Department of Primary Industries

Published by Department of Primary Industries, 2003 Primary Industries Research Victoria Bendigo December 2003

Also published on Website: http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/clpr

Ó The State of Victoria, 2003

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Authorised by the Victorian Government, Midland Highway, Epsom.

The National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:

Pillai, Mayavan Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA.

Bibliography. ISBN 1 74146 017 4

1. Salinity – Research – Victoria – Corangamite. 2. Groundwater – Research – Victoria – Corangamite. 3. Hydrogeology – Victoria – Corangamite. I. Primary Industries Research Victoria. II. Corangamite Catchment Management Authority. III. Title. (Series : CLPR research Report ; no. 32).

631.416099457

ISSN 1447-1043

CLPR Research Report Series: No. 32 This publication may be of assistance to you but the State of Victoria and its employees do not guarantee that the publication is without flaw of any kind or is wholly appropriate for your particular purposes and therefore disclaims all liability for any error, loss or other consequence which may arise from you relying on any information in this publication. Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Summary

This document is an inventory of the key outcomes and recommendations from salinity research and investigations relevant to the Corangamite Catchment Management Authority (CMA) region since the original salinity strategy, Restoring the Balance (Nicholson et al. 1992). It provides a gauge as to the extent of application of research outcomes and recommendations, and will assist as a benchmark in identifying the inadequacies of current knowledge, future needs and research priorities. In general the magnitude of hydro(geo)logical parameters and processes that influence the development of salinity is not well understood at the local or implementation level. Though the nature of the broad processes may be reasonably understood in many areas, these are underpinned by relatively simple conceptual models of surface and groundwater processes. The lack of detailed understanding is due to a lack of measured physical data in relation to geology, regolith, soils and groundwater. This is not a criticism that can be simply levelled at historic Corangamite salinity R&I program(s), but is an indicator of the complexity of catchment hydro(geo)logy of the region, and the level of effort that is actually required to gather and interpret the data at the sub-catchment or implementation level. In the Corangamite CMA region hydro(geo)logical complexity is particularly aided by the presence of: · a diversity of hydrogeological environments and landscapes · complex soil water, regolith and landform characteristics influencing groundwater movement · the presence of multi-layered and different scaled flow systems within a single landscape unit · interactions of groundwater flow systems and surface water systems. Despite the limitations and a lack of perceived progress in salinity R&I (in the Corangamite CMA region and generally), there have been important broad advancements in the understanding of processes leading to salinity since Restoring the Balance. These advancements, for example, include the recognition that: · many landscapes that are effectively saturated (with respect to their sub-surface) · significant lateral throughflow or waterlogging processes occur in addition to classical groundwater flow in hydrogeological systems · groundwater response is strongly climatically driven · surface hydrology is likely to be significant for buffering the development of land and water salinity. The above have tended to be concluded and generalised from site specific investigations. However, given the unique response of landscapes to an imposed hydrological regime, such generalisations need to be treated with some caution as they will not always apply. The types of research work that have delivered these outcomes since Restoring the Balance include: · Conceptual understanding of catchment hydrological processes responsible for waterlogging and salinity gained from limited hydrological properties measured in selected sub-catchments. · Conceptual and some numerical modelling describing groundwater-surface water interaction in and around Lake Corangamite and the shallow lakes and wetlands of the western basalt plains. · Analysis of the complex soil-water-geomorphic characteristics in varying hydrogeological and climatic environments in south-west Victoria. · Limited water balance modelling incorporating landscape vegetation scenarios. The direction of salinity research and investigation in the Corangamite CMA region has been steered by a range of influences since the original inception of Restoring the Balance. For instance, the hot spot approach to targeting of implementation and research is now superseded by an assets-based approach to targeting salinity investment, augmented by knowledge now bound in the groundwater flow systems (GFS) framework. Though there have been some attempts to structure the salinity research efforts in the past, as in the thrust of an all-of-water balance approach of the mid-1990s, these efforts have been hindered by limited resources, and, to some degree, by entrenched and uncoordinated institutional responses to research. An analysis of actions resulting from research and investigation (R&I) recommendations reveals that R&I has under-achieved if measured by the number of implemented actions. This may be because the

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research cannot be translated to where actions are required, doesn’t adequately resolve the issue in question, or is poorly communicated. However, there is an argument that if the questions to be answered were more specific or defined in the first instance, then the answers would be more meaningful to the land manager. Increased dialogue between researchers and land managers is essential for improved R&I outcomes. Nowadays R&I tends to occur in a large number of projects spread across a large range of providers, so there is a significant challenge for the Corangamite CMA and its research partners to effectively link and logically synthesise these works into a cohesive and accessible knowledge base. The Corangamite CMA Salinity Action Plan provides a blueprint for focusing R&I, so the challenge is to implement this in an effective and efficient manner. To support this end a number of initiatives are supported by this analysis: · The R&I strategy is overseen by formally chartered technical support group. · A strategy be developed to support a culture of ongoing peer review of salinity R&I. · A mechanism for R&I outputs/outcomes to be acknowledged reviewed and responded to upon their completion (feedback). · A knowledge management strategy with mechanisms for capture, retention and provision of knowledge and data. · Production of periodical statements of knowledge. · Appropriate resourcing and funding. In the context of the historical Corangamite CMA salinity R&I it is clear that some basic work remains unfinished. In the immediate-term there should be some consideration of pursuing this to completion. Work that could be advanced with good value for effort would include: · Comprehensively documenting the outcomes of the Simpson and Gerangamete agroforestry sites. · Documenting the effectiveness of monitoring of a range of salinity control treatments across the Corangamite CMA region. · Documenting the issues and arguments relating to the impacts of surface and sub-surface drainage on the catchment water balance

ii Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Contents

Summary...... i Contents...... iii Acknowledgements ...... iv Abbreviations...... iv Abstract...... 1 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Purpose ...... 1 1.3 Scope ...... 2 1.4 Methodology ...... 2 2 Significant topics of research...... 3 2.1 Groundwater-surface water interaction around the shallow lakes of the Western Basalt Plains ...... 3 2.2 Water balances, salt balances and plant water use trials...... 3 2.3 Specific hydrogeological investigations and reviews ...... 4 2.4 Sub-surface drainage trials...... 5 2.5 General reviews of landscape hydrogeological processes and salinity hazard ...... 5 3 Key report inventory ...... 7 3.1 Hydrogeological review of salinity problems in the Barwon Corangamite region ...... 8 3.2 Review of the status of technical options for salinity control in southern Victoria...... 9 3.3 Upper Moorabool River catchment hydrogeological and salinity investigation ...... 10 3.4 Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems around Lake Corangamite...... 12 3.5 Groundwater-surface water interactions around shallow lakes of the Western District plains...... 13 3.6 An evaluation of farm forestry for dryland salinity control in the Corangamite region, south-west...... 14 3.7 Bamganie-Meredith catchment recharge mapping...... 15 3.8 Groundwater processes in the Lake Murdeduke-Barwon River area...... 16 3.9 Surface water quality and salinisation processes in the Corangamite Region ...... 17 3.10 A soil infiltration and recharge study at the Gerangamete agroforestry site...... 18 3.11 Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems in the Lake Corangamite-Barwon River region...... 19 3.12 A review of hot spots, treatment options, and targets in the Corangamite salinity region.20 3.13 National land and water resources audit (NLWRA)...... 21 3.14 Hydrogeological appraisal of the Heytesbury hot spots for the Corangamite Salinity Region ...... 22 3.15 Groundwater flow systems report, Corangamite CMA region ...... 23 3.16 Review of the Corangamite Salinity Strategy, Restoring the Balance...... 24 3.17 Water balance modelling of Gerangamete agroforestry trial catchment...... 25 4 Discussion ...... 26 4.1 The changing salinity R & I environment ...... 26 4.2 Corangamite CMA salinity R&I achievements and hurdles ...... 26 4.3 Some future steps for more efficient and effective salinity R&I ...... 27 Appendices...... 28 Appendix 1. Documented salinity R&I recommendations and actions resulting...... 29 Appendix 2. Reporting of key salinity monitoring activities across the Corangamite CMA region ...... 40 Appendix 3. Workshop proceedings and Conference papers ...... 44 Appendix 4 Bibliography of landscape, geology and salinity knowledge across the Corangamite CMA...... 47 References...... 66

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Acknowledgements The author would like thank David Heislers for providing technical review and edit, Leisa Macartney for providing editorial comments and Kath Ferrari for assisting with the production. Peter Dahlhaus kindly provided the extensive R&I bibliography that appears in the appendix at the rear of this report. Cover photograph courtesy of Peter Dahlhaus.

Abbreviations CAW Catchment and Water CCMA Corangamite Catchment Management Authority CLPR Centre for Land Protection Research CMA Catchment management authority CRC Co-operative Research Centre CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CGDL Corporate Geospatial Data Library DCNR Department of Conservation and Natural Resources DNRE Department of Natural Resources and Environment DPI Department of Primary Industries (effective post December 2002) DSE Department of Sustainability and Environment EMI Electro Magnetic Imaging EM38/31 Electro Magnetic (equipment model 38 & 31) FWS Flow Weighted Salinity GDB Statewide Groundwater Data Base GFS Groundwater flow system GIS Geographic Information System GPS Global Position System LMU Land management unit NAP National Action Plan (for salinity and water quality) NLWRA National Land and Water Resources Audit NRM Natural Resource Management PIRVic Primary Industry Research Victoria R&I Research and Investigation RAMSAR Iranian town - 1st convention (1971) Wetland Conservation Treaty signed RCS Regional Catchment Strategy RCIP Regional Catchment Investment Plan SAP Salinity Action Plan SALMIC Sustainable Agriculture and Land Management Implementation Committee SGOB State Groundwater Observation Bore SHARP Salinity Hazard and Asset Risk Prediction SKM Sinclair Knight Merz SRW Southern Rural Water TRG Technical reference group (for the project) WQMN Water Quality Monitoring Network

iv Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Salinity research and investigation inventory

Pillai M

Abstract

This document is an inventory of the key outcomes and recommendations from salinity research and investigations relevant to the Corangamite Catchment Management Authority (CMA) region. It provides a gauge as to the extent of application of research outcomes and recommendations, and will assist as a benchmark in identifying the inadequacies of current knowledge, future needs and research priorities. The outcomes of 17 key R&I related documents published since the original salinity strategy, Restoring the Balance, are collated. Outcomes from other published research are cited, in addition to an extensive Corangamite CMA salinity R&I bibliography. In general the magnitude of the landscape parameters and processes that influence the development of salinity is not well understood at the implementation level. Though the nature of the broad processes may be reasonably understood in many areas, these are underpinned by relatively simple conceptual models of surface and groundwater processes. This is not a criticism that can be simply levelled at historic Corangamite salinity R&I program(s), but is an indicator of the complexity of catchment hydrogeology of the region, and the level of effort that is actually required to gather and interpret the data at the sub-catchment or implementation level. The direction of salinity research and investigation in the Corangamite CMA region has been steered by a range of influences since the original inception of Restoring the Balance. However, an analysis of actions resulting from research and investigation (R&I) recommendations reveals that R&I has under-achieved if measured by the numbers of implemented actions. This may be because the research cannot be translated to where actions are required, doesn’t adequately resolve the issue in question, or is poorly communicated. Increased dialogue between researchers and land managers is essential for improved R&I outcomes. Nowadays R&I tends to occur in a large number of projects spread across a large range of providers, so there is a significant challenge for the Corangamite CMA and its research partners to effectively link and logically synthesise these works into a cohesive and accessible knowledge base.

Keywords: hydrogeology, salinity, waterlogging, deep lead, interaction, baseflow, snapshot, modelling 1 Introduction 1.1 Background This salinity research and investigation inventory was commissioned as an activity within the project: 2002- 03 Hydrogeological support for the Corangamite CMA region. This activity was seen as a fundamental building block in developing a coherent and informed research and investigation program to support Catchment Management Authority (CMA) catchment management responsibilities, primarily by reinforcing the outcomes and recommendations of historical studies. This inventory occurs in the context of the concurrent development of the Corangamite Salinity Action Plan (2003b) and the Corangamite Regional Catchment Strategy (2003a). This inventory also marks a change in direction of the provision of catchment hydrology support to CMA regions, with quality science focussed outcomes being increasingly sought by both CMAs and government funding bodies. 1.2 Purpose The objective is to produce a concise and structured inventory of the key outcomes and recommendations from documented salinity research and investigations relevant to the Corangamite CMA region. This is to ensure that as research continues forward, that past learning are captured and accounted for to avoid unnecessary duplication and wastage. By corollary, the inventory should assist in identifying inadequacies in current knowledge that will subsequently require filling in order to optimise the success of salinity implementation strategies into the future.

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1.3 Scope This inventory considers documented research and investigation undertaken since the original Corangamite Salinity Strategy (Nicholson et al, 1992), though it also cites earlier relevant research in an extensive bibliography (Appendix 4). Much of this current research and investigation inventory (‘this inventory’) is therefore drawn from scientific knowledge documented over the past 10 years. This inventory comprises citation of studies chiefly relating to control trials, monitoring data analysis, hydrogeological conceptualisation and numerical modelling of the hydrological and biophysical processes. Particular attention is paid to documents produced within the larger organisations (e.g. Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Sinclair Knight Merz, universities) that over time have had a tendency to become ‘lost from view’. Scientific documents are primarily sourced from: · Centre for Land Protection Research (CLPR) · Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM, previously Hydro Technology) · University of Ballarat. 1.4 Methodology The approach adopted with this inventory included the following key tasks: · Summaries of selected key salinity research and investigation reports across the Corangamite CMA region between 1989 and 2001 in chronological order. This is presented in Section 3. · Develop a table of documented salinity R&I, recommendations and resulting actions across the Corangamite CMA region. This is presented in Appendix 1. · Create a bibliography of all relevant information on groundwater and salinity in the Corangamite CMA region. This is presented in Appendix 4.

