Canada’s Expatriates John Stackhouse Consul ng Team
by: Malek Chouikh Allison McHugh Neil Peet Caroline Senini March 2015 Sahl Syed ! !
Table of Contents I.! Introduction+...... +2! II.! Counting+Canadians+Abroad+...... +3! a)!Overview!...... !3! b)!Estimated!Canadians!abroad!...... !3! c)!Estimated!expatriate!locations!...... !4! III.! The+Expatriate+Attachment+to+Canada+...... +6! a)!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!survey!on!Canadians!abroad!and!their!attachment!to!Canada!...... !6! IV.! Limitations+on+Citizenship+...... +8! a)!Overview!...... !8! b)!The!Citizenship!Act!and!Bill!CG37:!...... !8! c)!Bill!CG24,!strengthening!the!Canadian!Citizenship!Act!...... !10! d)!Alternative!citizenship!models!...... !11! V.! Limitations+on+Voting+Rights+...... +13! a)!Overview!...... !13! b)!Canada’s!current!policy!on!voting!rights!...... !13! c)!The!rationale!behind!this!policy!...... !14! d)!Current!legal!challenge!to!this!legislation!...... !14! e)!International!comparisons!...... !17! VI.! Consular+services+...... +18! VII.! Taxes+...... +18! a)!Tax!exemptions!for!nonGresidents!...... !18! VIII.! International+Expatriate+engagement+...... +19! a)!Overview!...... !19! b)!Policy!comparisons!...... !19! c)!Country!snapshots!...... !22! IX.! Policy+Perspectives+...... +34! a)!Encouraging!Canadians!to!go!abroad!...... !34! b)!Expatriation!as!an!Autonomous!Choice!...... !36! c)!Expatriates!as!an!asset!to!Canada!...... !37! X.! Annexes+...... +39! Annex!A.!Estimate!of!Canadians!Abroad:!Data!Sources,!Limitations!&!Methodology!...... !39! Annex!B.!Estimating!expatriate!locations:!data!sources,!limitations!and!methodology!...... !41! Annex!C.!Complete!Data!Set:!See!Excel!Workbook!“Canadas_Expatriates_Data.xlsx”!...... !44! Annex!D.!Citations!...... !45! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
! 1! ! !
I. Introduction! ! This! report! provides! an! assessment! of! Canada’s! expatriate! population! abroad! and! its! connection! to! Canada.!It!seeks!to!assess!the!hypothesis!that!Canada!does!not!support!its!expatriate!population!to!the! same!level!as!other!countries.!Canada’s!expatriate!population!contributes!to!the!country’s!international! reputation! and! economic! reach.! Worldwide,! people! are! becoming! increasingly! global! citizens.! In! this! context,!it!is!important!to!evaluate!Canada’s!perspective!on!its!population!abroad!and!whether!or!not!it! is!engaging!its!diaspora!to!maximize!the!country’s!global!reputation!and!economic!potential.!! ! Determining!an!accurate!number!for!Canadians!living!abroad!is!important!to!properly!assess!whether! Canada’s! current! policies! are! appropriate.! There! is! little! data! available! regarding! the! number! of! Canadians!abroad,!however,!we!determine!that!the!number!of!Canadian!expatriates!is!not!insubstantial,! as!we!estimate!there!are!between!2.98!and!3.5!million!Canadians!living!abroad!as!of!2011.!The!majority! of! Canada’s! expatriate! population! resides! in! the! United! States! of! America,! the! United! Kingdom,! Australia,!China,!Italy!and!France.!These!figures!are!discussed!in!Part!II!of!our!report.!! ! Furthermore,! many! of! these! Canadians! maintain! a! strong! attachment! to! Canada,! despite! no! longer! physically!residing!in!the!country.!According!to!the!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!survey,!described!in!Part!III!of! this!report,!Canadian!expatriates!consist!of!individuals!mostly!aged!30!to!40.!Many!respondents!to!this! survey!possess!a!strong!connection!to!Canada,!with!nearly!64%!of!the!respondents!calling!Canada!home.!! ! To!facilitate!further!discussions!on!Canada’s!expatriate!community!and!appropriate!policies!for!engaging! this! portion! of! the! Canadian! population,! this! report! examines! relevant! policy! issues! and! compares! Canada’s! expatriate! programs! to! others! around! the! world.! The! major! policy! areas! that! impact! expatriates! are! limitations! placed! on! expatriate! citizenship! and! voting! rights,! which! are! discussed! in! Parts!IV!and!V!of!this!report,!respectively.!Consular!Services!provides!limited!contact!to!the!Canadian! expatriate!population,!which!is!discussed!in!Part!VI!of!this!report.!While!expatriates!are!provided!some! tax!exemptions,!the!Canadian!system!implements!strict!requirements!to!gain!such!status,!as!discussed!in! Part!VII.!! ! Canada’s! approach! to! its! expatriates! varies! with! that! of! other! countries.! We! provide! an! extensive! comparison! in! Part! VIII.! This! section! provides! a! specific! assessment! of! different! approaches! in! India,! Singapore,!the!United!States!of!America!and!Nigeria,!as!well!as!a!broad!overview!expatriate!populations! and!their!rights!in!other!countries.!! ! By!examining!Canadian!policy,!we!determine!that!the!country’s!current!strategy!for!engaging!expatriates! does!not!reflect!a!clear!philosophy.!Whether!or!not!Canada!sees!its!diaspora!community!as!an!important! global!extension!of!Canada!is!difficult!to!determine.!Therefore,!Part!IX!concludes!our!report!with!three! alternative! policy! perspectives.! The! first! involves! encouraging! Canadians! to! go! abroad,! the! second! involves!leaving!expatriation!as!an!autonomous!choice!and!supports!Canadians!abroad!mainly!through! increased! safety! measures,! and! the! third! involves! implementing! policies! with! a! view! to! treating! expatriates! as! an! existing! asset.! With! these! policy! recommendations! we! highlight! areas! for! moving! forward!and!examples!from!other!countries!for!potential!program!options!for!Canada.!! ! By!performing!this!assessment,!we!provide!a!deeper!understanding!of!Canada’s!expatriate!policies!and! how!they!can!improve.!Canadians!abroad!contribute!to!Canada’s!reputation,!trade!relations,!and!culture! in!the!global!community.!Their! global!outreach!can!be!an!important!aspect!of!Canada’s!international! focus!if!there!are!appropriate!policies!to!leverage!their!potential.!!! ! !
! 2! ! !
II. Counting!Canadians!Abroad! ! a) Overview ! The!Canadian!government!does!not!currently!track!Canadians!abroad.!There!is!no!definitive!number!of! how!many!Canadians!live!abroad,!which!makes!it!is!difficult!to!create!policies!that!reflect!or!further!their! interests.!!! ! To! estimate! the! number! of! Canadians! abroad! we! created! two! distinct! data! sets.! The! first! involved! generating! a! credible! and! sound! estimate! for! the! total! number! of! Canadians! abroad.! The! second! involved!identifying!where!Canadians!abroad!are!living.!The!sources!we!used!to!establish!these!data!sets! include!information!from!the!Organization!for!Economic!Cooperation!and!Development,!foreign!country! census! data,! the! United! Nations! Department! of! Economic! and! Social! Affairs! (UN! ESA),! and! Eurostat.! From!these!sources!we!built!percentage!estimates!of!where!Canadians!were!located!in!relation!to!each! other.!We!then!applied!those!percentages!to!our!overall!estimate!of!Canadians!abroad.! ! To!ensure!consistency,!we!defined!a!Canadian!expatriate!or!Canadian!“abroad”!using!the!definition!from! the! AsiaGPacific! Foundation’s! research,! which! is! “a! Canadian! citizen! residing! abroad! for! one! year! or! more.”1!This!definition!is!precise!in!terms!of!status!(Canadian!citizens)!and!length!of!stay!abroad!(one! year! or! more).! Citizenship! status! eliminates! the! possibility! of! including! foreign! flows! from! temporary! visitors! such! as! foreign! students! or! landed! immigrants! and! only! includes! Canadians! who! have! an! absolute! right! to! return! to! Canada.2!One! year! or! more! abroad! also! helps! restrict! counting! leisure! travellers!or!students!travelling!abroad.! ! b) Estimated Canadians abroad ! We! used! new! population! data,! median! age,! and! calculated! survival! rates,! and! estimated! there! are! between! 2.98! to! 3.5! million! Canadians! living! abroad! as! of! 2011.3!The! lower! estimate! of! 2.98! million! includes!the!expected!impact!of!changing!demographics!from!2006!to!2011!and!reflects!the!lower!net! migration!rates!as!a!percentage!of!the!population.!!The!higher!estimate!of!3.5!million!Canadians!abroad! only! takes! survival! rates! into! consideration! in! modifying! the! outGmigration! rate,! which! maintains! the! assumptions!used!by!Dr.!Don!DeVoretz!and!Kenny!Zhang!and!incorporates!updated!data.!A!summary!of! the!variables!used!in!these!two!estimates!in!shown!below!in!Figure!1.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Don!DeVoretz,!"Canada’s!secret!province:!2.8!million!Canadians!abroad,"!IndiaGCanada!Trade!and!FDI!Bilateral!Flows:! Performance,!Prospects!and!Proactive!Strategies!1!(2013):!1G18.! 2!While!some!nonGcitizen!populations!have!strong!attachments!to!Canada,!their!lack!of!automatic!reGentry!rights!makes!them! less!relevant!for!policy!implications!such!as!repatriation,!returnGmigration,!overseas!taxation,!or!overseas!voting!rights! 3!See!Annex!A!for!data!sources,!methodology!and!limitations.! ! 3! ! !
! Figure'1'–'Updated'estimates'of'Canadians'abroad'as'of'2011'
Base'out9migration'rate:' 3.63%' Estimated' Estimated' Median'Age' Survival'rate' Change'in'net' Years'to' Canadians' Canadians' Population' (Avg.'of' based'on' migration'rate' ' 2011' Abroad'in' Abroad'in' decade)' Median'Age' by'decade' 2011'(1)' 2011'(2)' 2001G 31,020,596! 38.66! 10! 98.8%! G34.13%! 733,251! 1,113,187! 2010! 1991G 28,037,420! 35.01! 20! 96.8%! G0.47%! 981,729! 986,383! 2000! 1981G 24,819,915! 31.19! 30! 94.0%! G15.74%! 713,825! 847,126! 1990! 1971G 21,962,032! 27.59! 40! 69.0%! n/a! 550,270! 550,270! 1980! Total! 2,979,074! 3,496,965! (1)$This$estimate$uses$an$out0migration$rate$for$each$decade$that$includes$the$calculated$survival$rate$as$well$as$the$ change$in$net$emigration$rate$ (2)$This$estimate$uses$an$out0migration$rate$for$each$decade$that$includes$only$the$calculated$survival$rate$ For$a$detailed$methodology$see$Annex$A.$ ! c) Estimated expatriate locations ! The! most! complete! data! source! for! Canadians! living! abroad! is! the! UN! Department! of! Economic! and! Social!Affairs.!It!notes!that!there!are!at!least!1.3!million!Canadian!expatriates.!However,!this!number!is! largely!deflated!because!it!does!not!include!countries!where!statistics!are!unavailable,!which!represents! around! 100! countries! including! Ukraine,! Bangladesh! and! most! African! countries.! In! addition,! most! of! these!data!sources!only!take!into!account!CanadianGborn!populations!abroad.!! ! Several! observations! from! this! data! can! be! assumed! to! hold! true.4!The! United! States! remains! the! country!with!the!highest!number!of!Canadian!expatriates!by!far,!with!approximately!860,000!CanadianG born! inhabitants.! There! are! between! 440,000! and! 470,000! Canadian! expatriates! in! the! United! States! who! are! not! dual! US! citizens.5!The! number! of! Canadian! expatriates! in! the! United! Kingdom! is! around! 94,000,!with!around!43,000!of!them!living!there!with!a!permit!of!residency.6!Australia!takes!third!place! with! approximately! 47,000! Canadian! expatriates.! According! to! the! UN! data,! China,! Italy,! and! France! complete!the!top!6!with!expatriate!populations!between!25,000!and!30,000.!! ! The!ratio!between!the!CanadianGborn!population!and!Canadian!residents!also!varies!greatly,!depending! on! the! host! country.! For! instance,! Italy,! Portugal! and! Luxembourg! have! a! ratio! of! 1:10! between! CanadianGborn!and!Canadian!“residents”.!This!implies!that!more!than!90%!of!the!Canadian!expatriates! in!these!countries!are!likely!to!be!dual!citizens.!On!the!other!hand,!Estonia,!Czech!Republic,!and!Sweden!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!See!Annex!B!for!our!data!sources,!methodology!and!limitations.! 5!United!States!Census!Bureau,!"The!ForeignGBorn!Population!in!the!United!States:!2010,"!United!States!Census!Bureau,!May! 2012,!online:!
Rank' Country' UN'ESA,'2013'numbers' %' Based'on'our'Expat'Number' 1! United!States! 867,400! 65.7%! 1,956,853! 2! United!Kingdom! 94,000! 7.1%! 212,064! 3! Australia! 47,300! 3.6%! 106,709! 4! China!(incl.!Hong!Kong)! 28,000! 2.1%! 63,168! 5! Italy! 27,300! 2.1%! 61,589! 6! France! 25,300! 1.9%! 57,077! 7! South!Korea! 18,650! 1.4%! 42,074! 8! Germany! 16,500! 1.2%! 37,224! 9! Japan! 13,900! 1.1%! 31,358! 10! Switzerland! 13,800! 1.0%! 31,133! 11! New!Zealand! 11,587! 0.9%! 26,140! 12! Netherlands! 9,600! 0.7%! 21,658! 13! Mexico! 9,100! 0.7%! 20,530! 14! Israel! 8,300! 0.6%! 18,725! 15! Portugal! 7,500! 0.6%! 16,920! 16! Spain! 6,000! 0.5%! 13,536! 17! Philippines! 5,600! 0.4%! 12,634! 18! Dominican!Republic! 4,900! 0.4%! 11,054! 19! Ireland! 4,500! 0.3%! 10,152! 20! Singapore! 4,200! 0.3%! 9,475! 21! Denmark! 3,700! 0.3%! 8,347! 22! Ecuador! 3,400! 0.3%! 7,670! 23! Sweden! 3,350! 0.3%! 7,558! 24! Norway! 3,200! 0.2%! 7,219! 25! Poland! 3,100! 0.2%! 6,994! 26! Belgium! 3,100! 0.2%! 6,994! 27! South!Africa! 3,100! 0.2%! 6,994! 28! Bolivia! 3,000! 0.2%! 6,768! 29! Libya! 2,800! 0.2%! 6,317! 30! Chile! 2,300! 0.2%! 5,189! Estimated!expatriates!in!other! 66,026! 5.0%! 148,954! countries! TOTAL! 1,320,513! 100.0%! 2,979,074! For$a$detailed$methodology$see$Annex$B.$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!Embassy!of!the!United!States,!Estonia,!"Dual!Nationality,"!Accessed!February!21,!online:!
