territory dedicated to mining, in particular influence of the geographic environment the extraction of emeralds. This zone of on production. The impact of the erosion of emeralds includes the municipalities of the soil is notorious in municipalities such Quípama, Maripí, Muzo, Otanche, Coper, as Villa de Leiva, Ráquira, Gachantivá, Borbur, Coscuez, with a more diverse Sotaquirá, Cómbita, among others. A sociology caused by the population light green coloring is observed in the movements stemming from other regions. center of the department in very suitable soils and that correspond with a very Another mining production center is productive zone in terms of agricultural associated with the exploitation of production. This green colored area with coal in the municipalities of Samacá, optimum productive conditions includes Paz del Río, , Tópaga, the municipalities of Samacá, Cucaita, and in the surroundings of Sogomoso, Chíquiza, Tibaná, Turmequé, among the production of which is linked to others. These fertile conditions and the steelmaking processes and the generation access to water determine the location of of thermoelectric energy (Medina & crops such as potatoes and onions, as they Bermúdez, 2007). In other localities, are intensive in water use and fertile land. coal serves as an input for the production of brick and lime, particularly in the This overview of the soils also shows a municipalities of Nobsa, Belencito, and cleared zone in the west of Boyacá, in the the surroundings of Sogomoso.

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Agriculture hundred thousand. Livestock activity is developed in the flat area that runs In the zones of the department where parallel to the Oriental mountain- the land is suitable, agriculture is the range, in a model of latifundia style, basic activity, which causes the high concentrated, extensive production, concentration of some specific products located in the valleys of Sotaquirá, and defines the productive specialization , Iza, Belén and , and of the department. In this way, the Human in the surroundings of , Development Report 2011 (UNDP 2011) Chiquinquirá and . Livestock identified some stability in the rates of farming has a presence towards the west growth in the departments that participated in the area of Puerto Boyacá and in the the most in the national agricultural remote territories of , production, a condition that Boyacá shares and Paya (Medina & Bermúdez, with Antioquia, Valle and Cundinamarca. 2007). The products that have propelled the sectoral growth in the region of Boyacá The , the signature crop of the have been potatoes and corn. Additionally, department, is cultivated in high and the report concludes that Boyacá, cold zones in the majority of cases by Santander and Cesar have experienced smallholders in productive units that, a certain evolution in transforming from on average, cover less than 3 hectares being purely agricultural regions towards per farm, rotated in two productive regions with an upturn in livestock activity cycles in the year. Together with Nariño (UNDP, 2011). y Cundinamarca, the department of Boyacá leads in the production of the With respect to the national sectoral tuber, projecting its market to the capital performance, the report of the UNDP of the country, the Atlantic coast and (2011) highlights the behavior of the Bucaramanga (Medina & Bermúdez, agricultural activity during the decade 2007). of the nineties, a period in which the aforementioned type of production had The portion of the basin of the Suarez pro-cyclical behavior and rates of growth river that is within the department of close to those of the overall economy, Boyacá is characterized by the production while years later, the development of sugar cane in the municipalities of of the sector was more mediocre and Moniquirá, Togüí, Santana, represented half of the growth of the and San José de Pare. The milling economy as a whole. activity keeps the labor market active and introduces basic elements of a proletariat Medina and Bermúdez (2007) estimate that works in the elaboration of panela the number of head of cattle as five- (unrefined whole cane sugar). In the

108 Apuntes Cenes Vol. 34, Nº. 59, ISSN 0120-3053 January - June 2015, Pages 93-124 same region, agricultural production is close to bodies of water to facilitate its mixed, simultaneously benefitting from extraction for the purposes of production. , manioc, plantain and orange crops (Medina & Bermúdez, 2007). As will Fruit-tree areas include the municipalities be appreciated further on, in map 3 of of Nuevo Colón, , Tibaná, agricultural hot spots, this zone appears Ramiriquí, Sotaquirá, where peaches, as a space characterized by high values apples, plums, pears, banana passion of agricultural production, particularly for fruit, tamarillo, blackberry, feijoa, among temperate climate crops. others are cultivated. In the department the production of string beans, cucumbers, Onion crops are established in the and tomatoes also exist which are located department under two arrangements. in the vicinity of Guayatá and There exists a productive commercial (Medina & Bermúdez, 2007). crop in the surroundings of Tota lagoon and that supplies the national capital The following analysis will be based on and other urban centers. On the other the spatial characteristics of agricultural hand, on small parcels of land, onions production. For this, a tool called hot are cultivated in the municipalities of spot will be applied to the agricultural Samacá, Sáchica, Sutamarchán, Tinjacá, production data measured in tons, with Villa de Leiva, and in the vicinity of which it is intended to point out well- the capital of the department. The crop defined areas in the map, which show is water intensive and this explains particular characteristics as regards its specific location in the department agriculture.

