vb _ Commission for Development Studies f 1AW RMLJ pa Austrian Academy of Sciences _. Conference and Workshop Proceedings 2008/1

Kindu Mekonnen, Gerhard Glatzel and Birgit Habermann (Eds.) INDIGENOUS TREE AND SHRUB SPECIES

\ FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND I AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Proceedings of the Workshop Indigenous Tree and Shrub Species for Environmental Protection and Agricultural Productivity, November 7-9, 2006 Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC), Ethiopia

INDIGENOUS TREE AND SHRUB SPECIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY

Edited by:

Kindu Mekonnen1, Gerhard Glatzel1 and Birgit Habermann2

1 Institute of Forest Ecology, UNI BOKU, Peter-Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190 Vienna, Austria

2 Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Dr. Ignaz Seipel-Platz 2, A-1010 Vienna, Austria

Proceedings of the Workshop 'Indigenous Tree and Shrub Species for Environmental Protection and Agricultural Productivity' November 7-9, 2006 Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC), Ethiopia

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1 >y- p f< OAW Austrian Academy of Sciences

Series on Conference and Workshop Proceedings 2008/1

Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences Vienna 2008 with funding from Austrian Development Cooperation OAW Austrian Academy of Sciences tkMat mcs rare I h I M I r f f c u s i r p f c t«wi • *»«, m w Universitat fur Bodenkultur Wien University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna

Acknowledgements The workshop has been co-funded by the Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences/ Austrian Federal Ministry for Science and Research (BMWF), the Austrian Development Cooperation (OEZA), the African Forestry Research Network (AFORNET) and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). Special support has been provided by the Institute of Forest Ecology at the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU, Vienna) for workshop organization, scientific expertise and editing of the workshop proceedings.

Imprint Austrian Academy of Sciences Legal entity under the special protection of the Federal Republic of Austria (BGBI 569/1921 idF BGBI I 130/2003) Dr. Ignaz Seipel-Platz 2, 1010 Vienna, Austria Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften http://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/ Copyright © 2008 by Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien Proceedings of the Workshop 'Indigenous Tree and Shrub Species for Environmental Protection and Agricultural Productivity', November 7-9, 2006 - Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC), Ethiopia. Series on Conference and Workshop Proceedings of KEF (Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences): 2008/1 ISBN: 978-3-7001-6131-8

This work has not been reviewed by the Section for Mathematics and the Natural Sciences of OEAW. The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the contributory organisations.

Editors: Kindu Mekonnen, Gerhard Glatzel and Birgit Habermann Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences Dr. Ignaz Seipel-Platz 2 * 1010 VIENNA * AUSTRIA Tel: ++43(0)1 515 81- 3202 * Fax: ++43(0)1 515 81- 3203 Internet: http://www.kef-online.at * Email: [email protected] Cover design and layout: Eduardo Criscuolo Photocredits: Gerhard Glatzel and Kindu Mekonnen

Correct citation: Kindu, M., Glatzel, G. and Habermann, B. (eds.) (2008) Indigenous tree and shrub species for environmental protection and agricultural productivity. Proceedings of the Workshop 'Indigenous Tree and Shrub Species for Environmental Protection and Agricultural Productivity', November 7-9, 2006 - Holetta Agricultural Research Centre (HARC), Ethiopia. Published in the Series on Conference and Workshop Proceedings of KEF (Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences): 2008/1, VOEAW, Vienna.

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Table of Contents

Preface 11 Welcoming address 12 Opening address 13

THEME 1: THE STATUS OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN THE HIGHLANDS

Diversifying cropping systems in the mountainous landscape of Galessa, Ethiopia 17

Abstract 17

1. Introduction 18 2. Methodology 18 3. Results and discussion 19 3.1 Diversity in traditional cropping systems 19 3.2. Alternative crops for diversification 20 3.3. Challenges of diversification and future courses of actions 22 4. Summary and conclusion 22

References 23

The status of animal feeds and nutrition in the West Shewa Zone of Oromiya, Ethiopia 27

Abstract 27

1. Introduction 28 2. Features of the West Shewa Zone 29 2.1. Agro-ecology 29 2.2. Human population 29 2.3. Land-use pattern 29 2.4. Livestock resources 29 2.5 Feed resources 29 2.5.1. Basal diet 29 2.5.2 Grazing pasture 30 2.5.3 Crop residues 30 2.5.4. Agro-industrial/industrial by-products and compound feeds 31 3. An overview of research findings 31 3.1. Native pasture 31 3.1.1. Botanical composition 31 3.1.2. Productivity of natural pasture 31 3.2. Crop residues 32 3.2.1. Chemical composition 32 3.2.2. Digestibility and energy value 32 3.2.3. Voluntary intake 33 3.2.4. Rumen degradability characteristics 33 3.2.5. Animal performance based on crop residue 33 3.2.6. Strategies to enhance the utilisation of crop residues as livestock feed 34 3.3. Agro-industrial by-products 34 3.3.1. Availability 34 3.3.2. Nutritional characteristics 35 3.2.3. Improved forage and pasture crops 35 4. An overview of on-farm testing and technology transfer efforts 35 4.1. Forage development efforts on farmer's field 35

5 4.2, On-farm testing of nutritional interventions in various farming system 35 4.2.1. Multi-nutrient block and supplementary protein source 35 4.2.2. Use of urea treated crop residue in ruminant diet 35 5. Conclusions and recommendations 36

References 36

Limitation and potential of major soils in the highlands of West Shewa, Ethiopia 50

Abstract 50

1. Introduction 51 2. Major soils of West Shewa 51 3. Soil physical and chemical characteristics affecting agricultural productivity 51 3.1. Water-logging / poor drainage 51 3.2. Soil acidity 51 3.3. Low organic matter and total N contents 52 3.4. Available P 52 4. Major causes of fertility decline 52 4.1. Low inherent soil fertility and depletion of plant nutrients 52 4.2. Limited agricultural inputs 52 4.3. Inappropriate soil management practices 52 4.4. Soil erosion 52 5. Results of investigations carried out to improve soil productivity in the highlands of west Shewa 53 5.1. Mineral fertilisers (NP) 53 5.2. Organic fertilisers and improved cultural practices 53 5.2.1. Green manure 53 5.2.2. Farmyard manure (FYM) 53 5.2.3. Biological N-fixation 53 5.2.4. Crop rotation 54 5.2.5. Lime, rock phosphate and agricultural by-products 54 5.2.6. Improved drainage 54 6. Conclusions and recommendations 55

References 55

Soil nutrient stocks and fluxes under smallholders' mixed farming system in the central highlands of Ethiopia: research experiences from the Galessa and Gare areas 62

Abstract 62

1. Introduction 63 2. Materials and methods 63 2.1. Case study sites 63 2.1.1. Physical settings 63 2.1.2. Farming systems and land-uses 63 2.2. Approaches to data collection 64 2.2.1. Household survey and farm monitoring 64 2.2.2. Land-use mapping and soil sampling 64 2.3. Nutrient balance 65 3. Results and discussions 65 3.1. Soil fertility gradients and associated management diversity 65 3.1.1. Soil fertility gradients 65 3.1.2. Diversity of soil fertility management 66 3.2. Differently resource endowed farm households: perception of soil fertility management 67 3.3. Is agro-ecosystem sustainability threatened?A nutrient balances perspective 68 3.3.1 Nutrient balances 68 3.3.2. Stocks and flux rates 68 4. Conclusions 68

References 69

An overview on the distributions, status, uses and research needs of selected indigenous tree and shrub species in the Highlands of Ethiopia 76

Abstract 76

1. Introduction 77 2. Vegetation distribution 77 2.1. Closed broadleaved forests 77 2.2. Closed coniferous 79 2.3. Bamboo and palms 80 3. Forest status 80 4. Uses 81 5. Research needs and factors affecting forestry research 83 5.1. Internal factors 83 5.1.1. Ineffective structure 83 5.1.2. Inefficient utilisation of available capacity 83 5.1.3. Lack of synergy or coordination 83 5.1.4. Weakly linked to development 84 5.1.5. Lack of interaction with end users 84 5.1.6. Leadership and coaching difficulties 84 5.2. External factors 84 5.2.1. Policy and legislation 84 5.2.2. Unattractive career path 84 5.2.3. Costly international partnership 84 6. Recommendations 84 6.1. Establish a self-reliant independent institution 84 6.2. Paradigm shift to address relevant issues 85 6.3. Improved access to resources 85 6.4. Networking and partnership 85

References 85

Woody biomass in the 21st century: A global perspective 87

Abstract 87

1. Introduction 88 2. The current biomass boom 88 3. The future role of woody biomass 89 4. Conclusions 91

References 91

THEME 2: WOODY AND HERBACEOUS BIOMASS AS FODDER AND OR­ GANIC FERTILISER SOURCES Indigenous tree and shrub species for soil fertility improvement in Galessa and Jeldu areas, Western Shewa, Ethiopia 95

Abstract 95

1. Introduction 96 2. Materials and methods 96 3. Results and discussion 97 3.1. Tree and shrub species identified and ranked for soil fertility improvement 97 3.2. Green biomass nutrient concentration and other quality characteristics 97 3.3. Soil properties under the indigenous tree and shrub species 98 4. Conclusions 98

References 99

Targeting various organic resources and legume best bets to various system niches to reverse decline in land productivity in East African Highlands 107

Abstract 107

Utilisation of the biomass of trees and shrubs as organic fertiliser source: Experiences from Holetta Agricultural Research Center 108

Abstract 108

Indigenous tree and shrub species for fodder production in Galessa and Jeldu areas, West Shewa, Ethiopia 109

Abstract 109

1. Introduction 110 2. Materials and methods 110 3. Results 111 3.1. Household and farm characteristics 111 3.2. Tree and shrub species identified and ranked for fodder production 111 3.3. Mineral composition of the fodder tree and shrub species 111 3.4. Chemical composition of the tree and shrub species 112 4. Conclusions 113

References 113

Experiences on utilisation of indigenous fodder trees and shrubs in Kenya 119

Abstract 119

THEME 3: TENURE AND TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION

Land tenure security and adoption of natural resource management technologies in Ethiopia 123

Abstract 123 1. Introduction 124 2. Reasons for the divergence between the optimal private and social rates of natural resource utilisation 125 3. Evolution of the land tenure systems in Ethiopia 127 3.1. Land tenure prior to 1975 127 3.2. Land tenure from 1975 to 1990 128 3.3. Land tenure since 1991 to date 129 4. Empirical evidence of the linkage between the degree of tenure security and adoption of soil conservation practices 130 4.1. Data and study area 130 4.2. The empirical model and choice of variables 130 4.3. Empirical results 131 4.3.1. Adoption rate and pattern of soil conservation technologies 131 4.3.2. Empirical results of the Tobit soil conservation adoption model 131 5. Conclusions and policy implications 133

References 135

Scaling up of natural resource management technologies: Experiences and issues 140

Abstract 140

1. Introduction 141 2. Scaling up of agricultural technologies in EIAR 141 3. Issues of scaling up NRM technologies / information 143 3.1. Systems'approaches 143 3.2. Types and definitions of scaling up 144 3.2.1. Quantitative scaling up 144 3.2.2. Political scaling up 145 3.2.3. Organizational scaling up 145 3.2.4. Functional scaling up 145 3.3. Institutionalization 146 3.4. Elements of effective scaling up 146 3.4.1. Incorporating scaling up considerations into project planning 146 3.4.2. Capacity building 147 3.4.3. Information and learning 147 3.4.4. Building linkages 147 3.4.5. Engaging in policy dialogue 148 3.4.6. Sustaining the process (funding) 148

References 149

WORKSHOP DISCUSSION OUTCOMES 153

References 154 10 Preface

The proceedings include welcoming and opening addresses which provide introductory remarks on the research focus at Holetta Agricultural Research Center of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, major natural resources management challenges and further research and development needs. These introductory remarks are followed by papers on the themes of the workshop "The status of natural resrouces in the highlands", on which there are six papers presented. On the second theme "Woody and herbaceous biomass as fodder and organic fertiliser sources" there are five papers presented, and on the theme "Tenure and technology dissemination" there are two papers. At the end, the outcomes from a group discussion on how to broaden the plantation and utilisation scheme of indigenous fodder and soil improving tree species are presented.

As a workshop organiser and one of the editors of the proceedings, I would like to pay tribute to all paper presenters. Their contribution made it possible to record the success of this workshop, which fostered information exchange and cooperation among the many individuals of diverse interests who attended. Many individuals from Galessa- Jeldu areas, Ginchi, Holetta, Addis Abeba and Austria made significant contributions to the success of the workshop. I would like to thank particularly Prof. Gerhard Glatzel, Ms. Birgit Habermann, Mr. Yohannes Gojjam, Mr. Mesfin Tsegaye, Mr. Kassahun Bekele and Mr. Abera Tafa for their involvement to the organisation of the workshop and preparation of the proceedings. Melanie Gertheinrich was very helpful with the language editing of the proceedings, and Mr. Viktor Bruckman helped out with correcting the references.

Finally, the financial assistance for the workshop from the Austrian Development Cooperation (ADA), the Commission for Development Studies at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (KEF), the African Forestry Research Network (AFORNET) and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) is gratefully acknowledged.

Kindu Mekonnen Welcoming address

Dr. Alemu Gezahgne, Director for Forestry Research Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR)

Workshop participants, Ladies and gentlemen.

On behalf of the Holetta Agricultural Research Center, its management, researchers and the community staff, I would like to welcome you all to Holetta for the workshop organised on Indigenous Fodder and Soil Improving Tree and Shrub Species.

This workshop is important and timely for the farming community we are dealing with in the highlands. As all of you are aware, the highlands of Ethiopia are characterised by a high density of human population, a huge livestock population and diversity, as well as degraded land. Linder such circumstances; one can hardly think of a better agricultural production for food self-sufficiency and a better life for the community. Hence, changing the environment to meet the greater demand for food and feed is critically important. This workshop and its output will definitely contribute to this effect.

The Holetta Agricultural Research Center is one of the centers under the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research. The center conducts research to avail useful agricultural technologies to farmers and others in the areas of crop improvement and the production of barely, bread wheat, teff, highland oil crops, highland pulses, potato, and highland fruits. Similarly, the center works on livestock with special reference to dairy, draught animals, animal feeds and nutrition, as well as highland forage production research. In the areas of natural resource management, soil and water management, forestry and others, research projects and programmes are conducted and coordinated at our center. The center owns better facilities and quite an adequate number of both research and administrative staffs. This will enable us to meet our long-term goal in which we see reduced poverty and an improved livelihood of the farming community and the nation at large.

Ladies and gentlemen, in this workshop about eleven general and specialised research papers will be presented in the course of today, followed by field excursions to Galessa and Jeldu areas tomorrow. A group discussion will be held the day after tomorrow.

Your active participation and contribution will be highly appreciated for the success of the workshop and I am confident that this will be demonstrated in your deliberations. Please, also feel free and at home to contact the workshop organisers for any kind of issues you may consider important.

With this I would like to wind up my welcome address and may I invite Dr. Alemu Gezahgne, Director for Forestry Research officially to open the workshop.

Thank you for your attention

Mr. Yohannes Gojjam Center Director Holetta Agricultural Research Center Opening address

Dear colleagues, Workshop participants, Ladies and gentlemen,

It gives me great pleasure, indeed, to welcome you all to this national workshop on indigenous tree and shrub species for environmental protection and agricultural productivity.

Ladies and gentlemen,

The direction for the economic development policy of EFDRE has been indicated to be Agricultural Development Lead Industrialization. In line with this, a rural development policy and strategy has been formulated in which the natural resource management has been set as one focus area of the agricultural development activity. In addition, sustainable natural resource management has been indicated as one of the Millennium Development Goals and this has been included in the Poverty Reduction Programme of Ethiopia.

This is because, as it is well known to you, the mainstay of the overwhelming majority of the Ethiopian population depends on agriculture, where agriculture accounts for more than 54% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employs 85% of the population, accounts for about 90% of the exports and supplies over 70% of the raw materials for the agro-industries. Congruent with the above, the country has a huge potential of natural resources, both biotic and abiotic ones. These natural resources play a significant role in boosting agricultural production and productivity. Forests, one of the natural resources, play a vital role in rural livelihood. Forests provide various goods and services. They serve as a source of food, fodder, materials required for house construction and energy. They provide wood and wood products to meet a wide range of necessities, ranging from furniture and farm implements to various industrial outputs. This resource also plays an important role in protecting watersheds, reclaiming degraded land, controlling soil erosion, acting as a buffer against environmental changes, and maintaining biodiversity, as well as the preservation of water sources.

Despite of this, exploitation of the natural resources - and of forests in particular - is generally unsustainable. On the contrary, it is declining at a rapid rate, leading to a shortfall in the supply of wood and wood products, environmental degradation, degradation/drying up of water bodies, decline of biodiversity, and low agricultural productivity and production.

The challenge that the forestry sector is facing today is therefore to abate the destruction of forests and woodlands, expand the forest cover, arrest the environmental degradation, promote and improve the quality of life through a sustained balance between utilisation and conservation of the remaining high forest and woodland resources needed by society. This effort, however, has to be backed up by adequate and effective research findings.

The impacts of forestry research on forests, forest products, uses and services and management is immense. But keeping the balance between sustaining the forest and the research needs lies within the competence of the research agendas and the capacity of promoting and implementing the research outputs. This requires a concerted effort of all

13 actors, including decision makers, local population, the local and international scientific communities and the private sectors. It calls for a consolidation of the limited resources and efforts towards addressing issues that help combat environmental degradation and poverty reduction through on-farm tree planting and integrated watershed management, with the aim of improving rural livelihoods.

As indicated in the workshop programme, the motto of this workshop is geared towards addressing issues that revolve around three important themes. In principle, the focus of the workshop is not only timely but also appropriate, as it complements the government's policy and the MDGs. I realised that various papers focusing on the theme of the workshop will be presented and discussed. It is, therefore, my strong conviction that this workshop will assess and synthesise all the relevant issues that require urgent attention, research and management agendas. In this context, I would like to assure you that EIAR will do its best to own the recommendations of the workshop and will be actively involved in the successful implementation of the outcomes.

I hope that your three days stay in this workshop shall generate ideas that are expected from it and provide valuable information and direction for the future research and immediate development work. With this brief remark, I declare the workshop open.

