(country)

This article is about the country. For the U.S. state, brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. see Georgia (U.S. state). For other uses, see Georgia Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council (disambiguation). of , and the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development. It contains two de facto in- Coordinates: 42°00′N 43°30′E / 42.000°N 43.500°E dependent regions, and , which Georgia ( i/ˈdʒɔːrdʒə/; Georgian: საქართველო, tr. gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a major part of the Sakartvelo, IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ]) is a country in the region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads international community consider the regions to be part of Georgia’s sovereign territory under Russian military of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to [7] the west by the , to the north by , to the occupation. south by and , and to the southeast by . The capital and largest city is . Geor- gia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres (26,911 1 Etymology sq mi), and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the Main article: Name of Georgia (country) government elected through a representative democracy. “Georgia” probably stems from the Persian designation During the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The - doms of and adopted in the early 4th century. A unified reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various regional powers, including the Mongols, the , and successive of . In the late 18th century, the eastern Georgian Kingdom of “Gorgania” i.e. Georgia on Fra Mauro map - forged an alliance with the Russian Em- pire, which directly annexed the kingdom in 1801 and of the – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th cen- conquered the western Kingdom of in 1810. Rus- turies adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān and sian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in ĵurĵan/ĵurzan. Lore-based theories were given by the various peace treaties with Iran and the Ottomans. Fol- traveller Jacques de Vitry, who explained the name’s ori- lowing the Russian Revolution in 1917, Georgia obtained gin by the popularity of St. George amongst Georgians,[8] its short-lived independence and established first-ever re- while traveller Jean Chardin thought that “Georgia” came public led by the Social-Democrats in 1918, only to be from Greek γεωργός (“tiller of the land”). As Prof. invaded by Soviet Russia in 1921 and subsequently ab- Alexander Mikaberidze adds, these century-old expla- sorbed into the as the Georgian Soviet So- nations for the word Georgia/Georgians are rejected by cialist Republic. the scholarly community, who point to the Persian word gurğ/gurğān (“wolf”[9]) as the root of the word.[10] Start- Since the establishment of the modern Georgian repub- ing with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was lic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from later adopted in numerous other languages, including civil and economic crisis for most of the 1990s. Fol- Slavic and West European languages.[10][11] This term it- lowing the bloodless in 2003, Geor- self might have been established through the ancient Ira- gia pursued a strongly pro-Western foreign policy, aimed nian appellation of the near-Caspian region, which was at NATO and European integration, and introduced referred to as (“land of the wolves”[12]).[10] a series of democratic and economic reforms, which brought about mixed results, but strengthened state in- The native name is Sakartvelo (საქართველო; “land of stitutions. The country’s Western orientation soon led to Kartvelians”), derived from the core central Georgian re- the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the gion of Kartli, recorded from the 9th century, and in ex- tended usage referring to the entire medieval Kingdom

1 2 2 HISTORY

of Georgia by the 13th century. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi (ქართველები, i.e. "Kartvelians"). The medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, , a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is de- rived from the Karts, the latter being one of the proto- Georgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in ancient times.[10] The name Sakartvelo (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Geor- gian region of Kartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of the Eastern Roman Empire.[13] Ancient Greeks (Strabo, Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus Livius, Tacitus, etc.) referred to early western Georgians Ancient Georgian states of Colchis and Iberia, 500–400 BC as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi in some Greek sources).[14] derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers.[20] Known to its natives as Egrisi or , Colchis was also the battlefield of the Lazic 2 History War fought between the and Sassanid Persia. Main article: History of Georgia (country) After the Roman Republic completed its brief conquest of what is now Georgia in 66 BC, the area became a pri- mary objective of what would eventually turn out to be over 700 years of protracted Irano–Roman geo-political 2.1 Prehistory rivalry and warfare.[21][22] Main article: Prehistoric Georgia From the first centuries A.D, the cult of Mithras, pagan beliefs, and Zoroastrianism were commonly practised in Georgia.[23] In 337 AD King Mirian III declared Chris- The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by tianity as the state religion, giving a great stimulus to Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era. The proto- the development of literature, arts, and ultimately play- Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th [15] ing a key role in the formation of the unified Georgian century BC. nation,[24][25] The acceptance led to the slow but sure de- The earliest evidence of to date has been found cline of Zoroastrianism,[26] which until the 5th century in Georgia, where 8000-year old wine jars were AD, appeared to have become something like a second uncovered.[16][17] Archaeological finds and references in established religion in Iberia (eastern Georgia), and was ancient sources also reveal elements of early political and widely practised there.[27] In the ensuing period, until the state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy course of the 7th century, what is now Georgia remained and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th cen- dominated by the Romans and Sasanians. tury BC and beyond.[15] In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, associated with the Shulaveri-Shomu culture.[18] 2.3 up to Early Modern Pe- riod

2.2 Antiquity Located on the crossroads of protracted Roman–Persian Wars, the early Georgian kingdoms disintegrated into The classical period saw the rise of a number of early various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the made it easy for the remaining Georgian realms to fall west and Iberia in the east. In the 4th century BC, a uni- prey to the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century. fied kingdom of Georgia – an early example of advanced Despite the capture of Tbilisi in 645 AD by , state organization under one king and an aristocratic hi- Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under erarchy – was established.[19] local rulers. In Greek mythology, Colchis was the location of the The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts in to early 13th centuries. This period during the reigns Apollonius Rhodius' epic tale Argonautica. The incor- of David IV (called David the Builder, r. 1089–1125) poration of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have and his granddaughter Tamar (r. 1184–1213) has been 2.3 Middle Ages up to Early Modern Period 3

