http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. The Determinants of Tribal Population Growth in the New Zealand Census A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Sciences in Demography at The University of Waikato by Moana A. M Rārērē _________ The University of Waikato 2012 Abstract By the early twentieth century the notion that ethnic populations would dissipate was a commonly held belief. However, after World War II, the modern world has seen an incredible resurgence in ethnic identities. Ethnic conflicts, mobilisations, and the political movements of the 1950s and 1960s served as a major catalyst in the diffusion of indigenous identities and rights. Consequently, indigenous groups in settler states, especially in North America, experienced population growth beyond the levels of natural demographic factors, that is, fertility, mortality and migration. Researchers attributed a significant proportion of this growth to changing patterns of ethnic identification, also referred to as ethnic mobility1. Although this phenomenon is well documented in North America, it is only just beginning to be understood in relation to the New Zealand context. During the 1970s and 1980s, the indigenous Māori population of New Zealand gained substantial progress in political, social and economic spheres, following the same patterns of ethnic identity growth as in North America. Despite these gains, the average individual socio-economic outcomes for Māori remain poor, especially in comparison to New Zealand Europeans/Pākehā. Through key legislation, iwi (tribal) organisations became the core mechanism in which to address Māori socio-economic issues, achieve Māori aspirations and to manage Treaty of Waitangi settlement monies. Subsequently, the need for iwi statistics for policy and planning purposes saw the reinstatement of iwi data in the New Zealand census in 1991. Surprisingly, however, very little attention has been given to contemporary patterns of iwi demography. Since the 1991 census, observations of total iwi population growth patterns indicate these patterns cannot solely be explained by natural demographic factors. Furthermore, the growth trajectories of individual iwi were markedly different, and in some cases erratic. These initial observations have raised the following key research questions: What do patterns of iwi growth look like? What is the 1 Also referred to as inter-ethnic mobility or category-jumping. ii role of ethnic mobility? What factors drive ethnic mobility? Who changes iwi identification? Why should we care? This thesis examines patterns of iwi identification in the New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings from 1991 to 2006. It uses statistical methods to not only document iwi population changes but to also identify the key determinants driving these trajectories. In addition, this thesis considers ethnic mobility as an important driver of population growth but, situates this within the broader macro- political environment. Along with the analysis of aggregate iwi population changes, this thesis also provides an in-depth analysis of four iwi groups – Ngāi Tahu, Waikato, Ngāti Awa and Tūhoe, in order to observe individual iwi dynamics that are not clearly visible at the aggregate level. The findings of this thesis raise important implications for theories of ethnicity and the demographic study of ethnic populations. For example, this thesis argues that the category of ethnic mobility is mainly contextual, that is, decisions to change ethnic responses are influenced by the broader political, social and economic contexts. Furthermore this thesis contends that individual ethnic identification decisions are for the most part defined by ethnic categories imposed by the State. While traditional views suggest ethnicity is fixed, intrinsic and kinship based, this thesis finds significant support for contemporary views that argue ethnicity is fluid, extrinsic and socially constructed. Rather than reject traditional views of Maori identity, this study recognises that ethnic identities are complex, and that shifts in iwi identification is about connecting and reconnecting with whakapapa. Thus this thesis argues that in order to understand individual iwi dynamics both points of view need to be considered. iii Acknowledgements While working on thesis, I felt so isolated from the world. However, as I reflect upon the past year or so, I have come to realise that I was never ever alone. Many kind and generous people have supported me on this journey. My heartfelt appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr Tahu Kukutai. Thank you so much for inspiring me to reach beyond the stars. Undertaking such a topic was not only about trying to make sense of the world but more importantly, about understanding myself. I consider myself to be one of those fortunate post- graduates because you kept your finger on the pulse, gave me valuable guidance, kept your door open and, pushed me across the line. Thank you for advocating on my behalf to have the resources necessary to make the research process much more bearable. My appreciation also goes to Natalie Jackson and the staff at the National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis (NIDEA). Thank you so much for providing the much needed resources – my own office space, computer access, tearoom facilities and stationery. More importantly, thank you for keeping my feet on the ground – the smiles, the small chat and, those words of encouragement. You all gave me insight into the world of demography. It is not just about numbers but the story behind the numbers! I would also like to acknowledge the following organisations for their generous scholarships and grants towards the completion of this thesis: The University of Waikato for the Master’s research scholarship, Māori excellence post-graduate award, and Faculty of Arts and Social Science thesis award; Waikato Graduate Women Charitable Trust for the Master’s study award; Omataroa Rangitaiki No 2 Trust; and Whakatane Historical Society Scholarship Trust. To the wonderful ladies at the University of Waikato Student Learning Centre - Christina, Trish, Andrea, Maria, Katherine and Dawn. It was wonderful to have another sounding board. You all reminded me to take a deep breath, step back and put everything in perspective. iv I am also grateful to my subject librarians, Jenny McGhee and Jillene Bydder. I would have gone mad figuring out how to format a thesis document, let alone trying to work out how to reference properly! You have both made such a valuable contribution by helping me put together this document and encouraging me along. I am also very thankful to Stan and Leonie Getty for proofreading parts of this thesis and teaching me better grammar. I still have a long way to go! I felt very welcomed in your home and loved the homemade muffins, biscuits and slices. Special thanks to my dear friend, Gemma Piercy. Thank you for being a good listener, providing academic advice, being a great advocate, and most of all, constantly reminding me to believe in myself. You were always there, through the good times and the not so good times. I cannot seem to thank you enough. Outside of the academic world were the nearest and dearest; the people who really know me and accept me for who I am. To my whanau – dad, mum, brothers, sister-in-laws, nieces, nephews, aunties, uncles, and friends. Thank you all for just loving and accepting me. Love you all. Last but not least, I complete my thesis in honour of my mother, Jean Whānaupani Rārērē (nee Wharerimu), who with deep sadness passed away while I was working on this thesis. You were my biggest inspiration in life and an amazing tower of strength. You hardly murmured during the challenges of life. You gave your life for others; you gave your life for me. Love you always. v Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ........................................................................................................ ix List of Tables.......................................................................................................... xi Chapter One: Introduction....................................................................................... 1 1.1 Setting the context .................................................................................... 1 1.2 Thesis purpose .......................................................................................... 6 1.3 Ethnic mobility: Explaining