Thank you,

Alemu Gezahegne (PhD) Forest Research Directorate Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

14 THEME 1:

THE STATUS OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN THE HIGHLANDS

Diversifying cropping systems in the mountainous landscape of Galessa, Ethiopia

Adugna Wakjira1 and Amare Gizaw1 holetta Agricultural Research Center, EIAR, P. O. Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Crop production is the mainstay of rural Ethiopians, including the mountainous landscape of Galessa. Its outputs have been very low, due to various biophysical and socio­ economic setbacks with limited diversity of crops and cropping systems. Factors like low soil fertility, frost and other climatic hazards constrain the productivity of few traditional crops, such as barley and potato. In such mountainous and degraded areas, the systems of crop production are complex and more prone to risk. Consequently, some efforts are underway to improve the incomes and livelihoods of smallholder farmers through the diversification of crops that are suitable for effective integration of soil, nutrients, feeds and livestock management system, with better marketing opportunities. Diverse crops (potato, barley, linseed, triticale, legumes and forage crops) can thus bring various benefits to Galessa farmers in view of the integrated management of watersheds and landscape niches to meet multiple needs of the stakeholders. By doing so, more uptakes of improved technologies, increased productivity, incomes and livelihoods of small- scale farmers can be expected. Approaches would be possible for scaling out and up of outputs, and thus empowering smallholders for meaningful impacts from research and development efforts on the integrated management of crops, soil nutrients and livestock system. To this effect, the research for development efforts and/or approaches needs to focus on strong scientific and action-oriented activities. In this paper, attempts are made to discuss these and other related issues, which are required to support the livelihoods of farmers living under such difficult environments in a sustainable manner. 1. Introduction The major considerations are therefore Mountainous landscape is prevalent in the what options and opportunities of crop Galessa area of the central highlands of diversity are adaptable or available to this Ethiopia, exposing the topsoils to heavy area and how these are best exploited to erosions that deplete soil fertility from time increase the income and the livelihood to time. The cropping pattern and system of Galessa farmers. In other words, the of Galessa has mainly included barley/ ultimate goals are to improve livelihoods fallow/few crops and their interaction of smallholder farmers by availing a with farm resources, enterprises and the diversity of improved varieties of crops available technology that determine the and their production practices. Options of feature of the area. Under such conditions, crop diversity are required for an effective crop production conditions are often integration of soils, nutrients, feed and complex and prone to risk. Factors like livestock management with better market low soil fertility, frost and other climatic opportunities. By doing so, better income hazards reduce the productivity of few generation, poverty alleviation and food traditional crops, such as barley and security could prevail and subsequently potato. Moreover, the availability and/or farmers would be capacitated and access to agricultural inputs (capital, land, motivated to invest in the integrated labor, fertiliser, water, etc.) are generally management of the natural resources. limited, more expensive and more variable due to rough road systems and remote This discussion paper tries to emphasise markets, since farmers live on cold and the strategies of poverty reduction and rugged mountains with limited access to agricultural development in the central agricultural inputs. highlands of Ethiopia by improving the productivity and sustainability of crops Crop production has been the mainstay through diversification and natural of the Galessa watershed site. The same resource management as key elements in has been true for the remaining rural the drive to meet the different needs of population of Ethiopia (Adugna et at. farmers. Attempts will be made to analyse 2004). Nevertheless, the sector's output the possibility of diversification and has been very low, due to the biophysical enterprise-development of smallholders, and socio-economicchallenges, inadequate while maintaining the natural resource interventions, limited use of crop diversity base. When these are considered in an and their poor production practices. Owing integrated approach, we believe that they to this situation, the shortage of food at can offer better and viable opportunities Galessa is high from April to November, for poverty reduction and natural resource with reduced shortages from December conservation in a sustainable manner. to March (Kindu et at. 1997). During these periods, farmers depend only on 2. Methodology few crops like potato and enset (Ensete The methodology combines the analyses ventricosum) to overcome this problem. of both primary and secondary data, with Food shortages are attributed mainly to activities based on strong scientific designs limited crop diversity. Earlier surveys have and action-oriented applied research. Its indicated that the major problems of the innovative component was the inclusion Galessa area are: poor diversification of of participatory on-farm research that has crops, deforestation, soil erosion, depletion provided results of immediate use to the of soil fertility, feed and food shortages, participating farmers and farmers' support water shortage, high human population groups (i.e. research and development growth and low price of farm produce, organisations). A representative number which actually require integrated solutions of field trials were conducted in Galessa (Kindu et al. 2002). watersheds. For example, for linseed informal seed multiplication 33 and 100 of cereals (barley, triticale), legumes representative and willing farmers were (faba bean, field pea), oilseed (linseed), selected in 2005 and 2006, respectively. forage crops (oats, vetches), tubers and Poor farmers who are largely dependent vegetables (potato, garlic). Efforts were on food and feed crops, as well as their made to use past experience (research, products were involved in these studies. development works and indigenous Improved varieties and practices of potato, knowledge from across the area and barley, linseed, triticale, faba bean, field elsewhere) to establish viable options. pea, vetch and oats, which were developed Group discussions and stakeholder at Holetta Research Center, were jointly consultations were used to assess the tested by researchers and farmers on most feasible options. An intensive review the farmers' fields in accordance with and a joint analysis were also applied in the needs and interests of the latter. In the selection of diverse crops and their general, the activities have involved the varieties with respect to economic, social following three steps: and ecosystem opportunities, specifically with soil and plant nutrition management a) Joint reviews and planning: strategies. Data on crops management assessment of past and current works in practices and their growth conditions were the Galessa area, refining well-adapted collected in accordance with the initiators' crops and their practices, consultation initial plans. After that, evaluations were of relevant stakeholders (donors, carried out to identify communication and researchers, development workers, non­ knowledge sharing approaches that are government organisations and farmers). appropriate for increasing the uptake of By doing so, the exchange of knowledge results or for scaling out/up activities. and experience is facilitated for a better planning and implementation of the study. Training and experience sharing was also 3. Results and discussion undertaken whenever necessary. 3.1 Diversity in traditional cropping b) Participatory implementation and systems evaluation: scientific and participatory Whether it is within one crop or among on-farm investigations of different crops many crops, diversity has been very and their best practices were studied important (Tables 1, 2, 3) for farmers in a participatory manner. Views and to cope with both internal and external evaluations by farmers were included in factors like climate, soil conditions, pests, all investigations. The stakeholders also market, etc., which are often difficult to jointly conducted the monitoring and control, and to deal with the limited use of evaluation. capital and labor resources (Adugna eta/. 2004). The traditional agriculture systems, c) Synthesising and scaling out/up such as the ones in Galessa, involved a of promising results: compiling and high degree of crop diversification by spreading the best-adapted varieties and taking advantage of local resources and their practices of crops was carried out thus have been moderately productive, together with the users. Actually, these stable and sustainable (Altieri 1987, have currently been in progress for potato, Adugna 2002). The components of such barley, linseed and forage crops. agro-biodiversity have long been known to offer an array of benefits to agriculture Generally, the activities were focused on and the ecosystem by reducing risks and analyses of the biophysical and socio­ contributing to resilience, food security economic conditions in relation to crop and income generation (Beets 1982, Altieri diversity and the cropping systems 1987). These benefits were well recognised by traditional farmers in Galessa (Adugna balami grows on all types of soils and frost et al. 2004) and elsewhere in Ethiopia prone areas. Balami is preferred for injera (Tilahun 1995, Adugna 2002). (local bread) making, while black-seeded varieties are used for preparing tela and According to earlier surveys, barley was arekie (local beverages). White-seeded the most prominent crop in the Galessa cultivars are preferred for the preparation area, followed by potato and enset (Kindu of various local foodstuffs. Galessa farmers et al. 2002). The major cropping system usually use qualitative characteristics was barley, followed by fallow. Barley yields related to morphological appearance, seed are reported to have declined over the colour and maturity periods to distinguish past 25 years. Farmers associated these one cultivar from the other. These yield reductions to the lack of high yielding experiences show that farmers' indigenous varieties, moisture shortage, reduced soil knowledge on the diversity of crops and fertility, increased soil erosion, imbalance in their uses is valuable for germplasm amount and distribution of rainfall, severe collection and conservation. Solomon frost and desiccating dry winds during the and Lemlem (1999) also indicated that grain filling periods of the crop. They also germplasm collection can be more fruitful indicated monocropping of barley as one when a team of breeders, a population of the causes for yield reductions. geneticist, a taxonomist and farmers is involved. Table 4 shows better yield advantage of the barley-fallow cropping system as opposed 3.2. Alternative crops for to the continuous or monocropping diversification system. However, monocropping of barley In order to overcome low productivity was reportedly due to the unavailability and limited diversity of crops in Galessa, of adaptable and diversified crops in the efforts have been underway by researchers Galessa area. Farmers were unable to from Holetta Research Center and other keep their land fallow, since the size of development agents. For instance, five their landholding dwindled as a result released varieties of potatoes were of population growth. Hence, barley evaluated on four farmers' fields, of which monocropping has been predominant in three varieties performed better, with yield Galessa. In spite of this there has been ranges of 8-31 t/ha (Table 3). Informal tremendous variability within the local potato seed production was also multiplied cultivars that could enrich future genetic on farmers' fields and it was possible to resources, given that proper collections produce a good quality potato seed, with and preservations were accomplished. For yield ranges of 20-41 t/ha (Kindu et al. example, Galessa farmers identified four 2002). Likewise, 50 forage species (oats, barley cultivars locally known as balami, medics, clovers, vetches) were evaluated guracha, adi and shamareta in the Galessa for three seasons and it was possible to area, balami (two-rowed) being the most identify better performing ones. Oats and dominant one (Kindu et al. 1997, Adugna hairy vetch produced 17 and 7 t/ha dry et al. 2004). Guracha is black-seeded, biomass, respectively. Medics (Medicago) while adi is white-seeded. Shamareta is varieties and Trifolium species produced often an early maturing type. an average biomass of 2 t/ha (Kindu et al. 2002, Adugna et al. 2004). Similarly, five Moreover, Galessa farmers select specific improved barley varieties were evaluated cultivars depending on their purposes, on different farmers' fields for two years. locations of adaptability and suitability Three varieties were promising for further of soil types for planting. For example, dissemination. Moreover, 33 farmers black- and white-seeded barley cultivars have evaluated a linseed variety known are grown on fertile and deep soils, while as Berene in 2005. 29 of them had good yield and satisfactory seed filling quality to invest in the integrated management of (Figure 1 and 2). The farmers preferred natural resources. Bearing this in mind, the new variety to the local variety for researchers of Holetta research center its superior vegetative growth, better have been empowering farmers of limited yield components, seed yield and seed capacity with improved crop varieties. In quality. Thus, several farmers have been a nutshell, diversity of crops can play a planning to expand their linseed farms significant role in the following objectives: and consequently demanded more seeds improving productivity; risk aversion; pest for the 2006 growing season. Accordingly, management (weeds, insect populations over one hundred farmers were involved and diseases); enriching genetic resources in the scaling out of linseed, informal seed (great values for future breeding); multiplication and variety adaptation tests stabilizing ecosystem and nutrient cycling (five varieties) in 2006. More than double of (Altieri 1987, Adugna 2002). this figure is expected in 2007. In general farmers show great interest in different Diversification of cropping systems can varieties of potato, barley, linseed, and improve the impacts on environmental forage crops for better diversifications and resources, spread the farmers economic thus for greater economical benefits. risk, exploit profitable market niches, create new agro-industries, strengthen Diverse crops (Table 3) such as improved rural communities and enable producers potato, barley, linseed, triticale, legumes to grow crops that are more economical and forage crops are believed to bring (Altieri 1987, Adugna 2002). Growing diverse benefits to Galessa farmers. diversity of vegetables, cereals, legumes, They fit into the existing landscape or oilseeds, and forage crops can expand environmental niches, and also satisfy market opportunities and offset price multiple needs of the local people. In fluctuations. Consequently, profits will not fact, farmers and agricultural scientists depend exclusively on one commodity or have known for years that crop diversity market. Direct marketing of alternative via rotations can break insect and disease crops creates local opportunities to cycles, reduce weeds, curb erosion, process, package or sell new products. supplement soil nutrients, improve soil Galessa farmers could therefore benefit structure and conserve soil moisture from diversified farming practices. Their (Altieri 1987, Adugna 2002). Ecosystems economic picture can improve with such with greater diversity are usually more strategic diversification. For example, stable and resilient. The more diverse the adding legumes (beans and vetches) organisms that inhabit a farming system, to a rotation can reduce the need to the more diverse the populations of pest- purchase N fertiliser, as they fix N from fighting beneficial organisms a farm can the atmosphere. Moreover, rotations that support (Altieri 1987). Forexample, healthy include three or more crops usually have soils enriched and revitalised by rotation fewer problems with pests and less need and cover crops of leguminous nature can for pesticides. Diverse crops can also promote root development and better reduce the economic risk associated with water infiltration, and thus contribute a lot unfavorable weather or pest damage in a to optimise the benefits from watershed single crop. For example, Galessa farmers ecosystems. The rationale behind crop can successfully harvest crops like linseed diversification is the availability of a and triticale that are tolerant to frost and 'basket' of alternatives and opportunities low soil fertility. Farmers have an old (Tables 1, 2 and 3) to smallholders like saying which exemplifies the values of the ones from Galessa. This refers to diversity by stating that "a person with income generation, poverty alleviation only one eye need not play with dust". and food security, and will enable farmers Thus, by promoting various kinds of

21 crops that have different requirements most of the obstacles. Some common and of temperature, moisture, fertility etc. it challenging issues include: is possible to provide benefits for farmers and the ecosystem as well. a) Market information: One has to conduct substantial market research to The discussion above shows that the get reasonable profits. Hence, sufficient significance of diversity is immense. knowledge of local businesses and Sufficient incentives are available for infrastructure for handling, transporting, its implementation. Actually, the most processing, storing and marketing are motivating factors are the tremendous also vital. Price swings are expected for benefits the farmers have been securing alternative crops. The more diverse crops for years. They are reflected by farmers' are, the better are price buffers and less indigenous knowledge and from the economic risks are expected. new technologies and information being delivered to them from research Contract arrangements with buying agents and other development organisations. can safeguard the farmers against price Favorable policies supporting these issues fluctuation and other marketing challenges. are also important. They create further For example, contracts on malt barley can awareness by using different forums and be arranged between Galessa farmers and other communication mechanisms. This malt factories to support the farmers. could take place during joint planning meetings, field visits and field days, b) Technologies and information: focused discussions and presentations Improved varieties, agronomic and crop of results at various stages. The current protection practices should be made communication and knowledge sharing available to the farmers by research and strategies can ensure a two-way exchange development organisations. Likewise, and joint learning among various actors, technologies and information associated including the policy makers. with pests and pesticides should be available for different crops, although 3.3. Challenges of diversification and diverse systems are known to break the future courses of actions life cycles of pests. One of the most challenging issues is whether to follow specialisation or c) Seed sources: Sources of seeds could diversification in areas like Galessa, be limiting and the current experiences where small-scale farmers are living with informal seed multiplication would be with a lot of production constraints. useful in addition to the efforts being done Within the current circumstances and by the formal seed sector like the Ethiopian the context of the preceding discussion, Seed Enterprise. Supplies of other inputs crop diversification increasingly improves are also equally important. the sources of livelihood for farmers by preventing various economic risks that d) Post-harvesting technologies: Post­ arise from specialising on specific crops. harvest handling and storage information Gemechu and Adugna (2001) indicate need to be available, especially for the that reasonable yields with fewer risks are new crops. preferable to high yields with high risks for resource-poor farmers living under highly 4. Summary and conclusion vulnerable conditions. On the other hand, like many new ventures, diversifying crops Growing alternative crops at Galessa may pose some challenges. However, for diversification could increase profits being prepared and calling on experts for for the farmers, while lessening adverse advice can help the farmers to overcome environmental impacts on the area. Ecosystems with greater diversity have traditional agro-ecosystem. ILEIA, 3 (2): proved to be more stable; they withstand pp. 3-7. disturbances and recover better than less diverse systems. The more diverse the Beets W.C. (1982) Multiple cropping and plants, animals and soil-borne organisms tropical farming systems. Gower Publishing are that inhabit a farming system, Company Limited. Gower House, U.K. the more beneficial are the organisms and their pest-fighting capacity. Thus, Gemechu K. and Adugna W. (2004) Genetic agricultural strategy based on a diversity uniformity of crop cultivars: Challenges of plants and cropping systems can bring and opportunities. In: Sebil. Vol. 10. moderate to high levels of productivity Proceedings of the 10th Conference of the and can be more sustainable at a much Crop Science Society of Ethiopia (CSSE), lower cost and for a longer period of time. 19-21 June 2001, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Therefore, crop diversification has been pp.1-9. and will continue to be valuable both in traditional and modern agriculture for Getachew A., Amare G. and Woldeyesus S. more productivity and sustainability, (2006) Yield performance and land-use survival and profitability and for continued efficiency of barley and faba bean mixed improvement (breeding). cropping in Ethiopian highlands. Europ J Agronomy, 25(3): pp. 202-207. Hence, diversity of crops has to be encouraged and maintained at all levels of Kindu M., Bekele K. and Hailu B. (2002) research and development. Experience of participatory research on natural resource management at Galessa. References In: Gemechu K., Yohannes G., Kiflu B., Chilot Y. and Asgelil D. (eds) Towards Adugna, W. (2002) Genetic diversity analysis farmers' participatory research: attempts of linseed under different environments. and achievements in the central highlands PhD thesis, Department of Plant Breeding, of Ethiopia. Proceedings of Client-Oriented Faculty of Agric. Univ. of the Free State, Research Evaluation Workshop, 16-18 Oct. Bloemfontein, South Africa. 2001, Holetta Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia: pp. 44-55. Adugna W., Gemechu K., Getachew A. and Gebre- Medin W. (2004) Supporting alternative Kindu M., Hailu B. and Alemu T. (1997) Natural seed delivery systems in AHI-Galessa resources management at Galessa Kota watershed site, Ethiopia. Conference Gisherand GarieArera peasant associations, Proceedings, 12-14 October 2004, Nairobi, Dendi wereda, western Shewa, Ethiopia. Kenya: pp 140-418. Unpublished report, Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Amare G. (1995) Mixed cropping of faba bean and field pea in Ethiopia. In: Woldeysus S., Moret D., Arrue J.L., Lopez M.V. and Gracia R. Zerihun T. and Nigusie A. (eds) Increasing (2007) Winter barley performance under food production though improved crop different cropping and tillage systems management. Proceedings of the First and in semiarid Aragon (NE Spain). Europ J Inaugural Conference of the Agronomy and Agronomy, 26(1): pp. 54-63. Crop Physiology Society of Ethiopia, 30-31 May 1995, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia: pp. 56- Solomon B. and Lemlem S. (1999) Diversity 64. of sorghum germplasm in north-eastern Ethiopia and their implication for Alteiri M.A. (1987) The significance of diversity conservation and breeding. In: Sebil. Vol. in maintenance of the sustainability of 9. Proceedings o f the 9th Conference of the Crop Science Society of Ethiopia (CSSE), 22-23 June 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: pp.1-9.

Tilahun M. (1995) Indigenous risk management strategies of small farms in the central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. In: Mulat D., Wolday A., Simeon E. and Tesfaye Z (eds.) Food security, nutrition and poverty alleviation in Ethiopia: problems and prospects. Proceedings of the Inaugural and First Annual Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia. 8-9 June 1995, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: pp 85-108. Table 1: Mean value of various parameters for faba bean mixed cropped with field pea from 1991-1993 at Holetta, Ethiopia.

Mixed proportion Monetary Competition Crowding LER Relative crowding (kg/ha) Value* ratio coefficient FB FP FB FP Total FB FP FB FP 25 75 0.17 0.97 1.14 304.67 0.526 1.902 0.616 9.559 5.888 50 50 0.34 0.87 1.21 450.85 0.391 2.559 0.517 6.916 3.576 75 25 0.62 0.77 1.39 812.46 0.268 3.726 0.552 9.881 5.454

* = In Ethiopean Birr based on yield, adjusted downward by 10% LER = Land Equivalent Ratio FB = Faba Bean FP = Field Pea Source: Amare (1995)

Table 2: Effect of mixed cropping of barley and faba bean on different parameters from 2001-2003 at Holetta, Ethiopia.

Total biomass yield Partial and total LER values for Grain yield (kg/ha) Total Barley (kg/ha) grain yield grain grain Year Barley FB yield yield eq Barley FB Barley FB Total

2001 2744a 1470a 4214 3790a 8650a 3001a 0.88a 0.39c 1.07b

2002 1488c 665b 2153 1979c 4448b 1666b 0.81b 0.55a 1.17a

2003 1896b 1320a 3216 3050b 5233b 2684a 0.85a 0.46b 1.16a

LSD0.05 213.91 201.66 - 200.68 808.83 376.7 0.04 0.06 0.06

FB = Faba Bean eq = equivalent Same letters in columns were not significantly different at P < 0.05 Source: Getachew et al. (2006)

Table 3: Alternative crops and their improved varieties introduced into Galessa for diversifying its cropping system since the 1990s.

Number of varieties Yield range Farmers' variety Crop introduced (t/ha) (t/ha)

Barley > 4 1.9-2.2 < 1.0

Potato > 5 8.5-31.0 < 4.0

Linseed > 5 0.4-1.0 < 0.2

Oats > 4 4.7-8.8 < 3.0

Vetch > 2 3.0-7.0 Nil

Total > 20

Table 4: Grain yield of winter barley (kg/ha) as affected by tillage and cropping systems from 1999-2002.

1999-2000 2000-2001 2001-2002 Tillage system CC BF CC BFCC BF CT 859a 1442a 1409a 1475a 2599a 3096a RT 457c 1693a 1188a 1347a 1782a 3021a NT 633b 839a 902a 1242a 1386a 3578a

Same letters in columns were not significantly different at P < 0.05 CT = Conventional Tillage, RT = Reduced Tillage, NT = no tillage CC = Continuous Cropping, BF = Barley-Fallow rotation), Source: Moret et al. (2007)

25 1200

1000

5 800

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33

Farmers

Figure 1: Seed yield of Berene linseed variety sown at Galessa, 2005/2006, shown per farmer (n=33).