ated Tbilisi.[33] At the height of its dominance, the King- dom’s influence spanned from the south of modern-day Ukraine, to the northern provinces of Persia, while also maintaining religious possessions in the and Greece. The 29-year reign of Tamar, the first female ruler of Georgia, is considered the most successful in Georgian history.[34] Tamar was given the title “king of ” (mepe mepeta).[28] She succeeded in neutralizing opposi- tion and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzan- tium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to con- solidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus, and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Ar- menia, and eastern Turkey as well as parts of northern Iran,[35] until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within two decades after Tamar’s death in 1213.[36] The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian leader Jalal ad-Din in 1226.[37] The Mongols were ex- pelled by George V of Georgia, son of Demetrius II of Queen presided over the “” of the Georgia, who was named “Brilliant” for his role in restor- medieval Georgian monarchy. Her position as the first woman to ing the country’s previous strength and Christian culture. rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title “Mepe George V was the last great king of the unified Georgian mepeta” (“”).[28] state. After his death, different local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century. widely termed as Georgia’s Golden Age or the Georgian Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous in- Renaissance.[29] This early Georgian renaissance, which vasions by Tamerlane. Invasions continued, giving the preceded its Western European analogue, was character- kingdom no time for restoration, with both Black and ized by impressive military victories, territorial expan- White sheep Turkomans constantly raiding its southern sion, and a cultural renaissance in architecture, literature, provinces. As a result, the Kingdom of Georgia collapsed philosophy and the sciences.[30] The Golden age of Geor- into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three indepen- gia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and dent kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities. literature, and the epic poem "The Knight in the Panther’s Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the in- Skin", the latter which is considered a national epic.[31][32] ternal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century up to the late 18th century, (and successive Iranian Afsharid and Qajar dynasties) and Ottoman Turkey subjugated the eastern and western re- gions of Georgia, respectively. The rulers of regions that remained partly autonomous organized rebellions on various occasions. However, sub- sequent Iranian and Ottoman invasions further weakened local kingdoms and regions. As a result of incessant wars and deportations, the population of Georgia dwin- dled to 250,000 inhabitants at the end of the 18th cen- tury. Eastern Georgia (the larger part of Georgia), com- posed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti, had been under Iranian suzerainty since 1555 following the Peace of Amasya signed with neighbouring rivalling Ottoman Kingdom of Georgia in 1184–1230 at the peak of its might Turkey. With the death of Nader in 1747, both kingdoms broke free of Iranian control and were reuni- David suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized fied through a personal union under the energetic king the power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign Heraclius (Erekle) II in 1762. Erekle, who had risen to threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger prominence through the Iranian ranks, was awarded the Turkish armies during the and liber- crown of Kartli by Nader himself in 1744 for his loyal 4 2 HISTORY service to him.[38] Erekle nevertheless stabilized Eastern Georgia to a degree in the ensuing period and was able to guarantee its autonomy throughout the Iranian Zand period.[39] In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian -Kakheti signed the , by which Georgia abjured any dependence on Persia or another power, and made the kingdom a protectorate of Rus- sia, which guaranteed Georgia’s territorial integrity and the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi in re- turn for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign affairs.[40] However, despite this commitment to defend Georgia, Russia rendered no assistance when the Iranians invaded in 1795, capturing and sacking Tbilisi while massacring its inhabitants, as the new heir to the throne sought to reassert Iranian hegemony over Georgia.[41] Despite a punitive campaign subsequently launched against Qajar Iran in 1796, this period culminated in the 1801 Rus- sian violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk and annexa- tion of eastern Georgia, followed by the abolition of the royal , as well as the autocephaly of the . , one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi, would King George XII was the last king of Kartli and Kakheti, which later join the Russian army and rise to be a prominent was annexed by Russia in 1801. The Bagrationi general in the Napoleonic wars. was deported from the kingdom. The current ' restora- tion to the throne is discussed in Georgian society in the present day.[42] 2.4 Georgia in the the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler, Solomon II, died in ex- Main article: Georgia within the Russian Empire ile in 1815, after attempts to rally people against Russia On 22 December 1800, , at the al- and to enlist foreign support against the latter, had been in leged request of the Georgian King George XII, signed vain.[51] From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Rus- the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli- sian wars now against Ottoman Turkey, several of Geor- Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was final- gia’s previously lost territories – such as – were ized by a decree on 8 January 1801,[43][44] and confirmed recovered, and also incorporated into the empire. The by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801.[45][46] The principality of was abolished and incorporated into Georgian envoy in Petersburg reacted with a note of the Empire in 1829, while was gradually annexed protest that was presented to the Russian vice- in 1858. , although a Russian protectorate since Prince Kurakin.[47] In May 1801, under the oversight 1803, was not absorbed until 1867.[52] of General Carl Heinrich von Knorring, Imperial Rus- sia transferred power in eastern Georgia to the govern- ment headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev.[48] The 2.5 Declaration of independence Georgian did not accept the decree until 12 April 1802, when Knorring assembled the nobility at the Sioni Main article: Democratic Republic of Georgia Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia de- Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were temporarily arrested.[49] In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near Zagam defeated the Iranian army during the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813) and saved Tbilisi from reconquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories. Russian suzerainty over eastern Georgia was officially finalized with Iran in 1813 following the Treaty of Gulistan.[50] Following the annexation of eastern Geor- gia, the western Georgian was an- nexed by Tsar Alexander I. The last Imeretian king and Declaration of independence by the Georgian parliament, 1918 2.7 Georgia after restoration of independence 5 clared independence on 26 May 1918, in the midst of this uprising was suppressed.[55] Georgia was incorpo- the . The Menshevik Georgian Social- rated into the Transcaucasian SFSR, which united Geor- Democratic Party won the parliamentary election. Its gia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Later, in 1936, the TSFSR leader, Noe Zhordania, became prime minister. was disaggregated into its component elements and Geor- The 1918 Georgian–Armenian War, which erupted over gia became the Georgian SSR. parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Arme- nians, ended because of British intervention. In 1918– 1919, Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led an attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to Sochi and Adler for independent Georgia.[53] The coun- try’s independence did not last long. Georgia was under British protection from 1918–1920.

2.6 Georgia in the Soviet Union

Main article: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic In February 1921, Georgia was attacked by the Red The 11th of the Russian SFSR holds a military parade, 25 February 1921 in Tbilisi

Joseph Stalin, an ethnic Georgian born Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jugashvili (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი) in Gori, was prominent among the . Stalin was to rise to the highest position, leading the Soviet Union from 3 April 1922 until his death on 5 March 1953.

2.7 Georgia after restoration of indepen- dence

On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared inde- pendence after a referendum held on 31 March 1991.[56] On 26 May 1991, Gamsakhurdia was elected as the first President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian and vowed to assert Tbilisi’s au- thority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union. He was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'état, from 22 De- cember 1991 to 6 January 1992. The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary orga- nization called "Mkhedrioni" (“horsemen”). The country Despite the Soviet takeover, Noe Jordania was recognized as the became embroiled in a bitter civil war, which lasted until legitimate head of the Georgian Government by , UK, Bel- nearly 1995. (Soviet Minister of gium, and Poland through the 1930s.[54] Foreign Affairs from 1985 to 1991) returned to Georgia in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup — Tengiz Ki- Army. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social- tovani and — to head a triumvirate called Democratic government fled the country. On 25 Febru- “The State Council”. ary 1921, the Red Army entered Tbilisi and installed a Simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia, Abk- communist government loyal to Moscow, led by Geor- hazia and South Ossetia, between local separatists and the gian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze. majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread Nevertheless, there remained significant opposition to the inter-ethnic violence and wars. Supported by Russia, Bolsheviks, and this culminated in the August Uprising Abkhazia, and South Ossetia achieved de facto indepen- of 1924. Soviet rule was firmly established only after dence from Georgia, with Georgia retaining control only 6 2 HISTORY in small areas of the disputed territories. In 1995, She- 2.8 Russo–Georgian War and since vardnadze was officially elected as . Main article: Russo–Georgian War See also: International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia

Political tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008.[64][65] On 1 August 2008 South Ossetian separatists blew up a Georgian mili- tary vehicle injuring five Georgian peacekeepers, which Georgian snipers responded to by killing six South Ossetian militiamen. Low-level skirmishes followed, with South Ossetian forces shelling some villages un- der Georgian control, eliciting responses from Georgian peacekeepers.[66][67][68][69][70]