III. The!Expatriate!Attachment!to!Canada! ! a) Asia Pacific Foundation survey on Canadians abroad and their attachment to Canada ! The!most!recent!assessment!of!the!expatriate!connection!to!Canada!was!a!survey!conducted!by!the!Asia! Pacific!Foundation!(APF)!in!2007.!The!APF!surveyed!549!respondents!age!20!and!above!residing!in!Asian! countries!and!the!United!States.8!!The!survey!was!designed!by!the!APF!as!an!online!questionnaire.9!It! targeted! selfGidentified! Canadian! populations! who! belonged! to! social! clubs! and! networks! associated! with!Canada!as!well!as!business!associations.10!! ! i)$Who$was$surveyed?$
Respondents!surveyed!possessed!the!following!characteristics:!! • Widely!scattered!around!the!United!States!of!America!and!Asia;! • Mostly!aged!30!to!40;!! • Consisting!of!a!gender!ratio!of!58:42!men!to!women;! • Nearly!95%!of!whom!possessed!some!postGsecondary!education;! • For! 65%! of! respondents,! pursuing! career! opportunities! in! the! global! labour! market! was! the! primary!reason!they!chose!to!live!abroad;! • Some! 30%! of! those! who! worked! abroad! held! careers! related! to! Canada! through! selfG employment,!business,!government!or!NGOs;!and!! • Over!56%!lived!outside!of!Canada!for!more!than!five!years.!11! ! ii)$What$was$their$connection$to$Canada$through$citizenship?$
The!results!of!this!survey!indicated!that!the!Canadian!population!abroad!is!heterogeneous.!44%!of!the! respondents! possessed! only! Canadian! citizenship,! 36%! possessed! dual! citizenship,! 16%! possessed! Canadian!citizenship!along!with!permanent!residency!in!another!country,!and!4%!of!the!respondents! were!landed!immigrants.12!65%!of!the!respondents!gained!citizenship!in!Canada!through!birth,!whereas! 29%!gained!citizenship!through!immigration!and!naturalization.13!Many!of!the!survey’s!respondents!also! possessed!a!strong!connection!to!Canada,!as!nearly!64%!of!respondents!called!Canada!home.14!! ! iii)$What$other$ties$did$the$respondents$have$to$Canada?$
Along! with! formal! ties,! the! respondents! possessed! a! strong! connection! to! Canada! through! family,! friends!and!other!personal!connections.!Notably:!! ! • Approximately!69%!of!the!respondents!expressed!an!intention!to!return!to!Canada!and!establish! permanent!residency;!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!of!Canada,!“Global!Canadians!–!A!Survey!of!the!Views!of!Canadians!Abroad,”!Research!Reports!(2007),! online:!
• Those! individuals! who! possessed! a! desire! to! return! to! Canada! most! frequently! provided! the! reasons! of! “enjoying! the! quality! of! life! and! culture! in! Canada”! and! “being! closer! to! family! members!and!friends”;!and! • The! news! sources! most! cited! by! respondents! used! to! stay! updated! about! events! in! Canada! included!the!Canadian!media!as!well!as!“friends!and!family”.15! ! Many!individuals!continued!their!connection!to!Canada!through!trips!abroad.!The!survey!found:!! ! • Since!establishing!a!primary!residency!abroad,!over!94%!of!respondents!have!visited!Canada;! • Almost!54%!of!respondents!travel!to!Canada!at!least!once!per!year;!! • 9%!of!those!individuals!travelling!to!Canada!at!least!once!per!year!make!three!or!more!trips!a! year;! • 40%!have!travelled!to!Canada!once!every!two!years!or!more;!and!! • Only!6%!of!the!respondents!never!undertook!a!trip!to!Canada.16! ! iv)$Views$of$Canadians$abroad$
Respondents! to! the! APF! survey! possessed! strong! views! on! several! issues! related! to! their! rights! and! responsibilities.!They!were!likely!to!agree!with!statements!that:!! ! • “Canadians!living!overseas!should!be!allowed!to!vote!in!Canadian!elections!!regardless!of!how! long!they!have!been!absent!from!Canada”;!!! • “Canadians!living!overseas!should!be!entitled!to!the!same!level!of!consular!support!!as!Canadian! tourists”;!and!!! • “The!Canadian!government!should!do!more!to!keep!in!touch!with!Canadians!living!!overseas.”!17!!!! ! They!were!less!likely!to!agree!that:!! ! • “Canadians!living!overseas!should!pay!a!surcharge!on!the!renewal!of!their!passports;”! • “Canadians!living!overseas!should!be!subject!to!Canadian!income!tax”;!and! • “Canadians!should!cease!to!recognize!dual!citizenship.”!18! ! Regarding!the!potential!benefits!expatriates!could!bring!to!Canada,!the!respondents!noted!they!believed! their!overseas!presence!creates!goodwill!toward!Canada,!and!that!their!knowledge!and!skills!developed! overseas!would!be!transferable!to!Canada.19! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15!Global!Canadians,!supra!note!8!at!2.! 16!Ibid!at!20.! 17!Ibid!at!3.! 18!Ibid.! 19!Ibid! ! 7! ! !
IV. Limitations!on!Citizenship! ! a) Overview ! Canadian!citizenship!–!how!it!is!defined,!what!it!entails,!who!is!considered!a!citizen,!and!how!it!is!passed! on!–!is!an!important!issue!for!Canada’s!expatriate!community.!! ! The! Canadian$ Citizenship$ Act! came! into! force! in! 1947! and! established! Canadians! as! distinct! citizens! rather!than!as!British!subjects.!Regardless!of!their!country!of!origin,!people!residing!in!Canada!were!able! to!obtain!citizenship,!and!the!Act!established!that!citizenship!was!automatically!awarded!to!naturalGborn! Canadians!and!could!be!awarded!to!immigrants!after!they!had!lived!in!Canada!for!five!years.!!The!Act! was!replaced!in!1977,!and!a!revised!statute!was!published!in!1985!as!the!Citizenship$Act,!RSC!1985,!CG29.!! ! A!number!of!amendments!have!been!made!to!the!legislation!governing!Canadian!citizenship!that!effect! Canadians!abroad.!The!following!is!a!breakdown!of!provisions!that!are!relevant!to!Canadian!expatriates! and!examples!of!alternative!citizenship!laws!for!diaspora!populations.!This!breakdown!establishes!what! issues! Canadian! expatriates! currently! face! and! what! legislation! helps! or! hinders! their! attachment! to! Canada.!! ! b) The Citizenship Act and Bill C-37: ! Bill!CG37,!An$Act$to$Amend$the$Citizenship$Act,!was!introduced!on!April!17,!2009.!!The!Bill!had!two!major! consequences.!First,!it!addressed!“Lost!Canadians,”!or!Canadians!who!had!been!excluded!from!Canadian! citizenship!inadvertently.!Second,!it!changed!the!succession!of!citizenship!for!Canadians!living!abroad.!! ! i)$“Lost$Canadians”$$
Prior!to!Bill!CG37,!a!number!of!loopholes!left!portions!of!the!Canadian!population!stateless.!Often!these! people!were!unaware!that!they!were!not!considered!Canadian!citizens!until!they!requested!citizenship! documents!or!attempted!to!apply!for!a!passport.20!This!group!of!lost!Canadians!has!existed!since!the! 1977!Act!unintentionally!limited!claims!on!citizenship.!Nonetheless,!the!holes!in!citizenship!legislation! were! not! obvious! until! 2001,! when! the! United! States! tightened! border! security! in! the! wake! of! the! September!11!terrorist!attacks.!This!resulted!in!an!increase!in!Canadians!applying!for!passports!for!US! travel!and!increased!awareness!regarding!this!issue.21! ! Joe!Taylor! was!a!“Lost!Canadian”!and!his! case!was!a!catalyst!for!Bill!CG31.!His!case!received!national! attention!beginning!in!2005!when!he!first!challenged!his!denial!of!citizenship.!In!2008,!he!was!ultimately! granted! citizenship.! Taylor! was! born! abroad! and! out! of! wedlock! in! 1944! to! a! British! mother! and! Canadian!father.!His!parents’!marriage,!which!did!not!occur!until!after!he!was!born!and!after!the!war! was!over,!only!lasted!a!few!months,!and!after!the!marriage!dissolved,!Taylor!moved!back!to!England! with!his!mother.22!Under!the!Citizenship$Act!at!the!time,!Taylor!would!have!had!to!register!a!declaration! before!his!24th!birthday!to!receive!citizenship.!Having!failed!to!do,!Taylor!was!denied!citizenship!when!he! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!Kenny!Zhang,!“Attached,!Less!Attached!or!Not!Attached?!Participation!in!Canada!of!Overseas!Canadian!Citizens,”!Asia!Pacific! Foundation!(2010),!Project!Paper!Series!No!10G02,!online:!
Other!provisions!enacted!through!Bill!CG37!have!had!a!negative!impact!on!the!citizenship!rights!of!many! Canadians! living! abroad! who! are! not! expatriates.! The! most! important! provisions! for! Canadian! expatriates!enacted!by!Bill!CG37!are!those!involving!limitations!on!citizenship!by!descent.!Under!section! 3(1)(3)!the!Act!states!that!citizenship!is!not!applicable!to!Canadians!after!the!first!generation:!second! generation!Canadians!and!subsequent!generations!born!abroad!will!not!be!considered!Canadian!citizens! unless!they!fall!under!exceptions!(such!as!military!service)!outlined!within!section!3(1).27!Before!Bill!CG37,! Canadian!citizenship!continued!in!perpetuity.!According!to!the!Asia!Pacific!Institute,!the!amendments! made!by!Bill!CG37!have!had!“a!significant!impact!on!the!rights!of!Canadians!living!abroad.”28!! ! The! Asia! Pacific! Institute! study! cites! three! case! studies! to! establish! the! importance! of! this! issue! to! Canadian!expatriates,!which!include!a!position!paper!prepared!by!the!Canadian!Chamber!of!Commerce! in! Hong! Kong,! an! online! petition! created! by! the! Canadian! Expat! Association,! and! an! online! forum! created!to!contest!Bill!CG37.29!The!Canadian!Chamber!of!Commerce!in!Hong!Kong!is!one!of!the!largest! Canadian! business! associations! abroad. 30!Their! position! paper! had! for! arguments! against! the! Bill:! Canadians! abroad! are! important! and! contributing! members! of! Canadian! society,! the! law! may! create! stateless! Canadians,! the! Bill! is! discriminatory! against! women,! and! that! Bill! CG37! applies! laws! retroactively.31!Also,! the! Chamber! recommended! that! Canadians! born! abroad! should! have! the! same! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23!Report!of!the!Standing!Committee!on!Citizenship!and!Immigration,!supra!note!22.! 24!Ibid.! 25!CTV!News,!“’Lost!Canadian’!becomes!citizen!over!60!years!later,”!January!25,!2008,!online:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!Executive!Committee!of!the!Canadian!Chamber!of!Commerce!in!Hong!Kong,!supra!note!31!at!2.! 33!Standing!Senate!Committee!on!Social!Affairs,!Science!and!Technology,!“Eleventh!Report,”!April!16,!2008,!online:!
• Requiring!that!an!applicant!for!citizenship!demonstrate,!in!one!of!Canada’s!official!languages,! knowledge!of!Canada!and!of!the!responsibilities!and!privileges!of!citizenship;! • Specifying! the! age! as! of! which! an! applicant! for! citizenship! must! demonstrate! the! knowledge! referred!to!in![above]!and!must!demonstrate!an!adequate!knowledge!of!one!of!Canada’s!official! languages;! • Modifying!the!period!during!which!a!permanent!resident!must!reside!in!Canada!before!they!may! apply!for!citizenship!(in!section!5(1)(c)!“residence”!is!defined!as!“physical!residence”!for!1460! days!in!six!years);36! ! The! above! regulations! could! affect! subsequent! generations! of! children! born! abroad! who! are! denied! citizenship!under!Bill!CG37!and!who!wish!to!apply!for!Canadian!citizenship.!! ! On!a!positive!note,!the!Bill!seeks!to!rectify!situations!for!those!who!were!left!stateless!as!a!result!of!prior! legislation! by!stating!that!there!are!exceptions!to!the!firstGgeneration!limitations.!Under!section!3(7),! certain!persons!are!recognized!retroactively!as!citizens.!These!include!anyone!who:!! ! • Was!a!(foreign!born)!adoptee!after!the!1946!Citizenship$Act!applied!to!them;!or!! • Was!born!outside!Canada!to!a!Canadian!father!in!wedlock!or!a!Canadian!mother!out!of!wedlock! and!obtained!a!Registration!of!Birth!Abroad!by!age!two.37! ! Many!Canadians!are!critical!of!Bill!CG24.!The!Canadian!Bar!Association!(CBA)!performed!a!review!of!the! Bill!in!April!2014.!The!CBA!was!most!concerned!that!the!Bill!reduced!the!flexibility!of!terms!regarding! physical!presence!in!Canada!and!its!relation!to!citizenship,!and!that!the!intention!to!revoke!citizenship! from!certain!Canadians!with!dual!citizenship!is!being!used!a!punitive!measure.38!The!CBA’s!assessment! concludes!that!the!Bill!undermines!Canada’s!tradition!of!allowing!dual!citizenship!and!introduces!levels! of! discriminatory! citizenship,! noting! that! the! use! of! banishment! as! punishment! is! likely! unconstitutional.39! ! The!total!number!of!Canadians!living!abroad!and!the!number!of!Canadians!who!hold!dual!citizenship!are! unknown!or!speculative.!Therefore,!it!is!difficult!to!know!how!many!Canadians!these!provisions!could!be! affected!by!the!amended!Citizenship$Act.!! ! d) Alternative citizenship models ! To!put!Canada’s!citizenship!laws!in!context,!we!provide!alternative!models!to!citizenship!for!expatriates.! Most!notably,!India!and!the!UK!grant!overseas!citizenship!to!their!citizens!living!abroad.!These!two!case! studies!provide!a!different!perspective!on!maintaining!connections!with!diaspora!communities.!!! ! i)$India$
India!does!not!allow!its!citizens!to!hold!dual!citizenship.40!Instead,!it!offers!the!Overseas!Citizenship!of! India!(OCI)!program!(originally!referred!to!as!the!Persons!of!Indian!Origin!(PIO)!program).!As!outlined!by!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!Bill!CG24!Summary,!supra!note!35.!! 37!Canadian!Bar!Association,!”Bill!CG24,!Strengthening!Canadian!Citizenship!Act,”!online:!