Farmers

Figure 2: 1000 seed weight of Berene grown at Galessa, 2005, shown per farmer (n=33). The status of animal feeds and nutrition in the West Shewa Zone of Oromiya, Ethiopia

Seyoum Bediye1 and Fekede Feyissa1 1 Holetta Agricultural Research Center, EIAR, P.O.BOX 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract The resource base (animal and feed resources) of the various districts in the West Shewa Zone are summarised and synthesised from secondary data. The feed resource balance of each district is estimated from area coverage and average productivity of the major feed resources. Data generated from recent surveys of selected weredas in the zone are used as case studies to substantiate the secondary data and reflect the current reality on the ground. Technical information pertinent to the zone in terms of feed production, feed quality and feeding systems were reviewed and synthesised to identify challenges and opportunities in feed and animal industry. Estimates based on secondary data suggest that the available feed production (basal diet) per annum is 1.68t TLU'1, which is about 70% of the requirement per TLU y r 1. A substantial decline in availability of grazing lands, low productivity and quality of native pasture are major challenges in areas where natural pasture is the dominant basal feed. The use of crop residues as livestock feed is increasing from time to time in most of the districts and their optimal use is constrained primarily by their low nutrient concentration, digestibility and low intake. The use of industrial by­ products is confined to peri-urban or urban livestock production, and to few households in the mixed crop-livestock production system adopting improved livestock breeds, mainly of dairy. The use of improved forage and pasture crops is limited to few households who adopted improved livestock breeds of dairy under smallholder's conditions. Opportunities for mitigating poor nutrition and transforming animal agriculture within the zone through the use of improved feed technology or information are identified and highlighted. 1. Introduction system. Given appropriate management, Livestock production is an integral livestock production is harmonious with component of almost all farming systems the environment. in the west Shewa zone. In the highlands and mid-altitudes livestock is mainly The current feed supply in the West Shewa used for the supply of draught power Zone is very much lower than what is and provision of food. Foreign income required. A situation analysis of the current generated through the export of hides and scenario further indicates additional factors skin is also an integral part of the country's that are a burden on the demand side. economy at the macro level. By-products Realizing the current market opportunities of livestock in the form of manure are of livestock and livestock products, they also of economic importance in the mixed are anticipated to double the volume crop livestock system for soil fertility of livestock products in the coming 3-5 improvement. The income generated from years. Moreover, various livestock feeds selling livestock and livestock products (roughage and industrial by-products) are also forms the main income for the being exported, which leads to serious farming community in the highlands. In competition with local uses. In addition, the low lands, livestock is the mainstay the recurrent drought also exerts pressure of the livelihoods of the pastoralists and on the feed resource base. This has agro-pastoralists. Despite its importance, partially led to an exorbitant price of feed. the productivity and economic contribution The allocation of pasture lands for some of the sub-sector is challenged by various other uses (urbanization and expansion of technical, socio- economic, political and flower production) is expected to reduce institutional constraints. the supply of hay for Addis Ababa dairy farms. As a follow-up of this trend, dairy Among the technical constraints, issues farmers around Addis Ababa have shifted related to feed scarcity (quantitative the feeding practices of lactating dairy and qualitative dimensions) are the cows (the contribution of hay in a daily overriding ones, primarily because of diet is currently about 30% and the usual biological, economic and environmental level used to be as high as 70%). Such a issues. Biologically, the process of animal level is not recommended from a ruminant production is virtually a conversion of low nutrition perspective and has a negative quality products with limited alternative influence on feed conversion efficiency. uses such as by-products into high quality products such as milk, meat and egg. In Apart from various limitations, this process the quantity and quality of opportunities also exist to improve the the livestock product is largely a function feed industry in general and assist the of the type of feed used and the art of livestock sub-sector to contribute to food feeding. There are substantial proofs security and poverty reduction. Technical that at the field level both production and interventions for improving the feed supply reproductive performance are heavily base and optimised utilization of various constrained by the quantity and quality feed resources exist both from a research of feed. In economic terms, the feed perspective and in terms of community cost usually accounts for 70% of the innovations systems. Roughage sources total cost of livestock production. This such as native hay and crop residue influences not only the productivity but were collected and conserved, while the also the feasibility of the enterprise. In availability of industrial by-products were terms of environmental issues, aspects of mapped to account for their temporal and making livestock production compatible spatial distribution and made available with resources are basically a function of to users at a reasonable price. Because provision of feed and an appropriate feeding of underdeveloped infrastructure and marketing system, some of the by­ 2.2. Human population products are not efficiently utilised. With a population of almost 2 million, the Beyond technical and socio-economic West Shewa Zone accounts for 9% of the issues, there are also institutional issues total population in the regional state (Table in connection with delivering services. 3). The rural population accounts for about Government institutions with the current 96% of the total population in the zone, set up and capacity are not in a position while the urban population accounts for to fulfill all the needs in the areas of feed 4%. The total population density of the industry. The demand is much higher than zone is estimated at 127 persons km 2 and the current capacity and there seems to population density varied considerably be a need to fill the gap to improve the among the districts. The most densely delivery of services in the provision of feed populated districts were Bakotiobie, and guidelines for the feeding system. The Welmera, Ambo, Metarobi, Dendi, Ejere decline in feed balance (feed availability and Jeldu with a population density of > per TLU) and the need to increase livestock 130 persons knr2 each. Sparsely populated production/productivity has a serious districts include Gindeberet, Nano and impact on natural resources. Deliberate Adeberga with a population density of < decisions and strategic choices regarding 103 persons krrr2 each. feed production and utilisation have to be made in order to accomplish sustainable 2.3. Land-use pattern livestock production. In this review paper The west Shewa zone has a total land the features of the West shewa zone area of 1.5 million ha. Cultivated land and pertinent to natural resources, livestock grazing areas account for 49% and 22% and feed production are highlighted, of the total area of the zone, respectively research and development experiences in (Table 4). animal feeds and nutrition are reviewed 2.4. Livestock resources and recommendations are made to guide sustainable livestock production. Current estimates of the livestock resource base in the west Shewa zone 2. Features of the West Shewa Zone suggest 1.23 million cattle, 43.000 sheep, With its capital city 120 km west of Addis 19.000 goats, 207.000 equines on a Ababa and consisting of 13 districts, tropical livestock unit basis and 1.2 million the West Shewa Zone is one of the poultry, accounting for 13% of the total administrative zones of the Oromiya grazing herbivore and 9% of poultry in the Regional State. With its variable agro­ regional state (Table 5). Cattle accounts ecology and farming system the zone for 82% of the total grazing herbivore, enjoys the following resources: while small ruminants and equines account for the rest. In terms of cattle population, 2.1. Agro-ecology the most densely populated weredas are The West Shewa Zone encompasses Gendeberet, Cheliya, Dendi, Jeldu and low land, mid altitude and high land Ambo, accounting for 56% of the total environments with respective shares cattle population in the zone. of 25%, 30% and 45% (Table 1 and 2). Districts dominated by low land 2.5 Feed resources environment are Ginderberet, Nonno, Bako-tibie, Meta-Robi and Adeberga, while 2.5.1. Basal diet districts such as Ejere, Ambo, Cheliya, Accurate estimates of the zonal feed Danno, Dendi and Welmera are dominated resource base are not yet available and by mid altitude. Districts representing attempts are usually made to make typical highland environments are Jeldu best approximation using estimates of and Tikurenchini. production/productivity. The relative contribution and major sources of livestock scenario of grazing pressure on native feed were identified and their relative pasture in the zone indicates an average contribution has been approximated stocking rate of 2.4 TLU within the range recently by the CSA (2003). The available of 0.5 TLU ha 1 in Metarobi to 83 TLU ha- information suggests that grazing/green 1 in Gindeberet. Districts with the highest feed, crop residues, hay, by-products and grazing intensity include Gindeberet,Tikur other feeds are the major classes of feed enchini and Bako tibie, with a grazing resources, with a relative contribution of intensity of 36-83 TLU h a 1. Districts 74%, 20%, 2%, 1% and 3%, respectively with the lowest grazing intensity include (Table 6). Metarobi, Adeberga, Nanno and Welmera with a grazing intensity of 5-16 TLU ha-1. The major sources of basal diet for the grazing herbivore are grazing pasture, 2.5.3 Crop residues crop residues and stubble grazing. Based About two million tons of crop residues are on the land mass and average productivity produced annually in the zone and these and grain yield data of crops, better feed resources constitute nearly 50% of estimates of feed resource availability can the basal diet of the herbivore livestock in be made (Table 7). As indicated in Table 7, the zone. Cereal straws account for 95%, grazing pasture accounts for 28%, while while legume residues account for the rest. crop residues and stubble grazing account Among cereal crop residues, straws from for about 62% and 10%, respectively. large cereals (maize, sorghum) account Total feed resources available perTLU vary for 43%, while small cereals account for from district to district, with an average 48%. of 1.35 t TLU'1. The three districts that have a fairly adequate basal diet (1.7- Estimates on the availability of crop 2.96t TLU) are Danno, Bako-tibe and residues usually depend on harvest Nanno. The majority of the weredas (7) indices under research conditions belong to the cluster representing modest (Nordbloom 1988). The availability of crop feed availability (1.2-1.5t T L U 1), which is residues varies from district to district. about 70% of the threshold required for Under consideration of field losses and the maintenance of one TLU per annum. alternative uses, about 1.22 million tons Weredas in this cluster include Cheliya, of crop residues are annually available Adeberga, Metarobi, Ejere, Dendi, Jeldu for livestock feed (Table 9). Six districts, and Gindeberet. Weredas with severe feed namely Gindeberet, Cheliya, Danno, shortage (l.O tT L U 1) include Tikur Enchini, Ambo, Bako-tibie and Nano, account for Welmera and Ambo. The estimates suggest about 70% of the crop residue available for that most of the districts are operating livestock feed in the zone. These districts under severe feed shortage, while only also account for more than 50% of the a few of them are securely provided grazing herbivores in the zone. Residues with sufficient amounts of feed. Grazing of small cereals account for 54% of the herbivores depend on native pasture in total crop residues, while residues of large some weredas (Adebega, Gindeberet), cereals and pulses account for 42 and 4%, while in others (Cheliya, Welemera) respectively. Accounting for 41% of the crop residues are the main basal diet. total crop residues tef straw is the single The following sections comprehensively most important crop residue, followed by describe the status of each basal diet in maize stover and sorghum stover with the zone. respective shares of 28 and 14% of the 2.5.2 Grazing pasture total crop residues produced in the zone. The available crop residue per ruminant A total of 81.388 ha of grazing land are population per annum varies from 0.22 estimated to be available in the western tons in Tikur Enchini to 0.81 to 2.It TLU'1 Shewa zone (Table 8). The current annum-1 in Danno, with a mean of 0.81 t Cyperus/sedge are highly dominating. But TLU'1 annum'1 (Table 10). the proportion of legumes is increasing and has already improved in relatively 2.5.4. Agro-industrial/industrial by­ drained and totally drained pasture areas products and compound feeds (Table 12). The availability of this type of pastureland is very rare, as it was mostly Various agro-industrial by-products are utilised for the cultivation of crop rather produced in the zone or adjacent sites than grazing in both districts. Humphrey (Table 11). (1978) has emphasised that some pastures and soils are more easily invaded by weeds 3. An overview of research findings than others. For instance, Cenchrus ciiiaris Institutions responsible for undertaking is resistant to invasion under heavily animal feeds and nutrition research include stocked conditions; Panicum maximum the Holetta and Bako Agricultural Research is more vulnerable in this respect. As Centers. Research in this discipline indicated by Lulseged (1985), overgrazed like any other disciplines has started grasslands, particularly in the highlands, in the mid 1960's at the Department are dominated by Pennisetum schimperi, of Animal Sciences. In the mid 1980's, which is a coarse, unpalatable grass. animal feeds and nutrition research was Similarly, Cyperus/sedge species are more streamlined as a research division in both resistant to water-logging than other institutions. Later in the mid 1990's, with species. The overall proportion of legumes the new proclamation which established in commonly used pasture in both districts The Ethiopian Agricultural Research is very low. Organization (EARO), Animal Feeds and Nutrition was reorganised as a national 3.1.2. Productivity of natural pasture Research Programme encompassing In the highlands there seems to be enough two projects ("Forage and Pasture" and forage during the wet season and soon "Animal Nutrition"). With the new set-up after. The average dry matter yields of of the research extension "Farmer Linkage relatively drained (not freely drained) Advisory Council", the west Shewa zone natural pasture are 9.54, 0.65 and 0.16 falls under the mandate of the Holetta DM ha-1; 2.48, 0.58, and 0.56 DM h a 1 Research Center. The following review at Sululta-Mullo and Adeberga districts therefore mainly focuses on the findings during the main, dry and "Belg" seasons, of the Holetta Research center and other respectively. The reason why it seems high institutions deemed necessary. In the during the main season is that during this following sections findings are highlighted time the seasonally water-logged grazing on the basis of feed categories. area is preserved for hay preparation. After the hay harvest animals are allowed 3.1. Native pasture to graze. After the harvest of hay, the DM forage yield declines dramatically (Table 3.1.1. Botanical composition 13). This conforms to the assessment Seasonally water-logged grazing areas made by Zinash and Seyuom (1991), who were noted to be dominated by grass report a remarkable seasonality in the species such as Adropogon abyssinicus, yield and quality of native pasture in the Pennisetum and Cyperus/Sedge. The central highlands. proportion of legumes in this type of grazing land is very low (Table 12). The relative The DM yield of natural pasture is better abundance of pasture species varies from in seasonally water-logged areas, which place to place, depending on the intensity are reserved for hay preparation, than of water-logging. In seasonally water­ in the relatively drained areas. The logged areas Andropogon abyssinicus and average forage DM yields are 13.98t DM h a 1 at Sululta - Mullo and 11.36t DM ha' pasture management has to be carried out 1 at Adaberga during the main season. in order to support dairy production. The This complies with the work of Alemu T. second major limitation is the inherently (1991), who reported that protected fallow low nutritional quality of feed resources. lands reserved for hay preparation in Arjo Because of its seasonality in quality, native Awraja give a herbage yield of 9t ha'1 pasture cannot support the maintenance and highly grazed old grasslands 5t ha-1 requirement and animals often lose about DM at altitude ranges of 2000 - 2500m 20% of their live weight, especially during The species composition of the relatively the dry season of the year (Figure 1). drained areas is good. Relatively drained and drained natural pastures have a better 3.2. Crop residues legumes composition than seasonally water-logged grazing areas (Table 13). As 3.2.1. Chemical composition stated by IDRC (1985), in the highlands Crop residues are generally characterised annual native pasture yields range from 1 by a low CP but high amounts of cell wall to 2t DM ha-1 on freely drained, relatively and cell wall constituents (Table 15). infertile soils and up to 4-6t DM ha-1 from Their crude protein content is lower than seasonally water-logged fertile areas. the threshold required for a positive N Similarly, in this study the mean annual balance in an animal. The fiber content is yields of relatively (not freely) drained also higher than the value suggested to pasture were found to be 3.45t DM ha-1 limit the intake of animals. Among cereal in Sululta - Mullo and 4.35t DM ha-1 in the crop residues, the crude protein content Adaberga district; whereby the seasonally of teff straw is higher than that of wheat water-logged pasture area shows 4.96t straw and close to that of barley straw and DM ha 1 at Sululta - Mullo and 4.35t DM native hay. By-products of food legumes ha'1 in the Adaberga district. have relatively higher amounts of crude protein and less total fiber as compared to During the main season attempts were cereal crop residues. made to determine the forage DM yield of dominant pasture species mainly by grouping them into broad categories such 3.2.2. Digestibility and energy value as grasses, legumes and forbs. As indicated Cereal crop residues are normally in Table 14, grasses constitute the highest characterised by low digestibility and proportion of the total forage DM yield energy value, which are both inherent across all the areas. In contrast to this, in their chemical composition. The mean in all types of natural pasture assessed in vitro digestibility of some cereal crop across the districts, the contribution of residues shown in Table 16 is about 48%, legumes to the total yield was very low. which is lower than the minimum level required for quality roughage. 3. 1.3. Quality of natural pasture The productivity of natural pastures in Because of their higher N content, most of seasonally water-logged areas in the the residues of food legumes have a better highlands has a high potential for dairy digestibility and a higher energy value. production if properly managed. This type The in vitro digestibility and the energy of pasture even has a relatively good value of teff straw are higher than those quality. The problem is that the pasture of the other cereal crop residues (wheat or is not used for hay preparation, especially barley straw) and closer to that of native in the Ada Berga areas. Therefore, the hay. farmers in this area have to practice hay­ making instead of using the pasture as standing hay. In other areas intervention in 3.2.3. Voluntary intake when fed alone to ruminants is given in The reported voluntary intake of cereal Table 19. The energy supply is marginal crop residues is summarised in Table 17. to maintenance requirement, while the Oats straw has the highest voluntary intake protein supply is far below the maintenance followed by teff straw. The voluntary intake requirement. The growth rate or production of teff straw varies from 1.63% to 2.5% level of animals fed solely on teff straw is and from 1.87% to 1.91% of live weight primarily limited by the supply of essential for small ruminants and large ruminants, amino acids to the tissues. respectively. The mean voluntary intake of teff straw reported so far is 48g k g 1 0.75 Animals fed on a basal diet of wheat for small ruminants, which is lower than straw often fail to extract nutrients the expected level (79g k g 1 0.75) required required for maintenance purposes. The for a good quality forage (Leng 1985). The nutrient supply from an average quality fiber (cell wall) intake of teff straw varies wheat straw covers only 90% and 45% from 30-42g k g 1 0.75 which complies of maintenance requirement in terms of with the theory that sheep can consume protein and energy needs, respectively, about 40g cell wall per kg metabolic body while the nutrient supply from a teff straw size. The calculated cell wall intake for diet is 70% of protein needs and 111% large ruminants is fairly constant (52.7g of energy needs (Table 19). Because of k g 1 0.75) and higher than that of small its low amount of N, high cell wall and ruminants. slow digestion, animals kept on a sole wheat straw diet cannot maintain their N balance. Especially growing animals may 3.2.4. Rumen degradability lose substantial weight due to their high characteristics N requirement. The primary limitation in The ruminal degradability profiles of crop a straw-based diet is therefore N supply, residues and other roughage are given in both quantitatively and qualitatively. Table 18. Teff straw has a higher potential degradability than barley straw but it is similar to that of native hay. Since ruminal Supplemented diets degradability parameters of fibrous feeds Animal performances on diets based can explain most of the variations (r=0.95) on supplemented crop residue vary in feed quality and animal response considerably depending on the type (Orskov 1989), it is appropriate to expect and level of supplements (Table 20). more animal production from diets based Supplemented crop residue diets can on teff straw than on other crop residues. support a mean live weight gain of about 555g d a y 1 for local animals, while the growth performance for crossbred cattle on 3.2.5. Animal performance based on similar diets varied from 820 to 940g d a y1 crop residue with a mean of 907g d a y1. Experimental evidence on a teff straw based diet Un-supplemented diets suggests a live weight gain of 629g d a y1 Because of its low amount of N, high cell for indigenous animals. This performance wall and slow digestion, animals kept on a was about 78%, 56% and 32% higher sole teff straw diet cannot maintain their than the performance of similar animals N balance. Especially growing animals fed on a basal diet of wheat straw, oats may lose weight due to their high N hay and native hay. requirements. Losses up to 75g d a y 1 have been reported for young calves fed on a In a series of trials where maize residue sole diet of teff straw (Abule 1994). The was used as a basal diet at the level of 35- estimated nutrient supply from teff straw 50% of the daily intake and supplemented with concentrate, growth performances supplements. Results from experiments of about 750g d a y1 and 913 g day 1 were in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka have been obtained for native steers and crossbred reviewed by Preston and Leng (1984). bulls, respectively (Alemu et al. 1978, Their review indicates that a treated O'Donovan and Alemu 1978). At a 50% residue can support a daily gain of 500g of inclusion of maize residues, the reported young growing cattle with a small amount figures suggest a daily gain of 650g for of by-pass supplement. Urea treatment native steers. of straw can also make the preservation of the straw possible. It causes ammonia decomposition with improved digestibility 3.2.6. Strategies to enhance the by the hydrolytic cleavage of the urea utilisation of crop residues as livestock and the release of ammonia. With such feed a practice, the addition of easily soluble Animals tend to consume a lower amount carbohydrate (such as molasses) to the of feed with low digestibility and a poor straw, in combination with urea treatment, rate of digestion. This results in low has a positive effect. The residual un­ consumption of nutrients. Digestibility decomposed urea in the straw material can and intake of straw can be increased by also serve as an ideal N source for rumen chemical treatment, and if accompanied by organisms. The use of urea treated crop supplementation, better animal responses residue is a biologically and economically can be attained. Various chemical feasible option for an optimised use of treatments have been used to overcome crop residue as perceived by farmers the problems of digestibility plus low feed (Table 23). intake and to increase the potential rate and extent of digestibility of fibrous feeds. An assessment of the economic viability of Among the chemicals used to treat crop straw treatment has been investigated by residues, the dominant ones are urea and Schere and Ibrahim (1989) for different sodium hydroxide. types and levels of production and has led to the conclusion illustrated in Table 24. The use of the fertiliser urea to upgrade The decision on the use of straw the nutritive value of crop residue has ammoniation, supplementation or a been explored in various regions and quite combination of both is governed by the encouraging results have been reported input prices relative to each other, labour (Tables 21 and 22). In general, the costs, the animals' productive state and benefits of urea treatment are increasing production level, as well as the price for digestibility, voluntary intake, protein animal products. and animal performance. Changes in the chemical composition in response to urea treatment are variable, depending 3.3. Agro-industrial by-products on the composition of the crop residue. The crude protein content of crop residue 3.3.1. Availability could be increased by 2.5 (from 4 to 10%) There is no resource base study in response to urea treatment, while the undertaken so far to describe the quantity improvement in voluntary intake is about and distribution of agro-industrial by­ 25% (from 78 to 98g k g 1 metabolic body products in Ethiopia. Estimates of MOA weight). (1985) suggest a total of 680.000t of agro-industrial by-products to be annually A quite substantial amount of improvement produced in the country. This figure can in animal performance has been be increased substantially because of obtained, especially if the treated crop an increase in cottage industries and an residue is supplemented by appropriate increase in raw material production over 4.2. On-farm testing of nutritional the last 15 years. The major agro-industrial interventions in various farming by-products include oilseed cakes, flour mill by-products and grain screenings, system molasses, brewer's grain, coffee pulp and Biological and economic benefits can also slaughter by-products. be attained by an optimal utilisation of available feed resources. This strategic 3.3.2. Nutritional characteristics choice helps to reduce the pressure on natural resources and serves as a basis for Table 25 illustrates research undertaken to sustainable livestock development. Best characterise and assess the supplementary bet technologies/knowledge have been value of agro-industrial by-products tested in various farming systems of the produced in Ethiopia. country. Because of their wider application to similar environments, the results 3.2.3. Improved forage and pasture achieved thus far, the lessons learned and crops their implications for the west Shewa zone are described below. In the long term research endeavors of the forage and research activities of HARC, more than ten forage species were 4.2.1. Multi-nutrient block and identified. Recommendations have been supplementary protein source issued for different agro-ecological zones. The use of a multi-nutrient block and of The overall yield improvement was four to a supplementary protein source have six times the productivity of native pasture been tested in the mixed crop livestock, (Table 26). pastoral/agro-pastoral and peri-urban livestock production systems (Table 28). 4. An overview of on-farm testing and The results (Table 29) achieved so far technology transfer efforts suggest that this intervention can double the milk production of cross bred cows (in the mixed crop livestock system) and 4.1. Forage development efforts on farmer's field of local cows (pastoral/agro-pastoral). Responses in the peri-urban production Promising forage and pasture crops system are marginal and depend on the for various agro-ecological zones have feeding practices followed in each farm. been identified. The best ones have been advanced to on-farm testing, demonstration and promotion. On-farm 4.2.2. Use of urea treated crop residue forage development efforts have been in ruminant diet launched in four districts (two from west Urea treated wheat and teff straws have Shewa and the other two from south-west been tested in the diet of lactating zebu Shewa), involving a total of 57 farmers cows at Adadi and crossbred cows at Kuyu, (Table 27). The biomass productivity of respectively, taking into consideration a the selected forage crops and farmers' total of 22 farmers and 44 experimental reactions are quite encouraging. Available animals. The results suggest that it is information suggests that the economic possible to increase the milk production benefit derived from the use of these feed of zebu cows from 1.3 to 2.31 co w 1 day resources is the major determinant for 1 and that of crossbred cows from 3.35 the adoption of the mixed crop livestock to 6.901 co w 1 d a y1. This implies a 105% system. Strategic choices in terms of improvement for crossbred and 77% species and varieties coupled with an improvement for local cows compared to appropriate method of integration into the farmers' practice. The use of urea treated farming system need to be considered for crop residue in fattening diet also suggests a sustainable feed production in the zone. that it is possible to increase the weight gain of zebu oxen from 0.71kg anim al1 References da y1 to 1.0kg anim al1 d a y1, implying a Abule, E. (1994) Performance of crossbred 50% improvement in live weight gain of calves fed tef (Eragrosist tef) straw local oxen as compared to the farmers' supplemented with graded levels of cow conventional practice. pea (Vigna unguiculata) and Dolichos lablab (Lablab purpureus) hay. MSc thesis, 5. Conclusions and recommendations Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya, Based on research and development Ethiopia. experiences in the zone and in similar environments, the following conclusions Alemu G.W., O'Donovan P.B., Hailu G.M, Beyene and recommendation can be made: K. and Galal E.S.E. (1978) Fattening studies The diversity of the zone in terms with crossbred bulls. Rate and efficiency of of agro-ecology, farming systems gain on diets of maize stover residues and and resource bases requires concentrates. J Agric Sci (Camb), 90: pp. a thorough study supported 431-434. by modern tools in order to characterise the environment. Bonsi M.L.K., Osuji P.O., Nsahlai I.V. and Tuah Cattle account for 82% of the A.K. (1994) Graded levels of Sesbania grazing herbivore in the West sesban and Leucaeana leucocephala as Shewa Zone. supplements to tef straw given to Ethiopian The respective contribution of Menz sheep. Anim Prod, 59: pp. 235-244. crop residues, native pasture, and aftermath grazing is 62%, Butterworth M.H. and Mosi A.K. (1986) The 28% and 10 %, respectively. voluntary intake and digestibility of different The current scenario of grazing combination of cereal residues and legume pressure on native pasture in the hays for sheep. ILCA Bulletin, 24: pp. 14- zone is 24 TLU ha-1, ranging from 17. 5 TLU in Meta-robi to 83 TLU in Gindeberet. CSA (Central Statistics Office) (2003) Agricultural The current feed supply in the sample survey 2001/2. Report on area and zone amounts to only 70% of production for major crops (private peasant the annual feed requirement for holdings, meher season). maintenance purposes. The three districts which have a Ghiad E.G., El-Nouby H.M., Gomaa M. and fairly adequate basal diet (1.7- Mohamed A.H. (1989) Digestibility and 2.96t TLU'1) are Danno, Bako- acceptability of ammoniated rice straw by tibie and Nonno. sheep. Proceedings of the Egyptian-British Districts under severe feed conference on animals, fish and poultry shortage (less than It DM TLU' production. x) include Tikurenchini, Welmera and Ambo. Gupta B.N., Chopra R.C and Kisan J. (1986) Experiences of on-farm testing Studies on the influence of different sources of promising feed technologies of dietary Nitrogen on its metabolism in carried out in this zone or in some crossbred cattle. Indian J of Anim Nutr, 3: others can be used to speed up pp. 8-12. the feed technology transfer.