The Rose Revolution, 2003

During the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993), roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians[57] were expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian volunteers (including ). Around 23,000 Georgians[58] fled South Ossetia as well, and many Os- setian families were forced to abandon their homes in the Borjomi region and moved to Russia. In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won re-election in 2000) was deposed by the Rose Revolution, after Georgian US Secretary of State Condoleezza holding a joint press con- opposition and international monitors asserted that the ference with Georgian president during the 2 November parliamentary elections were marred by Russo-Georgian war fraud.[59] The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili, Zurab Zhvania and , former members On 7 August 2008, Georgian forces began shelling the and leaders of Shevardnadze’s ruling party. Mikheil South Ossetian capital, Tskhinvali; this was followed, on Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004. 8 August 2008, by an advance of Georgian Army in- fantry, tanks, and police commandos into South Ossetia; Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms the action was supported by artillery and air support,[71] were launched to strengthen the country’s military and leading to the capture of a number of key South Osse- economic capabilities. The new government’s efforts tian towns and retreat of Russian peacekeepers and South to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern au- Ossetian forces.[72][73] However, after a Russian peace- tonomous republic of Ajaria led to a major crisis early in keepers’ base was shelled and personnel killed, units of 2004. Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to inten- the Russian 58th Army, supported by irregular forces, en- sify his efforts, but without success, in breakaway South tered South Ossetia through the Roki Tunnel, thus leading Ossetia. to a three-day battle which left the city of Tskhinvali in These events, along with accusations of Georgian involve- ruins.[74][75][76] Georgian forces were subsequently forced ment in the ,[60] resulted in a se- to retreat and the Russian Air Force began launching vere deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also airstrikes against Georgian forces in South Ossetia, and by Russia’s open assistance and support to the two se- multiple targets inside Georgia proper.[77] The Georgian cessionist areas. Despite these increasingly difficult rela- Air Force resisted and later continued to carry out air tions, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral strikes against Russian troops. A second front was opened agreement[61] by which Russian military bases (dating when the separatist Republic of Abkhazia, with Russian back to the Soviet era) in and Akhalkalaki were support, launched an offensive against Georgian troops withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment in the Valley. Georgian troops offered minimal from these sites by December 2007[62] while failing to resistance and soon withdrew.[78][79] Russian paratroop- withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia, which it ers launched raids against military bases in , Geor- was required to vacate after the adoption of the Adapted gia, from Abkhazia, whilst the Russian Navy stationed a Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the task force off the coast of Abkhazia, and sank a Georgian 1999 Istanbul summit.[63] Coast Guard cutter. 7

3 Government and politics

(! Main article: Politics of Georgia (country)

(! (!

(! )" (! Georgia is a representative democratic semi-presidential 0#(! (! (! (! (!%2 (! (! (!(! (! (! (! republic, with the President as the head of state, and (!(! $1 (! (! (! (! %2 Prime Minister as the head of government. The execu- ! (! (

0# (! tive branch of power is made up of the President and the

$1 Cabinet of Georgia. The Cabinet is composed of minis- (! )"(! (! ters, headed by the Prime Minister, and appointed by the (!)" (!

(! (! President. Notably, the ministers of defense and interior (! (! are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated di- )"(! rectly to the President of Georgia. Russian Military Bases in Abkhazia as of 2016 is the current President of Georgia after winning 62.12% of the vote in the 2013 election. Since 2015, has been the prime minister of Georgia.

Russian forces, upon crossing into Georgia proper, soon entered Gori where Georgian forces had earlier re- grouped before retreating to Tbilisi. Irregulars such as , Chechens and followed; looting, killing, and arson was reported.[80][81] Russian troops removed military equipment abandoned by retreating Georgian troops in Gori and the port of , where sev- eral naval and coast guard vessels moored in the harbour were scuttled.[82] On , 2008, President Medvedev announced a Georgian parliament building in halt to further Russian military operations in Georgia[83] and ordered a gradual withdrawal from Gori, Poti and Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Geor- other established checkpoints. Despite this Russian gia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as forces remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia,[84][85] [86] deputies, of whom 75 are elected by plurality to repre- the independence of which it soon recognized. sent single-member districts, and 75 are chosen to rep- Because of the intensive fighting in South Ossetia, there resent parties by proportional representation. Members were many disputed reports about the number of ca- of parliament are elected for four-year terms. Five par- sualties on both sides, which targets had fallen under ties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the aerial attacks, the status of troop movements, and the parliament in the 2008 elections: the United National most current location of the front line between the Geor- Movement (governing party), The Joint Opposition, the gian and Russian-Ossetian units.[87] Since the war, South Christian-Democrats, the Labour Party and Republican Ossetian and Russian officials have made a number of Party. On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated a new claims[75] that the Georgian Army was responsible for Parliament building in the western city of Kutaisi, in killing 1,400–2,000 South Ossetian civilians. Human an effort to decentralise power and shift some political Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South control closer to Abkhazia.[96] The elections in October Ossetia have subsequently accused Russia of exaggerat- 2012 resulted in the victory for the opposition "Georgian ing the scale of such casualties.[88][89][90][91] All sides sus- Dream – Democratic Georgia" coalition, which President tained casualties, with Georgia accounting for the greatest Saakashvili acknowledged on the following day.[97] number of military casualties with 170 confirmed dead or [92] Although considerable progress was made since the Rose missing. revolution, former President Mikheil Saakashvili stated Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and in 2008 that Georgia is still not a “full-fledged, very well- South Ossetia are under Russian occupation and remain, formed, crystalized society.”[98] The political system re- legally, part of Georgia.[93][94] Georgia has gained much mains in the process of transition, with frequent adjust- international support for this position although attempts ments to the balance of power between the President at limiting international access to and enforcing an eco- and Parliament, and opposition proposals ranging from nomic embargo of the two break-away regions have pro- transforming the country into to duced mixed results.[95] re-establishing the monarchy.[99][100] Observers note the 8 3 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

deficit of trust in relations between the Government and the opposition.[101] Different opinions exist regarding the degree of politi- cal freedom in Georgia. Saakashvili believed in 2008 that the country is “on the road to becoming a European democracy.”[98] Freedom House lists Georgia as a partly free country.[102] In preparation for 2012 parliamentary elections, Par- liament adopted a new electoral code on 27 Decem- ber 2011 that incorporated many recommendations from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Venice Commission. However, the new code failed to ad- dress the Venice Commission’s primary recommendation to strengthen the equality of the vote by reconstituting single-mandate election districts to be comparable in size. On December 28, Parliament amended the Law on Polit- ical Unions to regulate campaign and political party fi- nancing. Local and international observers raised con- cerns about several amendments, including the vague- ness of the criteria for determining political bribery and which individuals and organizations would be subject to the law. As of March 2012, Parliament was discussing further amendments to address these concerns.[103]