India’s!Ministry!of!Home!Affairs,!with!the!exception!of!those!of!Pakistani!or!Bangladeshi!descent,!the! following!categories!of!persons!are!eligible!for!the!OCI!program:! ! • A!person!who!is!a!citizen!of!another!country,!but!was!a!citizen!of!India!at!the!time!of,!or!any! time!after,!the!commencement!of!the!constitution;!or! • A!person!who!is!a!citizen!of!another!country,!but!was!eligible!to!become!a!citizen!of!India!at!the! time!of!the!commencement!of!the!constitution;!or! • A!person!who!is!a!citizen!of!another!country,!but!belonged!to!a!territory!that!became!part!of! India!after!the!15th!day!of!August,!1947;!or! • A!person!who!is!a!child,!grandchild,!or!great!grandchild!of!such!a!citizen.41! ! Overseas!citizenship!has!existed!in!some!form!since!India’s!Citizenship$Act!came!into!effect!in!1955!and! the!OCI!scheme!became!operational!in!2005.42!The!OCI!scheme!developed!on!the!recommendation!of! the!High!Level!committee!that!was!created!to!consider!the!interests!of!the!Indian!diaspora.43!Registered! OCIs!do!not!have!voting!rights!and!they!are!not!eligible!to!run!for!election!in!key!legislative!positions!or! hold!constitutional!posts!such!as!President,!Vice!President,!or!Supreme!Court!or!High!Court!positions.44! Additionally,!OCIs!are!treated!as!nonGcitizens!in!acquiring!agricultural!or!plantation!properties!(although! registered! OCIs! are! permitted! to! inherit! these! properties).45!Despite! these! restrictions,! OCIs! enjoy! multipleGentry!and!multiGpurpose!lifeGlong!visas!for!India,!as!well!as!an!exemption!from!reporting!the! length!of!their!stay!in!India!to!police!authorities.! ! ii)$Britain$
Britain! has! six! different! categories! of! nationality,! which! include! British! citizenship,! British! overseas! citizenship,!British!overseas!territories!citizenship,!British!national!(overseas),!British!protected!person! and!British!subject.!Britain!also!allows!for!dual!citizenship.!As!such,!it!is!possible!to!hold!one!of!these!six! types!of!nationality!and!to!be!considered!a!citizen!of!another!country.!! ! A! person! is! granted! British! overseas! citizenship! if! he! or! she! is! born! in! a! British! overseas! territory! (territory! belonging! by! settlement,! conquest! or! annexation! to! the! British,! Australian! or! New! Zealand! Crown46)!or!if!at!the!time!of!the!individual’s!birth!one!of!his!or!her!parents!is!a!British!overseas!citizen.47! British! overseas! citizens! are! still! subject! to! immigration! controls! and! they! are! not! considered! a! UK! national! by! the! European! Union,! however,! they! can! hold! a! British! passport,! and! may! have! access! to! consular!assistance!and!protection!from!UK!diplomatic!posts48! ! British!overseas!citizenship!was!created!by!the!British$Nationality$Act$in!1981!and!came!into!force!in! January!of!1983.49!Overseas!citizenship!is!different!from!overseas!territories!citizenship!in!that!it!applies! to!UK!colonies.!It!essentially!accounts!for!British!individuals!not!living!in!Britain!after!1983!who!did!not! become! overseas! territories! citizens,! which! is! particularly! relevant! with! Hong! Kong.50!British! overseas! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41!Ministry!of!Home!Affairs,!supra!note!40.!!! 42!Ibid.! 43!Ibid.!! 44!Ibid! 45!Ibid.!! 46!The!official!website!of!the!British!Monarchy,!“Queen!and!overseas!territories,”!online:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51!Types!of!British!Nationality,!supra!note!47.! 52!Ibid.! 53!Ibid.! 54!Canadian!Charter!of!Rights!and!Freedoms,!s!3,!Part!I!of!the!Constitution!Act,!1982,!being!Schedule!B!to!the!Canada!Act!1982! (UK),!1982,!c!11.! 55!Global!Canadians,!supra!note!8!at!3.! 56!Canada!Elections!Act,!SC!2000,!c!9!ss!11(d),!220G230.! 57!Attached,!Less!Attached!or!Not!Attached,!supra!note!20!at!13.! ! 13! ! ! c) The rationale behind this policy ! Since!1915,!when!Canada!implemented!a!ban!on!voting!rights!for!individuals!who!had!not!resided!in! Canada!for!a!period!of!30!days,!limitations!on!expatriate!voting!rights!of!expatriate!have!existed!in!some! form.58!As!of!1920,!Canadians!abroad!could!vote!if!they!were!outside!of!the!country!due!to!economic! needs.!This!provision!was!meant!to!protect!individuals!such!as!railway!workers!and!soldiers.59!By!1944,! soldiers! could! vote! in! the! constituency! where! they! ordinarily! resided! before! enlistment,! and! voting! rights!were!later!extended!to!the!wives!of!soldiers!abroad,!their!dependents,!and!to!nonGresident!public! servants!and!their!dependents.!60! ! In!1993!Bill!CG114!extended!voting!rights!to!all!Canadians!abroad,!as!long!as!they!were!only!out!of!the! country! for! less! than! 5! years.61!Up! until! this! point! some! parliamentarians! were! concerned! there! had! been!a!large!number!of!Canadians!abroad,!some!of!whom!had!been!away!for!long!periods!of!time,!and! possessed! a! limited! connection! to! Canada.62!One! parliamentarian! noted! a! concern! about! electoral! candidates! being! unable! to! contact! such! voters.63!Citing! concerns! regarding! an! unknown! number! of! Canadians!abroad,!as!well!as!no!knowledge!of!their!actual!connection!to!Canada,!a!Special!Committee! on!Electoral!Reform!recommended!this!expansion!of!voting!rights!to!all!Canadians!abroad!but!a!fiveG year!limit!on!those!rights.64!The!Committee!provided!no!reason!for!the!fiveGyear!limit:!this!was!simply!a! “middleGofGtheGroad”!compromise.65! ! d) Current legal challenge to this legislation ! i)$The$constitutional$challenge$
The!fiveGyear!limitation!on!voting!rights!for!Canadians!abroad!is!still!a!live!issue.!Two!Canadians!residing! in!the!United!States!recently!initiated!a!constitutional!challenge!regarding!the!fiveGyear!limit!on!voting! rights!and!a!decision!was!reached!in!2014!to!abolish!this!limitation!through!an!immediate!declaration!of! invalidity.!Consequently,!all!Canadians!currently!living!abroad!may!vote!in!the!next!federal!election.66! Recently,!the!Attorney!General!appealed!this!case!but!the!decision!of!the!Ontario!Court!of!Appeal!has! yet!to!be!released.!It!is!possible!that!a!decision!regarding!this!case!will!be!released!ahead!of!the!next! election,! but! regardless! of! timing,! such! a! decision! will! likely! be! appealed! to! the! Supreme! Court! of! Canada.!! ! The!constitutional!challenge!was!brought!by!Gillian!Frank,!a!33!year!old!academic!living!in!Brooklyn,!New! York,!and!Jamie!Duong,!a!28!year!old!IT!professional!living!in!Ithaca,!New!York.!Both!individuals!were! born!in!Canada!and!possess!strong!ties!to!their!native!country.!Neither!Frank!nor!Duong!were!able!to! find!employment!in!Canada!and!relocated!for!work.!Both!attempted!to!vote!in!the!May!2,!2011!federal! election!but!realized!the!provisions!in!the!Canada$Elections$Act!barred!them.67! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58!Frank!et!al!v!AG!Canada,!2014!ONSC!907!at!para!38.! 59!Ibid!at!para!41.! 60!Ibid!at!para!42.! 61!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!of!Canada,!“Canadians!Abroad:!Canada’s!Global!Asset,”!(2011)!online:!
! In! his! decision! for! the! Ontario! Superior! Court! of! Justice,! Justice! Penny! found! the! provisions! of! the! Canada$Elections$Act!to!be!unconstitutional.!He!accepted!the!Asia!Pacific!Institute’s!estimate!that!there! are!approximately!1.4!million!Canadians!who!have!lived!abroad!for!5!years,!and!while!some!of!these! individuals!would!fall!under!exceptions!in!the!Act!that!would!enable!them!to!vote,!there!would!still!be! over! 1! million! individuals! caught! by! this! legislation! and! prevented! from! voting! in! federal! Canadian! elections.68!! In! finding! that! the! current! provisions! violate! the! constitutional! guarantee! of! the! right! to! vote!provided!under!the!Charter,$Justice!Penny!took!into!account!the!strong!connections!of!Canadians! abroad.!He!noted!the!familial!connections!and!relationships!many!expatriates!possess!with!Canada,!as! evident!in!the!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!Survey!discussed!above.69!He!highlighted!the!elements!from!the! survey!that!demonstrated!many!expatriates! are! still! tied! to! Canada,! noting! that! 94%! of! respondents! have! visited! Canada! since! establishing! a! principal! residence! abroad,! there! are! strong! employmentG related! connections! many! expatriates! possess! to! Canada,! with! approximately! two! out! of! three! individuals! leaving! Canada! for! employment! reasons, 70 !and! that! nearly! oneGthird! of! all! survey! respondents!leave!Canada!to!work!for!Canadian!entities!abroad.71!! ! Justice!Penny!also!noted!the!strong!economic!ties!of!expatriates!to!Canada!in!terms!of!social!insurance! programs!or!tax!payments,!and!in!receipt!of!benefits.72!In!particular,!he!highlighted!how!some!Canadians! abroad!contribute!to!accrue!benefits!from!the!Old!Age!Security!Program!and!the!Canadian!Pension!Plan! (CPP).73!Furthermore,!in!some!circumstances!expatriates!may!contribute!directly!to!CPP,!or!similar!social! security!programs!in!their!host!country,!which!may!be!recognized!in!Canada.74!He!noted!how!Canadians! living!abroad!maintain!tax!obligations!–!even!if!deemed!nonGresidents!–!from!employment!or!business! carried!on!in!Canada,! from! capital! gains! received! from! taxable! Canadian! property,! or! from! Canadian! scholarships,!bursaries,!and!research!grants.75!Furthermore,!expatriates!are!taxed!on!Canadian!source! income,!annuities,!pension,!and!other!payments,!as!well!as!income!from!the!rental!of!real!properties.! Therefore,!he!highlighted!that!these!Canadians!possess!a!real!economic!interest!in!Canada,!and!as!the! proportion!of!these!individuals!abroad!increases,!so!does!the!proportion!of!nonGresident!income!taxes! paid!to!Canada!even!though!such!individuals!do!not!receive!monetized!benefits!such!as!education!or! health!care.76!! ! ii)$Potential$impact$of$this$decision$
If!the!Ontario!Court!of!Appeal!upholds!the!Ontario!Superior!Court’s!finding!that!the!provisions!limiting! the! voting! rights! of! expatriates! are! unconstitutional,! there! will! be! approximately! 1.4! million! voters! outside!of!Canada!who!will!be!able!to!vote!in!Canadian!elections.!The!impact!of!these!added!voters!is! debatable,!as!JeanGPierre!Kingsley,!the!former!Chief!Electoral!Officer!of!Elections!Canada!noted!that!“the! numbers! will! not! be! that! large! but! if! people! have! the! right! to! vote! they! have! the! right! to! vote.”77! Whether! the! right! to! vote! translates! into! an! act! of! voting! is! difficult! to! determine,! especially! since! Canadians!abroad!face!additional!challenges!when!voting.!! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68!Frank!et!al!v!AG!Canada,!2014!ONSC!907!at!paras!19G20.! 69!Ibid!at!para!21.! 70!Ibid!at!para!22.! 71!Ibid.! 72!Ibid!at!para!26.! 73!Ibid!at!para!27.! 74!Ibid.! 75!Ibid!at!para!28.! 76!Ibid.! 77!Stackhouse!Consulting!Team!Interview!with!Pierre!Kingsley!in!February!2015.!! ! 15! ! !
The!steps!expatriates!must!take!to!vote!include:! ! • Obtaining!an!application!for!voter!registration.!This!application!must!be!downloaded!from!the! Elections!Canada!website,!or!must!be!requested!from!Elections!Canada!by!telephone,!mail!or! fax.!Voters!may!also!obtain!this!application!from!Canadian!embassies,!consular!offices,!or!high! commissions;! • Completing!the!application!and!providing!it,!along!with!a!proof!of!identity!such!as!a!Canadian! passport,!to!Elections!Canada!in!Ottawa!no!later!than!6:00!pm!on!the!Tuesday!prior!to!polling! day;! • Obtaining! a! special! ballot! after! this! registration! from! Elections! Canada! who! will! send! the! specialized!ballot!kit!to!the!voter;! • Including!the!names!of!the!candidates!on!the!special!ballot!because,!unlike!regular!ballots,!these! ballots!do!not!include!the!names!of!the!candidates.!As!such,!the!voter!must!obtain!the!names!of! the!candidates!in!his!or!her!electoral!district.!Also!unlike!regular!voters,!the!voter!cannot!vote! using! only! the! political! party! associated! with! a! given! candidate! indicated! on! the! ballot.! Expatriate! voters! therefore! must! inform! him! or! herself! of! the! candidate! associated! with! that! political!party;! • Signing! the! declaration! on! the! outer! envelope! of! the! special! ballot,! which! states! the! voter’s! name! is! that! as! shown! on! the! envelope! and! that! he! or! she! has! not! voted! and! will! not! again! attempt!to!vote!in!the!current!election;!and! • Ensuring!Elections!Canada!receives!the!completed!special!ballot!by!6:00!pm!on!the!polling!day.!78! ! According! to! JeanGPierre! Kingsley,! between! 6,000! and! 9,000! Canadian! expatriates,! excluding! those! voting! under! the! exception! for! members!of!the!Canadian!forces,! have!voted!in!each!federal!election! since!2000.79!! !! Mr.!Kingsley!noted!that!the!current!voting!restrictions!lack!merit,!as!the!Internet!era!makes!it!possible! for!individuals!living!abroad!to!keep!abreast!Canadian!policies!and!to!maintain!sufficient!connections!to! the! country.80!Furthermore,! he! noted! that! this! group! is! the! only! group! of! disenfranchised! Canadians.! Canada!does!not!disenfranchise!its!prisoners,!does!not!place!a!limit!on!the!mental!capacity!required!to! vote,!and!allows!any!Canadian!possessing!citizenship!to!vote!so!long!as!they!are!not!outside!the!country! for! more! than! five! years.! He! believes! that! the! number! of! individuals! who! will! actually! vote! will! be! negligible!but!hopes!that!their!votes!will!be!counted,!noting!that!electoral!participation!is!a!fundamental! right,!and!that!“death!and!voting!are!the!two!great!equalizers.”81!! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78!Frank!et!al!v!AG!Canada,!2014!ONSC!907!(Affidavit!of!Pierre!Kingsley!at!para!73),!online:!