Humphreys, L.R. (1978) Tropical pastures and fodder crops. Longman Group Ltd, London.

Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) (1976) Result of experiments in animal production.

36 1966/67 to 1975 Animal Production Report (ed) Utilisation of agricultural byproducts No. 1, IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. as livestock feeds in Africa, pp. 87-98. Proceedings of a workshop, Malawi, Ibrahim M.N.M., Fernando D.N.S. and Fernando, September, 1986. S.N.F.M. (1984) Evaluation of different methods of urea ammonia treatment O'Donovan RB. and Alemu G.W. (1978) Maize for use at village level. In: Proceedings residue based fattening diets for Zebu and of the third annual workshop of the crossbred cattle proceedings of IV world AAFARR Network held at the University conference. Animal production. Buenos of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, 17-22 April Aires, Argentina. 1983. School of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria: Olayiwale M.B., Butterworth M.H., Sayers A.R. pp. 131-139. and Olornju J.A. (1986) The effect of supplementing cereal straws with urea, Kearl, L.C. (1982) Nutrient requirement of trifolium hay and noug meal on feed intake ruminants in developing countries. and live weight gain of growing crossbred International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah heifers. ILCA Bulletin, 24: pp. 18-20. Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan,

Utah. 0rskov E.R. (1989) Evaluation of feed resources for ruminants. Paper presented for the Leng, R.A. (1985) Determining the nutritive value first Research coordination meeting and of forages. In: BlatirG.J., Ivory D.A., Evans development of feeding strategies for T.R. (eds) Forages in South East Asia and improving ruminant productivity in areas South Pacific Agriculture. Proceedings of o f fluctuating nutrient supply through the an international workshop held at Cisrura, nuclear and related techniques. 13-17 Indonesia, 19-23 August 1985. Australian March 1989, Vienna International Center, Center for Agricultural Research, No 12: Vienna, Austria. pp. 112-123. Sadullah M., Haque M. and Dolberg F. (1981) Lulseged G.H.and Alemu T. (1985) Pasture Treated and untreated straw for growing Research and Development in Ethiopia. In: cattle. In: Proceedings of maximum Kategile J.A. (ed) Pasture Improvement livestock production from minimum land. Research in Eastern and Southern Africa, Department of Animal Science, Bangladesh pp. 77 - 92. Proceedings o f a workshop held Agricultural University: pp. 136-155. in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 September 1984. IDRC, Ottawa, Ont., IDRC. Schere J.B. and Ibrahim M.N.M. (1989) Feeding of urea ammonia treated straw. A compilation Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) (1985) Livestock of miscellaneous reports produced by the sector review. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. straw utilisation project, Sri Lanka.

Nordbloom T. (1988) The importance of crop Seyoum B. and Zinash S. (1989) The composition residues as feed resources in west Asia of Ethiopian feedstuffs. Research report No and north Africa. In: Proceedings of plant 6. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis breeding and the nutritive value of crop Ababa, Ethiopia. residues workshop held at ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 7-10 December, 1987. Seyoum B. (2004) The effects of level of urea ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: pp. 41-63. and treatment duration on chemical composition of cereal crop residues. Paper Nuwanyaka M.Y. and Butterworth M.H. (1986) presented on the national review meeting. Effects of urea, molasses, noug cake and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. legume hay on the intake and digestibility of teff straw by highland sheep. In: Arnab Trung L.T., Palo L.P., Atrga T.A., Bein R.R. and Plapind R.R. (1988) Dose response of goats fed urea treated rice straw with varying supplementation rates: intake and digestibility by markers. Ruminant feeding systems utilizing fibrous agricultural crop residues, Cambera, Australia, International development programme of Australian Universities and College Ltd: pp. 245-251.

Wanapat M., Praserusk S., Chnthai S. and Sinaphagum (1982) Effect on rice straw utilisation with ammonia released from urea and supplementation with casava chips. In: Proceedings of the utilisation of fibrous agricultural residues as animal feeds. School of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Melbourne, Paliville, Victoria: pp. 95-101.

Walli T.K., Subba R. A., Mahendra S.D.V., Rangnekar P.K., Pradhan R.B. et al. (1995) Urea treatment of straw. In: Kiran S. and Schiere J.B. (eds) Handbook for straw feeding systems. Indian consul of Agricultural Research and Department of Animal Production Systems, Agricultural University of Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Wanapat M., Srwattanasombat S. and Chanthal S. (1985) The utilisation of diets containing untreated rice straw, urea ammonia treated rice straw and water hyacinth. Trop Anim Pro, 10(1): pp. 50-57.

Zinash S. and Seyoum B. (1991) Utilisation of feed resources and feeding systems in the central zone of Ethiopia. Proceedings o f the third livestock improvement conference, 24-26 May 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: pp. 129-132.

38 Table 1: Agro-ecological classification of the West Shewa Zone (area overage in percent).

District „ n n i9,nnnnd , 1 ,nn , Low land <1500 masl Total area (ha) 2500-3000 masl 1500-2500 masl ' Gindeberet - 40 60 236.903 Jeldu 60 32 8 139.387 Ambo 23 60 17 149.094 Cheliya 15 55 28 181.781 Bakotibe 12 37 51 64.469 Danno 5 80 15 65.912 Nanno 22 23 55 125.096 Tikurenchini 76 24 - 53.806 Dendi 30 60 10 151.338 Ejere 45 55 - 56.981 Adaberga 29 34 37 98.076 Welemera 45 46 - 75.500 Metarobi 20 35 45 93.768 Average 30 45 25

Source: Zonal basic data (2000)

Table 2: Clustering of districts by dominant agro-ecology.

Range of Contribution to zonal Agro-ecology District coverage (%) livestock population High land Tikurenchini, Jeldu 45-76 13 Ejere, Ambo, Cheliya, Mid-highland 46-80 49 Danno, Dendi,Welmera Ginderberet, Nonno, Low land Bako-tibie, Meta-Robi and 37-60 36 Adeberga

Source: Zonal basic data (2000)

Table 3: Human population and estimated density of the west Shewa zone.

Density Area (km2) Population District (number knrr2) Gindeberet 2369 196.014 83 Jeldu 1394 180.759 130 Ambo 1491 221.022 148 Cheliya 1818 208.863 115 Bakotibe 645 105.638 164 Danno 659 82.105 124 Nanno 1251 120.493 96 Tikurenchini 538 64.093 119 Dendi 1513 206.917 137 Ejere 570 75.767 133 Adaberga 981 100.774 103 Welemera 755 114.531 152 Metarobi 937 134.453 143 Average 127

Source: Zonal basic data (2000). Table 4: Land-use pattern of different districts of the West Shewa Zone ('000 ha).

Wereda Total area Cultivated land Grass land Forest Others Adeaberga 98 36 26 7 29 Ambo 149 103 4 11 31 Bako 64 35 15 3 11 Cheliya 182 107 39 14 22 Danno 66 35 18 8 5 Dendi 151 71 42 13 25 Ejere 57 32 11 10 4 Gindeberet 237 102 87 25 23 Jeldu 139 66 37 11 25 Metarobi 94 46 26 8 14 Nonno 125 51 20 42 12 Tikurenchini 54 14 1 3 36 Welmera 76 32 11 20 13 Total 1492 730 337 175 250 % contribution 100 49 22 12 17

Source: Zonal basic data for 2000

Table 5: Livestock population by district (TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit).

% Bee Region Cattle Sheep Goats Horse Asses Mule Total TLU Poultry contri­ hives bution Gindeberet 144819 1883 2639 7966 7390 521 165218 77331 21593 10.71 Jeldu 117930 7089 1889 13108 5589 473 146078 95160 101613 9.47 Ambo 148180 4895 3215 13542 14864 424 185120 138156 15145 12.00 Cheliya 149595 2186 1216 10582 9038 499 173116 145354 16507 11.22 Bakotibe 72523 702 524 1120 4612 1498 80979 97205 13666 5.25 Danno 64904 523 515 1180 2042 889 70053 77803 8382 4.54 Nanno 80499 1895 1169 6876 4840 1027 96306 108402 7766 6.24 Tikurenchini 42618 2690 329 10978 855 258 57728 89923 1602 3.74 Dendi 132083 7490 1732 18994 11728 670 172697 146390 8507 11.20 Ejere 47742 2319 593 5300 5829 422 62205 53377 2986 4.03 Adeberga 82400 3676 1773 5354 8416 363 101982 59635 7916 6.60 Welemera 61914 3393 649 5542 13594 113 85205 64575 3197 5.52

Metarobi 85430 3857 2740 5095 5868 234 103224 67102 9893 6.69 Total 1230637 42598 18983 105637 94665 7391 1499911 100.00

Source: CSA (2003) Table 6: Estimates of feed resource utilisation (percentage of total use).

Green fodder Improved Others Region Crop residue Hay By-products grazing feed Gindeberet 79.84 15.30 ... 2.01 0.06 2.79 Jeldu 71.34 20.68 .... 1.41 0.84 4.53 Ambo 76.36 18.71 0.10 1.55 0.53 2.73 Cheliya 79.80 15.58 0.02 0.77 0.20 3.54 Bakotobe 85.53 9.88 0.13 0,29 1.38 2.29 Danno 83.67 10.40 0.08 1.15 0.41 4.10 Nanno 80.33 14,75 .... 0.09 0.02 4.82 Tikurenchini 86.82 10.01 0.01 0.31 0.39 2.47 Dendi 74.54 18.48 0.05 1.42 0.45 4.57 Ejere 57.00 36.97 0.20 1.79 0.24 3.81 Aseberga 75.43 16.55 0.06 3.84 0.16 3.95 Welemera 63.46 29.40 0.03 2.95 0.97 3.18 Dawo 51.24 42.60 .... 1.72 3.12 1.26 Metarobi 72.57 17.29 0.07 6.34 0.03 3.91 Zonal mean 74.17 19.82 0.06 1.87 0.63 3.43 Regional mean 69.36 21.73 0.09 3.39 1.26 4.23

Source: CSA (2003)

Table 7: Estimates of feed availability (basal feed) in the west Shewa zone by district ('000 ton per annum).

Aftermath Feed/TLU (t District Crop residue Grazing land Total grazing y r 1) Gindeberet 17 145 50 212 1.28 Jeldu 16 89 74 179 1.23 Ambo 24 135 9 168 0.91 Cheliya 23 169 79 271 1.46 Bakotibe 10 105 31 146 1.80 Danno 18 146 36 200 2.96 Nanno 14 106 41 161 1.68 Tikurenchini 7 13 1 21 0.36 Dendi 23 91 85 199 1.15 Ejere 10 48 22 80 1.29 Adaberga 13 67 53 133 1.30 Welemera 9 32 21 62 0.73 Metarobi 8 74 52 134 1.30 All 192 1220 554 1966 1.35 Percentage contribution 10 62 28 100 Table 8: Estimates of grazing pressure on natural pasture in the west Shewa zone by district.

Grazing herbivore Grazing intensity Region Grazing land in ha Feed/TLU (TLU) (TLU h a 1) Gindeberet 1978 165218 83 1.28 Jeldu 6407 146078 23 1.23 Ambo 10352 185120 18 0.91 Cheliya 9395 173116 18 1.46 Bakotobe 2522 80979 32 1.80 Danno 2676 70053 26 2.96 Nanno 5857 96306 16 1.68 Tikurenchini 1590 57728 36 0.36 Dendi 15608 172697 11 1.15 Ejere 3068 62205 20 1.29 Aseberga 8476 101982 12 1.30 Welemera 5178 85205 16 0.73 Metarobi 8281 42526 5 1.30 All 81388 1499911 24 1.35

Table 9: Estimates of crop residue production by districts ('000 ton).

District Tef Barley Wheat Maize Sorghum Pulses Total Contribution (%) Gindeberet 75 1 5 33 28 3 145 12 Jeldu 26 10 11 12 30 0 89 7 Ambo 60 12 11 27 17 8 135 11 Cheliya 47 9 11 73 22 7 169 14 Bakotibe 15 1 2 82 5 1 105 9 Danno 80 0 2 31 24 9 146 12 Nanno 30 6 2 44 20 4 106 9 Tikurenchini 2 8 1 2 0 0 13 1 Dendi 41 18 10 14 0 8 91 7 Ejere 26 5 4 2 5 6 48 4 Adaberga 44 4 4 8 2 5 67 5 Welemera 18 9 2 0 1 2 32 3 Metarobi 31 3 5 9 24 2 74 6 Total 495 86 69 337 178 55 1220 100 Contribution 41 7 6 28 14 4 100 % Table 10: Zonal availability of crop residue in relation to livestock population in West Shewa.