3.1 Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Georgia Pro-NATO poster in Tbilisi Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neigh- bours (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey) and is a mem- ber of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of the sion was set up to implement the Individual Partnership Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Organization for Action Plan, which presents an interdepartmental group Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Community headed by the Prime Minister. The Commission was of Democratic Choice, the GUAM Organization for tasked with coordinating and controlling the implemen- Democracy and Economic Development, the European tation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan. Bank for Reconstruction and Development[104] and [105] On 14 February 2005, the agreement on the appoint- the Asian Development Bank. Georgia also main- ment of Partnership for Peace (PfP) liaison officer be- tains political, economic, and military relations with [106] [107] [108] [109] tween Georgia and NATO came into force, whereby a France, , Israel, Japan, South liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Korea,[110] Sri Lanka,[111] Turkey,[112] Ukraine,[113] the [114] [115] Georgia. On March 2, 2005, the agreement was signed United States, and many other countries. on the provision of the host nation support to and transit The growing U.S. and European Union influence in Geor- of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On March 6–9, gia, notably through proposed EU and NATO member- 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team ship, the U.S. Train and Equip military assistance pro- arrived in Tbilisi. On April 13, 2006, the discussion of gram, and the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan the assessment report on implementation of the Individ- pipeline have frequently strained Tbilisi’s relations with ual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Head- Moscow. Georgia’s decision to boost its presence in the quarters, within 26+1 format.[117] In 2006, the Geor- coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.[116] gian parliament voted unanimously for the bill which calls Georgia is currently working to become a full mem- for integration of Georgia into NATO. The majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for ber of NATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partner- [118] ship Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO membership. NATO. On 29 October 2004, the North Atlantic Coun- George W. Bush became the first sitting U.S. president cil of NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action to visit the country.[119] The street leading to Tbilisi In- Plan (IPAP) of Georgia, and Georgia moved on to the ternational Airport has since been dubbed George W. second stage of Euro–Atlantic Integration. In 2005, by Bush Avenue.[120] On October 2, 2006, Georgia and the the decision of the President of Georgia, a state commis- European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed 3.3 Law enforcement 9

text of the Georgia–European Union Action Plan within NATO[130] and the largest per capita[131][132] troop con- the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). The Ac- tributor. Over 11,000 Georgian soldiers have been ro- tion Plan was formally approved at the EU–Georgia Co- tated through Afghanistan.[133] As of 2015, 31 Georgian operation Council session on 14 November 2006, in servicemen have died in Afghanistan,[134] most during the .[121] In June 2014, the EU and Georgia signed Helmand campaign, and 435 were wounded, including 35 an Association Agreement, which entered into force on amputees.[135][136] July 1, 2016.[122] On 13 December 2016, EU and Georgia reached the agreement on visa liberalisation for Georgian citizens.[123] On 27 February 2017, the Council adopted 3.3 Law enforcement a regulation on visa liberalisation for Georgians travelling to the EU for a period of stay of 90 days in any 180-day Main article: Law enforcement in Georgia (country) period.[124] In Georgia, law enforcement is conducted and provided

3.2 Military

Main articles: Georgian Armed Forces and Role of Geor- gia in the War in Afghanistan (2001–14) Georgia’s military is organized into land and air forces.

Georgian police’s new patrol car Ford Taurus Police Interceptor

for by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. In re- cent years, the Patrol Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia has undergone a radical transformation, with the police having now absorbed a great many duties previously performed by dedicated in- dependent government agencies. New duties performed by the police include border security and customs func- tions and contracted security provision; the latter func- tion is performed by the dedicated 'security police'. In- Georgian built Didgori-2 on a parade in 2011 telligence collecting in the interests of national security is now the remit of the Georgian Intelligence Service. They are collectively known as the Georgian Armed Forces (GAF).[125] The mission and functions of the GAF In 2005, President Mikheil Saakashvili fired the en- are based on the of Georgia, Georgia’s Law tire traffic police force (numbering around 30,000 po- on Defense and National Military Strategy, and interna- lice officers) of the Georgian National Police due to tional agreements to which Georgia is signatory. They corruption.[137][138] A new force was then subsequently are performed under the guidance and authority of the built around new recruits.[137] The US State Department's Ministry of Defense. The military budget of Georgia for Bureau of International Narcotics and Law-Enforcement 2017 is 748 million, by 78 million more than in 2016. Affairs has provided assistance to the training efforts and The biggest part, 62.5% of the military budget is allo- continues to act in an advisory capacity.[139] cated for maintaining armored forces readiness and po- The new Patruli force was first introduced in the summer [126] tency development. After its independence from the of 2005 to replace the traffic police, a force which was Soviet Union, Georgia began to develop its own military accused of widespread corruption.[140] The police intro- industry. The first exhibition of products made by STC duced an 022 (currently 112) emergency dispatch service [127] DELTA was in 1999. STC DELTA now produces a in 2004.[141] variety of military equipment, including armored vehi- cles, artillery systems, aviation systems, personal protec- tion equipment, and small arms.[128] 3.4 Human rights During later periods of the Iraq War Georgia had up to 2,000 soldiers serving in the Multi-National Force.[129] Main article: Human rights in Georgia Georgia also participated in the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. With 1,560 Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the country’s troops in 2013, it was at that time the largest non- constitution. There is an independent human rights pub- 10 4 ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS lic defender elected by the to en- cially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region, as it sure such rights are enforced.[142] Georgia has ratified the views “South Ossetia” as implying political bonds with Framework Convention for the Protection of National Russian North Ossetia.[153] It was called South Ossetian Minorities in 2005. NGO “Tolerance”, in its alternative Autonomous Oblast when Georgia was part of Soviet report about its implementation, speaks of a rapid de- Union. Its autonomous status was revoked in 1990. De crease in the number of Azerbaijani schools and cases of facto separate since Georgian independence, offers were appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who 't made to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 speak the .[143] an unrecognised referendum in the area resulted in a vote for independence.[153] The government came under criticism for its alleged use of excessive force on 26 May 2011 when it dis- In both Abkhazia and South Ossetia large numbers persed protesters led by Nino Burjanadze, among oth- of people had been given Russian passports, some ers, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused through a process of forced passportization by Russian to clear Rustaveli avenue for an independence day pa- authorities.[154] This was used as a justification for Rus- rade despite the expiration of their demonstration per- sian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Os- mit and despite being offered to choose an alterna- setia war after which Russia recognised the region’s tive venue.[144][145][146][147] While human rights activists independence.[155] Georgia considers the regions as oc- maintained that the protests were peaceful, the govern- cupied by Russia.[93][156] Both republics have received ment pointed out that many protesters were masked and minimal international recognition. [148] armed with heavy sticks and molotov cocktails. Geor- Adjara under local strongman Aslan Abashidze main- gian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accu- tained close ties with Russia and allowed a Russian mil- sations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the [147][149] itary base to be maintained in Batumi. Upon the elec- protesters’ actions were legitimate. tion of Mikheil Saakashvili in 2004 tensions rose be- tween Abashidze and the Georgian government, leading to demonstrations in Adjara and the resignation and flight 4 Administrative divisions of Abashidze. The region retains autonomy, as a sign of Ajaria’s reconnection with the central Georgian govern- ment, the Georgian Constitutional Court was moved from Main articles: Administrative divisions of Georgia (coun- [157] try), Abkhazia, and Adjara T'bilisi to Batumi. See also: Occupied territories of Georgia Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 au-

Map of Georgia highlighting the disputed territories of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region (South Ossetia), both of which are un- controlled by the central government of Georgia tonomous republics.[125] These in turn are subdivided into Abkhazia 64 districts and 12 self-governing cities.[150] Samegrelo- Zemo Svaneti Georgia contains two official autonomous regions, of Guria which one has declared independence. Officially au- Adjara tonomous within Georgia,[151] the de facto independent Samtskhe- region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.[152] In addition, another territory not officially autonomous Imereti has also declared independence. South Ossetia is offi- 11

