Some Lessons Learned that Built Self-Efficacy Background My background has some early Dale H. Schunk indicators of an academic career. I was born and grew up in Chicago, where I received my K-12 education in Chicago Public Schools. I did well in high school and also participated in activities such as playing on the football team for four years. I was accepted at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Despite some good academic credentials, I had no idea what to major in once I got to the university. I had three majors (chemistry, English, philosophy) before settling on psychology – a subject that I found fascinating in my freshman-year courses. During my time at the University of Illinois I became interested in research and worked for two different child psychology professors on research projects. Working with professors showed me what faculty members do – teach, conduct research, write – and also developed my interest in working with children, which I later did in my research. I thought that the life of a I am pleased to contribute a chapter to faculty member could be highly gratifying this volume. Whether anything I say is and became motivated to attain that career helpful or meaningful – well, as the saying goal. goes, “Let the voters decide!” After graduating from the University of As a spoiler alert, I have had a most- Illinois I was commissioned as a second satisfying 40-year academic career. Of lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force and spent course, in retrospect there are some things I the next six years as an education and might have done differently. But I believe training officer (including four years that things have worked out well, and along stationed in Naples, Italy) where I the way I have met and interacted with supervised education programs and taught many fascinating people. In this chapter I courses in writing and management. While discuss my background, career progression, in the Air Force I earned a master’s degree significant influences on my life, and lessons in education from Boston University. This learned along the way. stimulated my desire to earn a doctorate, so

Schunk, D. H. (2019, November 20). Some lessons learned that built self-efficacy. Acquired Wisdom Series, S. Nieto, F. Erickson & P. Winne (Eds.). Education Review, 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/er.v26.2751

Acquired Wisdom/Education Review 2

I left the Air Force to pursue a PhD. I was instructional/contextual factors that affect accepted into the Psychological Studies in learning, motivation, and self-regulation-- Education program at Stanford University within the framework of social cognitive where I joined a talented group of faculty theory. This focus began to develop while I and students, including Phil Winne – one of was at Stanford. I took a course from Albert the editors of this volume! Bandura when he was doing his early I was fortunate to hold a graduate research on self-efficacy, one’s perceived assistantship for most of my time at capabilities for learning and performing Stanford, where I honed my research and actions at designated levels (Bandura, 1977). teaching skills. I worked on a school-based I believed that self-efficacy might be an project with Dr. Nate Gage where I did important variable in education settings, classroom observations, conducted literature where we see students with similar ability reviews, and performed data analyses. I also levels learn and perform differently. I taught an course discussed this possibility with him after the under his supervision. I served as a research course finished, and he expressed high assistant with Dr. Herb Clark, where I interest in such an investigation. He became conducted laboratory experiments and other research tasks, which led to a co-authored I believe it is critical to pursue a journal article with him. I also was a dissertation topic that you feel is research assistant with Dr. ; important and for which you we conducted a school-based study on goal have a passion. setting and this led to a co-authored journal publication. A key point I learned from my dissertation advisor. In my dissertation, I these experiences is that doing good explored self-efficacy development as research takes a lot of time and energy! children were learning mathematical skills My first faculty position was at the and as influenced by modeling and University of Houston, where I stayed for attributional feedback (Schunk, 1981). My seven years before moving to the University dissertation was the first application of self- of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Although efficacy to an educational context involving I had never planned to assume a career in learning. I believe it is critical to pursue a administration, I next moved to Purdue dissertation topic that you feel is important University as head of the Department of and for which you have a passion. Educational Studies and then to the In subsequent research I expanded this University of North Carolina at Greensboro focus to other student populations and (UNCG) as Dean of the School of content areas and explored other Education. I spent over 17 years in full-time instructional and contextual influences such administration, which I found rewarding in as goals, social comparisons, self- many ways, especially working with faculty verbalization, and self-evaluation. I am on career development. But not all was pleased that over the years interest in self- positive, especially making difficult efficacy in education has continued to grow, budgetary decisions and dealing with especially internationally. Researchers disgruntled faculty and students! I decided continue to expand the self-efficacy research to return to where I began and joined the agenda, such as by exploring the process faculty full-time at UNCG where I remain whereby self-efficacy changes as learning today with the usual responsibilities of occurs and by examining self-efficacy in out- research, writing, teaching and service. of-school settings (e.g., homes, Contributions communities). My primary research focus is There are several key contributions investigating the personal, social, and arising from this program of research. One is that self-efficacy is an important variable