109 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

Map 3. Boyacá, hot spot of agricultural production. Source: calculations made by the authors from information elof IGAC and the Ministry for Agriculture

The representation in the map of the location of the municipalities where zones with different degrees of intensity agricultural production exhibits high of agricultural production indicates values and additionally the definition the influence of natural, geographical, of whether the surrounding localities or weather conditions which favor the register similar production values. exploitation of certain productive varieties in the jurisdiction some municipalities In map 3 the agricultural production characterized by spatial contiguity. hotspots are represented, that is to say, groups of municipalities with similar In these terms, it is convenient to values of the variable and depending determine if an economic variable is on which, well defined zones of the spatially correlated so as to identify the department are profiled. possible formation of clusters, in which case the variable can follow a spatial There, in red, appear the municipalities pattern, disregarding the possibility of a with high values forming a central random location (Chasco, n.d.). In what cluster of cold lands, where the potato follows, the analysis demands the exact and pea crops and pastures play a very

110 Apuntes Cenes Vol. 34, Nº. 59, ISSN 0120-3053 January - June 2015, Pages 93-124 important role. This quite productive zone Mongüi, appear in blue, and also, in the includes Ramiriquí, Chivatá, Jenesano, occident, Puerto Boyacá. Viracachá, Cucaita, Chíquiza, Sáchica, Toca, Oicatá, Sotaquirá, Sutamarchán, Finally two groups with lower agricultural Santa Sofía, Gachantivá, Arcabuco, production are introduced, with two Cómbita, , and the capital typical characteristics highlighted by the of the department, Tunja. However, economic geography for the location of without spatial contiguity, further production: natural advantage and the north, three municipalities with high transport costs and the distance. agricultural production are profiled, such as Chitaraque, Santana, and San José de There are a group of municipalities Pare. colored in yellow, located in the occident of Boyacá, which stand out more for Below this first group, agricultural their mining production than for their production is distributed with lower agriculture. Others are affected by poor values in a ring that surrounds the main communication over land, while others are group and that is marked in black. The located in more central places. In this group municipalities included there, specialize of emerald producing municipalities are: in the production of onions, and some Otanche, Quípama, San Pedro de Borbur, of them stand out more due to mining Muzo, and . Along with them appear production or handicrafts. This group, Buenavista, Caldas, Tununguá and in the which forms a circumference, is made north, and Cubará. More towards up of the municipalities of Pajarito, the center of the department are found Aquitania, Tota, , Zetaquira, Belén, Beteitiva, Tasco, Floresta, Gámeza, Tibaná, Úmbita, Turmequé, Nuevo Tópaga, Santa Rosa, and Cerinza. Colón, Ventaquemada, Samacá, Ráquira, Tinjacá, San Miguel de Sema, among The group with least importance in others. terms of agricultural production is conditioned by the distance with respect In an intermediate group of agricultural to the market centers and clearly marks production, there are populations with a peripheral outline in the geography of predominantly urban and industrial the department. There appear Miraflores, activity; and other municipalities, further , Santa María, , Guayatá, from the center of the department. Garagoa, and Campo Hermoso. In the The municipalities of Duitama, north, there are Chita, Guacamayas, El Paipa, Sogamoso, Chiquinquirá, Espino, , , , Labranzagrande, Nobsa, Tibasosa, Tutaza, Socha, among others.