Racha- (15,420 ft), and Ailama 4,547 m (14,918 ft).[160] Out of and Kvemo Svaneti the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is of volcanic Shida origin. The region between Kazbek and Shkhara (a dis- Kartli tance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers. Out of the - 2,100 glaciers that exist in the Caucasus today, approxi- Mtianeti mately 30% are located within Georgia. Tbilisi Kakheti

5 Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Georgia (country) See also: Borders of the continents Georgia is situated in the South Caucasus,[158][159] be-

Warm oceanic climate/ Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) Temperate oceanic climate (Cfb) Temperate continental climate/ Humid continental climate (Dfb) Warm continental climate/ Humid continental climate (Dfa)

Tusheti region in northeast Georgia

The term Mountains is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Köppen climate classification map of Georgia Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[160] The area can be split into two separate sub-regions; the Lesser Cauca- tween latitudes 41° and 44° N, and longitudes 40° and 47° sus Mountains, which run parallel to the Greater Cauca- E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). It is a very sus Range, and the Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland, mountainous country. The Likhi Range divides the coun- which lies immediately to the south of the Lesser Cauca- try into eastern and western halves.[160] Historically, the sus Mountains. western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while The overall region can be characterized as being made the eastern plateau was called Iberia. Because of a com- up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely plex geographic setting, mountains also isolate the north- of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400 ern region of Svaneti from the rest of Georgia. meters (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the north- area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, includ- ern border of Georgia.[160] The main roads through the ing Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and mountain range into Russian territory lead through the hot springs. Two major rivers in Georgia are the Roki Tunnel between and North Ossetia and and the Mtkvari. The Southern Georgia Volcanic High- the (in the Georgian region of ). The land is a young and unstable geologic region with high Roki Tunnel was vital for the Russian military in the seismic activity and has experienced some of the most 2008 South Ossetia war because it is the only direct route significant earthquakes that have been recorded in Geor- through the . The southern portion gia. of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Moun- [160] The Krubera Cave is the deepest known cave in the world. tains. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much It is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range, higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, in Abkhazia. In 2001, a Russian–Ukrainian team had set with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 meters the world depth record for a cave at 1,710 meters (5,610 (16,404 ft) above sea level. ft). In 2004, the penetrated depth was increased on each The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at of three expeditions, when a Ukrainian team crossed the 5,068 meters (16,627 ft), and the second highest is Mount 2,000-meter (6,562 ft) mark for the first time in the his- Janga (Dzhangi–Tau) at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea tory of speleology. In October 2005, an unexplored part level. Other prominent peaks include at was found by the CAVEX team, further increasing the 5,047 m (16,558 ft), 4,860 m (15,945 known depth of the cave. This expedition confirmed the ft), Tetnuldi 4,858 m (15,938 ft), Mt. 4,700 m known depth of the cave at 2,140 meters (7,021 ft). 12 5 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

5.1 Topography 1,000 metres (1,969–3,281 ft) above sea level, the de- ciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, spruce, and fir forests. From 1,500–1,800 metres (4,921–5,906 ft), the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around 1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) above sea level. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,000 metre line. Eastern Georgia’s landscape (referring to the territory east of the Likhi Range) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain Relief map of Georgia in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern The landscape within the nation’s boundaries is quite var- Georgia including the Mtkvari and River plains ied. Western Georgia’s landscape ranges from low-land have been deforested for agricultural purposes. In addi- marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rainforests to eter- tion, because of the region’s relatively drier climate, some nal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the coun- of the low-lying plains (especially in Kartli and south- try even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains. eastern Kakheti) were never covered by forests in the first Forests cover around 40% of Georgia’s territory while place. the alpine/subalpine zone accounts for roughly around 10 The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises nu- percent of the land. merous valleys and gorges that are separated by moun- Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of tains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 per- western Georgia has disappeared during the past 100 cent of the forests of the region are deciduous. Conif- years because of the agricultural development of the erous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually non- of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other de- existent with the exception of the regions that are in- ciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, cluded in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Lake ash, and hazelnut. The Upper Alazani River Valley con- Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally re- tains yew forests. mains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia’s sea level (particularly in the , , and forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 me- Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In gen- ters (1,969 ft) above sea level and contain species such as eral, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500– oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen 2,000 metres (1,640–6,562 ft) above sea level, with the species such as box may also be found in many areas. Ca. alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 to 3,000–3,500 1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic in metres (6,562–7,546 to 9,843–11,483 ft). The only re- this country.[161] maining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Val- ley of Kakheti. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies above the 3,500-metre (11,483 ft) line in most areas of eastern Georgia.

5.2 Climate

Main article: Climate of Georgia (country)

The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation’s small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts View of the cave city of and the valley of the River of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range below plays an important role in moderating Georgia’s climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air The west-central slopes of the Range in Ajaria masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia partially protect the region from the influence of dry and are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600– hot air masses from the south. 13

Because of its high landscape diversity and low lati-

The Black Sea coast of Batumi, western Georgia Caucasian Shepherd Dog

Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periph- tude, Georgia is home to about 5,601 species of animals, ery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipita- including 648 species of vertebrates (more than 1% of tion ranging from 1,000–4,000 mm (39.4–157.5 in). The the species found worldwide) and many of these species [162] precipitation tends to be uniformly distributed throughout are endemics. A number of large carnivores live in the year, although the rainfall can be particularly heavy the forests, namely Brown bears, wolves, lynxes and during the Autumn months. The climate of the region Caucasian Leopards. The common pheasant (also known varies significantly with elevation and while much of the as the Colchian Pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas the world as an important game bird. The species num- (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Moun- ber of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data tains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters is distributed across a high number of publications. The (snow cover often exceeds 2 meters in many regions). spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 [163] Ajaria is the wettest region of the Caucasus, where the species. Mt. Mtirala rainforest, east of Kobuleti, receives around Slightly more than 6,500 species of fungi, includ- 4,500 mm (177.2 in) of precipitation per year. ing lichen-forming species, have been recorded from [164][165] Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid Georgia, but this number is far from complete. subtropical to continental. The region’s weather patterns The true total number of fungal species occurring in are influenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. The be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is only about seven percent of all fungi worldwide have so [166] often blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) far been discovered. Although the amount of avail- that separate the eastern and western parts of the na- able information is still very small, a first effort has tion. Annual precipitation is considerably less than that of been made to estimate the number of fungal species en- western Georgia and ranges from 400–1,600 mm (15.7– demic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tenta- [167] 63.0 in). tively identified as possible endemics of the country. 1,729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia The wettest periods generally occur during spring and au- in association with fungi.[165] The true number of plant tumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the species occurring in Georgia is likely to be substantially driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot sum- higher. mers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are consider- 6 Economy ably colder than in the low-lying areas. The regions that lie above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) frequently experience Main articles: Economy of Georgia (country) and frost even during the summer months. Agriculture in Georgia (country) Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires 5.3 Biodiversity since ancient times, largely due its location on the Black Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver, See also: List of non-marine molluscs of Georgia (coun- copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Moun- try) and List of fish of the Black Sea tains. making is a very old tradition and 14 6 ECONOMY