2 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

2 Significant topics of research

The major research and investigation and activities since Restoring the Balance (Nicholson et al. 1992) in the Corangamite CMA region can in general terms categorised as follows: · groundwater-surface water interaction around the shallow lakes and wetlands of the Western Basalt Plains · water balance, salt balance and plant water use trials · specific hydrogeological investigations and reviews · sub-surface drainage trials · general reviews of landscape hydrogeological processes and salinity hazard

2.1 Groundwater-surface water interaction around the shallow lakes of the Western Basalt Plains A large body of work by Coram (1996) synthesised hydrogeological data, groundwater flow path and water balance calculations to suggest that most of the lakes in the region behave as throughflow lakes thus maintaining a relative equilibrium. The remaining lakes are either discharge lakes with negligible masses of salts removed by outflowing groundwater, or lakes with intermediate behaviour. Precipitation and evaporation are the dominant climatic influences on lake hydrology and hydrochemistry. This study correlates well with flow net analysis (Gill 1989) and numerical modelling (Blackam 1999) in the area. Sub-surface structural mapping of the top of the Gellibrand Marl aquitard indicates an east-west trough infilled with Moorabool Viaduct Formation (deep lead) directly underlying Lake Martin/Cundare Pool and extending towards the Lake Murdeduke area (Hydro Technology 1995). Mapping and analysis indicates upward discharge and seepage of saline groundwater into the basalt and Lake Murdeduke, which in turn discharges towards the Barwon River via the extension of the sub-basaltic palaeovalley structure (deep lead) developed in the underlying Gellibrand Marl (SKM 1997b). A groundwater divide exists immediately east of Lake Corangamite orientated north through the Robertson-Red Rock-Warrion volcanic features turning eastward and south of Cundare Pool and Lake Weering. A distinct saddle-shaped depression is observed in numerical modelling simulations implying pre-volcanic drainage connecting Lake Corangamite and Lake Colac beneath the scoria south of Red Rock. Modelling also indicates internal drainage features, supporting the existence of pre-volcanic drainage from the southern region of the lake to the north and then exiting via Cundare Pool (Dickinson 1995). 2.2 Water balances, salt balances and plant water use trials The agroforestry project Under the National Landcare program, trial agroforestry sites with 15% tree cover were established at Simpson and Gerangamete in 1993. Intensive groundwater monitoring and soil moisture loggers were established at both sites, with additional stream gauging and climate monitoring at Gerangamete. Heislers, Pillai and Gequillana (2000) reported that at Simpson, in the first five years to 1998, groundwater levels in 80% of the bores were exhibited on average a slight decline. This period of monitoring coincides with a period of declining annual rainfall, so masking the impact of any groundwater decline associated with the tree belts. The National Land and Water Resources Audit (SKM 2000) analysed groundwater trends across southern Victoria to 1998, and concluded that the vast majority of bores across the region exhibited declining groundwater levels from the early 1990s. Similarly, soil moisture data generally indicate drying soil profiles beneath the tree belts, but climate and vegetation impacts have unable to be discriminated. At the Gerangamete site, groundwater data beneath the southern upper slope area show a falling trend since 1997, also coinciding with an extended period of lower rainfall. Similar trends are observed in control bores outside the influence of the agroforestry site. Following an infiltration trial across the Gerangamete site, Heislers (1998) concluded that any meaningful reduction of infiltration and recharge is likely to be only achieved by a high proportion of trees strategically placed in the landscape. These would have the effect of limiting recharge as well as intercepting significant volumes of laterally moving seasonal soil water and shallow groundwater. SKM (2003) conducted numerical modelling on the Gerangamete catchment which accounts for all terms in a catchment-scale water balance. It predicted that there will be little impact with current land use regimes (incorporating the agroforestry), and that only the establishment of broadscale perennial vegetation across the catchment would reduce the extent of current salinity and waterlogging. Plantation forestry had the greatest potential for recharge management, but is unlikely to yield significant salinity benefits within the short- to medium-term because of poorly responsive aquifers. Plantation forestry would also compete with

3 Department of Primary Industries otherwise high value agricultural lands. In the absence of other measures for catchment-wide recharge control, surface drainage is unlikely to yield salinity benefits within the short to medium time frames given the catchment’s poorly responsive and low permeability aquifers.

Water quality analysis SKM (1997c) conducted a regional analysis of surface water quality within the four Corangamite basins based on a 21-year study period (1976 to 1996), and with specific reference to salinisation processes in the Woady Yaloak catchment. It indicated that streams in south-west Victoria show an inverse relationship between flow and salinity that typically occurs in catchments where saline groundwater intrusions provide a baseflow, and rainfall events provide relatively fresh surface runoff. The salinity of the streamflow reflects catchment size and salt store. Generally, flow events in Corangamite region are much more saline than from forested catchments in north-east Victoria. Groundwater flow within the watertable aquifer is likely to be confined to sub-catchments while deeper regional aquifer systems developed mainly in basalts may be expected to flow between catchments. It concluded that the regional impact on the baseflow is not well understood. A specific study into groundwater-stream interaction was also undertaken in the Upper Moorabool catchment (SKM 1994). It concluded that the chief mechanism for increasing salinity and declining water quality in the Upper Moorabool River is increased mobilisation of salt and sediment from runoff, including irrigation return flows. Over time groundwater baseflow has been relatively constant, calculated to be approximately 25% to 33% of estimated annual recharge, and mostly occurring in stream headwater areas. High irrigation to rainfall recharge ratios are calculated to occur across significant parts of the catchment, with highest recharge occurring on the elevated volcanic rises.

Yeodene and Kawarren tree water use trials Clifton, McRostie and McLennan (1997) conducted a study that measured and compared tree water use from a 6 year old eucalypt woodlot at Yeodene and a 23 year old blue gum strip at Kawarren. Water use measurement was undertaken utilising sap flow measurement with partial calibration by soil moisture measurement. The study concluded that timber belts or strips of trees (a form of alley farming) will use more water per unit of planted area than block plantings because of the benefit of the edge effect. The provenance of eucalypts used in this study appeared well suited to a role in farm forestry for dryland salinity control in the high rainfall ares of the Corangamite catchment by transpiring much or all of the annual rainfall.

2.3 Specific hydrogeological investigations and reviews Infiltration or recharge studies were conducted by Heislers (1998) and SKM (1997a) at Gerangamete and Meredith-Bamganie respectively. Heislers (1998) concluded that even assuming low specific yields and aquifer permeability that infiltration rates were moderate to very high across the agroforestry site. Infiltration rates generally correlated with recharge estimated from groundwater hydrographs across the site. Heislers (1996c) had previously estimated that recharge was up to 23% of annual rainfall, and, given that the aquifer has permeability limits, the maximum recharge threshold is achieved in most years. The remaining soil water excess explains the significant lateral throughflows occurring in the upper regolith and soil zones. Heislers and Pillai (2000) deduced the notion of a depth limited and saturated surficial aquifer system operating in the region, whereby only the upper 20 m of the watertable aquifer is directly influenced by surface processes. SKM (1997a) conducted infiltration measurements at Meredith-Bamganie to assist in the understanding of salinity processes. Though a reasonably systematic variation in potential recharge is interpreted to exist across the Ordovician bedrock, Tertiary gravel cappings and basaltic terrain, groundwater flow through the profile is complicated by the existence of the thin gravel cappings and their associated permeability constraints. SKM (1997b) investigated groundwater processes in the Lake Murdeuke-Barwon River region in order to understand increasing salinities in the lower Barwon River. The analysis concluded that regional groundwater flow is directed towards the Barwon River primarily through a palaeovalley structure developed in the underlying Gellibrand Marl. The movement of saline plumes of groundwater occurs from the Lake Corangamite region via (and beneath) Lake Murdeduke to the Barwon River. It was deduced that the most technically feasible method of controlling highly saline groundwater inflow to the Barwon River appears to be by groundwater pumping, interception and disposal similar to the schemes along the Murray River. In 2000 Heislers, Pillai and Gequillana completed a hydrogeological appraisal of the Heytesbury Hot Spot. It provided an updated statement of groundwater processes operating in the region, including incorporating the understanding developed by Macedon et al. (1996). This latter mentioned work highlighted the development of local salinity through seasonal shallow waterlogging in pods of

4 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA redistributed (through land slippage) Hanson Plain Sand material. Heislers, Pillai and Gequillana concluded that localised groundwater flow systems are operative across the Heytesbury area, and that the effective watertable aquifer is developed within the top 20–30 m of the Gellibrand Marl with little or no connection to deeper underlying aquifers. Perched watertable aquifers and elevated seeps occur in the ridge cappings of Hanson Plain Sand.

2.4 Sub-surface drainage trials Heytesbury In 1993 research on a dairy property south of Simpson (Cooriemungle) was selected by NRE for investigation of recharge control through sub-surface drainage. A substantial groundwater monitoring network was established together with equipment to monitor drain flows. Unfortunately the project was unable to be sustained, and remained largely unpublished. There was little question of sub-surface drainage reducing seasonal waterlogging, but the impact on recharge remained unresolved. Further work at the site by MacEwan et al. (1996) did conclude from the short period of groundwater monitoring and associated soil mapping that discrete perched watertable are responsible for winter waterlogging and salinity rather than classical groundwater flow and discharge. Such perched watertables are related to mass wasting (land slippage) of material downslope, and then seasonal ponding of soil water in this material at the base of slope. Pittong University of Ballarat studies (Conn 1994, Portelli 1995) of sub-surface drainage have been undertaken at Pittong in the Upper Woady Yaloak catchment. Much of the data collected remains to be analysed (MacEwan1 pers. comm.).

2.5 General reviews of landscape hydrogeological processes and salinity hazard In his review of the status of technical options for salinity control in southern Victoria, Webb (1993) concluded that the available information on water use by pastures and trees is fragmented, incomplete or adequately assessed and cannot be used with confidence to predict their contribution to dryland salinity control in the >600 mm rainfall zone. He highlighted that a major deficiency was the lack of integrated research in water balance framework, and modelling of the range of land management scenarios to generate greater confidence in the longer term predictions of the impacts of land management. He did, however, advise that research should be focused in the originally identified hot spots. Heislers and Pillai (2000) reviewed the applicability of hot spots, salinity treatments and targets in the Corangamite CMA region that were the basis of Restoring the Balance (Nicholson et al. 1992). On the basis of a refined understanding of salinity, and a knowledge that salinity extends beyond hot spots, adjustment to hot spot boundaries were suggested in addition to the introduction of supplementary treatment areas. The notion of hot spots was soon to be superseded with the advent of groundwater flow systems (Dahlhaus, Heislers and Dyson 2002), and, with the Salinity Action Plan (SAP), a whole new approach was defined in relation to prioritising salinity risk and investment in its treatment. Heislers and Pillai (2000) suggested that a range of hydrogeological processes were operating in the Corangamite Salinity Region that they believed were understated, including the role of waterlogging and complex groundwater flow. Seventeen groundwater flow systems have been delineated in the Corangamite CMA region, with nine predominantly local groundwater flow systems, four predominantly intermediate, and four predominantly regional flow systems. Groundwater flow systems are intended to characterise similar hydrogeology and landform with similar groundwater processes contributing to salinity, where similar salinity management options apply (Coram 1996). Of all the Corangamite CMA groundwater flow systems, the salinity problem is no more contentious than on the basalt plains. (Dahlhaus, Heislers and Dyson (2002) acknowledged that the pre-agricultural basalt plains were inherently 'wet' landscapes given the existence of many shallow lakes and wetlands, the climate, the grasslands (possibly scrubland) and/or open woodland. Primary salinity may have been a widespread feature, as ‘salt’ was a descriptive adjective for many of the lakes and creeks in early historical records. However, given the lack of documented hydrological change and impact across the plains, an understanding of the connection between European settlement and salinisation is yet to be explored. An emerging hypothesis is that surface water-groundwater interaction management may be a key to salinity processes on the basalt plains.

1 R. MacEwan (Senior Soil Scientist, DPI R&D), June 2003

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SKM (2000) documented the outcomes of the National Land and Water Resources Audit in relation to groundwater trends and projected salinity risk. The NLWRA estimated the total area of land in CCMA region with shallow watertable (of < 2 m from the surface) in 1998 as about 50 000 ha, which is approximately three times the area of land mapped (16 000 ha) as having dryland salinity (Allan 1994). This area was predicted to potentially increase to 213 000 ha by the year 2020 (or about 8% a year) under a worst case scenario of shallow watertable, compared to the predicted expansion of mapped area to about 23 000 ha at increase rate of 2% a year calculated in 1992 based on an aerial photograph study (Muske et al. 1992). It was understood that these predictions were purely based on the extrapolation of groundwater trends, though such trends may not satisfactorily describe long-term groundwater fluctuation, nor do their forward projection take account of the possibility of hydrologic equilibrium.

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3 Key report inventory Within the Corangamite CMA region, 17 key reports have been identified that, in combination, describe the advancement of salinity research and investigation in this region, chiefly reported since Restoring the Balance (Nicholson et al. 1992). In addition to publishing details, this section outlines the key findings and recommendations for each report. Appendix 1 provides a tabulation of these recommendations and comments on the actions resulting. Summaries of the following listed reports are presented in chronological order: 1. Gill B (1989) Hydrogeological review of salinity problems in the Barwon Corangamite region. 2. Webb A (1993) Review of the status of technical options for salinity control in southern Victoria. 3. Hydro Technology (1994) Upper Moorabool River catchment hydrogeological and salinity investigation. 4. Dickinson CG (1995) Numerical modelling of groundwater systems around Lake Corangamite. 5. Coram J E (1996) Groundwater-surface water interactions around shallow lakes of the Western District Plains, Victoria. 6. Clifton C, McRostie M, McLennan A (1997) An evaluation of farm forestry for dryland salinity controls in the Corangamite region, south-west Victoria. 7. SKM (1997a) Bamganie-Meredith Catchment Recharge Mapping. 8. SKM (1997b) Groundwater processes in the Lake Murdeduke - Barwon River area. 9. Heislers DS (1998) A soil infiltration and recharge study at the Gerangamete agroforestry site. 10. SKM (1998c) Surface water quality and salinisation processes in the Corangamite Region. 11. Blackham M J (1999) Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems in the Lake Corangamite - Barwon River region. 12. Heislers DS, Pillai M (2000) A review of hot spots, treatment options and targets in the Corangamite Salinity Region. 13. Heislers DS, Pillai M, Gequillana J (2000) Hydrogeological appraisal of the Heytesbury Hot Spots for the Corangamite Salinity Region. 14. SKM (2000) National Land and Water Resources Audit. Sinclair Knight Merz. 15. Dahlhaus PG, Heislers DS, Dyson PR (2002) Groundwater flow systems report. 16. Nicholson C (2002) Review of the Corangamite Salinity Strategy, Restoring the Balance. 17. SKM (2003) Water balance modelling of Gerangamete agroforestry trial catchment.