111 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

Figure 3. Moran’s Index agricultural production Source: result of the tool applied in the ArcGis software

The spatial phenomena imply that Observing figure 3, according to Moran’s contiguous or close units possess similar index, it’s z-score and the P value, the values and that as observations move null hypothesis of random distribution further in space, said values become is rejected, giving an indication of more dissimilar. Through the concept of the definition of the spatial pattern of spatial autocorrelation it is evaluated if agricultural production. Additionally, the neighboring jurisdictions have similar graphic report locates the z-score of 4.11 values. For such an effect, a standard on the right of the Gaussian bell curve, so it indicator will be interpreted to detect is confirmed that the values follow a cluster social autocorrelation, known as Moran’s pattern. For this reason, it can be stated that index (Ord & Getis, 1995; Chasco, 2008). the data of agricultural production shows

112 Apuntes Cenes Vol. 34, Nº. 59, ISSN 0120-3053 January - June 2015, Pages 93-124 a spatial autocorrelation and that cluster Industry agglomerations are formed, observing the distribution by municipalities of the The manufacturing industry in Boyacá variable in question. has been characterized as being not very diverse to the standards of other sections of In fact, considering the agricultural the country. Additionally, the existence of vocation of the department, it is very certain specific groups is very limited and, likely that the natural and weather in general, responds to strong linkages conditions favor one type of production to the natural resources, with a marked that is very similar between neighboring presence in agro-industry. In Table 1, municipalities. This is related to the there appear the most important industrial predominant role of this section of the groups of the department, consulting the country as regards the production of data of the Annual Manufacturing Survey onions, potatoes, fruit trees among others. carried out by DANE.

Table 1. Boyacá. Participation of each group in manufacturing employment of the department 2009 (%)

Food Textile Clothing Chemistry Rubber Non- Basic Metallic Towing Furniture and metals metallurgy minerals vehicles and others Bev. and glass 13,3 0,9 2,0 1,4 0,4 13,8 48,6 5,3 3,2 1,5 Not all groupings appear and does not necessarily add up to 100. Source: Calculations of the authors based on Annual Manufacturing Survey (EAM).

In Boyacá, the manufacturing industry the company by the name of Siderúrgica has been based in specific locations de Boyacá (steelworks). giving rise to industrial strongholds and fostering agglomeration economies. In the The beer making plants in Tibasosa and surroundings of Duitama and Sogomoso, drinks factories in the city of Duitama they have located factories producing car are of importance for the department. bodies and other transport material, which The non-metallic minerals group has a have defined the industrial profile of these cement plant in the municipality of Nobsa municipalities. Since the year 1958, the and has a series of factories of various department has welcomed the company sizes dedicated to the elaboration of tiles Acerías Paz del Río (steelworks) in the and bricks throughout the department. municipality of Nobsa, which satisfies Celebrated is the case of the old textile 30% of the steel market in the country and factory in Samacá, which has suffered has become an emblematic establishment many ups and downs in its history and of the region. One should also mention dates from the XIX century.

113 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

Nevertheless, the most generalized the municipalities of Sogomoso and industrial activity is that related to the Aquitania, and more towards the center group of food and beverages that is of the department, it forms a ring around present in many municipalities of the Tunja. department and that responds to the traditional agricultural vocation of Boyacá. A third group, colored blue, includes the municipalities of the basin of the Suarez In map 4 it is observed that most of the river, such as San Miguel de Sema, industrial facilities are located in the Sáchica, Sutamarchán, among others. industrial zone in the surroundings of Duitama, including the municipalities of Other regions house a lower number Nobsa, Firavitoba, Santa Rosa and Paipa, of industrial establishments and are forming a characteristic industrial cluster located in the extreme peripherals in the region. of the department. There appear the municipalities of the occidental zone of The second group of municipalities, the department and of the provinces of marked in black, appear as industrial Valderrama, Gutiérrez, Neira, and La zones of lesser intensity, including Libertad.

Map 4. Boyacá, hot spot of industrial units by municipality. Source: elaborated by the authors based on information from IGAC and DANE

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If speaking in spatial terms, industry sized municipalities, especially in the in Boyacá is concentrated in the more basin of the Suarez river. Finally, on the urbanized municipalities. The localities periphery of the department, industry is that surround the city of Duitama have limited to a reduced number of industrial formed an industrial ring of lesser units with little influence on the local intensity, the same as other medium- economy.

Figure 5. Moran’s Index of the number of industrial units Source: As a result of the application of ArcGis software.

According to figure 5, the analysis of of the industrial units in the space to be spatial autocorrelation by the variable rejected, and equally the Moran index (I) number of industrial units, is accompanied is sufficiently low to approximate itself to by a probability value that does not allow the expected value in case that the null the null hypothesis of random distribution hypothesis is not rejected.