a high unemployment rate of 12.6% and has fairly low median income compared to European countries. The 2006 ban on imports of Georgian wine to Russia, one of Georgia’s biggest trading partners, and break of finan- cial links was described by the IMF Mission as an “ex- ternal shock”.[171] In addition, Russia increased the price of gas for Georgia. Around the same time, the stated that ongoing inflation in the coun- try was mainly triggered by external reasons, including Russia’s economic embargo.[172] The Georgian authori- The Georgian Railways represent a vital artery linking the Black Sea and – the shortest route between Europe and ties expected that the current account deficit due to the . embargo in 2007 would be financed by “higher foreign ex- change proceeds generated by the large inflow of foreign direct investment” and an increase in tourist revenues.[173] a key branch of the country’s economy. The country has The country has also maintained a solid credit in interna- [168] sizable hydropower resources. Throughout Georgia’s tional market securities.[174] Georgia is becoming more modern history agriculture and tourism have been prin- integrated into the global trading network: its 2015 im- cipal economic sectors, because of the country’s climate ports and exports account for 50% and 21% of GDP [125] and topography. respectively.[125] Georgia’s main imports are fuels, vehi- For much of the 20th century, Georgia’s economy was cles, machinery and parts, grain and other foods, phar- within the Soviet model of command economy. Since the maceuticals. Main exports are vehicles, ferro-alloys, fer- [125] fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major tilizers, nuts, scrap metal, gold, copper ores. structural reform designed to transition to a free market Georgia is developing into an international transport cor- economy. As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia ridor through Batumi and Poti ports, Baku–Tbilisi– faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and mil- Railway line, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to itary conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated Ceyhan, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a the crisis. The agriculture and industry output dimin- parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline. ished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.[169] The first financial help Since coming to power Saakashvili administration ac- from the West came in 1995, when the World Bank and complished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a flat income tax was in- International Monetary Fund granted Georgia a credit of [175] USD 206 million and Germany granted DM 50 million. troduced in 2004. As a result, budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into surplus.[176][125][177] As of 2001, 54 percent of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34 percent, by 2015 it is 10.1 percent.[178] In 2015, the aver- age monthly income of a household was 1,022.3 (about $426).[179] 2015 calculations place Georgia’s nominal GDP at US$13.98 billion.[180] Georgia’s economy is be- coming more devoted to services (as of 2016, repre- senting 68.3 percent of GDP), moving away from the agricultural sector (9.2 percent).[125] In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Geor- gia is ranked the last among its bordering neighbors in the World Economic Forum’s Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development The production of wine is a traditional component of the Geor- level of a country’s information and communication tech- gian economy. nologies. Georgia ranked number 58 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking,[181] up from 60 in 2015.[182] Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007, Georgia’s real GDP growth rate reached 12 percent mak- ing Georgia one of the fastest growing economies in East- 6.1 Tourism ern Europe.[125] The World Bank dubbed Georgia “the number one economic reformer in the world” because Main article: Tourism in Georgia it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Geor- in terms of ease of doing business.[170] The country has gian economy. In 2016, 2,714,773 tourists brought ap- 6.2 Transport 15

the ს 1.[186] The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus as they make up the largest pro- portion of a route linking the Black and Caspian Seas, this in turn has allowed them to benefit in recent years from in- creased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to the European Union, Ukraine and Turkey.[187] Passenger services are operated by the state-owned Georgian Rail- The most visited ski resort of Georgia, Gudauri ways whilst freight operations are carried out by a num- ber of licensed operators. Since 2004 the Georgian Rail- ways have been undergoing a rolling program of fleet- [183] proximately US$2.16 billion to the country. Accord- renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at ing to the government, there are 103 resorts in differ- making the service provided more efficient and comfort- ent climatic zones in Georgia. Tourist attractions include able for passengers.[188] Infrastructural development has more than 2,000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key and cultural monuments, four of which are recognised Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reor- as UNESCO World Heritage Sites ( in ganisation in the near future.[189] Additional projects also Kutaisi and , historical monuments of include the construction of the economically important [184] Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti). Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which for the first time will connect much of the Caucasus with Turkey by standard gauge railway.[190] 6.2 Transport

Main article: Transport in Georgia (country) Today transport in Georgia is provided by means of rail,

Port of Batumi

A green directional sign on the ს 1 motorway denoting it as such Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with road, shipping and air travel. Total length of roads ex- the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for cluding occupied territories is 19,060 kilometers and rail- [185] transport of freight. Georgia currently has four interna- ways – 1,576 km. Positioned in the Caucasus and tional airports; the largest of which is by far Tbilisi Inter- on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key coun- national Airport, hub for Georgian Airways, which offers try through which energy imports to the European Union connections to many large European cities. Other airports from neighbouring Azerbaijan pass. Traditionally the in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack sched- country was located on an important north-south trade uled traffic, although, as of late, efforts have been made route between European Russia and the Near East and to solve both these problems.[191] There are a number of Turkey. seaports along Georgia’s Black Sea coast, the largest and In recent years Georgia has invested large amounts of most busy of which is the Port of Batumi; whilst the town money in the modernization of its transport networks. is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo ter- The construction of new highways has been prioritized minal in the Caucasus and is often used by neighbouring and, as such, major cities like Tbilisi have seen the quality Azerbaijan as a transit point for making energy deliveries of their roads improve dramatically; despite this however, to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry ser- the quality of inter-city routes remains poor and to date vices link Georgia with ,[192] Romania, Turkey only one motorway-standard road has been constructed – and Ukraine.[193] 16 7 DEMOGRAPHICS

7 Demographics Other ethnic groups include , , Assyrians, , Greeks, , Kists, Ossetians, [196][n 1] Main article: Demographics of Georgia (country) Russians, Ukrainians, Yezidis and others. The “Languages of Georgia” redirects here. For languages of Georgian Jews are one of the oldest Jewish communities the U.S. state of Georgia, see Georgia (U.S. state) § Lan- in the world. Once Georgia was also home to significant guages. ethnic German communities, but most Germans were de- [197] Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do ported during World War II. The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3 percent of the population,[198] 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia.[199] Since 1990, 1.5 mil- lion Georgian nationals have left.[199] At least 1 mil- lion emigrants from Georgia legally or illegally reside in Russia.[200] Georgia’s net migration rate is −4.54, ex- cluding Georgian nationals who live abroad. Georgia has nonetheless been inhabited by immigrants from all over the world throughout its independence. According to 2014 statistics, Georgia gets most of its immigrants from Russia, 51.6 percent of all immigrants.[201][n 1] In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the So- viet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous region of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region. Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly Georgian youth in the , a traditional costume to Russia’s North Ossetia.[202] On the other hand, more than 150,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the break- not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or out of hostilities in 1993.[203] Of the Asia. The , the most pervasive of the who were forcibly relocated in 1944 only a tiny fraction , is neither Indo-European, Turkic returned to Georgia as of 2008.[204] nor Semitic. The present day Georgian or Kartvelian The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and aboriginal, autochthonous inhabitants with immigrants Laz.[205][206][207][208][209][210] The official languages of who moved into South Caucasus from the direction of Georgia are Georgian, with Abkhaz having official status in remote antiquity.[194] within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian is