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3.1 Hydrogeological review of salinity problems in the Barwon Corangamite region Date published: 1989 Author(s): Bruce Gill, Investigation Branch, Rural Water Commission of Victoria Client: Rural Water Commission of Victoria Key words: drainage scheme, interaction Publication details: Report No. 1988/16, 66 pages, Rural Water Commission of Victoria Availability: Hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo; DPI Library Objectives: · To establish the relationship between groundwater, surface water and salinised land in the Woady Yaloak, Barwon and Corangamite catchments and understand the salinity and hydrology of the area. · To assess the effect on the water levels of the land and lakes due to the alterations to the drainage schemes. Key findings: · Lake/aquifer interaction has not yet been well defined for the region, but it is likely that raised lake levels would adversely affect the watertable of surrounding low-lying land. This has important ramifications with regard to the future operation of the drainage schemes which control lake levels. · A significant finding of this study was the delineation of a zone of high groundwater discharge into the Barwon River causing increased river salinity. · The salinity and volume of Lake Corangamite is more dependent on climatic condition than the rate of salt water inflow. · The rise in lake levels and hence an increase in area of salinised land would arise from the shutdown of the drainage scheme. · The practicality of controlling salinity by drainage or pumping of high salinity groundwater would have limited potential in the low-lying central part of the region. · Seasonal drainage of Cundare Pool may improve water quality and allow reduction in the adjacent watertable level. Any recommended option would require a more comprehensive and specific groundwater impact assessment. Key recommendations: · Monitoring of the observation bores should be done every three months. · River and lake water quality continue to be monitored weekly to enable an ongoing trend analysis. · The main focus of attention for salinity mitigation should be in the upper catchments dryland salted affected areas. · A review of the region should be performed in 5 to 10 years depending on the observed changes in water levels and water quality and a major review if no significant improvement found.

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3.2 Review of the status of technical options for salinity control in southern Victoria Date published: 1993 Author(s): Adrian Webb Client: Salinity Bureau Key words: Land Management Unit, water balance Publication details: 16 pages, Webbet Land Resource Services Availability: Hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo; DPI Library Objectives: · Assess the current status of technical and scientific knowledge on options for salinity control and identify key knowledge deficiencies. · The relevance of the findings in the lower rainfall ares of northern Victoria. · Feasibility of dryland revegetation management strategies in relation to their economics and effectiveness. · Strategies required to promote widespread adoption of proposed salinity control options. Key findings: · The available information on water use by pastures and trees is fragmented, incomplete or adequately assessed and cannot be used with confidence to predict their contribution to dryland salinity control in the >600 mm rainfall zone. · Major deficiency is the lack of integrated research in water balance framework. · Medium-to long-term predictions of likely consequences of a range of land management scenarios cannot be made with confidence without predictive modelling. · There is reasonable evidence that deep rooted perennial pastures are economically attractive for landholders, but the likelihood of their adoption at the rate envisaged in the salinity strategies uncertain. · There is need for better understanding of the constraints to adoption of perennial and farm forestry. · Corangamite salinity strategies and support documents provide a comprehensive base for salinity management at the farm level and are useful for planning and management decisions at regional and local government level. · There is need for coordination and integration of technical program delivered by government. · The research and investigation aspect of salinity control options should, where appropriate, be focused on priority sites such as the ‘hot spots’ identified in the Corangamite Salinity Strategy. Key recommendations: · Water balance framework should be adopted for consideration of management options and for assessment and application of results and experience in the research and investigation programs. · Research and investigation programs should be focused on identified hot spots. · All information on water use by trees and pastures and their impact on groundwater levels collated by a group from the agencies involved with a view to sharing. · Socio-economic surveys conducted with the view to identifying constraints to and opportunities for the adoption of land management strategies. · Strategic planning be implemented to address: · Impact on markets if land management targets identified are not reached. · Threats and opportunities for the proposed production systems posed by change in input costs or environmental impacts of land management practices.

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3.3 Upper Moorabool River catchment hydrogeological and salinity investigation Date published: 1994 Author(s): Hydro Technology Client: Corangamite Salinity Forum Key words: irrigation recharge, slug test, leaching, nutrient, baseflow separation Publication details: 47 pages, Hydro Technology, MC/3101/000A Availability: DPI Colac Objectives: · Identify and map catchment physical characteristics and hydraulic properties and their influence on salt and nutrient generation and loading processes. · Examine the status of hydraulic equilibrium of the Lal Lal Reservoir catchment through the compilation of available data and the construction of a catchment water balance. · Identify priority areas and processes related to salinity and/or nutrient loading and provide a sound basis upon which to conduct further site specific investigation designed to assess on-farm salinity and/or nutrient management strategies and preventive measures. Key findings: · The existence of a bedrock structure which acts as a hydraulic barrier and serves to separate the reservoir catchment into three hydrogeological sub-basins. · The three different aquifer systems within the reservoir catchment are the: bedrock aquifer, Tertiary sand aquifer, and Quaternary volcanic aquifer. · The Quaternary volcanic aquifer takes the form of a leaky multilayered fractured rock aquifer system comprised of two or more water bearing basalt sub-aquifers. The shallow (0–30 m depth) basalt aquifer forms the localised watertable aquifer and deeper (greater than 30 m depth) forms the regional confined aquifer utilised mainly for irrigation. · Aquifer anisotropy/inhomogeneous and thickness are the primary hydrogeological factors affecting the formation of local groundwater flow systems which discharge to streams, as opposed to regional flow systems which underflow streams. This is supported by baseflow separation analysis and salt load estimates, which indicate the groundwater discharge to stream is equal to approximately 25% to 33% of estimated annual recharge. The majority of groundwater discharge occurs in stream headwater areas which are associated with an area up to 25 km2 of shallow (<2 m) watertable. · The majority of groundwater recharge occurs primarily along elevated volcanic ridges of approximately 20 km2 area associated with the northern and central basement highs. · The water balance for the West Moorabool sub-catchment estimates gross groundwater recharge from rainfall at 1000 ML/year. This is equivalent to 12 mm or 1.5% of regional average rainfall. Annual accessions due to irrigation are estimated as 460 ML/year or equivalent to approximately 5 mm or 44% of estimated annual groundwater recharge. · Based on the West Moorabool sub-catchment rainfall/runoff ratio, the water balance for the Lal Lal Reservoir catchment estimates gross groundwater recharge from rainfall at 3500 ML/year. Annual accessions are estimated at 2640 ML/year or equivalent to approximately 9 mm or 75% of estimated annual groundwater recharge. The high irrigation to rainfall recharge ratio suggests that the shallow watertable aquifer have a water surplus, resulting in increased groundwater discharge and/or overland flow to the stream network. · The baseflow separation analysis indicates that groundwater salt load has been relatively constant over the monitoring period, while runoff salt load has increased from 1982 to the present at a rate of

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approximately 60 tonnes/year. This points to the occurrence of overland flow and/or sediment transport as agents for increasing stream salinities and irrigation return flows to streams. Key recommendations: · Install and/or upgrade of continuous streamflow, salinity and nutrient monitoring infrastructure on each influent stream to the Lal Lal Reservoir, in particular Lal Lal Creek and also inflow to the Moorabool, Gong Gong and White Swan reservoirs. · Conduct a census of land and water use within the catchment in order to locate potential point sources of irrigation recharge, leaching and discharge to streams. · Conduct stream salinity survey, designed to provide a profile of stream salinity and locate potential zones of regional and/or local groundwater discharge and/or nutrient inflow. · Install additional monitoring bores in areas of intensive land use above Moorabool, Gong Gong and White Swan reservoirs. · Undertake slug and pump testing of shallow and deeper basalt aquifers to determine aquifer parameters and hydraulic interconnection, essential for partitioning recharge between shallow and deep aquifers. · Conduct site specific investigations designed to assess the impact of intensively farmed land on the surrounding watertable and drainage network, salt and/or nutrient generation, and water balance in relation to natural and induced inputs and outputs. · Carry out isotope analysis to determine the origin, attenuation and release of nitrate and phosphate compounds from the volcanic soils to groundwater and surface water.

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3.4 Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems around Lake Corangamite Date published: 1995 Author(s): Christopher Grant Dickinson, University of Ballarat, B.Sc. Honours thesis Client: University of Ballarat Key words: Modflow, Flownet, groundwater divide Publication details: 55 pages, unpublished Availability: University of Ballarat Objectives: · Obtain an accurate three-dimensional numerical groundwater flow model of both steady and transient state conditions using an accurate snapshot of water levels taken in selected bores throughout the area. · Obtain an accurate three-dimensional numerical groundwater flow model of both steady and transient state conditions, simulating Lake Corangamite as a drain, using an accurate snapshot of water levels taken in selected bores throughout the area. Key findings: · The model results indicate that Lake Corangamite has a distinct groundwater outflow located to the north-east via Cundare Pool and may not contribute groundwater inflow in the areas located to the north of Lake Gnarpurt and to the south-east of the lake, supported by geological evidence. · Simulations indicate internal drainage features support the existence of pre-volcanic drainage from the southern region of the lake to the north and then exiting via Cundare Pool. · A distinct saddle-shaped depression observed in the simulations implies pre-volcanic drainage connecting Lake Corangamite and Lake Colac beneath the scoria south of Red Rock. If this interpretation is correct, complex groundwater flow occurs under conditions similar to the pre-volcanic drainage and would require further localised research to confirm. · This study has produced the basis for future research work and up-to-date groundwater simulation. Key recommendations: Further work required includes: · An aquifer testing program to improve the quality of hydraulic parameters. · Improved meteorological data quality and interpretation. · The alteration of the cellular structure to introduce the Woady Yaloak River into the modelling stream package. · The study of lake bed and Quaternary sediments to assess their impact on the regional groundwater system and improve the drain model parameters.

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3.5 Groundwater-surface water interactions around shallow lakes of the Western District plains. Date published: 1996 Author(s): Jane Elizabeth Coram, University of Melbourne, M.Sc. thesis Client: University of Melbourne Key words: hydrology, hydrochemistry, interaction, equilibrium Publication details: 18 pages, unpublished Availability: University of Melbourne Objectives: · To investigate dominant influences controlling the hydrology and hydrochemistry of the Beeac, Bookar, Colongulac, Gnarpurt and Murdeduke lakes. · To develop a conceptual model describing groundwater-surface water interaction and quantitative water budgets for these lakes. Key findings: · Hydrogeological data, groundwater flow path and water balance calculations suggest Lake Murdeduke behaves as a throughflow lake thus maintaining a relative equilibrium. In contrast, Lake Beeac behaves as a discharge lake with negligible masses of salts removed by outflowing groundwater. Limited hydrogeological data for other lakes (Bookar, Colongulac, Gnarpurt and lakes of the Lough Calvert area) between that of Lake Murdeduke and Lake Beeac suggest intermediate behaviour. · Precipitation and evaporation are the dominant climatic influences on lake hydrology and hydrochemistry. · The dependence of lake hydrology and hydrochemistry on climatic variables means the only preferable option for controlling the existing lake hydrology and hydrochemistry is by discharging and removing salts and nitrates.

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3.6 An evaluation of farm forestry for dryland salinity control in the Corangamite region, south-west Date published: 1997 Author(s): Craig Clifton, Mark McRostie, Andrew McLennan Client: Corangamite salinity region Key words: timberbelt, woodlot, growing space, leaf area index Publication details: Centre for Land Protection Research - Bendigo Availability: Hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic) -Bendigo Objectives: · Evaluation of two alternate farm forestry configurations for dryland salinity control in the Corangamite region (Yeodene and Kawarren) using climate, transpiration, soil moisture, tree dimensions and water balance modelling. Key findings: · Daily transpiration rate in the study period varied between 943 and 1074 L/tree/day at Yeodene and 57.4 and 88 L/tree/day at Kawarren. · Strong relationship exists between average transpiration rate and tree dimensions for each species at Yeodene, but not at Kawarren. · Average transpiration rate recorded were greater at much larger, older and more exposed trees at Kawarren than that recorded for trees in the plantation at Yeodene. · Trees in the alley-timberbelt showed higher transpiration rates per tree and per planted area (growing space) than trees in woodlot. · Dense plantations of eucalypts have the potential to transpire or evaporate all of the rainfall they receive, even in relatively high rainfall zones. · The results of transpiration measurements were not entirely supported by the water balance simulations. In all cases these simulations gave annual transpiration values at least 300 mm less than rainfall. Key recommendations: · Alley farming system could account for most of the rainfalls with significant reduction in groundwater recharge with alley width no more than about 50 m. · The discrepancy between measured and modelled values may be due to lack of parameterising, and need further investigation. · High commercial value tree species should be included in this investigation.

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3.7 Bamganie-Meredith catchment recharge mapping Date published: 1997 Author(s): Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) Client: Department of Natural Resources and Environment Key words: permeameter, waterlogging , salinity Publication details: 45 pages, SKM Availability: Hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo Objectives: · Establish a relative potential recharge map for the landscape within the Bamganie-Meredith catchment based on field investigations using a constant head permeameter. · To provide additional information relevant to the implementation of salinity control strategies. Key findings: · A good correlation exists between the regional lithology and potential recharge rate estimate by the permeameter on 32 test locations. · Areas of potential recharge on Ordovician soils are interpreted to be medium to high, low to medium on Moorabool Viaduct Formation, and low on basaltic soils. · In the Native Hut Creek sub-catchment, groundwater flow is confined to the weathered Ordovician sediments overlying the fresh unfractured rock. Upward hydraulic gradient also exists at this discharge site which has implications for waterlogging, salinisation and discharge to nearby creeks. · In the Woodbourne Creek sub-catchment, groundwater flow is restricted to the sands and gravels of the Tertiary Moorabool Viaduct Formation in the recharge and discharge areas. · The salt affected land is approximately 8.2 km2 in size and electrical conductivity (EC) is sufficiently high to cause damage to soil and hence the area to be is regarded as a ‘hot spot’. · Field observation indicates major areas of salting occur within the Moorabool Viaduct Formation therefore other localised groundwater processes in combination with infiltration are likely to be the cause of land salinisation. Key recommendations: · Review further groundwater monitoring in two years and salinity discharge mapping in four to five years to determine rate and extent of salinisation. · Further investigation into the hydraulic behaviour of the Tertiary aged cappings and Moorabool Viaduct Formation in the area of salinisation should be undertaken. · Conduct an infiltration study using a permeameter to measure soil infiltration rates in the recharge zones. · Conduct an economic assessment of the area to evaluate the net value of lost production from salinisation.