115 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

This leads to the conclusion that the variable With respect to tertiary activities, a in question is randomly distributed in the cartographic representation was made of space and that neighboring municipalities the placement of the market services sector, do have a strong relationship between which includes businesses, professionals, them, as regards the number of industrial hotel and restaurant services, among facilities. This could be understood others, according to the information that better if the predominance of agricultural is captured by DANE and that can be activities was taken into account, but not consulted in the georeferenced information the industrial ones, in most municipalities. of the IGAC. In map 5, hotspot, a very Equally, this reinforces the clustered nature logical tendency of the location of services of the manufacturing activities that are in the department is described, conditioned commonly located in the surroundings by the markets of the population with more of mineral deposits, as is the case of the urban characteristics, namely: Tunja and steel industry Duitama, in rings that appear marked in red.

The services sector The phenomenon is more evident as regards the city of Duitama, because it In the last few years, the economy has detected important tertiary activity of Boyacá has experienced gradual in the municipalities of Santa Rosa, outsourcing in light of the expansion of Iza, Belén, Floresta, Firavitoba, and governmental services, as well as the Paipa. This may point out that many services market to the detriment of the suppliers of the service sector gravitate traditional branches of activity. Rodríguez around municipalities which have the (2007) insists on the loss of involvement characteristics of a city, operating there of the primary sector in the department, without necessarily being located in the in light of the growing prominence most urban areas. This may indicate the of the tertiary sector, which, by 2004 movements of commuters who offer already represented 53% the of Boyacá´s their services to clients located in other GDP. With reference to the national jurisdictions (Arias, 2011). data, the report of the UNDP (2011) also recognizes a step backwards in the Sogamoso appears in a second group participation of the agricultural sector in marked in black along with other the total production, as is the generalized municipalities where service activity was phenomenon on an international level, detected, such as Aquitania, Mongua and with the aggravating factor that in the Corrales. Also included in this group are: case of Colombia a steep decline in , with activities focused the growth of sectoral productivity and on tourism, Soatá, Miraflores, Garagoa, competitiveness has been registered. Muzo, Santa Sofía, among others.

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Map 5. Boyacá, hot spot of the service units by municipality Source: elaborated by the authors – information extracted from IGAC and DANE

Nevertheless, from the predominance think of an “irradiation effect” from the of the yellow and white colors, there municipalities with urban activity towards exists very little services sector activity their surroundings. It is easy to imagine in the majority of the municipalities this type of influence towards surrounding of the department, comprised of the areas: transport, professionals, and provinces of: Gutiérrez, Valderrama, the activities of the commuters create Neira, some municipalities of the center economic bonds between localities. of the department and in the emerald zone. Another aspect to underline is the poor services activity in large regions Of the special distribution of the services of the department, particularly those sector it can be concluded that the furthest from the center, a phenomenon majority of the activity is concentrated in explained by the lack of human capital, the main urban areas. However, they have the scarce communication, and the strong constituted rings of lesser intensity in the specialization in stagnant activities that municipalities adjacent to the important operate without linkages towards other cities of the department, which makes us sectors.

117 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

Figure 6. Moran’s index of the number of services units Source: resulting from the tool applied in the ArcGis software.

According to Figure 6, in the case of CONCLUSIONS the variable number of units of services, the Moran index does not show signs of The spatial distribution of the economic rejecting the null hypothesis of random activity in Boyacá reveals an interesting distribution from the variable in the cartography of specialization, which space (Chasco, n.d.; Chasco, 2008). The coincides with a first sight perception. concentration of service establishments In the most important cities of the in the most urban areas and their poor department, industrial and services presence in peripheral populations activities predominate, which are form a panorama of reduced spatial branches of activity that complement autocorrelation of the variable. one another adequately, reinforced by the size of the urban markets. There is

118 Apuntes Cenes Vol. 34, Nº. 59, ISSN 0120-3053 January - June 2015, Pages 93-124 a geographically central region, highly have in the exploitation of products of an productive in terms of agricultural goods, agricultural origin. This indicates that the dominated by cold land crops, supported production values between neighboring in the surroundings of Moniquira by a populations reflect similarities and good production of temperate climate allow the visualization of cluster groups crops. The occident is characterized by its of municipalities that are spatially emphasis on mining production that takes agglomerated. This situation is explicable advantage of its comparative advantage because the contiguous municipalities and overshadows agricultural production. can share geographic conditions and Finally, the peripheries of the department common climates that convert them into have a predominance of agricultural good places for the cultivation of certain activities but their performance in terms products and with similar productivity of productivity is poor. characteristics.