Some Lessons Learned that Built Self-Efficacy 3 in education. It affects student motivation, hypothesized to be key influences on self- which in turn influences learning. Students efficacy. who feel more efficacious about their In subsequent research I expanded this learning capabilities are more likely to attend model to include self-regulation, or learners’ to instruction, expend effort, persist in the self-generated thoughts, behaviors, and face of difficulty, and achieve at higher affects that are systematically oriented levels. I developed a model of academic toward their learning goals. This expansion motivation highlighting the central role of fit nicely with my research focus, but it was self-efficacy (Schunk, 1999). through collaboration with Barry Bandura (1977) hypothesized that Zimmerman that I began to explore how individuals acquire information about their self-efficacy and other motivational variables self-efficacy from performance influenced various phases of self-regulation. accomplishments, vicarious experiences, Collaborations can be especially productive forms of social persuasion, and but it is essential to collaborate with persons physiological indexes. Another key point of with whom you work well. In my case the my research program is that, no matter the collaboration worked ideally even when we self-efficacy source, what is critical for self- disagreed. We also became close personal efficacy and motivation is that students friends. believe they are making progress in learning Significant Influences or are capable of making progress. Learners’ perceptions of their learning I have been fortunate to be at progress or learning capabilities can be universities where research was valued. affected by numerous social, instructional, Beginning with my time at Stanford and and other contextual variables. continuing to the present day, the institutions where I have been not only Collaborations can be especially encouraged research but also provided productive but it is essential to support to pursue it. This support included collaborate with persons with some financial incentives and provided me whom you work well. In my case, with time to do research and with people who assisted me with various aspects the collaboration worked ideally including budgets, data collection and even when we disagreed. analysis, and consultations. To be able to do quality research requires a supportive Third, the effects of social, instructional, environment. and contextual variables should be gauged not only on students’ learning but also on Beyond that, I have had the opportunity their self-efficacy for learning. Some to work with many capable, talented, and instructional variables that may improve motivated faculty and students. I learned so learning may not have much effect on self- much as a student under the tutelage of efficacy. For example, Bandura (1977) many wonderful professors including Fred postulated that performance Fehr and Sid Bijou at the University of accomplishments are the most reliable Illinois, Al Murphy and Steve Ellenwood at source of self-efficacy information. Boston University, and Albert Bandura, N. Instructional conditions that provide much L. Gage, Herb Clark, Mark Lepper, and assistance to learners may help them learn Denis Phillips at Stanford. While at Stanford but are unlikely to raise their self-efficacy I contacted and Carol much. Learners may simply attribute their Dweck with questions about my enhanced performance to the assistance and dissertation. I learned early on that if I was doubt they can be successful on their own. going to be successful then I needed In social cognitive theory, attributions are successful mentors.

Acquired Wisdom/Education Review 4

My career has been tremendously A second key lesson is to pursue work bolstered through solid, long-lasting you enjoy and believe is important. I have collaborations with professional colleagues. spent countless hours engaged in research Barry Zimmerman has been a tremendous and writing. I love what I do so these mentor, colleague, and friend. In 1982 Barry activities are pleasurable. I would not want sought me out at a national conference, and to be engaged in tasks that I did not enjoy that meeting led to years of collaborative or believe to be unimportant. discussions and publications. He was most Sometimes I have had to make the case instrumental in getting me to focus more on for importance. When I first began my work self-regulated learning. I also developed on the role of verbalization in motivation strong research and writing collaborations and learning there was little literature on the with several others including Paul Pintrich, topic. I drew from the existing verbalization Frank Pajares, Maria DiBenedetto, Ellen literature in developmental psychology and Usher, Carol Mullen, and Jeff Greene. We cognitive behavior modification. The had mutual respect for one another’s ideas developmental literature showed that and helped one another develop verbalization could help to internalize professionally. We also split our workloads regulatory influences on behavior. I equitably, which is important as unbalanced constructed a theoretical framework workloads can create resentment. showing that verbalization while learning Being in higher education has given me also could help learners substantiate their freedom and opportunity to explore progress, which can build self-efficacy and research in ways that I felt was important. motivation. Then I tested this idea in a Key influences on my career have come series of studies that lent support. This was from the many individuals with whom I a topic in which I was personally interested, worked and who exuded excitement for which helped to sustain my enjoyment. research. As Bandura (1997) postulated, a sense of self-efficacy likely will not endure if I have learned not to become the environment is unresponsive. I have too discouraged by setbacks. been fortunate to have worked in Instead, treat them as environments that were not only responsive opportunities for learning and but also encouraging. improving skills. Lessons Learned Third, I have learned not to become too One of my research specializations is discouraged by setbacks. Instead, treat them learning. Happily, in my career I have as opportunities for learning and improving learned a few things! One is to associate skills. Early on I felt a mixture of anger and with the right people, or to put it anxiety when a manuscript was rejected for colloquially, “hang out with the winners.” publication, a grant proposal not funded, or These are people who serve as mentors and a conference proposal not accepted. It is from whom you can learn. They are good fine to mourn for a little while but then it is models to attempt to emulate in your time to get back to work. Take seriously the academic and personal life. The persons I suggestions of the reviewers and revise the have mentioned in this article were leading proposal accordingly. I have found that influences on my life. They also are people most (although not all) of the suggestions who encouraged me to continue to develop made by reviewers were well founded and and who pointed out areas where I had presented opportunities for me to learn and grown and where I needed further improve my skills. development. The perception of progress is so important, and I never stop learning.