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3.8 Groundwater processes in the Lake Murdeduke-Barwon River area Date published: 1997 Author(s): Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) Client: Department of Natural Resources and Environment Key words: seepage, palaeovalley Publication details: 21 pages SKM Availability: SKM, hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic) -Bendigo Objectives · To provide a current status of the groundwater processes in the Lake Murdeduke-Barwon River area. Key findings: · Mapping and analysis indicate that regional groundwater flow is directed towards the Barwon River discharge zone by a palaeovalley structure developed in the underlying Gellibrand Marl. · The processes contributing to discharge of highly saline surface and groundwater to the Barwon River are: upward discharge and seepage of saline groundwater into the basalt and to the lake and in turn discharge to the river, seepage of saline lake water into the basalt and the evaporative concentration of shallow watertable and subsequent discharge to the river, and a combination of the above. · The most technically feasible method of controlling highly saline groundwater inflow to the Barwon River appears to be by groundwater pumping, interception and disposal similar to the schemes along the Murray River. Key recommendations: Further work required includes: · Controlled agroforestry trials in the recharge zones. · Detailed study of the interaction between the highly saline inflow zone and the river. · Feasibility modelling of the groundwater interception. · Monitoring of inflow and outflow volumes and salinity during periods of increased river flow. · Determination of the holding capacity of the saline lakes.

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3.9 Surface water quality and salinisation processes in the Corangamite Region Date published: 1998 Author(s): Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) Client: Department of Natural Resources and Environment Key words: water quality, salinisation, and baseflow Publication details: 37 pages, SKM Availability: SKM, hardcopy (1) at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic) -Bendigo Objectives: · To provide a comprehensive presentation of surface water quality data within the four Corangamite basins based on a 21 year study period (1976 to 1996). · Preliminary study of salinisation processes in the Woady Yaloak catchment. Key findings: · Surface water data from 36 monitoring sites in major river basins of Moorabool, Leigh, Barwon and Woady Yaloak monitored from 1976 to 1996 were analysed. · Streams in south-west Victoria show an inverse relationship between flow and salinity, low salt loads occur at times of high flow but high salinity occurs at low flow periods. · Such a pattern occurs in catchments where saline groundwater intrusions provide a baseflow, and rainfall events provide relatively fresh surface runoff. · The salinity of the streamflow reflects catchment size and salt store. Generally, flow events in Corangamite region are much more saline than from forested catchments in north-east Victoria. · The average lake levels at all sites for 1999 were the lowest since 1992 and salinities recorded were generally higher than long-term mean and median values. · Groundwater flow within the watertable aquifer is likely to be confined to sub-catchments while deeper regional aquifer systems developed mainly in basalts may be expected to flow between catchments. Its impact on the baseflow is not well understood and not considered to be significant unless upward hydraulic pressure is present. Key recommendations: · Bores and stream gauges should be surveyed to the same datum and synchronised with monitoring of groundwater bores near the streams to reduce the lag time effects between groundwater and surface water hydrographs to help baseflow separation and salt load estimates. · Water and salt balance studies should link streamflows and salt loads to the groundwater behaviour to increase understanding of catchment processes. · Investigation into the impact of baseflow on surface water quality and interaction between surface and groundwater need to be considered in the Woady Yaloak catchment as a pilot study for the understanding of the salinisation processes in the Corangamite Salinity Region.

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3.10 A soil infiltration and recharge study at the Gerangamete agroforestry site Date published: 1998 Author(s): David Heislers, Centre for Land Protection Research (CLPR) Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key words: infiltration, recharge, agroforestry Publication details: Technical Report No. 45, 26 pages, ISBN 0 7306 6247 0, ISSN 1038 - 216X Availability: Hardcopy at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo, DPI Colac Objectives: · To determine whether soil infiltration measurement can be used as a general tool to map recharge across the landscape. · To specifically examine the soils, soil infiltration and groundwater recharge characteristics at the Gerangamete Flats agroforestry site in determining the appropriate placement of recharge control techniques in the landscape. · Comment on the added benefits of soil infiltration measurement and associated soils mapping on salinity and waterlogging control mechanisms applicable to the Gerangamete area and the Barwon Downs Hot Spot. Key findings: · The study indicates high vertical infiltration rates can be expected, exceeding 100–150 mm/day beneath the mid to upper slopes, and moderate infiltration rates across the bulk of the sub-catchment (6–23% of the mean annual rainfall), which compares well with results obtained from earlier work in the district. · The soil infiltration results are broadly paralleled by recharge distribution across the landscape (obtained from groundwater hydrographs) with general relationship between recharge and soil infiltration rate, though this is not always replicated due to local heterogeneities in the regolith as well as a statistical inadequacy in the data. · Any meaningful reduction of infiltration and recharge is likely to be only achieved by a high proportion of trees strategically placed in the landscape to limit recharge as well as intercept laterally moving shallow soil water, rather than simply modification of pasture management systems. · The twin ring infiltration method can be regarded as a reliable tool in mapping potential recharge (or at least potential deep drainage), especially where landscape can be well-demarcated into areas of recharge and discharge. · The soil infiltration technique is particularly useful in landscapes where the visual contrast in soil textural properties is minimal, but where significant infiltration contrasts still emerge. · The results of the Gerangamete trial are likely to be applicable to the broader Barwon Downs Hot Spot for more comprehensive groundwater recharge analysis in order to understand aquifer characteristics. Key recommendations: · The twin ring infiltration method, as applied in the Gerangamete investigation, should be adopted as the preferred technique to ensure that the results are technically competent and statistically acceptable. · Infiltration measurement surveys should be preferentially adopted in landscapes where soil textural characteristics are visually quite uniform (i.e. where direct inferences of recharge are difficult) and a quantitative appreciation of groundwater recharge distribution within these landscapes is necessary for recharge control strategies. · Recharge mapping should be considered in order to produce suitable scaled maps for the use of salinity extension officers for siting salinity treatments and to improve conceptual understanding to redress the hydrological imbalance.

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3.11 Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems in the Lake Corangamite-Barwon River region Date published: 1999 Author(s): Michael James Blackam, University of Ballarat, B.Sc. Honours thesis Client: University of Ballarat Key words: Modflow, Flownet, groundwater divide Publication details: 106 pages, unpublished Availability: University of Ballarat Objectives: · To compare steady and transient state simulation groundwater flow systems in the study area using finite difference numerical model (Modflow) and data derived from existing data sources. · Compare the results with previous work of Gill (1989), Dickinson (1995), Coram (1996). Key findings: · The model results provide a representation of the regional hydrogeological system and a satisfactory correlation with previous work, hence is a useful tool for interpretive analysis of the groundwater flow systems. · Good correlation exists between the simulated flow vectors and Gill’s (1989) Flownet analysis and satisfactory correlation with Coram’s (1996) study in the Lake Corangamite, Cundare Pool-Lake Weering as well as Lake Murdeduke area. · A groundwater divide exists to the east of Lake Corangamite orientated north through the Robertson- Red Rock-Warrion volcanic features turning eastward and south of Cundare Pool and Lake Weering. · High rates of recharge occur in the topographically high volcanic features and discharge in the Lough Calvert, Lake Murdeduke, Lake Weering, Birregurra Creek and Barwon River. Key recommendations: · 500 m square grid cells are probably too coarse to represent a terrain of rapid varying elevation, hence a smaller grid spacing should be used to improve numerical stability and resolution. · A high resolution model of the Lake Murdeduke-Barwon River area and Warrion-Alvie-Beeac area should be constructed to assist in analysing groundwater discharge to Barwon River and risk of salinisation of fresh water aquifers due to reversal of gradient caused by excessive drawdown.

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3.12 A review of hot spots, treatment options, and targets in the Corangamite salinity region Date published: 2000 Author(s): D. Heislers and M. Pillai, Centre for Land Protection Research (CLPR) Client: Report for Corangamite Salinity Region, Department of Natural Resources and Environment -Colac. Key words: Hot spot, salinity, recharge, best bet Publication details: Technical Report No. 61, 74 pages, ISBN 07311 84130, ISSN 1038-216X Availability: Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo, DPI Colac, DPI Library, summarised finding of this report is available as PDF file on CD-Rom Objectives: · To review landscape and hydrogeological characteristics that lead to salinity in the Corangamite Salinity Region, especially in relation to the Corangamite Hot Spots. · To update hot spot area plans have identified emerging areas of priority such as the supplementary treatment areas. · To review salinity control methods and implementation targets across the region. Key findings: · This report is the first detailed technical review relating to the understanding of landscape hydrological processes underlying the hot spots and the supplementary treatment areas and salinity treatment scenarios, since the first Corangamite Salinity Strategy resulting in the fine tuning of the originally recommended treatment strategies. · The present understanding of hydrogeological processes within the Corangamite Salinity Region is based on data that has been gathered over a comparatively short length of time, hence a comprehensive catchment model is usually difficult to construct. · Isolated and selective treatment in convenient parts of the catchment would not be effective for regional gains, however, given the existence of localised groundwater flow systems in many Corangamite landscapes, local implementation should result in significant local impacts. · The ‘best bet’ approach is still considered appropriate and can achieve practical outcomes addressing issues of recharge, runoff, waterlogging, and ultimately achieve salinity control. Similarly the ‘using the rain where it falls’ philosophy is still valid in restoring hydrological balance to the region. Key recommendation: · It is unwise to wait for knowledge perfection without acting upon the serious land degradation issues even if extra resources were available for detailed investigative research. · Treatments must be considered in all parts of the catchment to produce measurable impacts at the catchment-scale rather than isolated and selective recharge control treatments in convenient parts of the catchment which would not be effective for whole-of-catchment water balance needs. · It is important that at the catchment scale, annual pasture and cropping practices are incorporated into an overall catchment balance with the use of higher water use perennial vegetation to achieve landscape water objectives. · The alley farming concept should be strongly considered as a potential salinity control option at least in the elevated and southern parts of the region that experience high rainfall, which has other advantages such as shelter, farm forestry and enhancing biodiversity. · Waterlogging and excess soil water needs to be removed by either agronomic solutions (such as tree belts or perennial pasture) at strategic locations, or some form of technically justified or economically feasible surface or sub-surface drainage.

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3.13 National land and water resources audit (NLWRA) Date published: 2000 Author: SKM and Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic) -Bendigo Client: NLWRA-A program of the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) Key words: dryland salinity, trend, impact, trend scenarios Publication details: 50 pages, SKM Availability: SKM, NHT Objectives: · Sinclair Knight Merz and Agriculture Victoria, -Centre for Land Protection Research were commissioned by the National Land and Water Resources Audit to undertake this study, which seeks to determine, for Victoria: · The current and future potential extent of shallow watertables and dryland salinity. · Impacts of shallow water tables and dryland salinity on agricultural production, infrastructure, the natural environment and water resources. Key findings: · Salinity risk ratings were developed that combined current estimated depth to watertable and groundwater trend for both best and worst case trend scenarios. · The NLWRA estimated the total area of land in Corangamite CMA region with shallow watertables (of < 2 m from the surface) in 1998 as about 50 000 ha, which is approximately three times the area of land mapped (16 000 ha) as having dryland salinity (Allan 1994). This area is predicted to potentially increase to 213 000 ha by the year 2020 (or about 8% a year) under the worst case scenario of shallow watertable (of <2 m), compared to the predicted expansion of mapped area to about 23 000 ha at increase rate of 2% a year calculated in 1992 based on an aerial photograph study (Muske et al. 1992). · The difference in the two estimates is unlikely to be entirely due to the tendency of the method used here to overestimate the area of land with shallow watertables. · The length of road traversing shallow watertable areas in the Corangamite CMA region could increase from almost 482 km currently to between approximately 506 and 4210 km in 2050. The length of railway could increase between one- and eight-fold, from 26 km currently to 205 km in 2050. These changes, particularly for major and minor road networks, would be expected to greatly increase the maintenance costs incurred by local government and VicRoads. · The rural town area in Corangamite CMA region intersected by shallow watertables could increase from approximately 120 ha to about 842 ha. These figures do not include the larger provincial centres (e.g. Geelong, Ballarat), which were excluded from the analysis. Key recommendations: · Support for groundwater and salinity monitoring need to be maintained as a key component of the Victorian Salinity Program. · Reviews of groundwater and salinity monitoring networks and arrangements be in the region with a view to ensuring an appropriately resourced, efficient and representative monitoring network. · Key shortcomings in the Victorian groundwater monitoring network, particularly the lack of surveyed elevation for many bores and the under-representation of more elevated locations, be redressed. · Any future audit of the potential extent and impact of salinity be conducted at a more detailed regional level and incorporate finer resolution digital elevation models and a higher level of understanding of groundwater and catchment water balance processes than was possible here.

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3.14 Hydrogeological appraisal of the Heytesbury hot spots for the Corangamite Salinity Region Date Published: 2001 Author (S): David Heislers, Mayavan Pillai, Julie Gequillana, Centre for Land Protection Research (CLPR) Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key Words: waterlogging, salinity, throughflow, landslip, agroforestry Publication Details: Technical Report No. 64, 33 pages, ISBN: 0 7311 4712 X, ISSN: 1038-216X Availability: Hardcopy at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic) -Bendigo, DPI Colac, DPI Library Objectives: · Review landscape processes and hydrogeological characteristics that lead to waterlogging and soil salinisation in the Heytesbury Hot Spot area. · Document and discuss alternate views on the processes that lead to the unique style of degradation in the Heytesbury area. · Describe the nature of treatments likely to mitigate waterlogging and salinity. Key findings: · Given the relatively steep topography and shallow watertable surfaces, it is likely that the Heytesbury area is characterised by a multitude of local scale groundwater flow cells particularly where there are low permeability 'sumps' associated with redistributed Hanson Plain Sand along slopes (due to historical land slippage). · There is the occurrence of shallow, semi-permanent and localised perched watertables above cemented horizons within the Hanson Plain Sand and seepage at the base. · Localised groundwater flow systems are operative regionally across the Heytesbury area comprising the permanent 'watertable aquifer' developed within the top 20–30 m of the Gellibrand Marl, with little or no connection to deeper underlying aquifers. · The understanding of groundwater processes in the Heytesbury area, as for any landscape, is iterative. However, there is common acceptance that waterlogging and shallow soil water throughflow processes are significant in local land degradation, nonetheless there is reason to accept that the 'watertable' (bottom up) model is similarly important. · Trees as the remaining long-term recharge control mechanism, will also act to intercept shallow groundwater and soil water throughflow, landslip stabilisation and mitigate waterlogging as anticipated from the Simpson agroforestry site. · It is clear that the current distribution of salinity treatments in the Heytesbury region is insufficient to be expected to have catchment-wide impacts. However, appropriate local treatments in the Heytesbury area can be expected to have significant local impacts. Key recommendations: · Agroforestry as tree blocks/belts on Hanson Plain Sand ridges, contour tree belts across the slopes and break-of-slope plantings are options to be seriously considered given the potential high growth conditions and relative proximity to port facilities.