This is corroborated in the exercise hot On the contrary, in the case of the number spot of agricultural production that very of industrial units per municipality, there clearly defined some exploitation zones. is a scarce spatial correlation because One very productive region as regards manufacturing production has clustering the cultivation of potatoes and other cold characteristics, without effects of spatial land products was identified in the center dragging on the vicinities and because province and in some municipalities of it depends on the access to natural the province of Márquez. Further north, resources, which are distributed randomly another highly productive zone is the basin in the territory. Thus, it can be affirmed of the Suarez river. The second ring with that this variable responds to a random less intensity of agricultural production layout and does not follow a similar was formed around the primary zone pattern with respect to its surroundings. covering some municipalities of the provinces of Sugamuxi and Márquez. Likewise, the number of services The most peripheral territories of the units does not show a clear spatial department and predominantly mining autocorrelation among neighboring zone revealed less intensity in agricultural municipalities, because it is observed production. that the majority of this activity is limited to bigger cities, although one exception The results of the contrasts of the can be made when observing the ring spatial autocorrelation reveal different that stands out in the surroundings of characteristics in economic activity. In Duitama. the case of agricultural production, high degrees of spatial correlation are detected, The analysis of this economic specialization which can be explained by the natural of the municipalities of the department advantage that contiguous municipalities finds inspiration in different theoretical

119 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová approaches. The principal of comparative of dynamics that are self-sustaining. In advantage can explain a spontaneous effect, it is observed that in more central response of the economy to the climatic locations and in the surrounding rings, restrictions, both natural and of soil, as there is a strong presence of industrial, can be seen in the erosion map of the agricultural and services activities. department. According to Von Thünen’s At the same time, the most peripheral model, the criteria of efficiency lead to a municipalities lack productive variety rational use of the soil, which localizes the and are characterized by a reduced crops that are relatively more productive presence of the services sector and and land conserving in areas close to the industrial activities. That is to say, if a urban center, while in further away places dynamic economic sector does not exist, activities that are intensive in the resource linkages with other productive activities of arable land can be developed. that diversify the local economy do not develop. Thus, the high costs of In summary, the economic production transport caused by isolation result in of the department has been spatially set loss of productivity and impede adequate up around central locations that have a development of inter-branch linkages. marked predominance in agricultural activity and an outstanding presence of It is interesting to realize that Duitama has units of services. On the other hand, there set up an area of influence that is clearly are peripheral regions that are isolated, appreciable if compared to the spatial with a poor infrastructure and with a influence of other cities of the department, predominance of smallholding productive particularly by the presence of industrial structures, which reduces the productivity and services units in the municipalities of the municipal economy. that surround it, which corroborates a relative similarity in the magnitudes The economic backwardness and and activities developed in this city with geographic isolation generate a series respect to it adjacent areas.

REFERENCES

Arias, H. (2011). Aglomeración económica y sistemas locales de trabajo. Apuntes del CENES, 30 (51), 9-43. Cabral D. (2011). Von Thünen e o abastecimento madeireiro de centros urbanos prè industriais. Revista Brasileira de Estudos de População, 28 (2), 405-427. Chasco, C. (s. f.). Métodos gráficos del análisis exploratorio de datos espaciales. Madrid: Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.