Some Lessons Learned that Built Self-Efficacy 5

But this still requires some judgment. regulation skills has helped me build my Not all reviewers’ comments are sensible, self-efficacy for being successful and to perhaps because they have a particular bias ensure that I prioritize tasks and accomplish about data analyses procedures or because them in good time. I relay my experiences to my theoretical framework does not align my students, which they find helpful. They with theirs. So, you have to decide whether are gratified to hear that everyone has issues a comment is worth addressing and if not, with time management! In whatever courses then why not. I also have learned to be you teach it is good to get to know your prudent about time. Once I had a students better. That way you can relate manuscript in a journal review process for course topics to their unique situations. 13 months, which I felt was excessive. I notified the editor about that, pulled the Practicing simple self-regulation manuscript, and submitted it to another skills has helped me build my self- journal, where it was published shortly efficacy for being successful and to afterwards. ensure that I prioritize tasks and A fourth lesson learned is to always accomplish them in good time. appreciate the efforts of others. In my career I have been helped so much by Good self-regulation has been essential faculty members, students, teachers, other for me to ensure that I build writing time as school personnel (e.g., administrators, much as possible into my daily schedule. It counselors), children who participated in is easy to get sidetracked on other tasks and research projects, and their parents and crowd out writing time. So this takes priority guardians. I could not have carried out a for me. I decide when I can write on a research program without such assistance. I particular day and then as best as possible learned to convey my appreciation to such plan the day around that. Writing time can individuals and to show them how they vary from a few minutes to hours, although made a difference. I find that about two hours is the best I can do and still think clearly. Another lesson I have learned is to practice what I preach! One thing that has Conclusion helped me a lot is to practice self-regulation. I suppose that no two academic careers Various self-regulation strategies have follow the same trajectory and thus what helped me keep my head above water in the works for one may not for another. Rather face of busy times. I teach a course in self- than follow any suggestions I have made, I regulation to college freshmen and stress to recommend you develop your own regimen them such activities as goal setting, strategic early in your career and then adapt it as planning, self-monitoring of performance needed with time and changing and progress, maintaining motivation, self- circumstances. This has been exciting evaluation, and time management, become journey for me, and I wish the same for you! critical when there is much to be done but time is limited. Practicing simple self-

References

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Schunk, D. H. (1981). Modeling and attributional effects on children’s achievement: A self-efficacy analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 93-105. Schunk, D. H. (1999). Social-self interaction and achievement behavior. Educational Psychologist, 34, 219-227.

Acquired Wisdom/Education Review 6

Junior faculty and grad students in Educational Psychology, Educational Research, and related disciplines, could learn much from the experiences of senior researchers. Doctoral students are exposed to courses or seminars about history of the discipline as well as the field’s overarching purposes and its important contributors. . A second audience for this project include the practitioners and researchers in disciplines represented by the chapter authors. This audience could learn from the experiences of eminent researchers – how their experiences shaped their work, and About Acquired Wisdom what they see as their major contributions – This collection began with an and readers might relate their own work to invitation to one of the editors, Sigmund that of the scholars. Authors were advised Tobias, from Norman Shapiro a former that they were free to organize their colleague at the City College of New York chapters as they saw fit, provided that their (CCNY). Shapiro invited retired CCNY manuscripts contained these elements: 1) faculty members to prepare manuscripts their perceived major contributions to the describing what they learned during their discipline, 2) major lessons learned during College careers that could be of value to their careers, 3) their opinions about the new appointees and former colleagues. It personal and 4) situational factors seemed to us that a project describing the (institutions and other affiliations, experiences of internationally known and colleagues, advisors, and advisees) that distinguished researchers in Educational stimulated their significant work. Psychology and Educational Research We hope that the contributions of would be of benefit to many colleagues, distinguished researchers receive the wide especially younger ones entering those readership they deserve and serves as a disciplines. We decided to include senior resource to the future practitioners and scholars in the fields of adult learning and researchers in these fields. training because , although often neglected by educational researchers, their work is quite relevant to our fields and graduate students could find productive and gainful positions in that area.

Some Lessons Learned that Built Self-Efficacy 7

Acquired Wisdom Series Editors

Frederick Erickson Sonia Nieto Phil Winne

University of California at University of Simon Fraser University Los Angeles Massachusetts, Amhurst

Inaugural Editors Sigmund Tobias, State University of New York at Albany J. D. Fletcher, Institute for Defense Analyses , Arizona State University

Advisory Board Members Gustavo Fischman, Arizona State University Arthur C. Graesser III, Memphis State University Teresa L. McCarty, University of California Los Angeles Kevin Welner, University of Colorado Boulder

Education Review/Reseñas Educativas/Resenhas Educativas is supported by the edXchange initiative’s Scholarly Communications Group at the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University. Copyright is retained by the first or sole author, who grants right of first publication to the Education Review. Readers are free to copy, display, and distribute this article, as long as the work is attributed to the author(s) and Education Review, it is distributed for non-commercial purposes only, and no alteration or transformation is made in the work. More details of this Creative Commons license are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/. All other uses must be approved by the author(s) or Education Review. Education Review is published by the Scholarly Communications Group of the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University.

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