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3.15 Groundwater flow systems report, Corangamite CMA region Date published: 2002 Author(s): Peter Dahlhaus, David Heislers, Phil Dyson Client: Corangamite CMA Key words: salinity, biodiversity Publication details: Dahlhaus Environmental Geology Pty Ltd Availability: Corangamite CMA Objectives: · To characterise the Corangamite CMA region in terms areas of similar landscape, groundwater processes contributing to salinity and response to salinity management options. · To comply with a national salinity evaluation framework being developed under the National Action Plan for salinity and water quality. · To provide input to current National Action Plan projects and other program Key findings: · Seventeen groundwater flow systems (GFS) have been delineated based on the model put forward by the National Land and Water Resources Audit. Of these, nine are predominantly local groundwater flow systems, four are predominantly intermediate, and four are predominantly regional flow systems. · Confidence in the options for salinity management in south-west Victoria is constrained by the lack of scientifically validated models relating the assumed cause (land use change) to the observed effect (salinity). · There is growing evidence that land and water salinity was a more prevalent feature (than is assumed) of the landscape before widespread land use change. · The systems are discharge-driven and recharge control is not considered as relevant to the management of salinity as the control of soil waterlogging and shallow, temporal water flows in the near-surface. Key recommendations: · A review of the GFS should be undertaken once the information from concurrent projects is available. Four projects in particular have the potential to add valuable information to the GFS descriptions, viz: · the groundwater monitoring and research database · the groundwater monitoring guidelines and review · Corangamite CMA sub-catchment salinity risk prioritisation, · the research and development compendium/inventory. · Consideration of management options for the protection of all classes of assets including indigenous halophytic ecologies in primary saline areas and the protection of building foundations. · Priority should be given to research projects that can scientifically validate the assumed GFS. · Local GFS (i.e. highly responsive systems) with a significant salinity risk (e.g. GFS 1 – Quaternary sediments) should be targets for immediate research aimed at proving the conceptual model and improving the confidence in the management options. · Funding and commitment for long-term projects involving team research (e.g. CSIRO, CRCs, universities and government research bodies) should be sought to improve the understanding of more complex systems (e.g. GFS 14 - Volcanic plains basalt) and their role in salinity processes. · Consensus on GFS across boundaries with neighbouring CMAs should be checked. · Undertake continuous improvement of data and regular revision of the GFS so that the annual expenditure on salinity management can be optimised.

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3.16 Review of the Corangamite Salinity Strategy, Restoring the Balance Date published: 2002 Author(s): Cameron Nicholson Client: Catchment & Water, Department of Natural Resources and Environment Key words: Land Management Unit, water balance Publication details: 60 pages, Nicon Rural Services Availability: Corangamite CMA Objectives: · The task of reviewing the Corangamite Salinity Strategy. Restoring The Balance formed part of Victoria’s Salinity Management Framework (August 2000) and has become the precursor to the development of Second Generation Salinity Management Plans. · The review aims to indicate what current activities and approaches should continue to be supported by government as well as identifying new salinity management approaches. Key findings: · A significant increase in the awareness of rural communities to salinity, from 35% to 65% percent of the population. · The area of land salting in the Corangamite region continued to increase in the past decade, albeit at approximately half the rate predicted in the original strategy (although the severity of existing land salting decreased compared to 1992 estimates). · It is unclear what contribution the revegetation activities have had on reducing the predicted salinity. · The extent of the salinity problem in the Corangamite CMA region is poorly understood, especially in relation to influences on water quality and biodiversity. · Research conducted in the last decade has highlighted the complexity and variation in the shallow and deep flow systems of the Corangamite landscape. The stylised recharge–discharge models used extensively at the start of the salinity program have largely been found to be inappropriate to describe the groundwater systems in the region. Key recommendations: · A priority setting framework should be used in the Corangamite CMA region for determining investment strategies in the Second Generation Salinity Plan. The previous Salinity Implementation Group provides a good model to examine. · The Second Generation Salinity Plan for Corangamite should build on the insights from experienced officers involved in the salinity program. · The Second Generation Salinity Plan for Corangamite should extensively explore partnerships with industry groups in the region where beneficial outcomes for salinity control can be established. · The Corangamite CMA should play a pivotal role in facilitating the development of a comprehensive monitoring program for the region, which includes salinity activities as a subset of a wider program. This program should also examine the most appropriate mechanism to ensure the collected data is analysed and used to inform on-going programs. · The Second Generation Salinity Plan for the Corangamite CMA should establish a mechanism to initiate and oversee the completion of projects, encourage other organisations to contribute to the knowledge pool and to ensure the findings are considered during regular reviews of the plan. A key aspect of this work must be to try to expand the treatment options available to landholders. · The Second Generation Salinity Plan for the Corangamite CMA embrace the opportunities other existing programs and organisations offer. This includes industry groups, private enterprise, local government and other related natural resource programs.

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3.17 Water balance modelling of Gerangamete agroforestry trial catchment Date published: 2003, unpublished Author(s): Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM) Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key words: scenario modelling, waterlogging , saline discharge Publication details: 106 pages, unpublished Availability: SKM Objectives: · To develop a calibrated water balance model of the Gerangamete agrorestry trial catchment in the MIKE-SHE modelling environment (one of four south-west Victoria catchment water balance modelling projects). · Interpret results of water balance modelling and assess the effectiveness of alternative land management strategies for different future climate trends for the catchment. · Discuss the broader implications of modelling results for the management of salinity and improve the level of understanding of the interactions between land, water and vegetation that control soil salinity and waterlogging in south-west Victoria. Key findings: · The modelling predicts that the current problem of saline discharge in the Gerangamete agroforestry trial catchment will not be completely eliminated under any of the proposed land management scenarios. · The current configuration of treebelts along fencelines and roads will have some positive outcome but is not predicted to bring about a significant change in the extent or severity of shallow watertables and soil waterlogging. · The modelling approach adopted predicts that the establishment of perennial vegetation across the catchment will produce the greatest impacts in terms of reducing areas of shallow watertables. · The modelling results are consistent with field observations of reduced recharge and lowering of groundwater levels in ridges and upper slopes, and no reduction in groundwater levels across the valley floor and break-of-slope. · The positive effects of alternative land management options are restricted to more elevated parts of the Gerangamete catchment. · The absolute depth to watertable in the northern half of the Gerangamete catchment is not very reliable due to lack of observation bores to simulate the catchment hydrology in this section. · Plantation forestry has the greatest potential for recharge management, but is unlikely to yield significant salinity benefits within the short- to medium- term because of poorly responsive aquifers. Key recommendations: · Strategically sited surface drainage might provide some opportunities to remove surface water before it runs onto low-lying areas prone to shallow watertables and groundwater discharge. · Sub-surface drainage for the control of soil waterlogging in low-lying areas would not be well suited to low permeability landscapes like the Gerangamete agroforestry trial catchment.

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4 Discussion 4.1 The changing salinity R & I environment The direction of salinity research and investigation (R&I) in the Corangamite CMA region has been steered by a range of influences since the original inception of Restoring the Balance. In the mid-1990s Webb (1993) indicated the need to understand and quantify all components of the water balance, but especially plant water use characteristics so that suitable salinity control measures could be implemented with underpinning scientific rigour. This brought about considerable local discussion about how such an approach ought to be implemented. A water balance approach implies a commitment to detailed site investigation and monitoring in order to gather appropriate data, a goal ultimately frustrated by a lack of matching resources, and, to some degree, continuation of entrenched and uncoordinated institutional responses to research. The hot spot approach to targeting salinity research in addition to implementation activity was essentially maintained until the advent of NAP, from which targeting of salinity implementation activity needed to be formally linked to social, economic and environmental (triple bottom line) outcomes, largely through the consideration of assets at risk to salinity. In parallel has been the catchment characterisation of the groundwater flow systems (GFS) framework, in a sense replacing the land management unit approach to classifying salinity and physical landscape patterns, but also building an understanding of the scale of the flow system, landscape response times and management opportunities. It is clear that future salinity research and investigation will be strongly dictated by where important assets are identified to be at risk to salinity and what the realistic management opportunities are. Like any salinity activity, research and investigation is contingent upon resource constraints. A finite budget exists, and research competes with implementation, education and monitoring components of an overall salinity program, which is just one of a multitude of important natural resource management (NRM) programs. Since Restoring the Balance it is probably fair to conclude that resourcing of research has declined in the overall funding mix. However, with the advent of NAP that is now enforcing extra accountability and the setting of targets within a narrower field of view (i.e. guided by assets at risk and actual achievable management opportunities), a more focused regional program will result.

4.2 Corangamite CMA salinity R&I achievements and hurdles

In general the magnitude of hydro(geo)logical parameters and processes that influence the development of salinity is not well understood at the local or implementation level. Though the nature of the broad processes may be reasonably understood in many areas, these are underpinned by relatively simple conceptual models of surface and groundwater processes. The lack of detailed understanding is due to a lack of measured physical data in relation to geology, regolith, soils and groundwater. This is not a criticism that can be simply levelled at historic Corangamite salinity R&I program(s), but is an indicator of the complexity of catchment hydro(geo)logy of the region, and the level of effort that is actually required to gather and interpret the data at the sub-catchment or implementation level. In the Corangamite CMA region hydro(geo)logical complexity is particularly aided by the presence of: · a diversity of hydrogeological environments and landscapes · complex soil water, regolith and landform characteristics influencing groundwater movement · the presence of multi-layered and different scaled flow systems within a single landscape unit · interactions of groundwater flow systems and surface water systems. Despite these limitations and a lack of perceived progress in salinity R&I, there have been important broad advancements in the understanding of processes leading to salinity in the Corangamite CMA region. These advancements tend to be general, and, for example include the recognition of: · landscapes that are effectively saturated (with respect to their sub-surface) · significant lateral throughflow or waterlogging processes (in addition to classical groundwater flow) · groundwater response being strongly climatically driven · surface hydrology being important for buffering the development of land and water salinity. The above have tended to be concluded and generalised from site specific investigations. However, an important measure of the effectiveness and influence of R&I lies in the degree to which recommendations have been enacted upon. It can be concluded here that the progression from recommendation to action is poor and a number of reasons are postulated for this: · Recommendations often relate to the need for additional research to further resolve the technical issue in question or to test a purported hypothesis.

26 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

· Recommendations are often delivered as broad generalisations that require further work to delineate in terms of on-ground action. A generalised or overview approach is not conducive to understanding the uniqueness of landscape response. · R&I does not set out to answer a specific question that the land manager is asking or needs to be asking. · There are not the resources or implementation instruments available to enact upon an R&I outcome or recommendation so that it can be practically achieved. · Once the R&I is completed the implementation environment has changed (e.g. onset of NAP or the GFS framework). Though R&I is continuing to add to the growing body of knowledge, this knowledge is often insufficient to accurately define the desirable implementation outcome. True knowledge building must continue to occur, but for it to be truly relevant, it must be focused on the explicit requirements of the land manager. This does not mean that the research will deliver a complete and perfect result (and the land manger will learn to understand this), but that at least this will be understood and respected by the land manager in an environment where implementation can proceed in an as informed manner as possible.

4.3 Some future steps for more efficient and effective salinity R&I The Corangamite CMA Salinity Action Plan provides a blueprint for targeted R&I over the ensuing three- year period. The importance of this is that the R&I questions are quite clearly stated, and that only projects that endeavour to directly address these questions will be considered. The focus is in place, but to ensure that R&I remain efficient and effective, a number of initiatives could be considered: · The local R&I strategy could be overseen by a formally chartered technical support group (that has existed in past). · That a strategy be developed to support a culture of ongoing peer review of salinity R&I relevant to the Corangamite CMA. · That there is a mechanism in place for R&I outputs/outcomes to be acknowledged, reviewed and responded to, upon their completion. This could form part of an overarching communications strategy that facilitates effective research and translates it into action. · Develop a knowledge management strategy with mechanisms for capture, retention, extension and provision of knowledge and data. · Produce a periodical statement of knowledge reports. In the context of the historical Corangamite CMA salinity R&I it is clear that some basic work remains unfinished. In the immediate- term there should be some consideration of pursuing this to completion. Work that could be advanced with good value for effort would include: · Documenting the outcomes of the Simpson and Gerangamete agroforestry sites. This has added relevance given the current salinity monitoring reviews occurring in the Corangamite CMA. · Documenting the effectiveness of monitoring of salinity control treatments across the Corangamite CMA. This not only incorporates the agroforestry sites but other treatments occurring at Rokewood (Rokewood Demonstration Farm), Pittong, Irrewillipe (pine plantation impacts) and a range of Landcare groundwater monitoring projects across the region. · Documenting the effectiveness of surface and sub-surface drainage on the catchment water balance.

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Appendices

28 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Appendix 1. Documented salinity R&I recommendations and actions resulting

Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Gill (1989) Hydrogeological review of Continue monitoring of the observation bores, Assumption that no measurable A general recommendation salinity problems in the river and lake. specific actions were to continue monitoring. Barwon Corangamite region implemented. Continuance of pre-existing surface and groundwater monitoring already in place. Gill (1989) Hydrogeological review of Undertake salinity mitigation in the upper Instigation of specific actions A general recommendation salinity problems in the catchments. resulting from this to apply salinity mitigation. Barwon Corangamite region recommendation unlikely. Gill (1989) Hydrogeological review of A review in 5 to 10 years. Indirect actions have occurred in A general recommendation salinity problems in the the Corangamite basin, chiefly via for a re-analysis sometime in Barwon Corangamite region student projects developing the future. conceptual, analytical and numerical models. Webb (1993) Review of the status of Water balance framework for consideration of Isolated actions only, and rarely A recommendation to technical options for salinity management options, assessment and application numerically resolving the conduct research in a water control in southern Victoria in R & I programs. complete water balance. balance framework. SKM have numerically modelled Numerical simulation or impacts of water balance modelling of water balance is adjustments at: data intensive and requires · Gerangamete (SKM 2003). significant resources. · Glenthompson (SKM 1999c) Webb (1993) Review of the status of R & I programs focused on ‘hot spots’. Specific hydrogeological studies A recommendation for technical options for salinity have tended to occur in hot spots. prioritising research. control in southern Victoria Technical processes operating in Original hot spot focus has hot spots were reviewed by now shifted. Focus areas Heislers and Pillai (2000). now driven by the identification of where assets are at risk (SAP: Catchment health sites, monitoring and research).

