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EMBODYING REALITY by Cynthia A. Karaffa Bachelor of Arts, Edinbor INTELLECTUAL COURAGE AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TERRORISM: EMBODYING REALITY by Cynthia A. Karaffa Bachelor of Arts, Edinboro University, 1980 Master of Arts, Duquesne University, 1982 Master of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh, 1997 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2012 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION This dissertation was presented by Cynthia A. Karaffa It was defended on December 7, 2011 and approved by Emma T. Lucas-Darby, Professor Emerita, Department of Social Work, Carlow University Donald M. Goldstein, Professor Emeritus, Graduate School of Public and International Affairs Academic Advisor: William E. Bickel, Professor, Administrative and Policy Studies Research Advisor: Michael Gunzenhauser, Associate Professor, Administrative and Policy Studies ii Copyright © by Cynthia A. Karaffa 2012 iii INTELLECTUAL COURAGE AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TERRORISM: EMBODYING REALITY Cynthia A. Karaffa, M.A., M.P.I.A., PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2012 Undertaking the exploration of the diverse, thought-provoking interpretations students provided for the words “terrorism” and “terrorist” is the basis of this work. The purpose in describing their interpretations is to acknowledge, in some instances, their acceptance of and resistance to “official” definitions and versions of “reality” regarding terrorism and terrorist. My interest is in showing how reality is constructed and experienced by students and how we as researchers and educators may create new possibilities of reality. This display of reality utilizes seven female students’ written discourse and is presented through the lens of sociological, political, and educational theories. Over the years I have taught sociology, social theory, research methods and political science. I have watched my students react with fascination (mostly positive, but sometimes negative) when learning about other cultures, belief systems, and values; expand their critical thinking skills; accept and reject elements of official doctrine and mass media produced acquiescent knowledge; and realize how the United States, with its hegemonic standing, culture, beliefs and values, affects and is affected by the rest of the world. In planning this study, I wanted to know how my students assemble their “subjective” social reality and how they perceive, interpret, and experience “objective” world realities. The title of this work, Intellectual Courage and the Social Construction of Terrorism: Embodying Reality, reflects the three main constructs: intellectual courage, social construction, and reality. The results display an expression of open-mindedness without intimidation. When iv discussing and analyzing their socially constructed realities, many students were able to think more creatively and critically when viewing “reality” associate with terrorists and terrorism. v TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 1 1.1.1 Objective Reality and Subjective Interpretation .......................................... 3 1.1.2 Female and Male Perspectives ........................................................................ 6 1.1.3 Expansive Education ....................................................................................... 9 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 12 2.0 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .......................................................................... 16 2.1 TERRORISM ..................................................................................................... 16 2.1.1 Defining Terrorism ........................................................................................ 16 2.1.2 History and Terrorism .................................................................................. 19 2.2 EDUCATION ..................................................................................................... 22 2.2.1 Liberal Arts, Democracy and Globalization ............................................... 22 2.2.2 Education, Security and Globalization ........................................................ 31 2.3 CONSTRUCTING REALITY ......................................................................... 42 2.3.1 Terror Realities and Interpretation ............................................................. 42 2.3.2 Female Perspective ........................................................................................ 55 3.0 EAST COAST UNIVERSITY .................................................................................. 72 3.1 CORE CURRICULUM LAI’S ......................................................................... 72 vi 3.2 CORE CURRICULUM SKILLS INTEGRATION AREAS ......................... 74 3.3 CORE THEMES ................................................................................................ 77 3.4 STUDENT INFORMATION ............................................................................ 79 4.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY ............................... 82 4.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................... 82 4.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ........................... 88 4.2.1 Reflection papers ........................................................................................... 89 4.3 RESEARCH SUBJECTS, DATA ASSEMBLY AND ANALYSIS ............... 92 4.3.1 First Level Analysis ....................................................................................... 93 4.3.2 Sampling and Representation....................................................................... 96 4.4 VALIDITY ....................................................................................................... 102 5.0 FINDINGS: THE CONSTRUCTION AND PERSPECTIVES OF REALITY . 105 5.1 MY INTERPRETATIONS OF “TERRORIST” AND “TERRORISM” ... 106 5.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE DIALOGUE .................................................... 109 5.2.1 Main Dialogue Participants ........................................................................ 110 5.3 DIALOGUE ON THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS...................................... 112 5.3.1 Research Questions 2 and 2a ...................................................................... 112 5.3.2 Research Question 2b .................................................................................. 121 5.3.3 Research Question 2c .................................................................................. 125 5.3.4 Research Question 2d .................................................................................. 130 5.3.5 Research Question 2e .................................................................................. 136 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ............................................................. 145 6.1 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................. 145 vii 6.2 IMPLICATIONS ............................................................................................. 148 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................ 153 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................ 155 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................ 163 APPENDIX D ............................................................................................................................ 166 APPENDIX E ............................................................................................................................ 170 APPENDIX F ............................................................................................................................ 190 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 192 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my dad and mom ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION Connection is the remedy to separation. It is from the depth of separation that domination, lack and hatred arise. In the presence of the light of Connection, the human mind recalls what the Soul’s mind knows to be true already-that all beings exist as one. There is no need for separation. (Schnitta & Mikala, 2009, p. 60) 1.1 BACKGROUND My first encounter with terrorism was August 1995. I was a young graduate student in Paris for the first time. My cousin and I had taken the subway to our destination and were walking up a hill when several people came rushing past us shouting “it’s the Algerians!” We turned around a saw smoke coming out of the subway which moments before we had just exited. I looked at Martin and asked “don’t the Algerians like the French?” He replied “you Americans are clueless.” That September I started classes in International Relations at the Graduate School of Public and International Affairs at the University of Pittsburgh. I didn’t want to be a “clueless” American anymore. What I did not realize at the time was that Martin and I had witnessed what had become known as the “1995 Paris Metro Bombings” by the Armed Islamic
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