Category' Frequency' Percentage' Country'Examples' 1.!Vote!in!home! 13! 9! Chile,!China,!Costa!Rica,!Israel,!Lebanon! district! 2.!Vote!abroad!for! 89! 62! Afghanistan,!Australia,!Canada,!U.K.,!U.S.A.! home!district! 3.!Vote!abroad!for! 13! 9! Algeria,!France,!Italy,!Haiti,!Portugal! own!representation! 4.!Not!allowed!to!vote! 22! 15! Denmark,! Egypt,! Hong! Kong,! India,! South! Africa! 5.!No!elections! 7! 5! Bhutan,! North! Korea,! Saudi! Arabia,! Somalia,! U.A.E! Total:! 144! 100! ! Source:!Kenny!Zhang,!“Attached,!Less!Attached!or!Not!Attached?!Participation!in!Canada!of!Overseas! Canadian!Citizens.”84!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82!Kenny!Zhang,!“Attached,!Less!Attached!or!Not!Attached?!Participation!in!Canada!of!Overseas!Canadian!Citizens,”!Asia!Pacific! Foundation!(2010),!Project!Paper!Series!No!10G02,!online:!
VI. Consular!services! ! Canada’s! Department! of! Foreign! Affairs,! Trade! and! Development! (DFATD)! provides! a! Registration! of! Canadians!Abroad!(ROCA)!service!for!Canadians!living!or!travelling!outside!of!Canada.!ROCA!is!an!online! service!that!offers!travel!advisories!and!emergency!services,!and!keeps!Canadians!connected!to!their! home!country!while!abroad.85!The!program!is!focused!on!trade!connections!and!promotions.!It!directs! its!attention!toward!engaging!communities!abroad!for!mutually!beneficial!investments.! ! Consular! Services! is! primarily! for! emergency! situations! and! does! not! work! to! foster! continued! relationships! with! Canadians! during! their! time! abroad.! Registering! with! ROCA! is! voluntary.! However,! from!Passport!Canada!data!we!can!make!the!logical!assumption!that!Consular!Services!activity!is!most! likely!increasing!with!increased!travel.!Passport!Canada!is!a!Special!Operating!Agency!(SOA)!within!the! DFATD.! According! to! their! 2013! Annual! Report,! Canadian! passport! ownership! has! been! steadily! increasing!since!2008,!with!a!20%!jump!from!2008!to!2013.86!In!the!2012G2013!year,!Passport!Canada! issued!over!5.1!million!travel!documents,!an!increase!of!6.25!from!the!2011G2012!year.87!Although!the! most!recent!figures!are!unavailable,!Consular!Services!reports!that!more!than!168,000!passports!were! issued!outside!of!Canada.88!Additionally,!for!2011,!which!is!the!most!recent!report!available,!Consular! Services!recorded!that!Canadians!made!more!than!59!million!visits!abroad.!This!is!an!increase!of!three! million!from!2010.89!Although!the!numbers!are!not!comprehensive!and!the!report!does!not!distinguish! between! expatriates! living! abroad! and! Canadians! temporarily! abroad,! combined,! the! figures! provide! insight!into!the!increasingly!global!nature!of!Canadian!citizens.!! ! Additionally,!Canada!participates!in!a!global!forum!for!consular!services,!which!brings!together!senior! consular! officials! to! discuss! opportunities,! challenges,! and! best! practices.! This! forum! has! noted! an! increase!in!the!number!of!people!travelling,!working,!and!living!abroad!on!a!global!scale.90! ' VII. !Taxes! ! a) Tax exemptions for non-residents ! Canadians! abroad! may! apply! to! the! Canadian! Revenue! Agency! (CRA)! for! nonGresident! status.! If! an! individual!is!granted!this!status!then!he!or!she!is!not!required!to!pay!taxes!on!income!earned!outside!of! Canada,!but!such!individuals!are!still!required!to!pay!taxes!on!income!received!from!sources!in!Canada.91! An!individual!may!be!deemed!a!nonGresident!outside!of!Canada!for!tax!purposes!if!they,92! ! • Are!not!considered!a!resident!of!Canada!and!they!routinely,!normally!or!customarily!live!in!a! different!country;!or!! • Do!not!possess!significant!residential$ties!to!Canada!such!as!a!home!in!Canada,!a!common!law! partner!in!Canada,!or!dependents!in!Canada;!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85!Government!of!Canada,!“Registration!of!Canadians!Abroad,”!online:!
• Do!not!live!in!Canada!throughout!the!year;!or! • Stay!in!Canada!for!less!than!183!days!per!tax!year.!! ! This!regime!has!two!implications.!The!first!is!that!the!stringent!requirements!necessary!to!become!a! nonGresident! limit! the! possibility! for! these! nonGtax! paying! individuals! to! access! many! of! the! services! financed!through!Canadian!taxes.93!The!second!is!that!it!ensures!individuals!paying!income!taxes!in!their! countries! of! residence! are! no! longer! taxed! in! Canada.94!! Based! on! these! provisions,! many! Canadians! living!abroad!will!not!be!deemed!residents!for!tax!purposes!if!they!apply!to!the!CRA.!! ! This!exemption!is!different!than!the!policy!for!expatriates!in!the!United!States,!under!which!American! citizens!are!required!to!report!their!worldwide!income!and!must!pay! taxes! if! that! income! is! above! a! particular!threshold.95!As!of!2013,!that!threshold!was!97,600!USD.96!! ! An! emigrant’s! impact! on! the! Canadian! treasury! depends! on! that! emigrant’s! age,! birth! status,! time! abroad,! and! human! capital.97!This! is! because! CanadianGborn! residents! consume! most! public! services! prior! to! entering! the! labour! force,! through! education! and! healthcare,! and! once! they! retire,! through! healthcare!and!retirement!benefits.98!A!CanadianGborn!resident’s!economically!active!years!are!usually! between!the!ages!of!30!and!65.!During!this!time,!the!taxes!collected!from!such!an!individual!will!usually! exceed!taxpayer!benefits,!leading!to!a!gain!for!the!Canadian!treasury.99!! ! VIII. International!Expatriate!engagement! ! a)!Overview!! ! There!are!a!number!of!different!policies!employed!by!countries!that!Canada!can!refer!to!for!examples!of! expatriate!engagement.!To!contextualize!Canada’s!level!engagement,!it!is!important!to!examine!other! countries!and!how!they!interact!with!their!diaspora!communities.!This!section!provides!an!analysis!of! how! other! countries! approach! their! expatriate! populations.! By! examining! other! policies,! we! can! determine!that!Canada!has!relatively!low!engagement!in!comparison!to!its!international!counterparts.! The!most!extensive!or!interesting!programs!are!provided!in!the!policy!comparisons!below.!To!provide!a! comprehensive!assessment,!these!policy!comparisons!are!followed!by!country!snapshots!that!are!a!brief! look!into!the!expatriate!programs!of!countries!around!the!world.!! !! b) Policy comparisons ! i)$India:$a$stronger$expatriate$system$
India! is! one! of! the! only! countries! in! the! world! that! has! established! an! entirely! separate! government! ministry! to! engage! with! expatriates.! In! September! 2004,! the! Government! of! India! established! the! Ministry!of!Overseas!Indian!Affairs!as!an!official!government!liaison!that!links!India!to!its!diaspora.!The!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 93!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!of!Canada,!“Canadians!Abroad:!Canada’s!Global!Asset,”!(2011)!online:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 100!“An!Overview”,!Ministry!of!Overseas!Indian!Affairs,!last!modified!in!2009,!Accessed!March!13!2015,!online:!
The!Government!of!Singapore!realizes!that!in!a!globalized!world,!many!Singaporeans!seek!to!work,!live! and! travel! abroad,! and! the! government! tracks! these! individuals.107!Its! tracks! these! individuals! and! its! official!data!indicates!there!is!a!progressively!growing!number!of!expatriates!from!Singapore.!In!its!data! collection,!the!government!divides!the!population!into!narrow!cohorts!based!on!age.108!! ! In!response!to!the!growing!number!of!Singaporeans!living!abroad,!it!has!established!an!online!portal!for! expatriates!called!the!Overseas!Singapore!Unit.109!This!organization!is!making!a!comprehensive!effort!to! keep! Singaporean! expatriates! deeply! connected! with! Singapore! by! providing! expatriates! with! news,! guides!for!students!and!other!expatriates!to!easily!transition!abroad,!information!about!outreach!events! in! larger! cities! such! as! New! York! and! London,! and! other! online! resources.! It! has! also! established! an! official! Facebook! page! where! expats! can! communicate! with! each! other! and! organize! events.!110!The! government!may!also!grant!funding!to!expatriates!for!events!abroad.!111!The!Canadian!government!may! find!it!useful!to!study!the!Overseas!Singapore!Unit!if!it!seeks!increase! communication! with!Canadian! expatriates.112!! ! iii)$United$States$of$America:$enhanced$nonKgovernmental$relations$with$expatriates$$$$
The!United!States!of!America!maintains!strong!relations!with!its!expatriates.!From!all!of!the!countries! studied,!it!has!the!most!numerous!options!for!voting,!although!expatriates!still!claim!that!the!process!for! voting!can!be!improved!since!it!is!an!onerous!process!to!register!to!vote.113!American!expatriates!must! pay! income! tax! to! the! government! based! on! worldwide! income! if! that! income! is! above! a! particular! threshold.114!In!2013,!that!threshold!was!97,600!USD.115!! ! In!terms!of!engaging!with!expatriates,!the!US!does!not!have!an!official!government!ministry!or!organ!to! engage! with! expatriates.! Rather,! there! are! many! prominent! advocacy! groups! and! nonGprofit! organizations!that!engage!in!research,!formulate!policy!recommendations,!and!engage!with!the!media! and! governmental! platforms! like! Congress! and! the! US! judiciary! to! voice! the! concerns! of! Americans! abroad.!American!Citizens!Abroad!and!the!Association!of!American!Residents!Overseas! are!two!large! organizations!with!roughly!40!years!of!experience!in!representing!expatriates!in!the!United!States.!116!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 107“Population!Brief!2012”,!Ministry!of!Social!and!Family!Development,!last!modified!in!September!2012,!online:!
For! example,! both! organizations! have! advocated! to! eliminate! taxation! for! income!tax!earned!abroad! because! this! disadvantages! expatriates! that! are! forced! to! incur! double! taxation.117!American! Citizens! Abroad! advocates! for! expatriates! to! have! greater! social! security! benefits,! increased! ease! in! voting,! congressional!representation,!and!for!Americans!who!acquired!citizenship!through!descent!to!be!able!to! pass!it!down!to!the!next!generation.118! ! iv)$Nigeria:$changes$to$tracking$$
Nigeria! has! limited! information! available! regarding! its! expatriates.! The! diaspora! is! estimated! to! be! between!5!and!15!million!people,!but!these!estimates!are!not!entirely!reliable!since!the!government! does!not!seem!to!keep!records!on!their!expatriates.119!However,!it!seems!that!the!government!wants!to! create! greater! engagement! with! the! expat! community,! given! the! tremendous! amount! of! financial! contributions! the! expatriate! community! makes! to! the! country.! It! is! estimated! that! their! total! contributions! reaches! $12! billion! annually,! which! is! more! than! the! combined! GDP! from! 34! (of! 36)! Nigerian!states.120!! ! The! Nigerian! government! is! working! towards! greater! engagement! with! the! Nigerian! expatriate! community!in!Canada!by!requesting!all!Nigerian!Canadians!to!apply!for!expatriate!identity!cards!they! can!carry!in!Canada.121!These!forms!will!be!used!to!determine!the!number!of!Nigerian!expatriates!living! there! and! possibly! to! connect! them! to! Nigerian! businesses.! The! High! Commission! also! notes! that! appropriate!tracking!may!result!in!knowledge!regarding!a!critical!mass!of!Nigerians!in!Canada,!which! could! be! influential! to! convince! the! government! of! Nigeria! to! consider! absentee! voting. 122 !This! information!may!also!help!the!government!create!some!avenues!for!increased!expatriate!donations!to! the! government.! This! sort! of! tracking! system! could! be! useful! for! Canada,! which! does! not! track! the! activities!or!locations!of!its!expatriates.!! ! c) Country snapshots ! ! The! figures! below! further! our! international! analysis! and! provide! a! snapshot! of! national! policies! for! expatriate! engagement! from! a! variety! of! countries.! Figures! 4! and! 5! provide! basic! economic! and! demographic!statistics!and!are!organized!by!the!size!of!the!expatriate!population.!The!remaining!tables! in! this! section! detail! each! country’s! citizenship! laws,! voting! rights,! taxation! policies,! and! other! noteworthy!details.! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117!“Issues”,!American!Citizens!Abroad,!last!modified!on!February!11!2015,!online:!