District Available straw (103t) Livestock population (103) Residue t TLU 1 annum 1 Gindeberet 145 165 0.88 Jeldu 89 146 0.61 Ambo 135 185 0.73 Cheliya 169 173 0.98 Bakotibe 105 81 1.23 Danno 146 70 2.08 Nanno 106 96 1.10 Tikurenchini 13 58 0.22 Dendi 91 173 0.53 Ejere 48 62 0.77 Adaberga 67 102 0.66 Welemera 32 85 0.38 Metarobi 74 103 0.72 1220 1500 0.81

Source: CSA (2003)

Table 11: Estimates of agro-industrial by-products and compound feeds.

Quantity By-product Remark Sources ('000 t y r1) Various zones of Oromiya Oilseed cakes 116 OESPO (1999) 95% from East Shewa Wheat bran 54 East/west Shewa from four mills in Oromiya OESPO (1999) Coffee pulp 35 From Oromiya regional state OESPO (1999) Brewery by­ 76 From breweries in Oromiya and Addis Ababa OESPO (1999) product Molasses 125 From three sugarcane factories in Oromiya OESPO (1999) From four feed mixing plants in Addis Ababa and Compound feeds 185 OESPO (1999) Oromiya Total 591

Table 12: The proportion of botanical composition of natural pasture in West and North Shewa districts.

Dominant vegetation (%) at various sites Enclosure Seasonally water-logged Relatively drained District Grasses Legumes Others Grasses Legumes Others Grasses Legumes Others

Suluta 48.80 47.12 4.08 92.05 4.00 3.95 40.03 51.01 8.95 - Mullo Were-jarso ...... 74.8 23.00 2.20 ...... Wuchale 59.20 13.00 27.80 .... — ...... Ada Berga 59.37 24.81 15.82 79.97 11.87 8.16 87.48 4.13* 8.39 Ambo 46.60 13.20 58.8 78.20 18.00 ...... - Gindeberet 78.40 15.40 6.20 74.2 18.00 8.00 ......

Note: there was undergrazing at the time of sampling. Table 13 Average productivity (DM t h a1) of natural pasture in selected sites of the West and North Shewa Zones.

District Site Mean Range Relatively drained 1.21 0.58 - 2.48 Adeberga Seasonally water-logged 4.35 0.45 - 11.36 Enclosure 14.69 Enclosure 2.53 1.66 - 3.36 Gindeberet Seasonally water-logged 1.50 1.09 - 2.40 Enclosure 1.63 0.92 - 3.13 Ambo Seasonally water-logged 1.38 0.39 - 1.96 Dendi (Galessa) Seasonally water-logged 0.55 0.1 1 - 1.14 Ejere (dobbi) Enclosure 1.62 0.80 - 3.20 Ejere (Addisalem) Enclosure 4.26 3.00 - 6.20 Welmera (HRC) Enclosure 4.35 2.80 - 5.10 Welmera (Sademo) Enclosure 1.94 0.80 - 4.50 Wuchale Seasonally water-logged 1.98 0.66 - 3.04

Table 14: Average productivity (DM t h a1) of different species of natural pasture under different conditions during the main season of the year.

Average forage DM yield (t h a 1) Site description Pasture species Sululta - Mullo district Adaberga district Grasses 12.31 12.46 Legumes 0.27 0.51 Seasonally water-logged Forbs 0.23 0.31 Total 12.81 13.28 Grasses 7.51 10.38 Legumes 2.37 Nil Relatively drained Forbs 0.45 Nil Total 10.33 10.38 Grasses 9.68 11.42 Legumes 1.41 0.45 Enclosure Forbs 0.31 1.27 Total 11.40 13.14

Table 15: Chemical composition of crop residues and other dry roughage (% DM basis).

Feed DM Ash CP NDF ADF Lignin Teff straw (21)* 92.4 7.1 6.0 74.5 42.4 7.7 Wheat straw (10)* 92.9 7.2 3.9 77.2 48.2 7.9 Oats straw (2) 92.5 7.1 2.4 75.7 56.9 6.6 Barley straw (10)* 93.1 8.3 6.2 73.2 45.0 6.3 Fingermillet straw (3) 92.06 7.0 6.6 60.1 33.1 6.5 Chickpea straw (5) 92.8 9.8 4.4 54.9 41.1 11.1 Pea straw (4) 91.9 6.0 7.9 68.7 54.8 17.9 Beans straw (2) 92.5 8.7 5.9 66.5 54.2 11.1 Native hay (9)* 92.2 9.5 6.6 73.8 45.5 8.3

* Number in parenthesis indicates number of samples analysed Source: Seyoum and Zinash (1989)

44 Table 16: In vitro digestibility and energy values of some crop residues and other roughage.

Feed type No. of samples IVDOMD (%) EME (MJ k g 1) Teff straw 14 53.20 8.35 Wheat straw 8 45.50 7.14 Barley straw 10 48.03 7.60 Lentil straw 1 62.80 9.40 Fababean straw 1 34.43 5.16 Beans straw 2 49.65 7.45 Pea straw 4 56.40 8.8 Lathyrus pea 1 55.20 8.3 Native hay 9 54.50 8.60

Table 17: Reported voluntary intake of crop residues.

Dry matter intake LlVt: INL>»r II ILCJKC No Crop residue Animal percent Source weight G/kgW075 g/kgW0-75 live weight Nuwanyakpa and 1 Teff straw Sheep 17.9 1.81 37.3 29.69 Butterworth (1986) Butterworth and Mosi, 2 Teff straw Sheep 20 2.39 48.6 37.68 (1986) 3 Teff straw Sheep 21 2.50 52.6 41.55 Bonsi et at. (1994) 4 Teff straw Sheep 16.7 1.94 72.1 55.61 Abule (1994) 5 Teff straw Heifers 210 2,14 84.5 59.9 Olayiwale et at. (1986) Butterworth and Mosi, 6 Teff straw 2.30 48.6 (1986) 7 Wheat straw Heifers 210 1.88 71.5 51.62 Olayiwale et al. (1986) Butterworth and Mosi, 8 Wheat straw 2.10 44.4 (1986) Butterworth and Mosi, 9 Oats straw 2.70 57.1 (1986) Butterworth and Mosi, 10 Maize stover 2.00 42.3 (1986)

Table 18: Nylon bag dry matter disappearances of crop residues and other roughage (%).

Dry matter disappearances at different incubation hour

Feed ------

0 9 24 36 48 72 96

Teff Straw 22.2 30.9 45.3 54.2 58.2 67.9 70.1 Wheat Straw 22.6 27.6 34.9 38.7 45.3 47.6 50.5 Native hay 25.5 30.7 43.6 55.6 61.4 66.0 68.4 Oats hay 37.0 41.2 55.3 64.0 68.8 70.7 72.3

45 Table 19: Nutrient supply of crop residues when fed alone to ruminants.

Basal diet Animal Nutrient supply as % of maintenance*

Type Weight Energy Protein Sheep 15 92 55 25 107 62 35 115 68 Teff straw Cattle 250 122 80 350 114 78 450 114 77 Sheep 15 75 36 25 87 40 35 94 44 Wheat straw Cattle 250 99 52 350 93 50 450 93 50

Mean 90 45

* Maintenance requirement (Kearl, 1982)

Table 20: Growth performance of ruminants fed on a basal diet crop residues.

Experimental animal LCVCI Ul Basal diet Growth supplement Type Weight (kg) (g day*1) Source Teff straw 50 Native steers 186 628 IAR (1976) Teff straw 50 Native steers 193 438 IAR (1976) Teff straw 45 Crossbred calves 158 503 Abule (1994) Maize cobs 50 Native steers 190 541 IAR (1976) Alemu et al. Maize cobs 60 Native steers 212 990 (1978) O' Donovan and Maize cobs 65 Crossbred bulls 192 990 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize cobs 65 Native steers 192 690 Alemu (1978) O ' Donovan and Maize cobs 50 Crossbred bulls 212 950 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize cobs 50 Native steers 212 750 Alemu (1978) O ' Donovan and Maize stover 70 Crossbred bulls 212 920 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize stover 50 Crossbred bulls 212 820 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize stalk 50 Crossbred bulls 205 950 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize stalk 50 Native steers 205 650 Alemu (1978) O ’ Donovan and Maize stalk 50 Crossbred bulls 197 810 Alemu (1978) O' Donovan and Maize stalk 50 Native steers 197 640 Alemu (1978) Maize stover 50 Native steers 192 405 IAR (1976) Wheat straw 50 Native steers 185 352 IAR (1976) Haricot bean 50 Native steers 193 505 haulms IAR (1976)

46 Table 21: The influence of urea treatment on the crude protein content of crop residues (percent DM basis).

Residue Untreated Treated Increase Sources Barley 3.7 7.0 3.1 Seyoum(2004) Rice 4.8 9.2 4.4 Ghiad etal. (1989) Rice 4.0 8.0 4.0 Wanapat etal. (1985) Rice 4.0 16.0 12.0 Gupta et al. (1986) Rice 5.9 8.5 2.6 Trung et al. (1988) Rice 2.9 6.7 3.8 Sadullah etal. (1981) Teff 3.1 7.7 4.6 Seyoum (2004) Wheat 2.4 7.3 4.9 Seyoum (2004) Wheat 4.0 14.0 10.0 Gupta et al. (1986) Average 3.16 7.67 4.51

Table 22. The influence of urea treatment on the digestibility of crop residues ( % DM basis).

Residue Untreated Treated Increase Sources Barely straw 48.0 58.0 10.0 Seyoum et al. (2004) Teff straw 45.0 55.0 10.0 Seyoum et al. (2004) Wheat straw 38.0 48.0 10.0 Seyoum et al. (2004) Rice straw 46.0 54.0 8.0 Wanapt et al. (1982) Rice straw 48..0 52.0 4.0 Ibrahim et al. (1984) Average 45.0 53.4 8.4

Table 23: Scientists' and farmers' perception of urea treatment.

Parameter Improvement CP 4-5 1. Feed quality OMD 5-10 DMI 25-50 Scientists' perception Milk yield litres 0.5-1.0

2. Animal Growth on sole residue g d a y 1 50-100 response Growth on treated residue g d a y 1 100-150

Milk on treated straw alone I d a y 1 2-4 Increase in straw consumption Better growth performance Farmers' Health improvement perception Increase in milk yield (0.5-1.5 cow^day1 Increase in butter fat

Source: Walli et al. (1995)

Table 24: Recommendations on the use of urea treated straw.

Type of animal nutrient need/level of prod. Viable feeding option Few nutrients/maintenance Untreated straw + supplement Milk yield > 3 1 Treated straw Growing animals, high gain Treated straw + supplement Milk yield > 8 1 Treated straw + supplement Draught animals Untreated straw Table 25: Chemical composition and nutritive value of agro-industrial by-products.

By-product DM EE CPNDF IVOMD ME Cottonseed cake 92.56 6.9 26.9 65.1 59.0 8.9 Flax seed cake 94.30 9.9 26.8 36.9 75.7 11.4 Noug seed cake 93.2 7.5 32.7 32.8 62.1 9.3 Wheat bran 92.46 2.7 18.9 53.1 87.1 13.0 Wheat middling 92.90 4.4 18.3 45.0 79.6 11.9 Brewers grain 23.75 3.51 24.90 63.5 Sugarcane molasses 66.45 2.42 5.18 - 95.0

Table 26: Number of recommended forage species for various agro-ecologies and their productivity as compared to native pasture.

Highland Mid-altitude Low land Increment over DM range DM Forage species (>2000 (1500 - 2000 (<1500 native pasture t h a 1 mean masi) masi) masi) %

Grasses 5 6 4 8 - 18 13 225 Herbaceous legumes 4 6 4 6 - 10 8 100 Browse species 1 2 2 9 - 12 10.5 163 Total 10* 14* 10* 10.5 163 Seasonally water-logged (rested) 3 - 5 4 Native pasture Under continuous grazing 0.5 - 1.5 1

* - As most forage crops have a wide adaptation, the figures account for a double count of a given forage species for the different agro-ecologies

Table 27: On-farm forage development efforts.

Estimated Total feed Area covered Forage District No. of farmers forage yield production (ha) (t DM h a 1) (t DM)

Jeldu 18 9 10 90

Kersa-kondaltiti 12 6 8 48 Oats- vetch Weliso 12 6 8 48 Tikur-enchini 15 4 Not sampled - Jeldu 10 1500 seedlings Not sampled Tree lucerene Tikurenchini 15 1500 seedlings Not sampled 25 ha, 3000 Total 4 districts 57 farmers 186 seedlings

Table 28: The set-up for on-farm testing of a multi-nutrient block (MNB).

Experimental Production system No. of weredas Household animals Crop-livestock 1 12-15 24-30 Peri-urban/urban 4 5 (farm) 60 Pastoral/agro-pastoral 1 22 44 Total 6 39 - 42 128-134 Table 29: The influence of nutritional intervention on the average daily milk yield (I) of lactating cows.

Production system Site Control Intervention Increase (1) Crop livestock Kuyu 3.09 7.47 4.38

Holetta 12.70 13.49 0.79

Burayu 7.90 7.83 0.07 Peri-urban/urban Sebeta 10.10 10.79 0.69 Karakore 10.52 9.32 -1.20 Sululta 9.80 11.68 1.88 Pastoral/Agro-pastoral Fentale 1.98 3.14 1.16

Figure 1: Amount of energy and protein provided by natural pasture expressed as percentage of the nutrient requirements for a 350kg steer. Limitation and potential of major soils in the highlands of West Shewa, Ethiopia

Taye Bekele

National Soil Research Center, EIAR, RO. Box 147, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract A large portion of West Shewa is covered with Vertisols, Nitisols, Luvisols and Leptosols. Favorable features for the cropping of these soils with the exception of Leptosols are their extended depth, good nutrient and water retention and high cation exchange capacity. In contrast to these advantages, there are severe problems and hazards, including tillage difficulties and water logging in Vertisols, high P requirements associated with the presence of free iron oxide and soil acidity in Nitisols and shallow depth in Leptosols. The fertility and productivity of the majority of the soils of west Shewa have also reached the lowest level due to continuous cropping with little or no external inputs, removal of soil and nutrients through erosion, deforestation, soil acidity and poor drainage. Attempts are made to alleviate these problems through the use of improved technologies like chemical fertiliser, improved land preparation methods and integrated nutrient management. This paper attempts to review the fertility characteristics and results of investigations carried out to improve the fertility and productivity of these soils.

50 1. Introduction which reduces their productivity. High N West Shewa, which is part of Oromia fertiliser application and improved drainage National Regional State, is located in the increase productivity. Leptosols are very western part of Ethiopia. Geographically, thin soils on steep slopes and hilly sides. it is situated between latitude 80 19'-90 Nitisols are deep clayey, often reddish 57' N and longtiude 350- 360 49' E. The brown soils with an argillic B-horizon. total area is about 21,927 km2, which High leaching of bases occurs in Nitisols means that it covers 2% of the total area resulting in low pH. They contain a high of the country, which is estimated to be level of Al, Fe and Mn (sesquioxides) and 1.1 million km2. have a high P fixing capacity due to oxides. They allow good and deep rooting. In Like in other parts of Ethiopia, the combination with chemical fertiliser they economy of the region depends very much have a good potential for agricultural use. on agricultural production. However, yield Luvisols are red to reddish brown in colour. of crops on the overall is considered very They have an argillic B-horizon, but their low. This is mainly due to the extremely low base saturation is high. They are deep and level of plant nutrients in the soil, which have weatherable minerals. Phosphate does not allow the crops to express their is often low, while N and organic matter potential yields. In the majority of West levels are moderate. They are weakly to Shewa, the soils have been continuously moderately acidic (pH > 5.5). mined for nutrients through harvests and soil erosion. As a result, the fertility and 3. Soil physical and chemical productivity of the soils have reached the characteristics affecting agricultural lowest level. In this paper some important productivity characteristics and research works undertaken to improve the productivity 3.1. Water-logging / poor drainage of some of the major soils found in the highlands of west Shewa are discussed. A large portion of the area on the highlands of west Shewa is covered with Vertisols. Due to the problem of excessive water­ 2. Major soils of West Shewa logging, Vertisols are normally not utilised Available information indicates the for crop production during the main rainy existence of five major soil associations in season. The water-logged soils on level West Shewa. These are Leptosols, Luvisols, plains are usually used as grazing grounds Nitisols, Cambisols and Vertisols (Figure or for growing crops at the end of the 1). Of these, Vertisols, Nitisols, Luvisols rainy season, particularly crops such as and Leptosoils comprise about 85% of the durum wheat and chick-pea, which strive area. The Vertisols cover the flat areas on reserve moisture in the soil during the with slope inclination between 0 and 8%, dry season. High yields are not obtained whereas the Leptosols predominantly occur from such waterlogged areas due to low on steep slopes and hillsides with up to 16% soil fertility and shortage of moisture or more slope inclination. The Luvisols are during the growing period. In general, more or less regularly distributed over flat insufficient drainage is the major problem and hilly areas and Nitisols occur on areas in Vertisols. with slope inclination between 0 and 16%. Vertisols are important agricultural soils in the region with black to gray colour and 3.2. Soil acidity a high content of swelling and shrinking Soils occurring in the warm and humid clay. They crack when dry and swell when areas of west Shewa, particularly those wet. They form gilgai microtopography. lying on well-drained landscapes are Vertisols have a poor drainage condition, usually highly leached and highly acidic.

51 The coverage of acidic soils in west Shewa 4.2. Limited agricultural inputs is estimated to be high. Because of high Although N and P fertilisers are known to P-requirements and a deficiency of the highly increase the yields of the majority base elements associated with soil acidity, of cereal crops, little or no input through yields of cereal crops grown on acidic residue incorporation, or other external soils of west Shewa are very low and the inputs in the form of organic and inorganic response to NP fertiliser is not satisfactory, fertilisers, are being applied. The major either. reasons for the use of a low level of fertilisers are believed to be:

3.3. Low organic matter and total N a) Limited availability of fertilisers (all contents imported) Fertiliser trials carried out in the majority b) Limitations of road infrastructure for a of the area of west Shewa showed a high timely supply of fertilisers response to applied N, indicating the low c) Lack of know-how from the farmers' organic matter and N levels of the soils. side The low N content is associated with loss d) Limited extension services of organic matter, as opposed to poor e) High price of fertilisers drainage (denitrification loss) in Vertisol areas. 4.3. Inappropriate soil management practices 3.4. Available P With the increase of population that lead to Available soil P values show high a decrease of per capita land holdings, the differences depending on soil type and practice of fallowing has been gradually farming system. In general, the level of abandoned and the majority of the land available soil P has been noted to be less is subjected to continuous cultivation. than 10 ppm in most soils of west Shewa. Moreover, the tradition of rotation of cereals A limited number of soils, particularly with pulse and oil crops has also become those with a higher level of organic matter, less and less popular. This is because of are known to have available P levels in the the high demand for certain cereals on the range of 10-20 ppm (Desta 1982; Piccalo market which force the farmers to grow and Huluka 1986). a specific cereal crop year after year in order to get high market prices and be able to survive on their small piece of land. 4. Major causes of fertility decline The result of the elimination of the fallow system, the complete utilisation of crop 4.1. Low inherent soil fertility and residues, less use of dung for soil fertility depletion of plant nutrients restoration and the low level of rotation of Research outcomes have shown that the cereals with pulses have caused excessive majority of cultivated lands in the highlands soil nutrient exhaustion and low yields. of west Shewa are highly responsive to N and P fertilisers because of the high exhaustion of these nutrients from the 4.4. Soil erosion soils as a result of several decades of The landscape as such, its unique continuous cultivation. N and P are the two topography, incidence of heavy most yield-limiting nutrients. Depending deforestation, intensive rainfall and a low on the type of soil, climatic condition, land level of land management are causes of use and cropping system, the levels of heavy soil erosion. The consequences are these nutrients vary from place to place. the low content of mineral nutrients and the low moisture holding capacity of soils.

52 5. Results of investigations carried to be 90kg h a 1. This figure minus the out to improve soil productivity in the available amount of N in the soil gives the highlands of west Shewa N-rates shown in Table 3 and 4.