Ukraine Rostov the primary language of 87.7 percent of the population, Kazakhstan Rostov ' followed by 6.2 percent speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 per- Sea 28 21 of D Astrakhan' Azov Elista cent Armenian, 1.2 percent Russian, and 1 percent other Krasnodar Kalmykia Kray T [211][n 1] 28 28 21 languages. 27 Krasnodar A Stavropol' 2 2 Stavropol' Kray Adygea 26 A T Maykop' Caspian 16 Russia Cherkessk A 3 26 21 Sea a Karachay- 24 23 4 R Cherkessia 7 26 Nal'chik RR 16 Kabardino- 4 Ingushetia R 7.1 Religion 5 21 Balkaria 15 Nazran' Groznyy R 1 Abkhazia R l R 5 23 19 Makhachkala North 14 R R Black 1 Ossetia 25

South Ossetia R 7 K'ut'aisi Ts'khinvali 8 Main article: Religion in Georgia (country) Sea R 19 9 22 O Georgia 12 O 6 RAdjara T'bilisi Z 5 7 11 Bat'umi a R 13 10 R 17 Caucasian Indo-European R R 17 Peoples Peoples LL R Abkhaz Armenian K Azerbaijan R R 1 Abkhaz 16 a Armenian Armenia Baku 22 Circasian Greek T K 18 Nagorno- Xankändı 2 A Adygey 17 Greek 16 () 3 Cherkess T a 22 Iranian K 16 4 Kabardin T 18 K Kurd a Georgian 19 O Ossetian Naxcivan a 20 T R 5 G Georgian Talysh Naxçıvan Azer. Dagestani Slavic T (Nakhichevan) 6 Agul 21 R Russian T Z 7 Avar Turkey Z 8 D Dargin Altaic Peoples 9 l Lak 18 10 L Lezgin Turkic Iran 11 Rutul 22 Z Azeri 20 12 23 Balkar Tabasaran 22 13 Tsakhur 24 Karachay a 25 Kumyk Veinakh 26 Nogay 14 Chechen 27 T Turkmen Republic, oblast, or kray boundary 15 Ingush Mongol Other 28 Kalmyk 0 100 Kilometers

Sparsely populated or uninhabited areas are shown in white 0 100 Miles

Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region[195] [213] Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 percent of Georgia’s Main religions (2014) current population of 3,713,804 (2014 census).[196][n 1] Orthodox Christian (83.4%) 7.2 Education 17

Muslim (10.7%) 7.2 Education Armenian Apostolic (2.9%) Roman Catholic (1%) Others (2%)

Today 83.4 percent of the population practices Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with the majority of these adher- ing to the national Georgian Orthodox Church.[214][n 1] The Georgian Orthodox Church is one of the world’s most ancient Christian Churches, and claims apostolic foundation by Saint Andrew.[215] In the first half of the 4th century, Christianity was adopted as the state re- ligion of Iberia (present-day Kartli, or eastern Geor- gia), following the missionary work of of Cappadocia.[216][217] The Church gained autocephaly during the early Middle Ages; it was abolished during the Russian domination of the country, restored in 1917 and , Corpus I fully recognised by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Con- stantinople in 1989.[218] The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognised in the Constitution of Georgia and the Concordat of 2002, although religious institutions are separate from the state, and every citizen has the right of religion. Religious minorities of Georgia include Muslims (10.7 percent), Armenian Christians (2.9 percent) and Ro- man Catholics (0.5 percent).[214][n 1] 0.7 percent of those recorded in the 2014 census declared themselves to be ad- herents of other religions, 1.2 percent refused or did not state their religion and 0.5 percent declared no religion at Higher Education Institutions in Georgia all.[214][n 1] Islam is represented by both Azerbaijani Shia Muslims The education system of Georgia has undergone sweep- (in the south-east) ethnic Georgian Sunni Muslims in ing modernizing, although controversial, reforms since Adjara, and Laz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as 2004.[224][225] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all Sunni Meskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey. children aged 6–14.[226] The school system is divided into There are also smaller communities of Greek Muslims elementary (six years; age level 6–12), basic (three years; (of Pontic Greek origin) and Armenian Muslims, both of age level 12–15), and secondary (three years; age level whom are descended from Ottoman-era converts to Turk- 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (two years). ish Islam from Eastern Anatolia who settled in Georgia Students with a secondary school certificate have access following the Lala Mustafa Pasha’s Caucasian campaign to higher education. Only the students who have passed that led to the Ottoman conquest of the country in 1578. the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state- Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the accredited higher education institution, based on ranking 6th century BC; their numbers have dwindled in the last of the scores received at the exams.[227] decades due to high levels of immigration to Israel.[219] Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a Despite the long history of religious harmony in Bachelor’s Program (three to four years); a Master’s Pro- Georgia,[220] there have been instances of religious dis- gram (two years), and a Doctoral Program (three years). crimination and violence against “nontraditional faiths”, There is also a Certified Specialist’s Program that repre- such as Jehovah’s Witnesses, by followers of the sents a single-level higher education program lasting from defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili.[221] three to six years.[226][228] As of 2016, 75 higher educa- tion institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Educa- In addition to traditional religious organizations, Georgia [229] retains secular and irreligious segments of society (0.5 tion and Science of Georgia. Gross primary enroll- [222] ment ratio was 117 percent for the period of 2012–2014, percent), as well as a significant portion of religiously [230] affiliated individuals who do not actively practice their the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden. faith.[223] Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian ed- ucational system, particularly since the creation of the First Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the estab- 18 8 CULTURE

lishment of modern, Georgian-language educational in- stitutions. Tbilisi is the home to several major institu- tions of higher education in Georgia, notably the Tbilisi State Medical University, which was founded as Tbilisi Medical Institute in 1918, and the Tbilisi State Univer- sity (TSU), which was established in 1918 and remains the oldest university in the entire Caucasus region.[231] With enrollment of over 35,000 students, the number of faculty and staff (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000. Georgia’s main and largest technical university, Georgian Technical University,[232] as well as The Uni- versity of Georgia (Tbilisi),[233] Caucasus University[234] and Free University of Tbilisi[235] are also in Tbilisi.

Georgian traditional dance Khevsuruli 8 Culture King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC.[243][244] Main article: Culture of Georgia (country) Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years from its Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music, dances, theatre, cinema, and art. Notable painters from the 20th century include , Lado Gu- diashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; notable ballet choreogra- phers include George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani, and Nino Ananiashvili; notable poets include Galaktion Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and notable theatre and film directors include Robert Sturua, Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia and Otar Ioseliani.[242]

8.1 Architecture and arts

Ancient Colchian riders pendants, Georgian National Museum

foundations in the Iberian and Colchian civilizations.[236] Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.[237] Georgian culture was in- fluenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid and Qajar Old Tbilisi – Architecture in Georgia is in many ways a fusion of [238][239][240][241] empires), and later, from the 19th cen- European and Asian. tury, by the Russian Empire. The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian lit- Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civi- erature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the lizations. There are several different architectural styles 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. The foundations of the romantics and novelists of the mod- Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili ern era such as , Nikoloz Baratashvili, in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of me- Ilia , Akaki , Vazha-Pshavela.[242] dieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts, aspects of Georgia include Rustaveli avenue in Tbilisi in which according to traditional accounts were invented by the Haussmann , and the Old Town District. 8.4 19

Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most notable as- pects of Georgian Christian architecture, which com- bines the classical dome style with the original basilica style, forming what is known as the Georgian cross- dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Geor- gia during the 9th century; before that, most Geor- gian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Geor- gian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Geor- gia: in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuri- ), monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the in (built by Georgians in the 9th century). One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists was primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani.[245] Georgian Folk Singers

8.4 Cuisine 8.2 Media

Main article: Main article: Media of Georgia Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the cen-

Television, magazines, and newspapers in Georgia are all operated by both state-owned and for-profit corpo- rations which depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Georgia guarantees freedom of speech. As a country in transition, the Georgian media system is under transformation. The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and most diverse in the South Caucasus,[246] despite the long- term politicisation and polarisation affecting the sector. The political struggle for control over the public broad- caster have left it without a direction in 2014 too.[247] A large percentage of Georgian households have a tele- vision, and most have at least one radio. Most of Geor- gia’s media companies are headquartered in its capital and largest city, Tbilisi.