Figure'4'9'Selected'countries'demographic'statistics'
' China' India' US'' UK'' Italy' Total!Population!(2014)! 1,355,692,576123! 1,236,344,631124! 318,892,103125! 63,742,977126! 61,680,122127! Population!between!ages! 47.00%! 40.60%! 39.90%! 41.00%! 43.0%! 25G54!(2014)! Labour!Force!(2013)! 797.6!million!! 487.3!million!! 155.4!million!! 30.15!million!! 25.74!million! Unemployment!(2013)! 4.10%! 8.80%! 7.30%! 7.20%! 12.40%! Population! Growth! 0.44%! 1.25%! 0.77%! 0.54%! 0.30%! (2013)! GDP!(2013)! $13.39!trillion! $4.99!trillion!! $16.72!trillion!! $2.343!trillion!! $1.805!trillion! GDP!per!capita!(2013)! $9,800! $4,000! $52,800! $37,000! $29,600! Real!Growth!Rate!(2013)! 7.70%! 3.20%! 1.60%! 0.54%! G1.80%! Net! Migration! per! 1000! G0.32! G0.05! 2.45! 2.56! 4.29! people!(2014)! Expatriate!Population! 40!million128!! 22!million129! 6.32!million130!! 5!million131!! 2.8!million132!! (official!estimates)!! All!figures!are!in!USD,$Source:!CIA!World!Factbook!$
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 123!“The!World!Fact!Book:!China”,!Central!Intelligence!Agency,!last!modified!on!June!22!2014,!online:!.! 124!!Ibid.! 125!“The!World!Fact!Book:!United!States”,!Central!Intelligence!Agency,!last!modified!on!June!20!2014,!online:!
Figure'5'9'Selected'countries'demographic'statistics,'continued'
' Australia'' Israel'' Lebanon'' Sweden'' Singapore'' Total!Population!(2014)! 22,507,617133! 7,821,850134! 5,882,562135! 9,723,809136! 5,567,301137! Population!between!ages! 13.30%! 37.8%! 44.1%! 39.2%! 50.3%! 25G54!(2014)! Labour!Force!(2013)! 12.44!million!! 3.49!million!! 1.481!million!! 5.107!million!! 3.444!million!! Unemployment! Rate! 5.70%! 5.80%! unavailable! 8.10%! 1.90%! (2013)! Population! Growth! Rate! 1.09%! 1.46%! 9.37%! 0.79%! 1.92%! (2013)! GDP!(2013)! $1.488!trillion!! $273.2!billion!! $64.3!billion!! $393.8!billion!! $339!billion! GDP!per!capita!(2013)! $43,000! $36,200! $15,800! $40,900! $62,400! Real!Growth!Rate!(2013)! 2.50%! G3.30%! 9.37%! 0.90%! 4.10%! Net! Migration! (per! 1000! 5.74! 1.68! 83.82! 5.46! 14.4! people)!(2014)! Expatriate!Population! 1!million138!! 800,000G 602,280140! 546,000141! 200,000142! (current! official! 1,000,000139! estimates)!! All!figures!are!in!USD,$Source:!CIA!World!Factbook!$
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 133!“The!World!Fact!Book:!Australia”,!Central!Intelligence!Agency,!last!modified!on!June!23!2014,!online:!.! 134!Ibid.! 135!“The!World!Fact!Book:!Lebanon”,!Central!Intelligence!Agency,!last!modified!on!June!20!2014,!online:!Australians!Abroad:!Preliminary!findings!on!the!Australian!Diaspora.”!Advance:!Australia's!Global! Community,!online:!
Figure'6'9'Country'specific'expatriate'policies'
China' Citizenship!rules!for! China's! 1980! nationality! law! permits! citizenship! by! descent.! As! long! as! the! parents! or! a! Expatriates!! parent!of!an!individual!is!a!Chinese!citizen,!he!or!she!is!eligible!to!acquire!citizenship!on!the! condition!that!he!or!she!is!not!the!citizen!of!another!country.!If!he!or!she!was!or!is!a!citizen! of!another!country,!he!or!she!is!not!eligible!to!gain!citizenship!through!descent.!A!person!of! Chinese!descent!may!be!eligible!to!gain!citizenship!if!he!or!she!has!close!relatives!!that!are! Chinese!citizens!and!live!in!China.143!! Dual!Nationality!! Not!permitted144!! Voting!Rights!for! Only! Chinese! citizen! expatriates! are! permitted! to! vote! for! legislative! positions! within! the! Expatriates!! People's! Republic! of! China.! These! seats! are! designed! specifically! for! expats! and! returning! expats!are!permitted!to!stand!for!them.145!! Taxation!for! Taxation!only!applies!to!income!earned!in!China.146!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! China! keeps! track! of! over! 40! million! people! of! Chinese! descent! abroad.! They! are! tracked! tracked?!! mainly!through!governmental!records!of!other!countries.!! If!expatriates!are! The! majority! of! expatriates! relocate! to! countries! in! South! East! Asia,!such! as! in! Indonesia,! tracked,!then!why?!! Malaysia!and!Thailand.!China!started!tracking!their!citizens!abroad!in!the!19th!century,!when! they! started! to! emigrate! in! large! numbers.! The! main! purpose! for! tracking! is! economic;! traditionally,!expatriates!were!tracked!because!they!provided!a!good!source!of!funding!for! revolutionary!wars.147!! Other!Notes! There!is!a!fierce!debate!in!China!about!whether!expats!should!be!taxed!or!not.!Those!that! argue!that!expats!should!be!taxed!make!two!points.!Firstly,!China!should!adopt!American! policies!of!taxation!toward!American!expatriates.!Secondly,!there!is!a!widespread!problem!in! China!in!regards!to!wealthy!Chinese!citizens!relocating!their!wealth!outside!of!China!in!order! to! evade! taxes.! In! order! to! avoid! such! a! problem,! the! proposed! solution! is! to! tax! all! expatriates!(which!would!include!taxing!their!worldwide!income).148! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 143!“Nationality!Law!of!the!People's!Republic!of!China”,!China.org.cn,!online:!
India' Citizenship!rules!for! India's! nationality! law! (Citizenship! Act,! 1955)! permits! “citizenship! by! descent”.! As! of! Expatriates!! December!2004,!all!Indian!citizens!(including!those!that!gained!citizenship!through!birth!and! descent)!can!pass!on!citizenship!to!their!children!born!abroad.!All!an!Indian!citizen!parent! needs!to!do!for!a!child!born!abroad!is!to!register!the!child's!birth!with!an!Indian!embassy! within! 1! year! (maximum).! If! that! time! expires,! they! would! need! to! request! special! permission! for! the! child! to! become! a! citizen.! If! the! child! becomes! a! citizen! of! another! country,!he!or!she!is!not!eligible!to!become!a!citizen!of!India.!He!is!or!she!is!eligible!to!hold! an!OCI!card.!An!OCI!card!confers!Persons!of!Indian!Origin!certain!privileges!like!a!lifeGlong! visa.149!!! Dual!Nationality!! Not!permitted150!! Voting!Rights!for! In! 2010,! only! NRIs! (nonGresident! Indians)! gained! the! right! to! vote! in! all! federal! elections.! Expatriates!! They!must!register!with!the!Indian!embassy!to!be!eligible!to!vote.!They!must!be!present!in! India!at!a!polling!station!with!his!or!her!passport.!Other!Indian!expatriates!are!not!allowed!to! vote!in!Indian!elections.151!! Taxation!for! Taxation!only!applies!to!income!earned!in!India.!152! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! The!Ministry!of!Overseas!Indian!Affairs!keeps!detailed!records!of!Indians!living!abroad.!They! tracked?!! keep!statistics!on!the!number!of!Indians!living!in!other!states.153!! If!expatriates!are! The! Ministry! “seeks! to! connect! the! Indian! Diaspora! community! with! it's! motherland”! in! tracked,!then!why?!! order!to!promote!the!“development!of!India”.!The!Ministry!seeks!to!forge!deep!economic,! educational! and! institutional! ties! with! expats! so! that! they! can! contribute! their! ideas! and! resources!toward!the!economic!and!educational!development!of!India.154!! Other!Notes! The!Ministry!of!Overseas!Indian!Affairs.!This!ministry!deals!with!two!categories!of!expats:! Persons! of! Indian! Origin! (PIO),! OCI! (Overseas! Citizen! of! India)! and! NRIs! (NonGresident! Indians).!NRIs!hold!citizenship,!but!PIOs!do!not.!The!ministry!has!a!number!of!programmes! aimed!at!connecting!PIOs!and!NRIs!with!India.!An!annual!periodical!is!issued!and!an!annual! conference! takes! place! as! well.! From! all! of! the! countries! studied,! India! has! the! most! advanced!platform!for!engaging!with!Indians!living!abroad.155! !
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 149!!“Foreigners!Division!Ministry!of!Home!Affairs!Government!of!India”,!Government!of!India!Ministry!of!Home!Affairs,!online:!.! 150!!Ibid.! 151!“Frequently!Asked!Questions”,!Election!Commission!of!India,!online:!
USA' Citizenship!rules!for! Children!born!to!at!least!one!American!citizen!are!eligible!to!become!citizens!of!the!United! Expatriates!! States.! However,! if! the! parents,! or! parent,! acquired! citizenship! through! descent! (were! themselves! born! abroad),! such! individuals! are! not! eligible! to! gain! American! citizenship! unless! a! “physical! presence”! requirement! for! living! in! the! US! is! met.! The! rules! vary! depending!on!the!marital!status!of!the!parents!and!the!gender!of!the!parent!in!question!(if! only!seeking!citizenship!through!one!parent).156!!!!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted157!! Voting!Rights!for! US! citizens! are! permitted! to! vote! in! all! federal! elections! and! may! be! eligible! to! vote! for! Expatriates!! state/local! elections! (depending! on! the! relevant! state/local! elections).! All! military! and! civilian!citizens!abroad!are!eligible!to!vote.!Voters!submit!ballots!in!many!ways!such!as!by! internet,!courier,!or!through!an!embassy.!Expatriates!must!submit!a!form!to!their!state!of! legal!voting!residence!annually!to!confirm!eligibility.158!! Taxation!for! All!citizens!that!would!have!to!pay!taxes!domestically!have!to!pay!them!while!abroad!as!well.! Expatriates! State!taxes!may!not!have!to!be!paid!(depending!on!state!laws).159!! Are!expatriates! There!are!no!reliable!estimates!of!the!number!of!American!expats!that!are!publicly!available,! tracked?!! however,! because! the! US! taxes! Americans! abroad! they! have! an! established! and! comprehensive!database!of!American!expatriates.!! If!expatriates!are! Americans!abroad!tracked!mainly!for!taxation!and!voting!purposes.!! tracked,!then!why?!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 156!Department!of!Homeland!Security,!“Citizenship!Through!Parents,”!US!Citizenship!and!Immigration!Services,!online:!
United'Kingdom' Citizenship!rules!for! The!following!rules!apply!post!1983.!An!individual!born!abroad!is!eligible!to!become!a!citizen! Expatriates!! of! the! UK! on! the! condition! that! his! or! her! parents! acquired! UK! citizenship! through! “otherwise! than! by! descent”! (such! as! birth,! registration! or! naturalization! in! the! UK).! However,! if! the! child's! parents! are! UK! citizens! “by! descent”! (which! means! that! they! themselves!were!born!abroad),!such!a!child!is!not!eligible!to!become!a!UK!citizen!through! descent.!There!are!five!other!classes!of!British!nationals.!Members!of!these!categories!carry! no!political!rights!and!they!have!similar!rules!of!“citizenship!by!descent”!as!those!mentioned! above!in!the!sense!that!their!children!may!inherit!the!nationality!class!of!the!parents!subject! to!certain!conditions.160!!!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted161!! Voting!Rights!for! This!depends!on!your!status.!If!you!are!in!the!military!or!are!a!crown!servant,!you!have!a! Expatriates!! right!to!vote!in!all!elections.!If!you!are!not,!then!you!are!eligible!to!vote!for!up!to!15!years! after! leaving! the! UK.! You! must! be! continuously! registered! to! vote! from! the! first! year! of! leaving!the!UK!up!to!any!year!from!1!to!15.!One!can!vote!from!abroad!either!by!post!or!by! proxy.162!! Taxation!for! Taxation!only!applies!to!income!earned!from!all!UK!sources.!Normal!tax!laws!only!apply!if! Expatriates! you!stay!within!the!UK!for!a!minimum!of!at!least!183!days.163!!! Are!expatriates! The! government! tracks! UK! expatriates.! They! must! register! as! nonGresidents! through! a! UK! tracked?!! embassy.!!! If!expatriates!are! They!are!tracked!for!taxation!and!voting!purposes.!They!have!to!declare!to!a!UK!embassy!the! tracked,!then!why?!! date!they!become!expatriates!in!order!to!become!taxGexempt!and!to!vote!from!overseas.!! Other!Notes! The!United!Kingdom!once!had!the!largest!empire!in!human!history.!As!a!result,!citizenship! laws! are! complex! and! include! many! categories.! However,! the! only! nationals! that! have! political!rights!and!the!right!to!residency!within!the!UK!are!UK!citizens.!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 160!“Voting!When!You!are!Abroad,”!Gov.UK.!2015,!online:!
Australia' Citizenship!rules!for! An!individual!is!eligible!for!citizenship!if!one!of!his!or!her!parents!is! an!Australian!citizen.! Expatriates!! However,!if!the!parents!or!parent!through!whom!one!is!acquiring!Australian!citizenship!is! citizen!“by!descent”!(also!born!abroad),!then!the!parents!or!parent!in!question!must!have! resided! in! Australia! for! a! total! period! of! 2! years! for! the! individual! to! be! eligible! for! citizenship.164!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted165!! Voting!Rights!for! Citizens! residing! overseas! must! vote! for! national! elections! (since! voting! is! compulsory).!!! Expatriates!! However,!they!can!only!do!so!if!they!intend!to!reside!outside!of!Australia!for!a!maximum! period!of!6!years.!Voting!takes!place!through!overseas!voting!centres!and!postal!mailing.166!! Taxation!for! Taxation!only!applies!to!income!earned!in!Australia.167!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! All! Australians! living! abroad! are! tracked.! They! must! register! with! the! “smart! traveller! tracked?!! program”.168! If!expatriates!are! The!smart!traveller!program!allows!citizens!the!right!to!vote!abroad!and!to!receive!limited! tracked,!then!why?!! social!security!benefits.169!!! Other!Notes! Students! leaving! abroad! for! studies! or! other! Australians! leaving! abroad! can! receive! social! security! benefits! including! student! loans! for! a! limited! period! of! time.! These! people! are! considered!expatriates!who!have!left!for!a!short!period!of!time.170!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 164!“Australian!Citizenship!Act!2007”,!Australian!Government,!Accessed!March!13!2015.! http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2015C00065/Html/Text#_Toc413934966! 165!!Ibid.! 166!“Going!Overseas”,!Australian!Electoral!Commission,!online:!