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Chasco, C. (2008). Geografía y precios de la vivienda en los municipios de España. Revista Económica de Castilla la Mancha, 12, 242-272. Cruz, J. (2007). La vigencia del modelo de Von Thünen. En E. Rodríguez & L. Vallejo (comp.). Modelos de desarrollo y economía regional. Tunja: Uptc, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística DANE. (2014). Estadísticas por tema. Bogotá. Recuperado de: www.dane.gov.co Fujita, M. et al. (2000). Economía espacial. Las ciudades las regiones y el comercio internacional. Barcelona: Ariel. Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi, IGAC. (2014). Sistema de información geográfica para la planeación y el ordenamiento territorial. Bogotá: IGAC. Recuperado de: http://sigotn.igac.gov.co/sigotn/ Krugman, P. (1992). Geografía y comercio. Barcelona: Antoni Bosch. Krugman, P. (1995), Desarrollo, geografía y teoría económica. Barcelona: Antoni Bosch. Marshall, A. (2005). Principios de economía. Madrid: Fundación ICO, Editorial Síntesis. Medina, R. & Bermúdez, J. (2007). Planeación del desarrollo regional: una mirada política en medio del conflicto. En E. Rodríguez & L. Vallejo (comp.). Modelos de desarrollo y economía regional. Tunja: Uptc, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Ord, J.K. & Getis, A. (1995). Local spatial autocorrelation statistics: distributional issues and an application. Geographical Analysis, 27(4), 286-306 PNUD (2011). Colombia rural: razones para la esperanza. Informe nacional de desarrollo 2011. Bogotá: PNUD. Rodríguez, E. (2007) Los contornos de la economía departamental en las últimas dos décadas. En E. Rodríguez & L. Vallejo (comp.). Modelos de desarrollo y economía regional. Tunja: Uptc, Facultad de Ciencias Económicas. Samuelson, P. (1983). Thünen at two hundred. Journal of Economic Literature, 21, 1468-1488. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. (s.f.). Visualización en 3D y creación de mapas con ArcGIS. Laboratorio de Tecnologías de Información Geográfica. Bogotá: Departamento de Geografía Unal.

121 A spatial profile of the economy of Boyacá Helmuth Yesid Arias Gómez - Gabriela Antošová

APPENDIX 1

Map 6. Boyacá: polítical-administrative division Source: IGAC, DANE

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Department Municipality Name Department Municipality Name Code Code Code Code 15 1 Tunja 15 238 Duitama 15 22 Almeida 15 244 15 47 Aquitania 15 248 El Espino 15 51 Arcabuco 15 272 Firavitoba 15 87 Belén 15 276 Floresta 15 90 15 293 Gachantivá 15 92 Beteitiva 15 296 Gámeza 15 97 15 299 Garagoa 15 104 Boyacá 15 317 Guacamayas 15 106 Briceño 15 322 15 109 Buenavista 15 325 Guayatá 15 114 Busbanzá 15 332 Guicán 15 131 Caldas 15 362 Iza 15 135 15 367 Jenesano 15 162 Cerinza 15 368 Jericó 15 172 15 377 Labranzagrande 15 176 Chiquinquirá 15 380 15 180 Chiscas 15 401 La Victoria 15 183 Chita 15 403 La Uvita 15 185 Chitaraque 15 407 Villa de Leyva 15 187 Chivata 15 425 Macanal 15 189 Cienega 15 442 Maripi 15 204 Cómbita 15 455 Miraflores 15 212 Coper 15 464 Mongua 15 215 Corrales 15 466 Mongui 15 218 Covarachía 15 469 Moniquirá 15 223 Cubará 15 476 Motavita 15 224 Cucaita 15 480 Muzo 15 226 Cuitiva 15 491 Nobsa 15 232 Chíquiza 15 494 Nuevo Colon 15 236 Chivor 15 500 Oicatá 15 507 Otanche 15 740 15 511 15 753 Soata 15 514 Páez 15 755 Socotá 15 516 Paipa 15 757 Socha 15 518 Pajarito 15 759 Sogamoso 15 522 15 761 Somondoco 15 531 Pauna 15 762 Sora 15 533 Paya 15 763 Sotaquirá 15 537 Paz de Rio 15 764 Soracá

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Department Municipality Name Department Municipality Name Code Code Code Code 15 542 Pesca 15 774 Susacon 15 550 Pisva 15 776 Sutamarchán 15 572 Puerto Boyacá 15 778 15 580 Quípama 15 790 Tasco 15 599 Ramiriquí 15 798 15 600 Ráquira 15 804 Tibaná 15 621 Rondon 15 806 Tibasosa 15 632 Saboya 15 808 Tinjacá 15 638 Sachica 15 810 Tipacoque 15 646 Samacá 15 814 Toca 15 660 San Eduardo 15 816 Togüi 15 664 San Jose de Pare 15 820 Tópaga 15 667 15 822 Tota 15 673 San Mateo 15 832 Tununguá 15 676 San Miguel de Sema 15 835 Turmequé 15 681 San Pablo de Borbur 15 837 Tuta 15 686 Santana 15 839 Tutasa 15 690 Santa María 15 842 Úmbita 15 693 Santa Rosa de Viterbo 15 861 Ventaquemada 15 696 Santa Sofía 15 879 Viracachá 15 720 Sativanorte 15 897 Zetaquira 15 723 Source: DANE - DIVIPOLA

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