From the top right to the left and below: Adjarian , Mtsvadi, Khinkali, Imeretian Khachapuri, , Churchkhela, Shotis puri, Elarji, Mchadi, Satsivi 8.3 Music

Main article: Music of Georgia (country) turies, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is pri- unusual traditions of dining is supra, or Georgian table, marily known for its early development of polyphony. which is also a way of socialising with friends and fam- Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a ily. The head of supra is known as tamada. He also unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a har- conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure monic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances. that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various histor- Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a ical regions of Georgia are known for their particular complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass back- dishes: for example, khinkali (meat dumplings), from ground in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially- eastern mountainous Georgia, and khachapuri, mainly improvised version in western Georgia.[248] The Georgian from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara. In addition to tra- folk song "Chakrulo" was one of 27 musical compositions ditional Georgian dishes, the foods of other countries included on the Voyager Golden Records that were sent have been brought to Georgia by immigrants from Russia, into space on Voyager 2 on 20 August 1977.[249] Greece, and recently China. 20 12 REFERENCES

8.5 Sports tional team members, such as Otar Korkia, Mikhail Ko- rkia, Zurab Sakandelidze and Levan Moseshvili. Dinamo Main article: Sport in Georgia Tbilisi won the prestigious Euroleague competition in The most popular sports in Georgia are football, 1962. Georgia had five players in the NBA: Vladimir Stepania, Jake Tsakalidis, , Tornike Shengelia and current . Other notable players are two times Euroleague champion and Euroleague players Manuchar Markoishvili and Viktor Sanikidze. Sport is regaining its popularity in the country in re- cent years. Georgia national basketball team qualified to EuroBasket during the last three tournaments since 2011.

9 International rankings

The following are links to international rankings of Geor- Georgia vs. Romania in the Rugby World Cup 2011 gia. basketball, rugby union, wrestling, judo, and weightlifting. Historically, Georgia has been fa- mous for its physical education; the Romans were 10 See also fascinated with Georgians’ physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient Iberia.[250] Wrestling • Outline of Georgia (country) remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and • some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of Index of Georgia (country)-related articles wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.[251] Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of 11 Notes wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used to- day. For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has [1] Data not including Abkhazia and South Ossetia three different styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional Georgian game later replaced by rugby union. 12 References

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The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region [6] “2015 Human Development Report” (PDF). United Na- tions Development Programme. 2015. Retrieved 15 De- is located in Georgia. Rustavi International Motorpark cember 2015. originally built in 1978 was re-opened in 2012 after to- tal reconstruction[252] costing $20 million. The track [7] “The Law of Georgia on Occupied Territories (431-IIs)" satisfies the FIA Grade 2 requirements and currently (PDF). State Ministry for Reintegration. 23 October hosts the Legends car racing series and Formula Alfa 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2014. competitions.[253] Retrieved 1 February 2015. Basketball was always one of the notable sports in Geor- [8] Peradze, Gregory. “The Pilgrims’ derivation of the name gia, and Georgia had a few very famous Soviet Union na- Georgia”. Georgica, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208–209 21

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• Association of Modern Scientific Investigation – (AMSI)

News media

• Civil Georgia, daily news about Georgia • Crisis profile, Georgia, Abkhazia, S. Ossetia From Reuters Alertnet • Georgian Daily, all the latest news from Georgia and related to Georgia • NewsGeorgia Google Translation into English from the NewsGeorgia () site • GeorgiaCaucasus.com GeorgiaCaucasus.com – on- line info Magazine dedicated to Georgia and Cauca- sus 29

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15.2 Images

• File:Arms_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Arms_of_Georgia.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: File:Lesser coat of arms of Georgia.svg Original artist: User:Rastrelli F • File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_ projection%29.svg License: GFDL Contributors: National Geographic. Map by Ssolbergj Aquarius.geomar.de Original artist:Koyos + Ssolbergj (talk) • File:Batumi_-_Georgian_Folk_Singers_(5024684289).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Batumi_ -_Georgian_Folk_Singers_%285024684289%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Batumi :: Georgian Folk Singers Original artist: tomislav medak • File:Batumi_-_Georgian_Folklore_Dance_-_Khevsuruli_(5024681821).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/67/Batumi_-_Georgian_Folklore_Dance_-_Khevsuruli_%285024681821%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Batumi :: Georgian Folklore Dances Original artist: tomislav medak • File:Batumi_Botanical_Garden._Black_Sea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Batumi_Botanical_ Garden._Black_Sea.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from ka.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Kober using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was Alsandro at ka.wikipedia • File:CaucasianOvcharka-Julius.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/CaucasianOvcharka-Julius.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Vectorisation of CIA map Original artist: User:Pmx • File:Circle_frame.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Circle_frame.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: PleaseStand • File:Colchis_and_Iberia,_VI-III_centuries_B.C..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Colchis_and_ Iberia%2C_VI-III_centuries_B.C..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Alexandri magni imperium et expeditiones, 1833 Original artist: Félix Delamarche • File:Colchis_riders_pendants_-_pair.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Colchis_riders_pendants_ -_pair.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jonathan Cardy • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Condoleezza_Rice_Visit_to_Georgia,_Press_Conference_with_Mikheil_Saakashvli.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Condoleezza_Rice_Visit_to_Georgia%2C_Press_Conference_with_Mikheil_Saakashvli.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: US embassy to Georgia Original artist: US gov't • File:Didgoribtr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Didgoribtr.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: my file Original artist: didgori • File:Downtown_Kutaisi_&_White_Bridge_as_seen_from_Mt_Gora_(August_2011)-cropped.jpg Source: https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Downtown_Kutaisi_%26_White_Bridge_as_seen_from_Mt_Gora_%28August_2011% 29-cropped.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kober • File:E60_Sakartvelo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/E60_Sakartvelo.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tsov • File:Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary_(with_borders).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/44/Europe_orthographic_Caucasus_Urals_boundary_%28with_borders%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Derived from File:Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary.svg and File:Europe on the globe (red).svg. Original artist: Rob984 • File:Flag_of_Europe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Flag_of_Europe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File based on the specification given at [1].Original artist:User:Verdy p, User:-xfi-, User:Paddu, User:Nightstallion, User:Funakoshi, User: Jeltz, User:Dbenbenn, User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on File:Brdzanebuleba 31.pdf Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Gamarjveba61.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Gamarjveba61.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Zaraza Original artist: Zaraza 32 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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