Italy' Citizenship!rules!for! Italy's!nationality!law!was!updated!on!August!15!1992.!One!is!eligible!to!become!an!Italian! Expatriates!! citizen!as!long!as!one!has!parents!or!a!parent!that!is!an!Italian!citizen.171!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted172!! Voting!Rights!for! Italian!expats!gained!the!right!to!vote!for!national!elections!and!referendums!in!2000.!They! Expatriates!! vote!from!4!global!constituencies!in!Italian!national!elections!for!12!seats!in!parliament!and! 6!seats!in!the!senate.!The!country!maintains!an!overseas!voter!lists.!Italians!living!abroad! must!register!with!an!Italian!consulate!within!90!days!of!leaving!to!be!placed!on!the!voter! list.!Expats!vote!by!post.173!!! Taxation!for! Expats!are!only!taxed!on!income!earned!within!Italy.174!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! Italy! has! extensive! population! records.! Each! municipality! has! a! record! of! its! inhabitants.! tracked?!! When! an! Italian! leaves! to! live! abroad,! his! or! her! name! is! removed! from! the! municipality! records!and!is!recorded!in!a!database!for!expatriates.175!! If!expatriates!are! These!records!are!used!for!taxation!purposes!and!to!determine!voter!eligibility.!! tracked,!then!why?!! Other!Notes! In!1992!the!Italian!government!permitted!dual!citizenship!for!the!benefit!of!expatriates!(not! immigrants).! They! recognized! that! a! significant! number! of! Italians! emigrated! to! work! in! countries!like!Australia.!Before!1992,!many!expatriates!lost!their!Italian!citizenship!to!secure! social!security!benefits!from!other!countries.!In!response,!Italy!amended!its!nationality!laws! so!that!expats!could!maintain!their!Italian!identity!while!enjoying!the!benefits!of!citizenship! from!other!countries.176!177!
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 171!“Italy”,!ACE!The!Electoral!Knowledge!Network,!last!modified!in!2000,!online:!
Singapore' Citizenship!rules!for! The! constitution! was! amended! in! 2004.! According! to! Article! 122! of! the! constitution,! Expatriates!! citizenship!by!descent!is!permitted.!As!such,!if!a!child!is!born!to!Singaporean!citizens!that! were!born!in!Singapore,!he!or!she!is!eligible!to!become!a!citizen!of!Singapore.!However,!if! the!child's!parents!or!parent!are!Singaporean!citizens!by!descent!(also!born!abroad),!he!or! she! is! eligible! to! become! a! citizen! if! at! least! one! of! two! conditions! is! fulfilled:! either! the! parents!(or!parent)!lived!in!Singapore!for!at!least!4!years,!and!at!least!1!year!in!the!5!years! preceding!the!child's!birth.178!!!! Dual!Nationality!! Not!permitted!! Voting!Rights!for! Singaporean! citizens! living! abroad! are! eligible! to! vote! in! national! elections.! There! are! 10! Expatriates!! overseas!registration!centres.!In!order!to!be!eligible!to!vote!abroad,!citizens!must!eGregister! with!the!country's!overseas!database.179!! Taxation!for! Expats!are!only!taxed!on!income!earned!within!Singapore.180!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! Singapore!has!meticulously!recorded!data!about!expatriates.!For!example,!they!keep!tabs!of! tracked?!! the!ages,!education!level!and!population!numbers!of!Singaporeans!living!abroad.181!! If!expatriates!are! Singapore!tracks!its!citizens!abroad!for!voting!purposes.!! tracked,!then!why?!! Other!Notes! Singapore!has!a!very!small!expatriate!population!compared!to!other!countries!like!India!and! China.! All! Singaporeans! must! register! as! nonGresidents! for! taxation! purposes182.! For! this! reason,!it!seems!that!it!is!easier!for!them!to!gather!detailed!data!about!their!expatriates.!!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 178!“Citizenship!Application”,!Immigration!and!Checkpoint's!Authority,!last!modified!on!November!4!2014,!online:!
Israel' Citizenship!rules!for! Israel's! nationality! law! was! enacted! in! 1952.! If! a! child's! parents! or! a! parent! is! an! Israeli! Expatriates!! citizen,!he!or!she!is!permitted!to!become!an!Israeli!citizen.!However,!if!the!parents!or!parent! acquired!citizenship!through!descent!(was!born!abroad),!the!child!is!not!eligible!to!become! an!Israeli!citizen.!Israel!is!a!Jewish!state.!If!an!individual!is!Jewish,!the!Law!of!Return!applies,! which!states!that!all!Jews!have!a!right!to!become!Israeli!citizens.!This!law!stipulates!that!any! Jewish!individual!may!immigrate!to!Israel!and,!once!there,!will!be!granted!citizenship!also! known!as!Oleh's!Certificate.183!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted184!! Voting!Rights!for! All!Israeli!citizens!living!abroad!have!a!right!to!vote!in!national!elections.!However,!they!must! Expatriates!! be!present!in!Israel!on!election!day!to!do!so.185!! Taxation!for! Taxation!depends!on!residence!of!expatriate.186!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! The!Israeli!Bureau!of!Statistics!does!track!expatriates,!but!they!do!not!have!reliable!numbers! tracked?!! (in!the!English!language!at!least).187!! If!expatriates!are! The!Israeli!Bureau!of!Statistics!tracks!expatriate!data!in!order!to!provide!this!information!to! tracked,!then!why?!! the!Israeli!public.!Academics!use!this!information!as!well.!This!information!is!also!used!for! highly!political!reasons:!it!is!used!for!policyGmaking!and!tracking!the!demographic!growth!of! Israel!(specifically!Jews).188!! Other!Notes! The!majority!of!information!relating!to!Israel!is!in!Hebrew.!There!are!limited!English!sources! on!the!topic.!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 183!“Acquisition!of!Israeli!Nationality”,!Israeli!Ministry!of!Foreign!Affairs,!last!modified!on!January!1!2010,!online:!
Lebanon' Citizenship!rules!for! Lebanon's!nationality!law!was!introduced!in!1926!and!amended!in!1995.!If!a!child’s!father!is! Expatriates!! a!Lebanese!citizen!the!child!is!eligible!to!become!a!citizen!of!Lebanon.!Such!a!person!cannot! be!a!citizen!of!another!country.189!! Dual!Nationality!! Permitted190!! Voting!Rights!for! A! 2008! amendment! to! electoral! laws! grants! expatriates! the! right! to! vote! in! national! Expatriates!! parliamentary!elections.191!! Taxation!for! Taxation!only!applies!to!income!earned!in!Lebanon.192!!! Expatriates! Are!expatriates! The! Central! Administration! of! Statistics! tracks! expatriate! data.! However,! the! data! is! only! tracked?!! available!in!Arabic.!! If!expatriates!are! The! government! seems! to! track! expatriate! data! for! educational! purposes,! but! mainly! in! tracked,!then!why?!! order!to!!keep!track!of!expatriates.!The!government!is!very!interested!in!maintaining!strong! links! with! expatriates! so! their! diaspora! can! contribute! to! the! technological! and! social! development! of! Lebanon.! The! government! encourages! expatriates! to! create! diaspora! organizations!and!unions!that!can!help!foster!dialogue!and!contribution!to!Lebanon.!This!is! also!why!the!government!reformed!the!electoral!law!in!2008!to!allow!expatriates!to!vote!in! parliamentary!elections.193!! Other!Notes! There! are! some! expatriate! bodies,! such! as! the! World! House! of! Lebanon.! They! do! some! advocacy!on!behalf!of!Lebanese!citizens!living!abroad,!such!as!pushing!for!the!2008!electoral! law!amendment,!which!granted!them!the!right!to!vote!in!national!elections.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 189!“Registration!of!Civil!Acts”,!Embassy!of!Lebanon!Canberra!Australia,!2002,!online:!
IX. Policy!Perspectives! ! Different!aspects!of!Canadian!policy!reflect!ambivalence!regarding!what!the!country’s!relationship!with! its!expatriate!population!should!be.!Considering!the!research!on!Canadian!expatriates!and!comparisons! with!how!other!countries!engage!with!their!expatriate!populations,!Canada!can!approach!policyGmaking! decisions!from!three!different!perspectives:!viewing!Canadians!living!abroad!as!assets,!as!autonomous! persons!from!Canada,!or!as!a!necessary!global!extension!of!Canadian!values!and!economic!potential.!! These!three!different!perspectives!will!dictate!the!level!of!investment!from!the!Canadian!government,! especially!regarding!data!collection!and!tracking!Canadians!abroad.!Each!section!provides!rationale!for! one! of! the! three! perspectives! found! in! Canadian! policy! and! suggestions! for! moving! forward! with! examples!from!other!countries!or!sectors!outside!of!the!government.!As!this!report!has!mentioned,!the! lack! of! data! collected! regarding! Canadians! abroad! is! a! key! issue! and! is! common! through! all! three! perspectives.!! a) Encouraging Canadians to go abroad ! i)$Rationale$
Canadians!abroad!may!be!viewed!as!a!valuable!resource!but!unless!Canadians!continue!to!travel!and!live! abroad,! this! resource! will! remain! underdeveloped.! According! to! a! report! by! the! Canadian! Bureau! of! International!Education!(CBIE),!entitled!World$of$Learning:$Canadian$Post$Secondary$Students$and$the$ Study$Abroad$Experience,!88%!of!the!general!public!believes!that!studying!abroad!is!a!good!idea194!and! 80%!feel!that!having!students!study!abroad!increases!Canada’s!global!competitiveness.195! ! According!to!the!same!survey,!91%!of!employers!were!also!on!board!and!identified!an!extensive!list!of! benefits,!including!a!better!understanding!of!cultural!differences!inside!and!outside!the!workplace,!more! world!experience!which!makes!for!an!easier!adaptation!to!unfamiliar!environments!and!enhanced!life! skills.196!While!some!industries!are!less!concerned!with!international!experience!or!benefit!from!local! knowledge,!50%!of!employers!indicated!they!would!hire!a!graduate!with!study!abroad!experience!over!a! graduate!who!did!not!have!such!an!experience.197!People!in!the!21st!century!need!international!skills!to! succeed! in! today’s! global! economy! and! many! believe! that! studying! or! living! abroad! is! a! valuable! experience.! ! One!of!policy!perspectives!that!may!facilitate!such!international!skills!is!to!encourage!Canadians!to!go! abroad,! to! grow! and! develop! relationships! abroad,! and! for! the! government! to! make! it! easier! for! Canadians!in!the!future!to!travel!and!live!abroad.!This!perspective!will!likely!require!additional!resources! and!support!from!the!government.!! ! ii)$Description$$
This!perspective!is!not!new.!The!advisory!committee!for!Canada’s!International!Education!Strategy!gave! a!report!in!2012!that!recommended!the!Canadian!government!should!establish!50,000!scholarships!for!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 194!Sheryl!Bond!et.!al.,!“World!of!Learning:!!Canadian!PostGSecondary!Students!and!the!Study!Abroad!Experience,”!Canadian$ Bureau$for$International$Education.!Ottawa,!2009,!online:!!at!p!27.! 195!Ibid!at!p!27! 196!Ibid!at!p!26! 197!Ibid!at!p!25! ! 34! ! !
Canadians!to!study!abroad!by!2022.198!While!the!number!of!international!students!coming!to!Canada!is! rising,! only! 3! per! cent! of! Canadian! students! are! going! abroad! on! international! study! programs! or! exchanges,! one! of! the! lowest! numbers! among! OECD! countries. 199 !Many! of! the! report’s! recommendations! have! been! included! in! the! 2013! International! Education! Strategy! but! the! idea! of! encouraging!and!supporting!Canadians!abroad!has!not!progressed.!! ! In!addition!to!supporting!students!to!go!overseas,!a!perspective!of!encouraging!Canadians!to!live!and! work! abroad! would! require! additional! support! in! Canada.! Examples! include! promoting! overseas! opportunities,!practical!support!such!as!connections!in!countries!of!interest,!or!further!services!offered! to! people! through! consular! affairs! once! they! have! left! the! country.! While! not! required! to! encourage! Canadians!to!go!abroad,!increased!government!involvement!would!also!involve!tracking!of!individuals! interested!moving!in!or!living!abroad!in!order!to!ensure!the!services!offered!are!being!utilized!properly.! ! It! is! important! to! note! that! in! our! definition! of! expatriates! the! student! population! is! not! included.! However,!this!would!be!the!first!logical!step!in!encouraging!Canadians!to!go!abroad.!It!is!also!important! to!consider!the!relevant!provisions!regarding!citizenship!and!voting!for!encouraging!Canadians!abroad.! As!detailed!in!Part!V,!intent!to!return!to!Canada!is!an!element!of!the!Canadians$Elections$Act!but!how! this! intent! is! measured! is! not! clear.! To! encourage! Canadians! to! go! abroad! there! should! be! clear! legislation!that!outlines!what!is!and!is!not!required!of!the!expatriate!population!to!maintain!their!rights! within!Canada.!The!Canadian!government!should!outline!what!is!meant!by!intent!and!how!it!is!gauged.! Canada!could!wave!this!requirement!and!intent!to!return!could!be!assumed!or!irrelevant!to!encourage! more!Canadians!to!extend!their!connections!internationally.!! ! iii)$Examples$from$other$Jurisdictions$
Many!other!countries!have!embraced!the!idea!of!encouraging!their!citizens,!especially!students,!to!go! abroad.!The!United!States!is!seeking!to!double!the!percentage!of!students!studying!abroad!to!20!per! cent,!and!Germany!wants!to!increase!the!proportion!of!German!students!who!take!some!courses!abroad! to!50!per!cent!from!an!already!worldGleading!30!per!cent.200!Australia!committed!to!putting!$100Gmillion! over!five!years!behind!its!Colombo!Plan,!aimed!at!sending!thousands!of!students!to!study!and!work!in! neighbouring!AsiaGPacific!economies.201! ! Even! countries! such! as! Turkey! have! recognized! the! need! for! support! to! encourage! their! expatriate! community.!The!Turkish!community!living!abroad!amounts!to!more!than!5!million!people,!around!4! million! of! which! live! in! Western! European! countries,! 300,000! in! Northern! America,! 200,000! in! the! Middle! East! and! 150,000! in! Australia.! With! a! population! of! approximately! 75! million! people,! that! is! about!7%!of!their!population!living!abroad.!! ! In! this! context,! the! opportunity! for! the! Turkish! community! to! learn! their! mother! tongue! is! an! issue! closely! followed! by! Turkish! Government.! They! offer! language! services,! and! have! also! provided! legal! counsellors!at!their!consular!offices!around!the!world!since!2001.202! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 198!Foreign!Affairs,!Trade,!and!Development!Canada,!“International!Education:!A!Key!Driver!of!Canada’s!Future!Prosperity,”!last! modified!August!15,!2012,!online:!