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Webb (1993) Review of the status of Information on water use by trees and pastures An evaluation of farm forestry A recommendation of technical options for salinity and their impact on groundwater levels collated study in Yeodene and Kawarren research directed at plant control in southern Victoria by NRE for sharing. (Clifton, McRostie & McLennan water use. 1997). Poster presentation of water use (by assumption of soil moisture) at agroforestry sites (Pillai 2002a, 2002b) Pasture water use studies in East Dundas Tablelands (Schroder 1995) Webb (1993) Review of the status of Socio-economic surveys to identify constraints Survey of landholder attitudes, A recommendation of socio- technical options for salinity and opportunities for adoption of land practice & Intentions undertaken economic research. control in southern Victoria management strategies. in 1997 (Amirtharajah 1997) BRS survey by Curtis (in prep). ABS salinity survey in salinity affected farms (in prep).

Webb (1993) Review of the status of Consider the threats and opportunities posed by Survey of landholder attitudes, A recommendation for technical options for salinity change in input costs or environmental impacts practice & Intentions undertaken economic analysis and control in southern Victoria of land management practices. in 1997 (Amirtharajah 1997) assessment of environmental BRS survey by Curtis (in prep). risk given land management ABS salinity survey in salinity scenarios. affected farms (in prep). Soil health strategy (CCMA 2003c) Webb (1993) Review of the status of Consider the impact on markets if land Development and use of A recommendation to derive technical options for salinity management targets are not reached. analytical and simulation models economic projections given control in southern Victoria to help predict adverse outcomes. landscape scenarios. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Install and/or upgrade of continuous streamflow, Surface water monitoring is under A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological salinity and nutrient monitoring. review (CCMA 2003) for additional monitoring. and salinity investigation

30 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Conduct stream salinity survey, to locate Surface water monitoring is under A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological potential zones of regional and/or local review (CCMA 2003) for additional monitoring. and salinity investigation groundwater discharge and/or nutrient inflow. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Install additional monitoring bores in areas of Surface water monitoring is under A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological intensive land use above Moorabool, Gong Gong review (CCMA 2003) for additional monitoring. and salinity investigation and White Swan reservoirs. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Undertake slug and pump testing of shallow and Not known A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological deeper basalt aquifers to determine aquifer for additional field and salinity investigation parameters and hydraulic interconnection. investigation. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Conduct site specific investigation designed to Not known. A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological assess impact of intensively farmed land. for additional field and salinity investigation investigation. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Carry out isotope analysis to determine the Not known. A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological origin, attenuation and release of nitrates and for additional high level data and salinity investigation phosphate compounds from the volcanic soils to collection and analysis. groundwater and surface water. Dickinson (1995) Numerical modelling of Need an aquifer testing program to improve the Coram (1996) estimated aquifer A specific recommendation groundwater flow systems quality of hydraulic parameters. properties. for improved around Lake Corangamite hydrogeological parameters for model input (from a student work). Dickinson (1995) Numerical modelling of Need to improve meteorological data quality and Action as a direct consequence A general recommendation groundwater flow systems interpretation. unlikely. for improved data standards around Lake Corangamite and analysis (from a student work) Dickinson (1995) Numerical modelling of Include Woady Yaloak River into the modelling No action. A specific recommendation groundwater flow systems stream package. for an extension of an around Lake Corangamite existing numerical model (from a student work).

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Webb (1993) Review of the status of Consider the threats and opportunities posed by Survey of landholder attitudes, A recommendation for technical options for salinity change in input costs or environmental impacts practice & Intentions undertaken economic analysis and control in southern Victoria of land management practices. in 1997 (Amirtharajah 1997) assessment of environmental BRS survey by Curtis (in prep). risk given land management ABS salinity survey in salinity scenarios. affected farms (in prep). Soil health strategy (CCMA 2003c) Webb (1993) Review of the status of Consider the impact on markets if land Development and use of A recommendation to derive technical options for salinity management targets are not reached. analytical and simulation models economic projections given control in southern Victoria to help predict adverse outcomes. landscape scenarios. Hydro Technology Upper Moorabool River Install and/or upgrade of continuous streamflow, Surface water monitoring is under A specific recommendation (1994) catchment hydrogeological salinity and nutrient monitoring. review (CCMA 2003) for additional monitoring. and salinity investigation Heislers (1996a) A review of NRE and Groundwater monitoring should be continued as Extent of action uncertain, but A recommendation of a community groundwater a high priority activity in the Corangamite ultimately affected by continuing specific monitoring action. monitoring arrangements for Salinity Region, undertaken in accordance with change in monitor profile. the Corangamite Salinity revised data quality, recording standards, Region monitoring frequencies, data transfer and reporting arrangements. Heislers (1996b) A technical appraisal of NRE Develop a culture of community involvement in Suspect already burgeoning A general recommendation and community groundwater groundwater monitoring primarily to increase community monitoring was of a monitoring strategy. monitoring networks in the efficiencies in monitoring and enable increased assisted by this recommendation. Strategy has largely failed Corangamite salinity region understanding of salinity processes within the due to lack of recognition of community. program support. Heislers (1996b) A technical appraisal of NRE NRE should continue to develop a strong support Only limited action, on an ad hoc A general recommendation and community groundwater role in monitoring policy. basis. of an extension strategy. monitoring networks in the A bi-annual monitoring progress report Corangamite salinity region augmented by local or personalised reporting to community groups and individuals that are involved should be priority.

32 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Heislers (1996b) A technical appraisal of NRE Review the implementation of community Limited action. 2001 monitoring A specific recommendation and community groundwater monitoring and reporting on its progress. audit (i.e. status of community for a monitoring review. monitoring networks in the Implement additional background and monitoring). A specific recommendation Corangamite salinity region effectiveness monitoring where required by Very limited additional strategic of a monitoring strategy diverting some of the resources saved during monitoring. monitoring rationalisation Heislers (1996b) A technical appraisal of NRE A more rigorous and statistical appraisal of Limited action. A specific recommendation and community groundwater rainfall data over the period of groundwater of a research need. monitoring networks in the record is necessary to discriminate the exact role Corangamite salinity region of climatic patterns in groundwater trends. Clifton, McRostie An evaluation of farm forestry Alley farming system should be adopted to No specific action known. and McLennan for dryland salinity control in account for most of the rainfall with alley width (1997) the Corangamite region, south- no more than 50 m. west Victoria Clifton, McRostie An evaluation of farm forestry The discrepancy between measured and No specific action known. A specific recommendation and McLennan for dryland salinity control in modelled water use needs further investigation. for additional data analysis. (1997) the Corangamite region, south- west Victoria Clifton, McRostie An evaluation of farm forestry High commercial value tree species should be Actions have likely resulted from A general recommendation and McLennan for dryland salinity control in investigated. other impetuses. to fill a knowledge (1997) the Corangamite region, south- deficiency. west Victoria SKM (1997a) Bamganie-Meredith catchment Review further groundwater monitoring and No action. A specific recommendation recharge mapping report. salinity discharge mapping in 2-5 years to for additional monitoring, determine trend then review of existing analysis. SKM (1997a) Bamganie-Meredith catchment Investigate the hydraulic behaviour of the General groundwater processes A general recommendation recharge mapping report. Tertiary cappings. reviewed in Heislers & Pillai to investigate (2000). hydrogeological processes. A study of regolith development and hydrology of toposequences (Smith 2001). SKM (1997a) Bamganie-Meredith catchment Undertake an infiltration study using A study of regolith development A specific recommendation recharge mapping report. permeameter in the recharge zones. and hydrology of toposequences for additional field (Smith 2001). investigation.

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment SKM (1997a) Bamganie-Meredith catchment Use economic assessment to evaluate the net No action A specific recommendation recharge mapping report. value of lost production. for an economic analysis. SKM (1997b) Groundwater processes in the Implement controlled agroforestry trials in the No action known A specific recommendation Lake Murdeduke-Barwon recharge zones. for an implementation River area measure. SKM (1997b) Groundwater processes in the Undertake feasibility modelling of the No known action A specific recommendation Lake Murdeduke-Barwon groundwater interception salinity control option to model the implementation River area. of a salinity control measure. SKM (1997b) Groundwater processes in the Measure inflow and outflow volumes and No known action A specific recommendation Lake Murdeduke-Barwon salinity during increased river flow. for additional monitoring. River area. SKM (1997b) Groundwater processes in the Measure holding capacity of the saline lakes. No known action A specific recommendation Lake Murdeduke-Barwon for additional data collection River area. and analysis. SKM (1998c) Surface water quality and Synchronise monitoring of groundwater and None Better coordination of salinisation processes in the streams to reduce the lag time effects between Monitoring is necessary. Corangamite region. groundwater and surface water hydrographs for baseflow separation and salt load estimates. SKM (1998c) Surface water quality and Carry out water and salt balance studies to Water balance modelling (MIKE- A general recommendation salinisation processes in the understand catchment processes. SHE) of Gerangamete agroforestry of a research direction. Corangamite region. trial catchment (SKM 2003). SKM (1998c) Surface water quality and Undertake a pilot study into the interaction No known action A specific recommendation salinisation processes in the between surface and groundwater in the Woady of an additional study. Corangamite region. Yaloak catchment. Heislers (1998) A soil infiltration and recharge Twin ring infiltration measurement should be Not known A general recommendation study at the Gerangamete adopted to measure recharge distribution in of a methodological agroforestry site. landscapes where soil textural characteristics are approach. visually quite uniform.

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Heislers (1998) A soil infiltration and recharge Suitable scaled infiltration maps should be used Extrapolated infiltration data A specific recommendation study at the Gerangamete for understanding hydrological imbalance. (Heislers 1998) used in the MIKE- of an additional study. agroforestry site. SHE model (SKM 2003) Blackham (1999) Numerical modelling of Develop a high resolution model of the Lake No action A specific recommendation groundwater flow systems in Murdeduke-Barwon River area and Warrion- for additional numerical the Lake Corangamite-Barwon Alvie-Beeac area to assist in analysing discharge modelling. River region to river or fresh water aquifer. Collated from SKM Surface water salinity Analysis of stream data trends should be Last report made by Thiess A general recommendation & Thies processes in the Corangamite performed which provide valuable information Environmental in 1999 (Thiess for future trends. Environmental Region for use in combating salinity in the region 1999). Services recent reports (up to 1999) for NRE Collated from SKM Surface water salinity Further catchment specific studies on Only case study made in Woady A specific recommendation & Thiess processes in the Corangamite groundwater and surface water should be carried Yaloak catchment (SKM 1998c) is for further study. Environmental Region out to aid catchment management summarised in this report Services recent reports (up to 1999) for NRE Collated from SKM Surface water salinity Water and salt balance studies should link Stream salinity and base flow A specific recommendation & Thiess processes in the Corangamite streamflows and salt loads to the groundwater relationship is reported for the for further study. Environmental Region behaviour to increase understanding of four major river basins (32 to 35), Services recent catchment processes. (SKM 1998c) reports (up to 1999) for NRE Heislers and Pillai A review of hot spots, Serious land degradation issues should be acted Action happening regardless A general recommendation 2(2000) treatment options, and targets upon without waiting for detailed investigative of an implementation in the Corangamite Salinity research. philosophy. Region Heislers and Pillai A review of hot spots, Treatments must be considered in all parts of the No known action A general recommendation (2000) treatment options, and targets catchment to produce measurable impacts of of an implementation in the Corangamite Salinity catchment water balance needs. philosophy. Region

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Heislers and Pillai A review of hot spots, Higher water use perennial vegetation needed to Action likely happening, but A general recommendation (2000) treatment options, and targets achieve landscape water objectives. difficult to tie to this document of an implementation in the Corangamite Salinity strategy. Region Heislers and Pillai A review of hot spots, The alley-farming concept should be strongly Action likely happening, but A general recommendation (2000) treatment options, and targets considered as a potential salinity control option difficult to tie to this document of an implementation in the Corangamite Salinity in high rainfall areas, with likely other spin-offs. strategy. Region Heislers and Pillai A review of hot spots, Waterlogging and excess soil water needs to be Too soon to measure action A general recommendation (2000) treatment options, and targets removed at strategic locations, by either of an implementation in the Corangamite Salinity agronomic solutions or some form of technically philosophy. Region justified or economically feasible surface or sub- surface drainage. Heislers, Pillai and Hydrogeological appraisal of Agroforestry on Hanson Plain Sand ridges, across Simpson Agroforesty A general recommendation Gequillana (2001) the Heytesbury hot spots for the slopes and break-of-slope should be seriously demonstrated excess water use of an implementation the Corangamite Salinity considered in Heytesbury, given the potential (per comm1) strategy. Region high growth conditions and relative proximity to port facilities. Pillai (2001) A brief audit of the Corangamite salinity forum should tackle the Various monitoring reviews A specific recommendation Corangamite groundwater identifiable groundwater monitoring issues and coordinated by CCMA currently of a monitoring strategy. monitoring program develop a forward strategy. proceeding Clearly define the future roles of NRE regions and CLPR with respect to the operation of the monitoring program. Centralise monitoring roles in order to ensure continuity and consistency of strategic monitoring, given recent experience. Pillai (2001) A brief audit of the Undertake a rigidly defined a mandatory No action A specific recommendation Corangamite groundwater (minimum) monitoring program using the key of a monitoring strategy. monitoring program bore network as the basic core.

1 Linda White (Land holder), March 2001

36 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Pillai (2001) A brief audit of the Develop a communication strategy between No action A specific recommendation Corangamite groundwater community, monitors and agencies with respect of a monitoring strategy. monitoring program to the operations and implement the orientation of new monitors and support staff. Pillai (2001) A brief audit of the Implement of biennial groundwater salinity No action A specific recommendation Corangamite groundwater measurements in key bores. of a monitoring strategy. monitoring program Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems A review of the GFS should be undertaken once Basalt plain scoping study is A general recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA the information from concurrent projects is currently under way (CCMA for a review. region available. 2003) Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Management options should be considered for No action as yet A general recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA the protection of all classes of assets. for additional management region specification. Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Prioritisation of research projects that can No action as yet A specific recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA scientifically validate the assumed GFS is of a research strategy. region necessary.

Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Local GFS with a significant salinity risk should No action as yet A specific recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA be targets for immediate research aimed at of a research strategy. region proving the conceptual model and improving the confidence in the management options. Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Funding and commitment for long-term projects Action in the form of NAP and A specific recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA involving team research should be sought to VPP bids. of a research strategy. region improve the understanding of more complex systems (e.g. volcanic plains basalt) and their role in salinity processes. Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Consensus on GFS across boundaries with Statewide integration (wherever A specific recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA neighbouring CMAs should be checked. possible) of GFS currently in ensuring consistency of region occurring. method.

Dahlhaus, Heislers Groundwater flow systems Undertake continuous improvement of data and No action as yet A general recommendation and Dyson (2002) report, Corangamite CMA regular revision of the groundwater flow systems of R&D region so that the annual expenditure on salinity management can be optimised.

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Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite A priority setting framework should be used in No action as yet A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the the Corangamite region for determining in adopting an R&D Balance investment strategies in the Second SAP. approach Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The Second SAP should build on the insights Vested in future action A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the from experienced officers involved in the salinity in strategy development Balance program. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The Second SAP explore partnerships with Vested in future action A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the industry groups in the region where beneficial in strategy development Balance outcomes for salinity control can be established. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite A mechanism needs to be established in the Vested in future action A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the Second SAP where changing circumstances can in strategy development Balance allow for a simple review of the Plan, reset targets (if needed) and gain community endorsement for the changes. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite Given the recognised importance of many of the No action as yet A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the water bodies significant resources should be in R&D direction Balance directed to understand the salinity influences and potential impacts. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The concept of ‘hot spots’ should be superseded Vested in future action A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the and replaced with a smaller scale, catchment of an R&D and Balance descriptions and groundwater flow systems type implementation approach approach. In particular more weighting should be given to areas with well-defined local groundwater systems, where the evidence of cause and effect is clearly established. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The Corangamite CMA should play a pivotal role Various monitoring reviews A general recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the in facilitating the development of a coordinated by the Corangamite for coordinating monitoring. Balance comprehensive monitoring program for the CMA currently proceeding region. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite Monitoring program should also examine the Vested in future actions A general recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the most appropriate mechanism to ensure the for the effective extension of Balance collected data is analysed and used to inform on- monitoring and R&D going programs. outcomes.

38 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

Author (year) Title Recommendation description Resulting action Comment Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The Second SAP should establish a mechanism to Mechanism suggested in SAP A specific recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the initiate and oversee the completion of projects. (CCMA 2003) for coordination of R&D. Balance Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite Encourage other organisations to contribute to the Vested in future action A general recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the knowledge pool and to ensure the findings are for comprehensive Balance considered during regular reviews of the plan. knowledge capture. Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite Expand the treatment options available to Vested in future action A general recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the landholders. of a research direction. Balance Nicholson (2002) Review of the Corangamite The Second SAP embrace the opportunities in Considered in SAP (CCMA 2003) A general recommendation Salinity Strategy, Restoring the other existing programs and organisations offer for value adding and Balance including industry groups, private enterprise, realising synergies. local government and other related natural resource programs. SKM (2003) Water balance modelling of Strategically sited surface drainage might provide No action known A specific recommendation Gerangamete agroforestry trial some opportunities to remove surface water of an implementation catchment before it runs onto low-lying shallow watertable strategy at a site. and discharge area. SKM (2003) Water balance modelling of Sub-surface drainage in soil waterlogging low- No action A specific recommendation Gerangamete agroforestry trial lying areas would not be useful in low of an implementation catchment permeability landscapes like the Gerangamete strategy at a site. agroforestry trial catchment.

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Appendix 2. Reporting of key salinity monitoring activities across the Corangamite CMA region A review of NRE and community groundwater monitoring arrangements for the Corangamite salinity region Date published: 1996 Author(s): David Heislers, Centre for Land Protection Research Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key words: community, network, key bores, link person Publication details: 27 pages, Monitoring Report No. 12, ISBN 0 7311 0000 X, ISSN 1324 4388 Availability: Hardcopy Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)- Bendigo, DPI Colac Objectives: · Document the monitoring methodologies and the status of the NRE and community groundwater monitoring networks in the Corangamite Salinity Region. · Identify deficiencies in the current groundwater monitoring arrangements. · Comment on the management, future direction and accountability of NRE and community groundwater monitoring activities. Key findings: · Across the Corangamite Salinity Region there are 572 NRE and community groundwater monitoring bores, grouped in 28 distinct monitoring networks, progressively established since 1989 and split into: Agency monitored bores - 243 Community monitored bores (paid) - 215 Community monitored bores (unpaid) - 54 Link Person monitored bores - 48 Lapsed/unmonitored bores - 12 · Groundwater monitoring for salinity are partitioned into strategic monitoring (background monitoring and effectiveness monitoring) out of which 54 NRE monitoring bores have been selected as key bores. · During 1995/96 a comprehensive bore census was undertaken to ascertain bore maintenance requirements and piezometer landscape position to assist in setting maintenance priorities and higher quality groundwater data interpretation. · A communication strategy is in place to ensure all paid community groundwater monitors are fully briefed on sound monitoring practice and responsibilities to maintain good monitoring frequency schedule that is determined on the needs of individual monitoring networks. Key recommendations: · Groundwater monitoring should be continued as a high priority activity in the Corangamite Salinity Region, undertaken in accordance with revised data quality, recording standards, monitoring frequencies, data transfer and reporting arrangements. · Develop a culture of community involvement in groundwater monitoring primarily to increase efficiencies in monitoring and enable increased understanding of salinity processes within the community. · NRE and other agencies should continue to develop and play an strong support role in monitoring policy, information handling and feedback mechanisms to assist monitoring communities that

40 Pillai M (2003) Salinity research and investigation inventory for the Corangamite CMA

have a requirement for interpreted information by including a bi-annual monitoring report augmented by local or personalised reporting to community groups and individuals that are involved. · Review the implementation of community monitoring and reporting on its progress and implement additional background and effectiveness monitoring where required by diverting some of the resources saved during monitoring rationalisation.

A technical appraisal of DNRE and community groundwater monitoring networks in the Corangamite salinity region Date published: 1996 Author(s): David Heislers, Centre for Land Protection Research Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key words: community, network, key bores, monitoring frequency Publication details: 70 pages, Monitoring Report No 13, ISBN 0 7311 0003 4, ISSN 1324 4388 Availability: Hardcopy at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo, DPI Colac Objectives: · To document the fundamental characteristics of NRE and community groundwater monitoring networks of the Corangamite Salinity Region. · To provide a detailed overview of groundwater trends and hydrogeological characteristics as observed from the monitoring networks. Key findings: · Each network within the four sub-regions of Colac, Ballarat, Geelong and Macedon contains information on hydrogeology, groundwater flow systems, groundwater characteristics, groundwater salinity and a network summary table of bore and groundwater trend information. · Snapshot of groundwater conditions, groundwater characteristics and hydrogeological frameworks for each monitoring network provide a substantial foundation upon which future hydrogeological investigations and salinity treatments can occur. This will become apparent in the hot spots and targets review process (Heislers & Pillai 2000). · In many monitoring networks, clear trends are not yet evident often due to poor or inadequate length of groundwater monitoring record or the masking of trends by short-term noise in the hydrograph. However, the trends interpreted to date (mid-1996) indicate a longer term tendency in the data record that may be a response to either climatic patterns or land use change. · Some important facets of the hydrogeological systems operating is revealed, for example the contrasting magnitudes of seasonal fluctuations observed in the same LMU by different monitoring networks (Moriac and Barwon Downs) clearly demonstrates that heterogeneity of geological systems results in unique signatures, hence individual areas must be considered on their own merits in terms of hydrogeological conceptualisation. · A general observation is that the salinity treatment monitoring is mainly restricted to the Gerangamete Flats and Simpson agroforestry sites, Simpson sub-surface drainage site, and scattered monitoring at Pittong and Rokewood-Grenville. There is emphatic evidence of pine plantations having caused reduction in watertables at Irrewillipe and less distinct evidence of pine plantation impacts at Grenville. · Minimal seasonal fluctuations indicate the existence of very low permeability groundwater systems at Pittong (Granite LMU) and Moriac (Sand Clay Rises LMU), suggesting that lateral soil water throughflow is a significant hydrogeological process. However, large seasonal groundwater

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fluctuations in high rainfall south suggest significant local recharge, though notionally, these systems have been regarded as low permeability landscapes. This has important consequences for the types of salinity control options that should be recommended in these areas. Key recommendations: · A more rigorous and statistical appraisal of rainfall data over the period of groundwater record is necessary to discriminate the exact role of climatic patterns in groundwater trends.

A brief audit of the Corangamite groundwater monitoring program Date published: 2001 Author(s): Mayavan Pillai, Centre for Land Protection Research Client: Corangamite Salinity Region Key words: community, network, key bores, monitoring frequency Publication details: 57 pages, Monitoring Report No 42, ISBN 7311 4989 0, ISSN 1324 4388 Availability: Hardcopy at Primary Industries Research Victoria (PIRVic)-Bendigo, DPI Colac Objectives: · To provide an up-to-date inventory of the NRE and community groundwater monitoring program within the Corangamite Catchment Management Authority (CMA) region. · To identify the issues and deficiencies with respect to the current groundwater monitoring arrangements and to recommend some general direction for the future of the NRE and community groundwater monitoring program. Key findings: · Across the Corangamite Salinity Region there are in the order of 580 NRE and community groundwater monitoring bores, grouped in 28 distinct monitoring networks that have progressively been established since the late 1980s. · The majority of the monitoring (in excess of 55% of bores) is currently undertaken by paid community groundwater monitors with numerous management issues revolving around the loss of community monitors and a drop in monitoring standards due to a lack of direct support and substantial investment of resources. Key recommendations: · Corangamite monitoring forum should tackle the identifiable groundwater monitoring issues and to develop a forward strategy to clearly define the future roles of NRE regions and CLPR with respect to the operation of the monitoring program and centralisation of monitoring roles in order to ensure continuity and consistency of strategic monitoring, given recent experience. · Undertake a rigidly defined mandatory (minimum) monitoring program using the key bore network as the basic core. · Develop a communication strategy between community, monitors and agencies with respect to the operation of the NRE groundwater monitoring program. · Implement a formal process for the orientation of new monitors and monitor support staff and maintenance of a streamlined monitoring program. · Implement biennial groundwater salinity measurements in key bores. · Groundwater monitoring data is the key component to the understanding of groundwater behaviour and water balance. Thus make the monitoring program efficient, representative and appropriately resourced.

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Surface water salinity in the Corangamite Region Date published: 1996-1999 Author(s): Sinclair Knight Merz (SKM), Thiess Environmental Services Client: Department of Natural Resources and Environment Key words: stream flow, salinity, water quality, Availability: Department of Primary Industries, Corangamite CMA Objectives: · To provide a summary of the quality of surface water flow and salinity data from approximately 15 sites in the Corangamite CMA Salinity Region. These sites fall within the four Corangamite drainage basins, Barwon River, Moorabool River, Lake Corangamite and Otway Coast. · Provide a brief assessment, analysis and a statistical summary of the data collected. Key findings: · Water quality with respect to salinity within the Corangamite CMA region generally vary across the catchment. · The south-western regions generally achieved lower attainment with the relevant water quality objectives and guidelines, which has been previously recognised as due to a combination of past farming practices and basaltic soils. · In spite of generally higher salinity readings in the last few years the total salt load produced at most sites over the same period was less than the long-term mean as the flows were lower than the long-term means in most cases. · The average salt load carried over the last five years would be expected to be significantly lower than the long-term average, as flow and therefore rainfall is one of the dominant factors in influencing salt load. · Most streams in the Corangamite CMA Salinity Region have a baseflow component with varying contribution to the stream salt load. Key recommendations: · Analysis of stream data trends should be performed which provide valuable information for use in combating salinity in the region. · Further catchment specific studies on groundwater and surface water should be carried out to aid catchment management. · Bores and stream gauges should be surveyed to the same datum and synchronised with monitoring of groundwater bores near the streams to reduce the lag time effects between groundwater and surface water hydrographs to help baseflow separation and salt load estimates. · Water and salt balance studies should link streamflows and salt loads to the groundwater behaviour to increase understanding of catchment processes. · Methods of increasing community awareness of the monitoring programs and results of the data analysis should be further investigated.

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Appendix 3. Workshop proceedings South-west research and investigation strategy review (Workshop proceedings) Ballarat, 1996 Date: 1996 Authors: Craig Clifton & John Taylor Objectives: · To satisfy all the objectives of the review, Lyle and Wildes commissioned scoping studies, which were presented at a two day workshop involving key participants in research and investigation in the south-west. · Review current research and investigation projects and identify future research and investigation needs while taking into account the State and National Dryland Salinity Programs. Key findings: · The scoping studies provided a detailed description of the area and the current state of knowledge of salinity and its management in the south-west on: · The physical features, climate and land use of south-west Victoria. · Vegetation management and control of dryland salinity in the south-west. · Groundwater trends and implications for recharge in south-west Victoria. · Economic and other motivating factors that influence the adoption of salinity management strategies. · Dryland salinity is caused by alteration of catchment water balance and needs to be investigated in this context. However, the catchment salt balance is also important. Consideration of the catchment salt balance may help focus priorities within the catchment as areas generating the most salt will have greater off-site and community impact. · There is a need to gain further understanding of the link between surface water balance and hydrological processes and deeper groundwater systems. · That extrapolation studies which link measurement studies and localised data collection and monitoring are required to develop soundly based salinity management strategies. · There seems limited opportunity for perennial pastures to control dryland salinity in higher rainfall areas. Soils remain wet for much of winter allowing extended periods of drainage to the watertable. It appears that water use may be enhanced by rotational grazing and the use of pasture plants that are active in summer. · Effective treatment of dryland salinity in catchments will require changes in management and vegetation across a very large proportion of the landscape. · Discussion on these projects identified the following key points: · Waterlogging, which has an important impact on pasture growth, may not be adequately accounted for in water balance modelling. · A better understanding of soil hydrological and hydrogeological processes are required to assess the merits of drainage. · It has not been established what impact drainage will have on deep drainage and recharge or in which landscapes it will have the most impact. · Future directions for dryland salinity research and investigation in south-west Victoria. · To context the discussion on future directions for research and investigation in the south-west, papers were presented on the national Dryland Salinity Program (NDSP) and its links to the State and south-west. · Investment required and justification for salinity control in the south-west.