5.1. Mineral fertilisers (NP) 5.2. Organic fertilisers and improved Based on the result of several field trails, the N- and P-fertiliser rates to be applied cultural practices to obtain maximum yield have been As fertilisers are costly inputs, attempts established for major crops soil types. Table have been made to develop improved and 1 shows NP fertiliser recommendations affordable nutrient management systems, made for cereals, oil crops and pulses. based on available organic sources such In addition to the determination of the as farmyard manure, green manure and optimal fertiliser rate, the timing of biofertiliser, for the major cereals oil crops fertiliser application and placement that and pulses grown at different locations in offers the highest rate of economic return west Shewa. Results of the experiments to farmers has been investigated for conducted in these areas are summarised several crops. Split application of N (half at below. planting and the other half at full tillering) has been found to increase the grain yield 5.2.1. Green manure of wheat and teff significantly (Asnakew et al. 1991). The experiment on fertiliser Short season legume crops are grown placement indicates that band placement and incorporated into the soil as green of phosphate is much better than broad manure to improve fertility through N- casting. It was also demonstrated that fixation, organic matter addition and the maximum benefit out of fertiliser nutrient cycling. Although limited, studies application can be achieved if other natural to investigate the effect of green manuring soil conditions such as drainage and acidity on the yield of crops have been conducted are improved. in west Shewa. The results of a study at Holetta red soil indicate that compared A greenhouse experiment was undertaken to wheat after wheat, the incorporation at Holetta to select a reliable soil test of vetch increases the wheat yield method on which the phosphorous fertiliser considerably. An increase in the efficiency can be based. As can be seen in Table 2, of the applied fertiliser on the vetch the sodium bicarbonate extraction method incorporated field was also observed in of Olsen was found to be a suitable soil this study (Table 5.). test method for P in Ethiopian soils. Very little work has been done with regard to N. In a field trial conducted at Ginchi, Gare 5.2.2. Farmyard manure (FYM) Arera and Holetta, the N mean method, Experimental results have revealed in which fresh soil samples are extracted that FYM has a positive effect on the with a dilute NaCI + CaCI2 solution to improvement of soil fertility and yield, quantify N03_ and NH4+, was found to be even though the magnitude is location and suitable for predicting the amount of N to climate specific. In general, where there is be applied. no moisture limitation, the positive effect of FYM can easily be observed (Table 6 and With this method the amount of P required 7). by wheat was calculated. For each ton expected grain yields of wheat 30kg N ha-1 were assumed to be necessary. Since three 5.2.3. Biological N-fixation tons grain yield of wheat were expected, The N fixing symbiosis (BNF) which occurs the required amount of N was calculated between leguminous crops and a genus called rhizobium is the most important faba bean and maize. The results from biological process from an economic point such experiments indicate that lime and of view. An important feature of the BNF is phosphate significantly increase the yield that atmospheric N2 is converted biologically of crop on acidic soils (Table 11). The with the help of microorganisms, without major problems in the practical application a great expense of energy, into forms that of these results are the large quantities of plants can assimilate. lime required per unit area of land (< 3.5 t ha-1) to get the desired effects. The physical The principal N fixing systems investigated locations of the lime sources are naturally are food grain legumes such as beans, far away from the acidic soil areas, hence peas, chickpeas and lentils. Studies have demanding high costs of transportation. demonstrated that BNF could play an More intensified investigation is necessary important role in increasing food production on the amendment of acid soils, which are in the region. An increase in yield up to extensively present in Ethiopia. 95% as compared to the uninoculated plot was obtained. Rock phosphate as a source of P The results of limited experiments 5.2.4. Crop rotation conducted to compare the effectiveness of Some investigations have been conducted rock phosphates of different origins as a in an attempt to replace the fallow- source of P for plants indicate that Gafsa barley system of cultivation, which is rock phosphate is more effective than the widely practiced in the region. At Bedi, local Bikilal rock phosphate on Nitisols at for example, high barley yield of 2.8 t Holetta. ha-1 was obtained following trifolium, as compared to 1.7 t h a 1 from continuous cropping of barley (IAR, 1977). In another Agricultural by-products experiment, barley yields of 2.0t ha 1 were The results of experiments conducted obtained following both lupin and vetch on the red soil at Holetta with organic (Table 9). It is interesting to note that in materials such as hoofs and horn and dried the plot where lupin was grown, the soil blood show a marked increase in the yield available P has decreased considerably of wheat and barley (Table 13). Similarly, (Table 10). mustard meal from oil seed processing when incorporated with the soil was found to be a useful source of N. The results 5.2.5. Lime, rock phosphate and show that the application of these material agricultural by-products increases wheat yield significantly, beyond Some experiments have been conducted to the level of the control plot (Table 14). evaluate the fertiliser value of wastes from the processing of plant animal products, as well as natural occurring substances such 5.2.6. Improved drainage as rock phosphate and lime. A summary As in other parts of the Ethiopian highlands, of these findings is presented in table 6 Vertisols in the highlands of West Shewa to 9. are traditionally used for free grazing and very little for crop production. To a Liming to improve acidic soils limited extent, these soils are used for the Greenhouse and field experiments were production of chickpeas and durum wheat conducted on the liming of acidic soils that are planted at the end of the rainy at different locations in order to study season, utilizing the reserve moisture in the effect of lime with and without P the soil. fertiliser on the yield of barley, wheat, At Ginchi, it has been demonstrated that, with the use of improved land preparation or be used to give a site-specific recom­ methods like camber-beds to reduce water­ mendation. Studies are needed that can logging problems, and with the application provide adequate and reliable data on the of N and P fertilisers, higher yields of amount of available nutrient in the soil, cereals can be obtained on Vertisols. It nutrient removal and fertiliser require­ can be seen from Table 15 that additional ments. Soil test calibration studies must yield gains of 560, 303 and 500 kg ha 1 also be initiated on a nationwide scale for of wheat, teff and chickpeas from fertiliser different nutrients / crops / climatic con­ application as a result of improved aeration ditions, as a means to develop site-spe- of the soil or by improved drainage alone. cific fertiliser recommendation schemes However, the preparation of camber-beds for the country. In order to make fertiliser for draining excess moisture from Vertisols application profitable it is also essential to requires mechanisation and could not be consider factors other than soils, includ­ easily done with a traditional local plough, ing time of planting, plant population, dis­ which is pulled by a pair of oxen. ease, insect and weed control and other improved cultivation practices. Further­ Some technology packages on improved more, for an efficient utilisation of organic land preparation methods that are within residues, the importance of storage and the capacity of the farmers have also been application techniques deserves consider­ tested and demonstrated to the farmers. ation. Finally, greater effort must be made This is the broad-beds and furrows (BBF) to promote the utilisation of technologies land preparation method with specially generated from research through inten­ designed tools to fit the local plough system sive demonstration trials. and to be pulled by a pair of oxen. With the use of this drainage technique and the application of fertilisers (NP), along with References improved seeds, the crop and straw yields Asnakew W. (1989) The role of soil fertility on Vertisols were increased substantially management in crop production. In: at the peasant farmer level. Proceedings of the First Natural Resource Conservation Conference. IAR, Addis 6. Conclusions and recommendations Ababa: pp. 65-72.

The potential for improving the productivity Asnakew W., Tekalign M., Mengesha B. and of soils of West Shewa through the Teferra A. (1991) Soil fertility management application of fertiliser or liming and studies on wheat in Ethiopia. In: Hailu G.M., surface drainage has been realised Tanner D.G. and Mengistu H. (eds) Wheat through laboratory, greenhouse and research in Ethiopia: IAR/CIMMYT. field experiments. With the use of these technologies, the currently less productive Balesh, T. (1993) Evaluation o f mustard meal as soils of the region could easily be converted a source of nitrogen. Paper presented at into highly productive soils. Nevertheless, the annual conference of the Crop Science despite the numerous fertiliser trail data Committee of Ethiopia. (Unpublished). available in different parts of the country, it was not possible to establish a soil test Desta, B. (1982) Diagnosis of phosphorus based fertiliser recommendation scheme. deficiency in Ethiopian soils. Soil Science Bulletin No 3, IAR. Addis Ababa. This was mainly due to the inappropriate­ ness of the method and design of the ex­ FAO (1984) Assistance to land-use planning periments used and the absence of ade­ (AG = DP/ETH/82/010). Field documents. quate soil test data on soils. Without infor­ Geomorphology and soils of Ethiopia. mation on soils, the fertiliser trial results Ministry of agriculture, Addis Ababa. could not be extrapolated to similar areas FAO (1986) Highland reclamation study,

55 Ethiopia. AG:VTF/ETH/037, Vol. 1 and 2, 175-193. FAO, Rome. Taye, B. (1994) Effect of lime on the growth and Getachew A. and Taye B. (2005) On-farm biomass yield of barely. Annual Report, integrated soil fertility management in Holetta Research Center, Holetta, Ethiopia. wheat on Nitisols of central Ethiopian highlands. Ethiopian J Nat Resour, 7(2): Taye, B. (2001) Developing alternative for barley pp. 141-155. cropping system in western Shewa. Annual Report. Holetta Research Center, Holetta, Getachew A., Taye B. and Agajie T. (2005) Ethiopia. Phosphorus fertiliser and farmyard manure effects on the growth and yield of faba bean Taye, B. (2002) Evaluation of soil test based N- and some soil chemical properties in acidic fertiliser recommendation methods under Nitisols of the central highlands of Ethiopia. field conditions. Annual Report, Combating Ethiopian J Nat Resour, 7(1): pp. 23-29. Nutrient Depeletion Project (CND). Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Addis Hiruy B. (1986) The effect of drainage system, Ababa, Ethiopia. drainage, spacing and fertiliser on seed yield and other characters of wheat, teff and chickpea on heavy clay soils of Ginchi. Ethiopian J Agric Sci, 8(2): pp. 85-95.

IAR (1977) Holetta-Genet research station progress report for 19775/76. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

IAR (1989) Effect of Rhizobia inoculants on yield of grain legumes in Ethiopia. Progress Report, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Piccolo A. and Huluka G. (1986) Phosphorus status o f some Ethiopian soils, Trinidad. Trop Agr 63: pp. 137-142.

SWRP (1990) Soil and water research strategy document. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Taye B. and Hoefner W. (1993) Effect of different phosphate fertilisers on the yields of barley and rape seed on reddish-brown soils of Ethiopian Highlands. Fert Res, 34: pp.243- 250.

Taye B. and Hoefner W. (1990) Comparison of eight extraction methods on ten reddish brown soils of the Ethiopian highlands. In: Giessener Beitrage zur Entwicklungsforschung, Series I, vol. 18, Wissenschaftliches Zentrum Tropeninstitut, Justus-Liebig-Universitat, Giessen: pp. Table 1: Fertiliser recommendation for cereals, pulses and oil crops.

Fertiliser rate kg ha'1 Location Soil type Crop N P Holetta Nitosol Bread wheat 60 26 Holetta Nitosol Barley 60 26 Holetta Nitosol Tef 40 26 Holetta Nitosol Horse bean 23 20 Holetta Nitosol Field pea 23 20 Holetta Nitosol Linseed 23 20 Holetta Nitosol Rape seed 23 30 Ginchi Vertisol Bread wheat 90 40 Ginchi Vertisol Tef 60 26 Ginchi Vertisol Noug 23 20

Source: SWRP (1990)

Table 2: Correlation coefficient (y) between dry matter yield and P (extracted by soil tests).

Soil test 1st harvest of y Wheat ranks 2nd harvest of y Wheat ranks Average rank Olsen 0.698*** :I 0.683*** 1 1 Saunder 0.562*** 13 0.636*** 7 8 Truog 0.706*** L 0.662*** 4 2 Bray 1 0.601*** (5 0.680*** 2 4 Bray 2 0.642*** :3 0.628*** 8 6 Mehlich 1 0.590*** :7 0.647*** 6 7 Mehlich 2 0.631*** 1 0.670*** 3 3 Egner 0.615*** 15 0.658*** 5 5

Table 3: Comparison of N rate recommendation methods for wheat on homestead soils (mean of four sites) at Gare Arera, west Shewa, Ethiopia.

Treatments N applied (kg h a 1) Grain yield (t ha-1) Straw yield (t ha-1) N applied based on yield goal* 50.5 3.01 4.93 N applied according to site 60 0 2 76 4.64 recommendation Control, without N application 0.0 1.88 3.59 CV (%) 1.27 2.04 LSD (0.05) 2.80 7.70

Source: Taye (2002) Available N kg ha'1 (N-mean method)=54.5; estimated yield (t ha_1)=3.5; N uptake per dt of dry matter of wheat = 30 kg; N required based on expected yield (kg ha 1) = 105 (35*30); N fertiliser applied= N required based on expected yield-available N in the soil. Table 4: Comparison of N rate recommendation methods for wheat on Nitisols (mean of four sites) at Gare Arera, West Shewa, Ethiopia.

N applied Grain yield Straw yield Treatments (kg ha ■) (t h a 1) (t h a 1) N applied based on yield goal* 66.2 2.90 5.92 N applied according to site recommendation 60.0 2.47 4.37 Control, without N application 0.0 1.14 2.71 CV (%) 12.9 19.4 LSD (0.05) 2.4 7.3

Source: Taye (2002) Available N kg ha'1 (N-mean) = 38.8; estimated yield (t ha 1)=3.5; N uptake per dt of dry matter of wheat=30 kg; N required based on expected yield (kg ha_1)=105 (35*30); *N fertiliser applied= N required based on expected yield- available N in the soil.

Table 5: The effect of green manuring on wheat yield (kg h a 1) at Holetta.

Fertiliser sub-plot Wheat after vetch Wheat after wheat Mean N„P„ 2840 940 1890 n„p26 3050 990 2020

N 20 P 0 2910 1040 1980

N 30 P 26 3630 1830 2730

N 60 P 0 3120 1530 2330

N 60 P 26 4550 1960 3260 Mean 3350 1380 2365 NP means Crop means LSD (0.05) 800 1590

Source: Asnakew (1989)

Table 6: Inorganic N and P fertilisers and FYM effects on grain yield (GY), biomass yield (TBY) and thousand-kernel weight (TKW) of wheat from 2003 to 2004 on Nitisols of Welmera area, west Shewa.

Medium fertility Low fertility GY TBY TKW GY TBY TKW Treatment (T) (t h a 1) (t ha !) (g) (t h a 1) (t h a 1) ( g ) N/P/FYM (kg ha'1) 9/10/0 2.63C+ 7.10c 39.22 1.63c 5.06c* 41.00 9/10/8000 3.05b 8.56b 39.03 2.15b 6.23b 39.62 32/10/4000 3.27ab 9.18ab 39.37 2.29b 6.37b 40.55 32/10/8000 3.44a 9.77ab 38.57 2.59a 7.45a 41.03 64/20/0 3.46a 10.06a 37.27 2.78a 8.18a 39.25 F-probability Year (Y) NS NS ** NS NS ** Treatment (T) *** ** NS *** *** NS Y xT NS NS NS NS NS * LSD (0.05) 0.34 1.38 NS 0.23 0.96 NS CV (%) 8.79 12.77 5.24 8.43 11.93 3.94

Source: Getachew and Taye (2005) tMeans in a column with different letters are significantly different at P<0.05. *, **, *** Significant at P<0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 probability level, respectively; NS = Not significant

58 Table 7: The interaction effect of FYM and P fertiliser on faba bean seed yield (kg h a 1) in 2003.

Farmyard manuret P (kg h a 1) 0 (t h a 1) 4 (t h a 1) 8 (t h a 1) 0 606g 1022ef 1589bc 13 896ef 1254d 1471c 26 827f 1579bc 1640bc

Source: Getachew etal. (2005) t Means in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P<0.05.

Table 8: Effect of Rhizobium strains on yield of grain legumes in Ethiopia.

Yield t ha'1 Crop Non-inoculated Inoculated Increase% Faba bean 1.02 1.90 86.2 Soybean 1.52 1.86 22.4 Field pea 1.00 1.95 95.0 Chickpea 2.18 2.36 8.3 Lentil 1.38 1.49 8.0

Source: IAR (1989)

Table 9: Effect of precursor crops and fallowing on grain and straw yields (kg h a 1) of food barley at Siga Meda, west Shewa.

Precursor Mean Grain yield (kg h a 1) Mean straw yield (kg h a 1) Crops Unfertilised Fertilised Unfertilised Fertilised Fallow 1583 2154 6474 7494 Lupin 1960 2229 7216 7828 Trifolium 1435 2247 6288 7716 Barley 1721 2167 6955 7481 Vetch 2035 2199 7171 8033 Oat/Vetch mixture 1772 1925 6756 6955 Mean 1751 2154 6810 7585

Source: Taye (2001)

Table 10: Available P and pH of Nitisols after food and forage legumes, barley and natural fallow in siga Meda, west Shewa.

Crop pH (1:1) H20 Available P (ppm) Olsen Fallow 4.61 6.3 Lupin 4.71 4.8 Trifolium 4.66 6.5 Barley 4.91 8.0 Vetch 4.52 8.5 Oat-vetch mixture 4.69 8.2

Source: Taye (2001) Table 11. Effect of lime on the grain and biomass yields (dt h a 1) of barley on a farmer's field at Adaberga, Central Ethiopia.

Soil pH Total biomass Treatments Grain yield Before application After application yield Lime (3 t ha'1) 19.2 8.4 4.63 5.46 Lime + recommended rate 42.9 12.6 4.73 5.28 of fertiliser Recommended rate of 28.6 10.6 4.65 4.76 fertiliser Control (no lime, no 11.0 3.7 4.62 5.41 fertiliser) CV (%) 13.35 26.04 LSD 5% 6.05 4.59 1% 9.25 6.53

Table 12: Direct and residual effects of different sources of P on the yield of barley and rape seed.

Direct effect (Mg h a 1) Residual effect (Mg ______haj1)______Source of P P rate (kg h a 1) Barley Rape Rape Control 0.0 2.80 0.20 0.28 Bone meal 26.4 3.22 1.28 0.83 52.8 3.73 1.48 1.04 105.6 4.23 1.58 1.19 Tomas 26.4 3.58 0.97 0.59 Phosphate 52.8 4.39 1.04 0.78 105.6 4.86 1.68 1.25 Gasfa Phosphate 26.4 3.64 0.92 0.69 52.8 3.98 1.14 0.88 105.6 4.47 1.84 1.31 Ethiopian Rock 26.4 2.34 0.45 0.05 Phosphate 52.8 1.64 0.82 0.21 105.6 1.44 1.13 0.57 Triple Super Phosphate 26.4 3.64 1.20 0.50 52.8 3.79 1.44 0.96 105.6 4.99 1.38 0.86 LSD 0.05 0.26 0.35 0.32

Source: Taye and Hoefner (1993) Table 13: Effect of different sources of plant nutrient on the grain yield of wheat in kg ha'1.

Mean (kg h a 1) Mean yield (% of control) Treatments Check 1492 100 50 kg DAP h a 1 1996 134 100 kg DAP h a 1 2938 197 150 kg DAP h a 1 2177 146 100 kg Bone meal ha'1 1942 130 200 kg Bone meal ha'1 2502 168 300 kg Bone meal h a 1 1973 132 200 kg Blood meal ha'1 2061 138 400 kg Blood meal h a 1 2326 156 600 kg Blood meal h a 1 1944 130 600 kg FYM h a 1 1965 132 1200 kg FYM ha'1 2728 182 1800 kg FYM h a 1 2941 197

Source: IAR (1977)

Table 14. Effect of mustard meal on the growth and yield of wheat (kg h a 1) on Nitosol a Holetta.

IMP rates Years 1990 1991 1992 285 389 240

N6oP26 1203 986 1172 1722 1333 N 90 P 26 2328 1813 N 120 P 26 2543 1766 3620 N 180 P 26 3422 2339

Source: Balesh (1993)

Table 15: The influence of fertiliser on the grain yield of wheat, teff and chickpea grown under un-drained and drained conditions at Ginchi.