According! to! a! circular! note! released! by! the! Department! of! Foreign! Affairs,! Trade! and! Development,! Canada! is! opposed! to! foreign! states! including! Canadian! expatriates! in! that! states’! extraterritorial! electoral! constituency.203!It! considers! that! any! foreign! electoral! consistency! in! Canada! would! be! an! infringement!of!the!Canadian!sovereignty.204!!This!suggests!the!Canadian!government!is!also!interested! in!taking!a!hands!off!approach!to!its!own!citizens!abroad!by!maintaining!the!status!quo!regarding!its! involvement!in!expatriate!affairs!such!as!taxing,!voting!rights!and!access,!and!consular!affairs.!! ! Attempts!by!Canada!to!limits!the!rights!of!expatriates!abroad,!such!as!their!voting!rights,!have!been!the! topic! of! significant! legal! action.! Given! the! extensive! difficulty! expatriates! face! in! actually! carrying! out! their! right! to! vote,! through! the! procedures! described! in! section! V! of! this! report,! and! the! strict! requirements!to!become!a!nonGresident!for!tax!purposes,!as!discussed!in!section!VII,!an!approach!that! allows!individuals!to!make!the!autonomous!decision!as!to!whether!or!not!they!would!like!to!become! expatriates!seems!appropriate.!This!approach!would!follow!the!current!limited!outreach!provided!by!the! government!through!consular!affairs,!as!discussed!in!section!VI,!and!its!limited!interest!in!tracking!these! individuals.! This! approach! means! that! Canada! will! continue! to! see! expatriation! as! an! individual! and! autonomous! choice! made! by! its! citizens.! Expatriates! policies! would! focus! on! the! safety! of! Canadians! abroad.!! $ ii)$Policy$Perspective$
This! policy! perspective! focuses! on! two! main! aspects:! the! safety! of! Canadians! abroad! and! the! development!of!a!networking!association!for!Canadian!expatriates!in!the!host!countries.!In!both!cases,! most!of!the!responsibility!belongs!to!the!expatriates.!In!terms!of!safety!abroad,!Canada!currently!offers! a!guide!for!living!abroad,!24!hours!consular!assistance,!and!registration!of!Canadians!abroad.205!These! services! are! available! on! a! voluntary! basis.! Therefore,! the! mapping! of! Canadian! expatriates! can! be! patchy.!!It!results!in!a!situation!where!the!Canadian!ability!to!provide!relief!abroad!is!dependant!on!the! personal! assessment! of! expatriates! regarding! the! safety! of! each! country.! In! order! to! have! a! more! reliable!map!of!the!expatriates!abroad!and!their!eventual!needs!in!case!of!disasters,!the!government! should! implement! policies! that! focus! on! the! promotion! of! the! registration! in! travelling! areas! such! as! airports,!or!in!a!mandatory!registration!of!Canadians!abroad.!Currently,!registration!must!be!made!at! the!embassy!or!online.206!Requiring!Canadians!to!register!would!make!disaster!and!emergency!relief!and! communications!easier!to!implement!when!necessary.!! ! Since! under! this! approach! we! view! expatriates! as! autonomous! actors,! this! policy! should! promote! voluntary! private! networks.! The! Canada! Trade! Commission! offers! a! list! of! service! providers! in! other! countries,! including! the! Canadian! Chambers! of! Commerce! abroad,! but! does! not! reference! nonG
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 203!Foreign!Affairs,!Trade!and!Development!Canada.!"Foreign!Elections!in!Canada!and!Foreign!Electoral!Constituencies:!Circular! Note!No.!XDCG1264!of!September!8,!2011!"!Government!of!Canada,!September!8,!2011,!online:!!
While!Canada!is!offering!registration!online,!which!facilitates!the!registration!of!travellers,!it!does!not! track!all!expatriates.!In!regards!to!mandatory!registration!for!emergency!assistance,!Australia!currently! requires!all!Australians!to!register!abroad!while!travelling!with!their!“smart!traveller!program.”!207!!This! provides!useful!information!for!the!government!to!contact!the!individual!abroad!or!their!family!if!there! is!a!situation!requiring!disaster!relief!or!other!reasons!to!provide!safety!abroad.!! ! The!United!States!has!one!of!the!largest!networks!of!Chambers!of!Commerce!abroad!and!lists!them!in! the! American! Chamber! of! Commerce! Directory.! The! directory! is! administered! by! the! US! Chamber! of! Commerce!and!does!not!include!other!type!of!associations.208!Such!a!system!promotes!an!autonomous! approach!to!expatriates!but!still!facilitates!communication!between!different!organizations.!! ! c) Expatriates as an asset to Canada ! i)$Rationale$
Currently,! few! people! participate! in! the! voluntary! registration! that! Consular! Services! provides! for! Canadians!travelling!abroad.!Consular!Services!directs!its!attention!to!areas!and!partnerships!they!feel! benefit!Canada’s!economic!and!trade!relationships!and!their!primary!reason!to!connect!with!Canadians! abroad! is! to! provide! emergency! updates! and! responses.209!Because! of! this! focus,! there! is! limited! knowledge!as!to!what!further!services!the!expatriate!community!would!value!or!how!expatriates!can! add!value!to!Canada.!According!to!a!2013!report!on!consular!functions,!there!has!been!an!increase!in! demand! for! consular! services! for! travellers! globally.210!Extrapolating! from! that! report,! the! number! of! Canadians!abroad!could!provide!international!networking!opportunities!for!Canada.!!! ! This! perspective! would! encourage! the! development! of! Canada’s! international! networks! by! strengthening!its!ties!with!the!expatriate!community.!Canada’s!citizenship!and!voting!laws!indicate!that! Canada!supports!its!expatriate!population!and!its!connection!to!Canada!for!at!least!some!amount!of! time! while! they! are! abroad.! This! policy! perspective! would! work! to! capitalize! on! that! support! with! increased!government!involvement.!! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 207!Department!of!Foreign!Affairs!and!Trade.!"Registration!Help."!Government!of!Australia,!accessed!March!13,!2015,!online:!
From!this!perspective,!Canada!would!aim!to!reGengage!Canadians!that!are!already!living!abroad!and!to! create!strong!connections!with!Canadians!who!plan!to!move!abroad!in!the!future.!In!order!to!create! these!connections,!the!federal!government!would!need!to!increase!the!amount!of!data!they!collect!on! Canadians!leaving!the!country.!! ! Consular! Services! should! expand! its! outreach! from! disaster/emergency! relief! to! foster! cultural! engagement.! How! best! to! do! this! is! unclear.! The! first! step! should! be! to! assess! what! the! expatriate! community! needs! and! how! best! to! maintain! a! positive! connection;! this! could! be! through! Consular! Services! or! it! may! involve! policy! changes,! such! as! a! different! tax! collection! process,! differentiated! citizenship,! or! something! as! simple! as! streamlined! application! processes! for! passports,! visas,! and! citizenship!applications.!The!Canadian!government!would!also!need!to!address!what!kind!of!advantage! is!gained!by!connecting!with!the!expatriate!community!–!whether!it!is!cultural,!economic,!political,!or!a! combination!–!and!provide!the!appropriate!support.!! ! If! Canada! considers! its! expatriates! an! asset! in! general,! the! current! citizenship! laws! both! support! and! hamper! connecting! to! Canadians! abroad.! By! limiting! citizenship! to! the! first! generation! born! abroad,! Canada!prevents!citizenship!from!being!extended!to!those!who!have!little!or!no!real!connection!to!the! country.!However,!as!illustrated!in!section!IV,!this!policy!can!create!stateless!persons!and!cut!off!people! who!feel!a!real!connection!to!Canada.!To!mitigate!the!negative!aspects!of!Canada’s!citizenship!laws,!the! Canadian!government!should!support!dual!citizenship.!Specifically,!amendments!to!the!Citizenship$Act!in! Bill!CG24,!as!explained!in!section!IV,!that!threaten!dual!citizenship!should!be!dismissed!because!they!will! likely!distance!Canadian!expatriates!from!Canada.!Taking!steps!to!simplify!the!citizenship!conditions!and! process! is! beneficial,! but! many! of! the! stipulations! in! the! latest! Bill! could! be! perceived! as! punitive! to! diaspora!communities.!! ! iii)$Examples$from$Other$Jurisdictions/$Sectors$$
The!Canadian!government!could!create!and!monitor!its!own!global!expatriate!association!or!coordinate! with!existing!organizations.!Online!communities!that!exist!to!support!expatriates!are!established!on!an! ad! hoc! basis! and! are! run! voluntarily! by! invested! parties.! Establishing! an! official! forum! for! global! Canadians! could! allow! the! government! to! gain! a! better! understanding! of! the! needs! of! the! diaspora! community!and!maintain!a!casual!connection!with!those!abroad.!This!service!would!require!a!dedicated! government! department.! The! Canadian! Expat! Association! is! a! nonGgovernment! community! that! supports! the! interests! of! Canadians! abroad! but! it! is! unclear! whether! the! organization! is! still! in! operation.211!The!Canadian!government!could!create!a!similar!outreach!program!to!foster!a!connection! to!the!diaspora!community!and!provide!an!easy!and!accessible!resource!for!policy!issues!and!initiatives! that!are!relevant!to!global!Canadians.!! ! As!outlined!in!section!IV,!India!and!Britain!both!extend!citizenship!to!their!overseas!communities!that! allow!them!to!maintain!a!connection!to!their!home!country.!The!level!of!citizenship!that!these!countries! offer!allow!access!to!each!country’s!consular!services!and!permit!work!visas.!Nonetheless,!they!limit!the! rights!accorded!to!the!diaspora!community!to!participate!in!national!activities.212!A!similar!system!could! be!adopted!to!create!and!maintain!ties!with!Canadians!abroad.!! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 211!The!Canadian!Expat!Association,!online:!
X. Annexes! ! Annex A. Estimate of Canadians Abroad: Data Sources, Limitations & Methodology ! i)$Data$Sources$and$Limitations$
Canada!does!not!collect!exit!information!on!Canadians!leaving!the!country.!This!means!there!is!no!way! to!count!or!access!a!database!of!Canadians!living!or!moving!abroad.!To!clarify!the!data!gap,!we!first! leveraged!existing!data!from!Statistics!Canada!to!gain!an!understanding!of!immigration!and!emigration! levels! in! Canada.! This! information! is! recorded! in! both! the! census! reports! and! the! population! growth! tables213!but! does! not! provide! any! perspective! on! people! born! in! Canada! who! have! moved! abroad;! whether! shortGterm! or! longGterm.! However,! these! databases! do! have! historical! emigration! numbers! ranging!from!1851,!as!can!be!seen!below!in!Figure!7.! ! Figure'7'–'Historical'Emigration'in'Canada'
Emigration*in*Canada*(185112011)
Emigration1(000's) %1of1total1population 1200 18% 16% 1000 14% 800 12% 10% 600 8% 400 6% 4% 200 2% 0 0%
Source:(Stats(Can(Census(data,(Population(and(Growth(tables((1851<2011) ! ! Secondly,!we!looked!at!Statistic!Canada’s!Longitudinal!Immigration!Data!Base!(IMDB)214!to!understand! how!net!emigration!(emigration!–!emigrants!returning)!has!changed!over!time,!both!in!total!and!as!a! percentage!of!the!population.!We!selected!1971!as!a!benchmark!year!because!people!who!emigrated! could!still!be!alive!in!2011,!given!the!median!age!of!27.8!for!that!year.!Below,!Figure!8!shows!the!results! from!1971,!with!cumulative!net!emigration!being!shown!with!a!mortality!rate!from!the!entire!Canadian! population!for!that!year,!applied!to!each!new!emigration!number!added!to!the!cumulative!total.!Net! emigration! as! a! percentage! of! the! total! population! has! dropped! since! 1971.! Therefore,! assumptions! around!emigration!rates!from!different!years!will!need!to!reflect!a!decreasing!rate!over!time.! ! ! ! ! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 213!Statistics!Canada,!“Population!and!Growth!Components!(1851G2001!Censuses),”!online:!