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· Major objectives of research and investigation in the south-west are to: · determine the extent and impact of salinity · better understand the salinity processes at work · determine the management based solutions to the salinity problem · determine the economic costs of dryland salinity and provision of an economic justification for investment in dryland salinity management. · Priority research directions are: · how groundwater systems work and respond · spatial analytical framework · land use/land type/ rainfall matrix for recharge · economic assessment of dryland salinity and its effects and options for control at regional and farm scale · cost-effective monitoring practice · knowledge transfer and getting adoption · management of options pasture management. · Priority projects are: · barriers to adoption · cost/benefit · conceptual models for hydrogeological systems · waterlogging and interaction · salinity control through management decisions.

Key recommendations: · Hydrogeology projects · Provide hydrogeological support for the implementation of south-west salinity strategies. · Undertake salinity discharge mapping project aims firstly to determine the extent and severity of dryland salinity. · Establish long-term monitoring sites and hence determine the rate at which salinity is spreading and the impact of implemented control measures. · Scale-up hydrogeological models from local/small catchment scale to whole of catchment modelling. · Vegetation management projects · Incorporate data collection of all parameters to determine the water balance · Investigate of species to ensure summer and winter activity of pastures · Involve the community in data collection for water balance modelling. · Drainage Projects · Consider subsurface drainage for recharge control in the Heytesbury · Undertake subsurface drainage R&I of the Dundas Tablelands.

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Conference papers Australian and New Zealand National Soils Conference (University of Melbourne, 1996) Hydrology, pedology and dryland salinity in the granitic landscape of the Upper Woady Yaloak catchment: Implications for management. Authors: Richard MacEwan & Peter Dahlhaus, University of Ballarat. Research site: This trial area forms part of the Upper Woady Yaloak catchment. Selected trial site is 3 ha in area on the southern edge of Flagstaff Hill along Francis Lane on the Pittong property of Kevin Knight. Key findings: · The landscape in the Upper Woady Yaloak catchment does not adapt well to a simple recharge- discharge model. · Better conceptual models can be developed and used to design best bet options in conjunction with appropriate monitoring. · Waterlogging appears to be the major limitation to winter production in the Upper Woady Yaloak landscape which aggravate the spread of salinity by intercepting highly saline groundwater and salt through the lower lying parts of the landscape. · Shallow surface interception of throughflow water and safe disposal offers a management option.

Australian and New Zealand National Soils Conference (University of Melbourne, 1996) Waterlogging and dryland salinity as influenced by pedogeomorphic history in the Simpson area. Authors: Richard MacEwan, Peter Dahlhaus, Eldridge RE & Robertson EH. Research site: In 1993 a research site south of Simpson (a dairy farm owned by D & D Newton) was selected by NRE for investigation of recharge control through sub-surface drainage. The site occupies an area of approximately 100 ha at the top of the Cooriemungle Creek catchment (110 m above msl) along Gallum Road to the valley floor (80 m above msl). Key findings: · A detailed EM38 salinity survey in 1995 revealed the highest salinity existed in the Corriemungle Silt Loam soil unit. · Hydrogeological observations revealed that waterlogging occurred more rapidly and was more prolonged in these same positions. · A shallow watertable was present at 0.2 m in one micro catchment when unsaturated conditions persisted in a 2 m auger hole on the valley floor at 8 m lower elevation. · Nested piezometers (at 3, 10 and 20 m) show a decline in groundwater pressure with depth at high and low positions in the landscape. · The evidence of salinity at this site is not the result of groundwater discharge and that discrete perched watertables are responsible for winter waterlogging. · Cooriemungle Silt Loam soil units may be dammed by clay toes from ancient landslips, thus encouraging the build-up of water and lack of leaching of salt in these landscape positions.

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Appendix 4 Bibliography of landscape, geology and salinity knowledge across the Corangamite CMA (This reference list adopted from Peter Dahlhaus’ bibliography, which is being updated and includes relevant information on groundwater, salinity etc. in the Corangamite CMA region.) 1. Abdi Manaf A (1998) Regional groundwater flow in Skipton. 'B.App.Sci. Geology,' Final year project Unpublished Report, University of Ballarat. 2. Abele C (1968) 'Explanatory notes on the Anglesea 1:63,360 geological map.' Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 1968/1, (Mines Department of Victoria, Melbourne), 4p. 3. Abele C (1971) 'Micropalaeontological report on samples from bores in the Parishes of Struan and Ettrick (north-west of Lake Corangamite).' Unpublished Report, 1971/41, (Geological Survey of Victoria, 4. Abele C (1976) 'Revision of Tertiary rock unit nomenclature in the Maude area, Victoria.' Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 1976/2, (Mines Department of Victoria, Melbourne) 5. Abele C (1977) 'Explanatory notes on the Queenscliff 1:250,000 geological map.' Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 1977/5, (Mines Department of Victoria, Melbourne), 82p. 6. ACIL (1988) 'Corangamite Basin Drainage Schemes Review: An economic assessment.' (ACIL Australia Pty Ltd & MPW Australia Pty Ltd, 7. Adams G (1990) 'Corangamite Review Technical Report. A report on analyses conducted by the Rural Water Commission for the Corangamite Basin Drainage Schemes Review.' Investigations Branch Report, 1990/9, (Rural Water Commission, Armadale), 109p. 8. Adams H (1999) 'Corangamite region Nutrient Management Plan final version: a framework to reduce the incidence of blue green algae in Victoria.’ (DNRE, 9. Alexander GN, Sutcliffe AJ (1956) 'Preliminary hydrologic investigation of Lake Corangamite floodings: first progress report.’ (State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, Melbourne), 51p. 10. Allan MJ (1994) 'An assessment of secondary dryland salinity in Victoria.' Centre for Land Protection Research Technical Report, 14, (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Bendigo), 17p. 11. Allan MJ (1996) 'Method for assessing dryland salinity in Victoria.' Centre for Land Protection Research Technical Report, 34, (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Bendigo), 12p. 12. Amirtharajah M (1996) Economic and other motivating factors which influence the adoption of salinity management strategies. South West Research and Investigation Strategy Review. Workshop Proceedings, Ballarat, March 14-15, 1996 pp. 92-108. (Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Melbourne) 13. Amirtharajah M (1997) 'Corangamite Salinity Implementation Survey.’ (Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Hamilton, Victoria), 51p. 14. Anon. Road damage in Otway. Aftermath of the Floods. Colac Herald. 23-6-1952. Colac. 23-6- 1952. 15. Anon. Mountain moves into valley. Amazing scene near Forrest. Great Natural Dam Created by Blockage. Colac Herald. 25-6-1952. Colac. 25-6-1952. 16. Anon. Otway councillors' difficulties. Floods and Landslides Add Complications. Colac Herald. 30-6-1952. Colac. 30-6-1952. 17. Anon. Has Forrest's lake disappeared? Flood Follows Heavy Rain on Ranges. Colac Herald. 7-8- 1953. Colac. 7-8-1953. 18. Anon. Aftermath of East Barwon floods. Valuable Flat Land Buried in Silt. Colac Herald. 10-8- 1953. Colac. 10-8-1953.

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19. Anon. Silting of Barwon River flats. Assistance to be sought From State Government. Colac Herald. 17-8-1953. Colac. 17-8-1953. 20. Anon. Massive Landslide Threatens Ocean Road. It's closed indefinitely. Colac Herald. 1971. Colac. 21. Anon. Lorne Landslide may have been avoided. Colac Herald. 20-10-1976. Colac. 20-10-1976. 22. Anon. Experts look at Otway landslide problems. Colac Herald. 26-2-1982. Colac. 26-2-1982. 23. Anon. (1994) 'Victorian Government support for regional salinity strategies: Corangamite Region.’ (Government of Victoria, Melbourne), 19p. 24. Anon. Corangamite Salinity Strategy gets the green light. Salt Force News 39, 3. 1994. East Melbourne, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 25. Apollo Bay Landcare Group Inc. (1997) 'Wild Dog and Skenes Creek Valleys. A reference guide 1997.’ (Apollo Bay Landcare Group Inc., Apollo Bay), 190p. 26. Appleby G (1989) 'Brief report on wetlands in the Colac-Corangamite region.' Unpublished report, (Department of Conservation and Environment, 27. Appleby G (1991) 'Wetlands in the Colac region.' Unpublished report, (Department of Conservation and Environment, 28. Australian Biological Research Group (1988) 'Conservation values of Lakes and Wetlands in the south-western region, Victoria. Technical report.' Unpublished report for Department of Water Resources & Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands 29. Australian Biological Research Group (1989) 'Conservation values of Lakes and Wetlands in the south-western region, Victoria. Summary report.' Unpublished report for Department of Water Resources & Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands 30. Australian Nature Conservation Agency (1993) 'Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.’ (Commonwealth of Australia, 178p. 31. Baker G (1944) The geology of the Port Campbell district. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 56, 77-111. 32. Baker G (1950) Geology and physiography of the Moonlight Head district. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 60, 17-44. 33. Baragwanath, W. The Ballarat Goldfield. Geological Survey of Victoria Memoir 14. 1923. 34. Bayly IAE, Williams WD (1966) Chemical and biological studies on some saline lakes of south- east Australia. Australian Journal of Freshwater Research 17, 177-228. 35. Bayne PJM (1998) Occurrence of nitrate in soil and groundwater in the Corangamite area, Western Victoria. "Groundwater: Sustainable Solutions" Proceedings of the International Groundwater Conference University of Melbourne. (Eds TR Weaver and CR Lawrence) pp. 407- 412. (International Association of Hydrogeologists (Australian National Chapter): Melbourne) 36. Bird MI, Chivas AR (2002) Geomorphic and palaeoclimatic implications of an oxygen-isotope chronology for Australian deeply weathered profiles. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 40, 345- 358. 37. Bishop P, Li S (1997) Sub-basaltic deep-lead systems and gold exploration at Ballarat, Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 44, 253-264. 38. Blackam MJ (1999) 3D computer modelling of groundwater flow systems in the Lake Corangamite-Barwon River region. 13th Victorian Universities Earth Sciences Conference, Melbourne, September, 1999. pp. 50-52. (Geological Society of Australia: Melbourne) 39. Blackam MJ (1999) Numerical modelling of groundwater flow systems in the Lake Corangamite - Barwon River region. 'B.App.Sci. (Hons) Geology,' Thesis Unpublished, University of Ballarat. 40. Blinn DW, Blinn SL, Bayly IAE (1989) Feeding ecology of Haloniscus searlei Chilton, an oniscoid isopod living in athalassic saline waters. Australian Journal of Marine & Freshwater Research 40, 295- 301.

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41. Bolger PF (1978) 'Explanatory notes on the Meredith and You Yangs 1:50,000 geological maps.' Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 54, (Department of Mines and Energy, Melbourne) 42. Bolger PF (1988) Geelong - Brisbane Ranges. In 'Victorian Geology Excursion Guide'. (Eds I Clark, B Cook, and GC Cochrane) p. 109. (Australian Academy of Science and Geological Society of Australia (Victorian Division): 43. Bonwick J (1858) 'Western Victoria, its geography, geology and social condition.' (Thomas Brown: Geelong) 44. Bonwick J (1866) The Volcanic Rocks of Rome and Victoria compared. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 7, 149-155. 45. Bookaar Eel Culture Pty Ltd (1983) 'Lake Colungulac: Loss of a valuable resource.' Unpublished report to Department of Conservation and Environment, (Bookaar Eel Culture Pty Ltd, 46. Bowen KG (1975) 'Potassium-Argon dates - Determinations carried out by the Geological Survey of Victoria.' Geological Survey of Victoria Report, 1975/3, (Mines Department of Victoria, Melbourne), 34p. 47. Bowler JM, Hamada T (1971) Late Quaternary stratigraphy and radiocarbon chronology of water level fluctuations in Lake Keilambete, Victoria. Nature 232, 331-334. 48. Braiden D (1993) Computer modelling of the Colac-Cressy area. 'B.App.Sci. Geology,' Final year project Unpublished report, Ballarat University College. 49. Branagan DF (2003) Discussion and Reply: Evolution of deep-lead palaeodrainages and gold exploration at Ballarat, Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 50, 471-474. 50. Brough-Smyth R (1858) On the Extinct Volcanoes of Victoria, Australia. Quarterley Journal of the Geological Society of London 14, 227-235. 51. Brown RG (1992) 'Shire of Otway, Wild Dog Road, landslip inspection report.' Vic Roads report, GR92184, (Vic Roads, Kew), 4p. 52. Brownlee M (1996) Quality of water available to Ballarat residents. 'B.App.Sci. Geology,' Final year project Unpublished report, University of Ballarat. 53. Buenen BJ (1995) Soil slope failure processes in the Heytesbury Region. 'B.App.Sci. (Hons) Geology,' research thesis, University of Ballarat. 54. Buntine D (1995) 'Corangamite Salinity Region : year in review 1994.', (Salt Action Victoria, East Melbourne), 36p. 55. Butler M (1992) 'Rivers and streams in the Corangamite Salinity Region.' Corangamite Salinity Strategy Background Report, 10, (Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Colac) 56. Cairns BL (1998) Development of a landslide risk classification system for selected regions of the Otway Ranges. 'B.App.Sci.(Hons) Geology,' Thesis Unpublished, University of Ballarat. 57. Canavan, F. Deep lead gold deposits of Victoria. Geological Survey of Victoria Bulletin 62. 1988. 58. Carthew S (2000) The estimation of erosion rates from a digital elevation model of the Lal Lal Falls Reserve. 'B.App.Sci. Geology,' major project, University of Ballarat. 59. Cayley RA (1992) 'An assessment of the suitability of a waterfall cliff near the Cumberland River reserve for use as a venue for a commercial abseiling venture.' Geological Survey of Victoria Unpublished Report, 1992/23 60. Cayley RA, Taylor DH (1998) The Lachlan margin, Victoria: the Moyston Fault, a newly recognised terrane boundary. Geological Society of Australia Abstracts 49. 61. CCALPB (1996) 'Corangamite Region Catchment Condition Report 1996.', (Corangamite Catchment and Land Protection Board, Colac), 58p. 62. CCALPB (1997) 'Corangamite Regional Catchment Strategy.', (Corangamite Catchment and Land Protection Board, Colac) 63. CCMA (2001) 'Waterway Health Strategy: Draft.', (Corangamite Catchment Management Authority, Colac), 79p.

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