Un-drained Drained

Crop Variety Fo F, Fo Fj Variety mean (t ha-»

Wheat Enkoy 0.40 0.78 0.79 1.77 0.94

Local 0.32 0.56 0.64 1.29 0.70 Mean 0.36 0.67 0.72 1.53 0.82 Teff DZ-01- 354 0.69 1.09 0.85 1.46 1.02 Local 0.79 1.18 0.82 1.47 1.07 Mean 0.74 1.14 0.84 1.47 1.05 Chickpea 41 B 0.93 0.93 1.40 1.40 1.17 Local 0.76 0.86 1.03 1.39 1.01 Mean 0.85 0.90 1.22 1.40 1.09

Source: Hiruy (1986) F0 and Ft denote 'unfertilised' and 'fertilised' respectively. Soil nutrient stocks and fluxes under smallholders' mixed farming system in the central highlands of Ethiopia: research experiences from the Galessa and Gare areas

Amare Haileslassie

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O.Box 5689, Addis Abeba Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract We examined diversity in soil fertility management and resultant agro-ecosystem sustainability in barley-enset and cereals-pulse farming systems of the central highlands of Ethiopia. Galessa and Gare watersheds were selected as study sites. A questionnaire covering key aspects of resource holding and soil fertility management practices was used to collect information from stratified and randomly selected farm households. We applied Geographic Information System (GIS/ARCVIEW) to map the land use. Triplicate soil samples of each five sub-samples (0-30 cm) were collected from every land-use type in the watersheds and the data were subjected to statistical analysis. We calculated partial and full nutrients balance (N, P and K for the 2002/2003 cropping season) and nutrients stocks were connected to flows to visualise system sustainability. Our results showed intra- and inter-farming systems soil fertility gradients. Soil fertility gradients, difference in farming systems, land-uses and resources endowment levels had apparent impacts on the magnitude of nutrient fluxes and stocks. Management related N and K fluxes were more negative in the cereals-pulse system (-28 kg N ha-1 y r 1 and -34 kg K ha 1 y r 1) than in the barley-enset system (-6 kg IN ha-1 y r 1 and -14 kg K h a 1 y r 1) while P fluxes were almost neutral or slightly positive. Within the barley-enset system, a strong redistribution of N, P and K took place from the meadows and cereals (negative balance) to enset (positive balances). Although in the cereals-pulse system, N, P and K were redistributed from meadows, small cereals and pulses to maize, the latter still showed a negative nutrient balance. 1. Introduction as related to nutrients stocks and fluxes; Inherent soil fertility gradients can arise II) to examine the effects of resources from differences in underlying geology, endowment levels on farm households' geomorphology and other soil forming processes (Brady and Weil 2002). Those perception of soil fertility management and magnitude of nutrient balances. properties determine the capacity of soil for different production activities, e.g. different farming systems and land uses 2. Materials and methods (Lamers and Feil 1995). A given soil series cannot be considered to have a static set of 2.1. Case study sites characteristics. Different farming systems and land uses, induced by inherent soil 2.1.1. Physical settings fertility, can influence soil properties. Galessa and Gare watersheds belong to Studies distinguish soil genoform and soil the western escarpment of the Rift Valley phenoform in this respect. The former is and the landmass of the Central Highlands a genetically defined soil series while the of Ethiopia (Figure 1). Traditionally, the latter indicates differences in a certain Galessa watershed is classified as 'Dega' genoform as a result of different farming (cool highlands) and the Gare watershed as system and land use history (Pulleman 'Woyna-dega' (warm to cool mid highlands) et al. 2000, Emmerling and Udelhoven climatic zone (FAO/UNDP 1984). Elevation 2002). ranges of 2320-2620m at Gare and 2880- 3095m at Galessa characterise the study Differences in farming systems and land sites. uses can alter nutrient input and output fluxes in soil and vegetation. This can 70% of the total surface area of the change soil fertility, which in turn affects Galessa watershed is covered by flat to biomass production and human decisions rolling topography (0-16% slope). Hilly on land management (Priess et al. (16-30% slope) and steeply dissected 2001). Smallholder farmers in barley- (>30% slope) topography covers 24% and enset and cereal-pulses farming systems 6% of the total area, respectively. in the central highlands of Ethiopia are Gare has 55% flat to rolling, 24.39% hilly undertaking spatially arranged diverse and 21% steeply dissected topographic land-use practices. One of the underlying units. assumptions is that different land uses and associated soil fertility managements Rainfall data from Ginchi meteorological can influence soil nutrient fluxes and station (about 12 km south of Gare) shows stocks and improve agro-ecosystem a mean annual rainfall of 1117mm. Both sustainability. However, for this concern to study sites have a bimodal rainfall pattern, be justified, such an assumption has to be with the main rain season extending from made on the basis of empirical evidence. June to September and the short rain from Identifying the role of soil fertility and February to April. management diversity in the sustainability of an agro-ecosystem has implications for optimised land-use and soil management 2.1.2. Farming systems and land- planning (Stoorvogel 1993). uses In the Galessa watershed barley (Hordeum The objectives of this study are: vulgare), potato (Solarium tuberosum), and enset (Ensete ventricosum) are I) to investigate soil fertility gradients, cultivated as major crops. Wheat (Triticum associated management diversity and its durum) and some vegetables like onion impacts on agro-ecosystem sustainability (.Allium cepa) are also cultivated as minor crops. The Gare watershed belongs to the 2.2. Approaches to data collection cereal-based farming system in which teff (Eragrostis tef) covers the major portion of 2.2.1. Household survey and farm the cropping pattern. In addition to barley monitoring and wheat, maize (Zea mays), checkpea We identified 184 farm households in (Cicer arietinum) and faba bean (Vicia Galessa and 24 in the Gare watershed. faba) are the main crops. Using indigenous social grouping customs (e.g. land size, livestock and oxen Fallow (35.69%), cereals (40%), grazing holdings), we stratified the households (16%), enset and potato (5.8%) comprise into three resources endowment levels the different land-uses in the Galessa (Table 1). From the sampling frame, we watershed. Practices of temporally randomly selected 50 farm households at arranged crops rotation are limited due Galessa and 16 at Gare (stratified random to lack of diverse crop species that can sampling). Structured questionnaires tolerate high frost in the area. More than were used to collect information related 92% of the cereal land is covered with to resources holding and soil fertility barley. In the past, Galessa smallholder management practices for the 2002/2003 farmers used fallow as a method of soil cropping season. We closely examined fertility restoration. There were plenty of farm activities on five objectively located agricultural lands available and parts of farm households' plots in each of the each field were left fallow for five to seven watersheds. cropping periods. Although fallow periods are shortened to one year as a result of increasing population, this system is 2.2.2. Land-use mapping and soil currently used to restore soil fertility on sampling barley lands, supplemented by some We mapped the land-uses from air photos inorganic fertiliser inputs. assisted by the Geographic Positioning System (GPS). Triplicate soil samples of There is no fallowing at the Gare watershed. each five sub-samples (0-30 cm) were Cereals (21.69%), grazing (6.97%) and collected from all land-use types at foot, homesteads (2.5%) constitute the major mid and upper slope positions prior to agricultural land uses. Forest land (national fertilization. Every sample and sub-sample forest priority area), which covers (68%) was homogenised, both vertically and of the Gare watersheds area, is mainly horizontally. Separately we collected five located on the hilly and steeply dissected core samples from each land-use type to topographic units. analyze the bulk density of the soil. The samples were air dried, lightly grounded In both watersheds, livestock plays an and sieved through a two-mm sieve. important role in the agricultural production Conventional analytical methods were systems (e.g. draught power, income, employed at the International Livestock manure supply etc). After removing Research Institute (ILRI). The pH value harvests and residues, grazing is freely was determined using a pH meter in accessible to all livestock, including those a 1:2.5 soil/water suspension, the from outside the watersheds. Animals texture by using the hydrometer method leave their droppings while they graze (Bouyoucus 1951). Soil organic carbon the stubbles. In this way, even farmers was determined by the Walkley and Black without livestock will benefit. Oxidation method (Walkley and Black 1943). The percentage of soil organic matter was calculated by multiplying the percentage of organic carbon with the factor 1.724. Available P was determined

64 by means of the Bray method (Bray and using the regression model of FAO (2005). Kurtz 1945), while total N was determined As irrigation of crops is not practiced in through the Kjeldahl digestion, distillation the region, the deposition of nutrients and titration method. We determined from irrigation (IN5a) was zero. Leaching exchangeable K by ammonium acetate (OUT3) and gaseous losses (OUT4) are extraction. Total K was read on an atom important pathways of nutrient losses absorption spectrophotometer. CEC was (Snyder 1995). To estimate the amount determined by buffer CEC methods at of N leached, we used the regression pH 7, using ammonium acetate as the equation developed by De Willigen (2000), exchanger cation. Soil nutrient stocks in which includes the rooting depth of crops, the top 0-30 cm were calculated from soil annual precipitation (mm), clay content nutrient concentration and bulk density. (percent), mineral and organic fertiliser N Data sets from the socioeconomic survey (kg N h a 1), mineralization rate (assumed and soil laboratory results were subjected 1.5% y r 1), the amount of N in soil organic to statistical analysis by one-way analysis matter (kg N ha'1) and N uptake by crops. of variance (ANOVA). Tukey's HSD test We calculated K leaching as a function (DMRT at 0.95 confidences) was used to of the clay content of soils and mean separate means of significantly different annual rainfall (Van den Bosch etal. 1998; soil parameters (at the land-use level). The Smaling and Fresco 1993). Kolmogorov Smirnov two samples (group) test at 0.95% confidence was used to test We estimated gaseous losses using the significant differences between the soils regression model developed by FAO parameters at the farming system level. (2005). The model consists of two parts: Pearson's product moment correlations one regression model for N20 and NOx were used to relate selected soils and losses through denitrification, and a direct nutrient management parameters. All loss factor for volatilization of NH3. We statistical analysis was done with the estimated soil erosion and deposition software package STATISTICA 6.0. (OUT5 and Il\l5b) by using the Landscape Process Modelling at Multi-Dimensions and Scales (LAPSUS: Schoorl etal. 2002). 2.3. Nutrient balance We considered five types of major input and output fluxes to calculate N, P and K 3. Results and discussions balances (Smaling and Fresco 1993, De Jager et al. 1998), which we address as 3.1. Soil fertility gradients and IN15 and OUT15 throughout the paper. associated management diversity Fluxes, which are directly related to farm management, like inorganic fertiliser 3.1.1. Soil fertility gradients input (INj), organic fertilisers input (IN2), In addition to inherent soil fertility harvested products (OUTj) and residues gradients, diverse and long-term removed (OUT2), were estimated from anthropogenic interventions are important the household survey. Wet deposition sources of soil fertility (small scale). They (IN3) was estimated (in kg h a 1 y r 1) as create zones of fertility within and between a function of mean annual rainfall, using different farming systems (Brady and Weil coefficients of 0.14, 0.023 and 0.092 for N, 2002). We compared the mean values of P and K, respectively (Smaling and Fresco selected soil fertility indicators (chemical 1993). We estimated symbiotic N fixation properties) between land uses in each of (IN4a), assuming that legumes fix 60% the farming systems (Table 2). In barley- of total N uptake symbiotically (Smaling enset system, fallow had a significantly and Fresco 1993), while N fixation by higher bulk density, while enset showed free-living bacteria (IN4b) was estimated significantly lower bulk density values. Organic matter is an important source the best suitable for them (Lamers and Feil of nutrients for plant growth in natural 1995). Hence, farmers in the two study and managed ecosystems (Snapp et al. sites carry out different farming system 1998). Different land-uses and farming and types of soil management due to soil systems can induce differences in the fertility gradients and differences in other levels of organic matter and thereby act plant growth parameters (e.g. climate, soil as indicators of the variability in attendant physical and biological properties). soil fertility (Pulleman 2000, Whitbread et al. 2003). Our results demonstrated a One year of fallowing (barley fields) and mean organic matter value of 6.96% at a intensive management of homestead plots barley-enset farming system and 5.62% are the two basic soil fertility management at a cereal-pulses farming system. Similar practices for the barley-enset farming trends of organic carbon were observed system. There is no planting of N fixing between the two farming systems. legume crops and there are no practices of Aggregation at the farming system level crop rotation like in those farm households suppressed divergences among the land- that use the cereal-pulses farming system. uses (Table 2). Farm households at barley-enset farming system have a significantly higher (DMRT at Land-use level comparisons of mean P<0.05) mean total land holding (2.21ha) values of selected soil fertility indicators and livestock (6.15TLU) compared to the are given in Table 2. Land-uses closer to cereal-pulses farming system and this is households (enset, potato and maize) connected to soil fertility management. had significantly higher mean values of For example, relations between livestock pH, organic matter, available P, P stock, holding (in TLU) and the land size of exchangeable K and CEC. Remarkably, sample farm households are positive. The maize fields had significantly higher C/N number of TLU and manure application ratio. also has positive correlations. Additionally, fallow land is used as animal grazing area during the months of peak feed shortage 3.1.2. Diversity of soil fertility (July-September) and animal droppings on management fallow plots are incorporated into the soil. Soil fertility management is not static. But separate comparisons of mean soil Practices are being continually modified properties (pH, organic matter, available as conditions change in space and P, total N, total P, total K, exchangeable time (Boesen and Hansen 2001). A K and CEC) between fallow and cereal typical phenomenon is the movement lands at barley-enset farming system from extensive to intensive soil fertility showed no significant differences (DMRT management when population pressure at P<0.05). Legume crops planting, crop increases and land becomes scarce. rotation and diversification (more than 10 Another example of changing soil fertility crops) at cereal-pulses farming system management practices is the still relatively can be a compensation for less organic recent shift from fertility management and inorganic fertiliser application and using natural means to synthetic fertiliser abandoned fallowing practices. when conditions are favorable (Fournier, 1989). Farmers' soil fertility management Sample farm households in both farming practices are also strongly influenced by systems do not incorporate residues into topo-sequences and variation in soil types the soil. Residues like maize stock are (Chuma et al. 2000, Wezel et al. 2002). sources of household energy (cereals- Each soil fertility management strategy pulses farming system), while fine size needs specific conditions and farmers residues (teff, wheat, barley) are used as combine those specific practices that are animal feed with priority given to lactating

66 cows, oxen and calves. In barley-enset medium and 95% of resource-poor farmers farming system, enset leaves are a source replied that they had to face the problem of animal feed in years of an extended dry of declining soil fertility on their field season. However, it is often incorporated plots. Management technologies involving into the soil. Of the sample households, large size of land, livestock and financial more than 90% acknowledged the resources were dominantly used by importance of erosion in both study areas. medium and resource-rich farmers in both Practically, however, only cut-off drains study areas (this includes, for instance, and cultivation across the contour were the application of manure, inorganic indigenous soil conservation methods. fertiliser, and crop diversification). Similar The mean values of organic and inorganic trends of fertility management perception fertiliser inputs by farm households in the across socioeconomic groups in Tanzanian two farming systems were compared. The Semi-Arid agriculture have been reported results indicated that farm households in (Boesen and Hansen 2001). the barley-enset farming system apply a significantly higher quantity of both The mean values of inorganic fertilisers inorganic and organic fertilisers. Within (DAP and UREA) and organic fertilisers the farming system (at micro level), crop (manure and household waste) input nutrient requirement and its economic and by differently resource endowed farm cultural position determine the priority. households (Figure 2, 3 and 4) were For example, crops like maize (at the compared. The results showed statistically cereals-pulses farming system) and enset significant differences between resource- and potato (at the barley-enset farming rich, medium and resource-poor farm system) require considerable nutrient households for inorganic fertiliser and inputs and hence are grown closer to manure application. Resource-rich residences where they can be managed households applied significantly higher intensively. quantity of inorganic and organic fertiliser when compared to resource-poor and medium classes of both study sites. We 3.2. Differently resource endowed observed no significant differences for farm households: perception of soil the mean values of the application of fertility management household waste across the different It is commonly assumed that poor socioeconomic groups. farmers are victims of the vicious circle of 'low income - low input - soil fertility Our results suggest that soil fertility man­ depletion - low yield - low income'. In agement technologies that need only land this study, of the interviewed (n = 24) and labor are used equally, despite socio­ resource-poor farm households only 16% economic differences. Examples of such used inorganic fertilisers. About 86% of fertility management systems include the resource-rich (n = 15) and 85% of medium application of household waste; fallowing; class (n = 27) sample farm households cultivating across contour to decrease soil in both farming systems used inorganic erosion; spatially locating and synchroniz­ fertilisers. Application of manure as a ing land use with affordable management way of soil fertility improvement showed systems. All resource endowment groups similar trend between different groups. are aware of soil fertility management Only 20.8% of the sample resource-poor technologies coming from outside, or de­ farm households were using manure. veloped within the community. In practice, Remarkably, 91.8% of resource-poor they are often unable to translate those farmers applied household wastes to into action, mainly due to insufficient re­ their farm plots. Of the interviewed farm sources and thus remain victims of soil households, 93% of resource-rich, 92% of nutrient depletion. 3.3. Is agro-ecosystem sustainability nutrient balance, a finding that can be threatened? A nutrient balances explained by the sedimentation of eroded perspective material at the foot slopes, where the meadow is located. 3.3.1 Nutrient balances Nutrient balance can be regarded as an 3.3.2. Stocks and flux rates indicator of sustainability with respect to Potato, enset and meadow land uses (in soil fertility, although interpretation must barley-enset farming) had the highest be done with caution (Whitbread et al. stocks of N, followed by maize (in cereal- 2003, Nambiareta/. 2001, Bouma 2002). pulses farming systems, see Table 4). P To achieve such objective balances, stocks on potato, enset and maize fields one has to take into consideration the were higher than on all other plots. The soil nutrient stocks in order to allow an lowest mean P stock was recorded on estimation of the percentage of stock that teff land (1.2 Mg ha-1) while the highest is used annually to offset the negative was found on potato land (5.21 Mg ha~ balance (Van den Bosch et al. 1998). 1). The highest mean value of K stock was measured on fallow land, followed Input/output ratios can also be used to by enset and potato. Annual K depletion describe whether the ecosystem system relative to its stock was small in both is accrediting, at a steady state or farming systems. impoverished (Khanna 1992). Moreover, partial nutrient balance (INL + IN2>1+ IN22) Annual depletion of N stocks was strong - (OUTj + OUT2) should never be used under meadows and pulses in cereals- directly to draw conclusions of sustainability pulse farming, while N accumulated of land-use systems (Dechert 2003). on enset plots (0.22% of N stock). But when aggregated at farming system / We calculated full and partial nutrient watershed level, the annual N-depletion balances at farming system and at crop was small (0.12% in barley and 0.71% in levels (Table 3 and 4). The results indicated cereal-pulse farming system). It is widely a considerable accumulation contrasting accepted that only a small part of soil with a slight depletion of P in barley-enset organic N is actively cycling, and total N is versus cereal-pulses farming systems. The therefore not a good measure of'available' latter also had negative N and K balances, N stocks. A better estimate of N stock i.e. a five-fold higher depletion rate of N that may become available for agriculture and a two-fold higher depletion of K than may be the amount of N lost following the barley-enset farming system. cultivation, which is generally about 30% (Davidson and Ackerman 1993). In view The partial (management related) nutrient of this argument, it is clear that the agro­ balances revealed that in barley-enset ecosystem's sustainability is questionable. farming P was enriched, while N and K This is in agreement with earlier studies, revealed slightly negative balances. In which suggest that more than 1% removal cereals-pulses-based farming, partial or enrichment of the N stock indicate an balances for N and K were clearly unsustainable agro-ecosystem (Hilhorst et negative. Within farming systems large al. 2000). differences between land-use types can be observed. Balances of N and P in barley- pulses farming system were positive for 4. Conclusions major land-uses with the exception of In view of these arguments the agro­ oats, potatoes and meadows. On meadow ecosystem's sustainability has to be (barley-enset farming) the full nutrient questioned. This is in agreement with balance was less negative than the partial earlier studies, which suggest that more than 1% removal or enrichment of the margins in central Sulawesi, Indonesia. N stock indicate an unsustainable agro­ PhD thesis. Georg August Universitat, ecosystem (Hilhorst et al. 2000). It is Gottingen, Germany. high time to search for alternative energy sources instead of using crop residues De Jager A., Nandwa S.M., Okoth P.F. (1998) and manure as energy sources. Equally Monitoring nutrient flows and economic important are issues of erosion which are performance in African Farming System the major driver of nutrient balance in (NUTMON) concept and methodology. Agric both study areas. 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Farming systems Wealth Samples Land Livestock Oxen classes size holding (ha) (TLU) (TLU) Barley-enset system Rich 10 3.3 12.3 2.4 Medium 20 2.3 6.7 1.5 Poor 20 1.6 2.3 0.5 Cereals-pulses system Rich 5 2.3 6.2 1.4 Medium 7 1.6 3.5 1 Poor 4 1.3 2.5 0.5

TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit; Conversion factor: cattle=0.7, horses=l, mules=0.7, sheep=0.1 and goats=0.1

72 Table 2: Comparison of mean soil parameters (0-30cm) under different land uses (central highlands of Ethiopia)

Soil parameters Farming systems

Barley Based Enset Farming Teff Based Cereals Farming

Fallow Enset Potato Cereals Grazing Cereals Maize Grazing

Bulk density (grcm31) 1.16c 0.83b 0.99a 1.03a 0.97a 0.94b 1.11a 1.04b

Clay (%) 35.38a 29.38ab 26.72b 34.72a 26.72b 50.72a 34.72a 44.05a

Sand (%) 16.66b 20.66b 27.33a 26.00a 36.00a 20.66a 26.00a 23.33a

Silt (%) 47.94a 49.94a 45.94a 39.28a 37.28a 28.61a 39.28a 32.61a

pH 5.08a 5.86b 5.88b 4.91a 5.10a 5.81a 6.36a 5.94a

Organic matter (%) 5.67a 7.08ab 7.65ab 5.31a 9.50b 4.31a 7.42b 5.14a

Organic C (%) 3.29 4.10 4.43 2.92 5.27 2.50 4.30 2.98

Total N (%) 0.31a 0.39a 0.42a 0.29a 0.58b 0.21a 0.35b 0.25ab

C:N 10.58 a 10.40a 10.32a 9.95a 9.13a 11.84a 12.19a 11.67a

N stock (t ha *) 9.82a 12.56ab 13.41ab 9.51a 15.56b 5.51a 10.46a 8.15a

Available P (ppm) 0.42a 8.60b 13.51c 0.49a 0.85a 5.93a 37.23b 3.55a

Total P (ppm) 748a 1347ab 1682b 674.99a 789.55a 481.97a 1341.8a 480.40a

P stock (t ha ') 2.34a 4.25b 5.21b 2.31a 2.14a 1.20a 3.80b 1.52a

CEC (cmolc k g 1) 27.04ac 36.07b 33.67ab 24.35c 32.00abc 36.95 38.11 39.82

Exchangeable K (cmolc k g 1) 0.95a 4.12b 5.23b 0.40a 0.35a 0.82a 4.41b 0.87a

Total K (cmolc k g 1) 32.61a 31.77a 31.84a 29.29ab 25.89b 25.47ab 31.84a 21.72b

K stock (t ha ') 48.02a 47.04a 37.51a 44.21a 33.29a 30.80a 44.13a 32.69a

Mean soil parameters under different land uses are compared only within each farming system; the comparison is based on one-way AIMOVA (Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) and 0.95 confidence. Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different.