Figure'8'–'Canadian'net'emigration'
StatsCan'Net'Emigration'(197142011)
Cumulative4net4emigration4(minus4deaths) Net4emigration4as4a4%4of4population 0.3% 1,200,000
1,000,000 0.2%
800,000 0.2%
600,000
0.1% 400,000
0.1% 200,000
0.0% 0
Source:(Stats(Can(Census(data,(Longitudinal( Immigration(and(Migration(Database,(1971<2011 ! ! Finally,!to!include!expatriates!in!addition!to!emigrants!we!performed!a!literature!review.!!We!found!that! while!studies!existed,!they!often!used!small!samples!or!limited!data!(Lam!(1994)215!uses!2.7%!Public!Use! Micro!File!(PUMF)!of!Canadian!Census!1971!and!1981!to!study!outGmigration!of!Canadian!immigrants! between!1971!and!1981.!Aydemir!&!Robinson!(2006)216!and!Benoit!(2008)217!tracked!Landings!Records! (LIDS)!and!the!IMDB!to!see!how!many!of!immigrants!disappeared!in!later!records).!The!most!complete! dataset!was!part!of!a!threeGyear!review!done!by!the!Asia!Pacific!Foundation,!which!included!from!Victor! Chen! (2009)218,!who!used!data!from!the!Research!Data!Centre!(RDC)! and! the!1996,!2001,!and!2006! census!to!examine!outmigration!rates!of!different!demographic!groups!across!Canada.!Kenny!Zhang!and! Dr.!Don!DeVoretz!(2008,!2009)219!from!the!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!drew!heavily!on!Victor!Chen’s!analysis! to!publish!more!accurate!estimates!of!the!number!of!Canadian!expatriates,!including!a!survey!of!their! perceptions! of! Canada220.! Dr.! Don! DeVoretz! (2013)!221!updated! these! findings! and! we! were! able! to! contact! him! to! discuss! his! methodology! in! more! detail.! Our! methodology! is! a! based! on! his! findings,! which!used!the!2006!census;!we!updated!the!figures!using!assumptions!to!reflect!the!2011!census!data.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 215!KC!Lam,!“OutGmigration!of!foreignGborn!members!in!Canada,”!(1994)!The!Canadian!Journal!of!Economics,!27!(2),!352G370.! 216!A!Aydemir,!&!C!Robinson,!“Return!and!Onward!Migration!among!Working!Age!Men,”!(2006)!Analytical!Studies!Branch! Research!Paper!Series,!Catalogue!No.!11F0019MIE!–!No.!273:!Statistics!Canada.! 217!Bernard,!André,!Ross!Finnie,!&!Benoît!StGJean,!“Interprovincial!Mobility!and!Earnings,”!(2008)!!Statistics!Canada,!online:!.! 218!VZ!Chen,“Out!and!Return!Migration!of!Canadian!Immigrants!Between!1996!–!2006:!Evidence!from!STATCANGRDH!20%! Census!1996,!2001,!2006,”!(2009)!paper!at!Conference!on!Selected!Profiles!of!Canadians!Abroad,!June!15,!2009,!Vancouver!BC.! 219!K!Zhang,!“Recognizing!the!Canadian!Diaspora,”!(2006)!Canada!Asia!Commentary!No.!41:!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!of!Canada! Publish,!Vancouver;!K!Zhang,!“Mission!Invisible!G!Rethinking!the!Canadian!Diaspora,”!(2007)!Canada!Asia!Commentary!No.!46:! Asia!Pacific!Foundation!Canada!Publish,!Vancouver;!K!Zhang,!“Global!Canadians:!A!Survey!on!the!Views!of!Canadians!Abroad,”! (2007)!Asia!Pacific!Foundation!of!Canada!Website.!Retrieved!on!July!28,!2008,!online:!
! While!a!complete!update!of!outGmigration!rates!using!the!methodology!established!by!the!Asia!Pacific! Foundation!would!be!ideal,!it!was!not!possible!since!the!Federal!government!abolished!the!mandatory! longGform!census!in!2010!and!we!do!not!have!access!to!as!detailed!data.!The!National!Household!Survey! that!replaced!the!census!suffers!from!a!lower!response!rate!(as!it!is!now!voluntary)!and!asks!different! questions! than! the! longGform! census.222!In! addition! to! this! restricting! the! type! and! depth! of! data! available,! it! also! makes! it! difficult! to! compare! between! 2006! and! 2011! census! years.223!Due! to! this! constraint,!we!used!the!outGmigration!rates!determined!by!Victor!Chen!from!the!1996G2006!census!data! and! modifying! that! base! rate! depending! on! changes! to! net! emigration! rates! and! demographic! composition!of!the!population!in!different!decades.! ! ii)$Methodology$
Victor! Chen’s! original! methodology! was! based! on! demographic! data! from! the! 1996,! 2001,! and! 2006! census.! He! grouped! individual! respondents! in! each! sample! by! five! stationary! demographic! characteristics:!gender,!year!of!birth,!year!of!immigration,!residency!of!Census!metropolitan!area!(CMA)! in!a!certain!Census!year,!and!country!of!birth.!224!!He!examined!how!many!people!left!or!returned!from! 1996!to!2000!and!2001!to!2005.!Removing!effects!of!mortality,!a!decrease!(or!increase)!in!population!of! a!group!would!suggest!net!outGmigration!from!(or!returnGmigration!back!to)!Canada.!This!methodology! allowed!the!creation!of!specific!outGmigration!rates!for!different!demographic!groups!within!Canada.!! ! Annex B. Estimating expatriate locations: data sources, limitations and methodology ! i)$Data$sources$and$limitations$$
The! UN! Department! of! Economic! and! Social! Affairs,! the! OECD,! and! Eurostats! are! the! three! most! complete! and! updated! sources! of! aggregated! data! on! expatriates.! These! organizations! combine! information! from! national! data,! which! often! used! different! methods! for! collection.! For! example,! European!states!and!Japan!use!foreign!residents!as!a!proxy!while!the!US!and!Australia!focus!on!counting! foreignGborn!residents.225!ForeignGborn!data!can!include!dual!citizens!in!the!measurement,!where!dual! citizenship!is!allowed,!and!it!generally!encompasses!more!Canadians!than!the!measurement!of!foreign! residents! or! our! definition! of! expatriates.! The! OECD! aggregates! data! from! foreign! residents,! which! deflates!the!numbers,!while!the!UN!almost!exclusively!uses!foreignGborn!data.!This!is!also!deflationary,! as! many! naturalized! Canadians! move! back! overseas! but! still! retain! their! Canadian! citizenship. 226! Eurostats! aggregate! both! foreignGborn! and! resident! information,! but! is! unfortunately! limited! to! EU! countries. 227 !In! each! of! these! data! sets,! the! measurements! take! into! account! only! the! foreign! population,!which!is!established!in!the!host!country.!On!that!respect,!all!of!the!data!meets!the!criterion! for!our!definition!of!Canadian!expatriates.!However,!It!should!be!kept!in!mind!that!the!data!can!show! irregularities!because!each!country!employs!a!different!methodology.!! !
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 222!Michael!Adams,!"From!Compulsory!To!Voluntary!LongGForm!Census:!What!We!Stand!To!Lose,"!Policy!Options!(2010)!23G28.! 223!Statistics!Canada!warns!against!comparison,!citing!a!drop!in!response!rates!to!below!50%,!especially!for!smaller!municipal! regions.!See!Statistics!Canada,!“NHS!Data!Quality,”!online:!
Given!that!most!data!excludes!dual!citizens!born!outside!Canada!(naturalized!Canadians),!we!assume! that!most!measurements!understate!the!number!of!Canadian!expatriates.!For!instance,!a!naturalized! Canadian! born! in! France! can! be! working! in! France! without! being! considered! Canadian! in! any! measurement.!Moreover,!the!UN!database!includes!data!from!foreign!residents!in!countries!where!dual! citizenship!is!not!allowed,!such!as!China.228!! ! Kenny! Zhang! allowed! for! a! more! general! use! of! this! data! by! aggregating! it! together! and! using! it! to! generate!a!constant,!average!outGmigration!rate!which!could!be!applied!to!the!entire!population!over! set! periods! of! time.229!This! outGmigration! rate! consists! of! the! rate! for! Canadian! born! citizens! and! naturalized!Canadians.230!It!also!includes!both!emigration!and!expatriates!moving!abroad,!whether!for! work,!returning!home!after!receiving!Canadian!citizenship,!or!other!reasons.! ! Dr.! Don! DeVoretz! used! this! average! outGmigration! rate! and! applied! it! to! preceding! decades! as! a! constant,! using! the! median! ages! from! those! decades! as! a! way! to! moderate! what! percentage! of! a! decade’s!expatriates!and!emigrants!may!have!passed!away.!In!addition,!he!utilized!further!research!from! Victor!Chen’s!work!to!isolate!at!which!ages!the!outGmigration!rate!dropped!identified!from!that!a!cutGoff! year!after!which!he!did!not!include!any!possible!emigration!or!expatriate!activity.231!A!summary!of!his! estimation!of!the!number!of!Canadians!abroad!is!shown!in!Figure!9!below.! ! Figure'9'–'Estimates'of'post91976'Canadian'population'living'abroad'
Survival'rate' Estimated'#'of''surviving' Median' Years'to' Population' based'on' Canadians'(net'emigration)' ! Age' 2006' Median'Age' in'2006' 2006! G! G! 0! G! G! 1996! 29,610,757! 35.3! 10! 98.7885%! 1,062,590! 1986! 26,100,587! 31.6! 20! 96.8492%! 918,249! 1976! 23,449,793! 27.8! 30! 93.9585%! 800,360! Total! 2,781,199! Source:$Dr.!Don!DeVoretz’s!construction,!2013$ ! That! the! past! years’! outGmigration! patterns! would! be! similar! to! the! 1996G2006! decade! was! a! key! underlying! assumption! in! these! calculations.! It! should! be! noted! that! outGmigration! rate! is! based! on! particular!demographic!outGmigration!rates,!which!means!any!change!in!demographics!would!result!in!a! change! in! the! outGmigration! rate,! even! if! rates! for! different! demographic! characteristics! remained! constant.!! ! Three! steps! were! required! to! update! the! work! done! in! estimating! the! number! of! Canadians! abroad.! Firstly,!updated!data!on!Canada’s!emigration!rates,!demographics!and!population!from!the!2011!census! had!to!be!incorporated,!with!decades!being!adjusted!by!5!years!to!reflect!the!update.!We!used!the!same! data!sources!as!Victor!Chen,!namely!Stats!Can’s!2011!census!RDC!data,!to!ensure!consistency.!The!Excel! Workbook! entitled! “Canadas_Expatriates_Data.xlsx”! contains! this! complete! data! set.! In! addition,! decades! were! reconstructed! using! 1971! as! the! cutGoff! year,! to! allow! four! complete! decades! through! until!2011.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 228!UN!Department!of!Economic!and!Social!Affairs,!“International!migrant!stock:!By!destination!and!origin,”!accessed!February! 16,!2015,!online:!
! Secondly,! the! average! outGmigration! rate! needed! to! be! adjusted! to! reflect! changes! in! outGmigration! patterns! over! time,! especially! as! it! would! now! be! applied! to! an! additional! decade.! To! make! this! adjustment,!two!different!factors!were!considered:!(1)!the!split!between!naturalized!and!CanadianGborn! citizens,! and! (2)! net! emigration! as! a! percentage! of! the! total! population.! Unfortunately,! due! to! the! decision!to!abolish!the!longGform!census!in!2010!and!its!replacement!by!the!National!Housing!Survey! (NHS)!in!2011,!citizenship!data!cannot!be!accurately!compared.!Using!the!NHS!as!a!proxy!does!show!that! approximately! 75%! of! Canadians! were! born! citizens! in! 2011232,! compared! to! 79.8%! in! 2006233.! This! decrease! in! CanadianGborn! citizens! would! be! expected! to! result! in! a! higher! outGmigration! rate! as,! according! to! Chen,! naturalised! Canadians! had! an! outGmigration! rate! almost! three! times! higher! than! Canadian!born!citizens.!Looking!at!1971G2001!data!showed!that!net!emigration!as!a!percentage!of!the! total! population! had! been! declining! (see! Figure! 8).! Below! in! Figure! 10,! you! can! see! that! although! emigration!is!increasing,!net!emigration!is!declining!as!more!people!are!returning!to!Canada.!To!reflect! this!trend,!outGmigration!rates!would!need!to!decrease!slightly!over!time.! ! ii)$Methodology$$
While!our!calculations!were!able!to!update!the!number!of!Canadians!living!abroad,!it!was!not!able!to! update! where! those! expatriates! were! located.! Using! the! same! percentages! as! the! original! studies! in! 2006G2008!was!not!an!option!as!Canadian!travel!and!living!destinations!could!be!dramatically!different! in!2011.!Using!a!variety!of!other!data!sources,!including!OECD!data,!business!association!numbers,!and! Canadian!consular!information,!we!planned!to!identify!estimates!of!the!percentage!breakdown!of!where! Canadians! living! abroad! are! located! currently.! Using! these! percentages! we! could! multiple! by! our! updated!total!value!to!arrive!at!estimates!of!the!total!number!of!expatriates!in!each!of!the!countries! where!we!had!data.! ! Figure'10'–'Emigration'rates'as'a'%'of'population'
Emigration*in*Canada*(197112011)
Emigration6as6a6%6of6population net6emigration6as6a6%6of6population
2.60%
1.77% 1.59% 1.64%
1.21% 1.02% 1.02% 0.67%
1971+1981 1981+1991 1991+2001 2001+2011
Source:(Stats(Can(Census(data,(Longitudinal(Immigration(and(Migration(Database,(1971<2011 ! ! Thirdly,! median! age! and! mortality! estimate! cutGoffs! needed! to! be! reGestimated! because! 2011! data! added!five!years!of!information,!making!it!difficult!to!maintain!decadeGlong!assumptions.!The!two!main! factors!were!estimating!the!survival!rate!of!each!decade!based!on!median!ages!and!any!further!changes! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 232!Data!from!Statistics!Canada,!2011!National!Household!Survey,!Statistics!Canada!Catalogue!no.!99G010GX2011027.! 233!Data!from!Statistics!Canada!2006,!Census!of!Canada.! ! 43! ! ! to!the!overall!outGmigration!rate,!which!may!be!required!based!on!the!differences!identified!between! decade!demographic!characteristics.!The!survival!rate!was!calculated!for!1971G1981!by!looking!at!the! average!age!breakdown!for!the!decade,!adding!forty!years!to!bring!their!age!up!to!what!it!would!have! been!in!2011,!and!comparing!the!result!to!the!life!expectancy!for!Canadians!in!2011.!Other!survival!rates! were!simply!maintained!and!matched!to!corresponding!decades!with!the!same!“years!to!2011”!value.!! As!a!proxy!for!changing!demographic!characteristics,!the!relative!percentage!change!in!net!migration! rates!was!used.!This!led!to!a!much!lower!rate!of!outGmigration!in!2001G2011,!which!corresponded!to!the! overall!trends!observed!in!the!data.! ! ! Annex C. Complete Data Set: See Excel Workbook “Canadas_Expatriates_Data.xlsx”
! 44! ! !
Annex D. Citations ! ACE!The!Electoral!Knowledge!Network.!“Italy.”!Last!modified!in!2000,!online:!!
Australian!Government:!Department!of!Human!Affairs.!“International!Services.”!Last!modified!in!2015,!! online:! ! 46! ! ! ! o !“The!World!Fact!Book:!United!States.”!Last!modified!on!June!20!2014,!online:! ! 47! ! ! Election's!Department:!Singapore.!“Voting!Overseas.”!Last!modified!on!February!23,!2015,!online:!! ! 48! ! ! Government!of!India.!“An!Overview.”!Ministry$of$Overseas$Indian$Affairs.!Last!modified!in!2009,!online:! ! 49! ! ! IRS.!“Foreign!Earned!Income!Exclusion,”!online:! ! 50! ! ! NRI!Tax!Services.!“Income!Tax.”!Last!modified!in!2001,!online:!!! ! 51! ! ! Statistics!Canada.!“NHS!Data!Quality.”!Online:! ! 52!