Wealth groups( Enset-system) Wealth groups ( TefF-system) a) b)

Figure 2: DAP and Urea applied by sample farm households under different wealth groups in (a) barley-enset and (b) cereals-pulse farming systems (Tukey's HSD test at 0.95 confidence intervals; n= sample size; a and b indicate significantly different means). Wealth groups ( Enset-system) Wealth groups (Teff -system)

a) b)

Figure 3: Manure applied by sample farm households under different wealth groups in (a) barley-enset and (b) cereals-pulse farming systems (Tukey's HSD test at 0.95 confidence intervals; n= sample size; a, b and c indicate significantly different means).

Wealth groups ( Enset-system) Wealth groups ( Tdl-system)

a) b)

Figure 4. Household waste applied by sample farm households under different wealth groups in (a) barley-enset and (b) cereals-pulse farming systems (Tukey's HSD test at 0.95 confidence intervals; n= sample size a, b and c indicate significantly different means).

74 Table 3: Partial nutrient balances at land use level in enset and teff basded farming systems, central highland of Ethiopia (kg ha-1 y r 1).

Farming systems Land uses IN1+IN2 OUT1+OUT2 Balances NPK NPK NPK Barley 23 42 63 16 9 44 7 33 -41 Wheat 72 60 34 60 11 55 49 55 12 Oat 0 0 0 4 3 8 -4 -3 -8 Barley-enset Potato 113 13 129 114 12 140 -1 1 -11 Enset 149 32 169 97 13 153 53 19 17 Fallow 50 12 65 52 9 48 -2 2 17 Meadow 31 7 36 81 13 79 -51 -6 -44 Enset system 43 22 45 50 10 59 -6 11 -14 Barley 1 3 0 30 17 87 -28 -14 -87 Wheat 4 4 0 14 3 14 -21 0 -23 Teff 9 11 0 18 3 11 -9 8 -11 Cereal-pulses Pulses 0 0 0 71 9 81 -71 -9 -81 Vetch 0 0 0 75 10 61 -75 -10 -60 Meadow 31 15 36 91 15 90 -60 -8 -54 Maize 15 13 14 26 13 60 -11 -10 -51 Teff system 13 7 9 38 8 41 -28 -1 -34

Table 4: Nutrient stocks and fluxes in enset and teff based farming systems, central highlands of Ethiopia.

Flow and stocks Barley-enset system 1 Cereal-pulse system Cereals Potato Enset Fallow Meadow All All Cereals Pulses Maize Meadow

N-stock 9.5 13.4 12.6 9.5 15.6 11.4 6.6 5.5 5.5 10.5 8.2 (Mg ha ')

N-flow -10.0 -23.0 +28.0 -19.0 0.0 -12.0 -52.0 -38.0 -60.0 -43.0 -92.0 (kg h a 1 y r 1)

N-flow (% of 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.8 0.7 1.1 0.4 1.1 stock y r 1)

P-stock 2.3 5.2 4.3 2.3 2.1 3.0 1.6 1.2 1.2 3.8 1.5 (Mg h a 1)

P-flow +34.0 -2.0 + 20.0 -1.0 +2 + 12.0 -3.0 +2.0 -10.0 -15.0 -10.0 (kg ha 1 y r 1)

P-flow (% of 1.5 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.7 stock y r 1)

K-stock 44.2 47.8 47.6 48.0 33.3 44.2 33.0 30.8 30.8 44.1 32.7 (Mg ha :)

K-flow -43.0 -82.0 -20.0 -27.0 + 52.0 -20.0 -87.0 -69.0 -112 -142 -110 (kg h a 1 y r 1)

K-flow (% of 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 stock y r 1)

75 An overview on the distributions, status, uses and research needs of selected indigenous tree and shrub species in the Highlands of Ethiopia

Deribe Gurmu Benti

Forestry Research Center, EIAR, RO.Box: 30708, Addis Abeba Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Available literatures indicate that the history of the Ethiopian forest is intimately associated with the domestication of agricultural crops and expansion of agriculture that started ca. 5000 years ago. During the "green age" the Ethiopian highlands were almost completely covered by high forests of various types and densities with a cover percentage of approximately 35-40% of the total area. It is stated that with the inclusion of the savanna woodlands, some 66% of the country was endowed with forest and woodland until the late 1800's.These forest resources comprised the natural high forests, with trees of Podocarpus, Croton, Olea, Schefflera, Hagenia, Pouteria, Aningeria adolfi-friederici at higher altitudes. The lowland woodlands included species of Acacia, Bosweiiia, Commiphora, Balanites, Euphorbia, Combretum and Croton. The mountain woodlands consisted of Acacia abyssinica, Hagenia abyssinica, Protea, Erica arborea, Hypericum and poor stands of Juniperus prococera, as well as the bushlands, shrublands and wooded grasslands representing woody vegetation types. It is also documented that in the early 1950's 16% of the landmass was forest land. However, in the early 1980's the coverage was reported to be 3.6%. By 1989 it was estimated to be only 2.7%. Some five million hectares of savanna woodlands remained, giving a total forest and woodland area of about 7.5 %. The loss of forest resources is severe in the Ethiopian highlands (1500m). Today, remnants of these forests are seen only in the south and southwestern part of the country and around churches, where, by tradition, the trees are not cut. Despite the destruction, forests and forest products will continue to be central to the households' economy, as well as to food security and health through a number of traditional practices in the years to come. It is reported that currently, the entire rural population and the majority of the urban households rely on forest resources for their energy needs. The National Energy Balance for 1989/90 also accounted for about 88% of the total energy consumed coming from forest products, with rural households sharing about 93%. Between the years 1981/82-1991/92 alone, forestry accounted for about 5.5% of the agricultural sector and 2.5% of the total GDR Forestry industry employment amounted to about 2.2% of the total workforce and contributed 2.8% to employment in the agricultural sector in 1988/89. The cycles of events of forest destruction are many, butmost ofthem are initiated by the rapid growth of population. With the current rate of forest destruction (200,000 ha on average) the remaining forests will be removed within 15-20 years and with them the valuable trees/shrubs and the soil, unless the destruction is abated through good forest management supported by a multidisciplinary research approach.

76 1. Introduction indigenous tree and shrub species in the Breitenbach (1963) describes the highlands of Ethiopia, based on the mix vegetation types of Ethiopia as mountain of the information generated by these steppes, mountain-savannahs, mountain descriptors. woodlands, highland-forests, lowland 2. Vegetation distribution woodlands, lowland savannahs and lowland steppes. Sebsebe and Edwards (2006) identify these vegetation cover 2.1. Closed broadleaved forests types as afroalpine and sub-afroalpine, dry The closed broadleaved moist forests of evergreen montane forests and grassland the south-west correspond to the "humid complex, moist evergreen montane lower highland forests" and the "humid forest, evergreen scrub, Combretum- upper highland forests" mentioned by terminalia woodland and savannah, von Breitenbach. They are found only Acacia-commiphora woodland, lowland in the most humid parts of the south­ semi-evergreen forest, desert and semi- west central Ethiopian plateau where the desert scrubland. FAO (2000) identifies annual rainfall is more than 1400mm and them as shrubland, shrubland/grassland, sometimes exceeds 2000mm, with a fairly savannah, deciduous broadleaf forests, uniform distribution throughout the whole deciduous needle leaf forest, evergreen year and only one or two dry months. broadleaf forest, evergreen needle leaf The temperature is relatively warm, since forest and mixed forest. The current trend the altitude rarely exceeds 2500m. Some is to broadly classify these vegetation smaller blocks of this type also occur in types as: natural high forests (both heavily the southern Rift Valley. disturbed and undisturbed), lowland woodlands, bushlands, shrublands, High density and a great variety of species wooded grasslands, plantations and trees characterise broadleaved moist forests. on farm (EFAP 1994). The dominant storey is rather open, the large trees being mostly scattered, growing The natural high forests are recognised to heights of 40 to 45m with branchy as those lands covered by a closed stand canopies often standing out in isolation. of trees with a more or less continuous The most frequent and characteristic canopy rising 7-30m, and a sparse ground species are Syzygium guineense, Cordia cover of few grasses. Lowland woodlands africana, Olea spp., Mimusops kummel, are areas covered by an open stand of Ficus spp, Manilkara butugi, Aningeria spp, trees taller than 5m and up to 20m in Pouteria ferruginea, Albizia schimperiana, height and a canopy cover of more than Morus mesozygia, Bosqueia phoberos and 20%. Bushlands are lands covered by an Clausenopsis angolensis. Beneath is a open stand of trees and / or taller shrubs much denser middle storey with a closed of 2-5m and a canopy cover of more than canopy 15 to 25m high. The prominent 20%. Shrublands and wooded grasslands species are Eckebergia rueppelliana, represent a variety of woody vegetation Bersama abyssinica, Apodytes acutifolia, types (Melaku 2003, Demel 2004). The Croton macrostachys, Schefflera geobotanical maps and the surface cover abyssinica, Polyscias ferruginea, Erythrina equations developed by each descriptor abyssinica and Prunus africana. The and the approaches to the description of understorey, composed of shrubby trees the vegetation types deserve their own and bush, is relatively dense, comprised of respective academic merits. The aim of Galiniera coffeoides, Cyathea manniana, this presentation, however, is not to rate Coffea arabica and Randia malleifera. these merits, but rather to provide an The herbaceous ground cover is rich in overview of the distributions, status, uses ferns. The trees of the middle storey carry and research needs of some selected numerous lianas, such as Landolphia spp., epiphytes, principally mosses and spreading flat crowns of the dominant ferns, are very abundant and sometimes Acacia xiphocarpa is only 15 to 25m high cover entire trunks. Some boles have (10 to 20m in the upper parts). Under this a magnificent shape and size, but many canopy a lower storey of small trees and are twisted, with buttresses high up on big shrubs develops with species such as the trunk or with large, low branches. Big Cassia didymobotrya, Dombeya multiflora, trees are very scattered and considerable Maytenus senegalensis, Osyris abyssinica, area is stocked with specimens of small Harrisonia abyssinica, Olea africana, diameter and poor growth that can be Schrebera alata and Vernonia amygdalina. explained, without doubt, by earlier forest The forest floor is scarcely covered. clearings. Trunks and branches of the higher trees are densely clothed with lichens, ferns and Broadleaved semi-humid highland forests climbers. are well represented in semi-humid regions at altitudes from 1700m to 2500m, The mountain woodlands extend from 2400 forming the lower and upper portions of the to 3400m altitude. Their physiognomy coniferous forests they enclose. While the is very similar to that of the lowland upper storey reaches heights of 25 to 35m woodlands and upper canopy formed at lower elevations, frequent devastation by trees 5 to 12m high above a thicket and climatological and edaphic factors limit of shrubs 1.5 m high. Poor specimens of heights in the upper highlands to 10 to Juniperus procera occur on all sites. On dry, 20m. Cold northern and eastern exposures stony and rocky mountain slopes Protea are characterised by Celtis kraussiana, gaguedi is characteristic, accompanied by Sideroxylon oxyacantha, Prunus africana small- and medium-sized trees and shrubs and Olea spp in the dominant canopy while of Acacia abyssinica, Erica arborea, Rhus intermediate and lower storeys are occupied vulgaris and Pittosporum abyssinicum. by Trema guineensis, Bersama abyssinica, Semi-humid southern and western Catha edulis and Vernonia amygdalina. exposures show a relatively high frequency Prominent members of the upper storey of the already mentioned Juniperus procera in warm southern and western exposures mixed with Cussonia holstii, Maytenus are Polyscias ferruginea, Galliniera ovata, Heeria insignis and many other coffeoides, Prunus africana and Croton tall shrubs and medium-sized trees. The macrostachys. Only the lower highland same conditions on eastern and northern type possesses an intermediate storey exposures sometimes lead to almost pure composed of Albizia isenbergiana, Ficus stands of Hagenia abyssinica, the latter spp, Euphorbia candelabrum and many accompanied by Olinia usambarensis, others. The relatively dense understorey Dombeya spp, Ilex mitis and the bamboo consists mainly of shrubs and small trees Arundinaria alpina. (Maesa lanceolata, Lobelia gibberoa). In the transition zone with the coniferous The mountain savannas lie at very high forests occasional Podocarpus gracilior or altitude above the zone of the mountain Juniperus procera can be found emerging woodlands. While their upper limits are, above the broadleaved upper canopy. in drier regions, situated around 3500m, they are able, in more humid regions, to The dense Acacia forests are the sole forest extend up to 4000m. Their lower limits type of the semi-arid highlands between are blurred on account of extensive land 1800 and 2500m and are prevalent in clearing and grazing in the area of the southern and western exposures. The mountain woodland and upper highland comparatively poor habit is produced by forests where, on abandoned cultivation the absence of an upper storey of big trees. and pastures, they spread as secondary The sparse, broken canopy formed by the vegetation. Thus, this formation, originally

78 confined to comparatively small areas at The upper storey of Juniperus forests is very high altitude, occupies now the major formed by large, up to 30 to 45m high part of the Ethiopian Plateau. Its secondary trees of Juniperus procera. A middle storey character, however, is easily recognizable of an average height of 20m comprises in by remnants of the former forest or general Prunus africana, Olea chrysophylla, woodland, such as Acacia xiphocarpa, Hagenia abyssinica, Cussonia spp, Apodytes Juniperus procera, Hagenia abyssinica, acutifolia, Eckebergia rueppeliana, Milletia Olea europaea, Apodytes dimidiata. ferruginea and Pittosporum abyssinicum. A blanket of tufted Cyperaceae and The undergrowth is poorly developed. Gramineae covers these vast savannas, Almost pure Juniperus stands are often interrupted and dotted with isolated found. The trees and bushes generally specimens or scattered groups of shrubs have rather coriaceous foliage, which is and small trees. The so-called semi- fine and shiny. In some less favorable arid shrub savanna has large but broken places, Juniperus trees are much shorter, thickets of Erica arborea, accompanied by have thicker boles and the undergrowth some crooked Protea gaguedi, Hypericum becomes dense, forming an impenetrable ianceoiatum, Rhus vulgaris, Acacia thicket. In the most humid regions and abyssinica and Rosa abyssinica. Of less arid at the lowest altitudes the vegetation aspect, the shrub-savanna is characterized changes toward a semi-humid highland by isolated or small groups of small trees forest. The juniper may then be mixed and tall shrubs of Erica arborea, Acacia with Podocarpus gracilior. At the highest abyssinica, Hypericum Ianceoiatum, altitudes the evolution is very often Echinops steudneri and Hypericum spp., towards a park-like formation, where while the more humid tree-savanna is the trees are confined to isolated clumps usually marked by trees and shrubs of appearing in the grassland (mountain Olinia usambarensis, Argauria salicifolia, savanna). Characteristic of the juniper Philippia trim era, Cassipourea malosana forests is lichens, hanging everywhere and Maytenus undatus. Toward the upper from the branches of the trees. limits of the mountain savanna, on alpine plateaus, stands of more or less scattered Podocarpus forests do not have a well- tall specimens of Lobelia rhynchopetalum defined geographical distribution. They can be found. are found in relatively humid climates where rain is well distributed throughout the year but is less abundant than in the 2.2. Closed coniferous zone of the broadleaved rainforests. They The Juniperus forests formerly covered are mostly located in the west of Ethiopia wide areas of the high plateaus of Ethiopia. and on the western slopes of the Arsi- Cultivation, grazing and fires, as well as Bali plateau, between 2000 and 2400m exploitation have progressively taken their altitude. The large trees normally form a toll and today only remnants exist, for the continuous and closed canopy. They reach most part localised in Central Ethiopia, on a height of 40 to 45m and more on the most the eastern escarpments of the plateau favorable sites. The upper storey contains and on the upper slopes of the north­ Podocarpus gracilior (dominating), Prunus western side of the Arsi-Bali plateau. They africana, Eckebergia rueppeliana, Celtis generally grow at high elevations (2500 kraussiana, Olea hochstetteri, Polyscias to 3200m) in areas where the climate is ferruginea and Apodytes acutifolia. The relatively cold and sometimes very dry. large Podocarpus can grow in a closed mix Some blocks are found at lower altitudes, with broadleaved trees, but more often between 1800 and 2000m, on cold they form small, almost pure stands, and northern exposures of the southwestern may even exclusively occupy the upper parts of the same plateau. storey, suppressing their companions into the relatively open middle and lower 3. Forest status storeys. Where the forest has been left Although there are limited empirical untouched, the undergrowth is very open. evidences on the extent and cover of There are some suppressed trees, few the Ethiopian forests, available literature shrubs, except in the clearings, and the indicate that some 35-40% (27.5 million ground is fairly clean. Epiphytes (ferns) ha) of the land mass was covered by forest are abundant, but creepers are few. These vegetation of varying types and density forests are less heterogeneous than the around 1800 (Last 1962, EFAP 1994). In broadleaved moist forests and the semi- the early 1950's, this coverage reduced to humid highland forests. Although great about 16% of the landmass. In the early variations occur from one place to another, 1980's, the coverage was reported at under the best conditions the volume of 3.6%. By 1989, it was estimated to be only the almost pure stands can reach 500 to 2.7%. Some 5 million hectares of savanna 600 m3 ha-1. However, these forests have woodlands were remaining giving a total too often been subjected to thoughtless forest and woodland area of about 7.5 %. clearing that has greatly reduced their area The loss of forest resources is severe in and created numerous and sometimes the Ethiopian highlands where part of the large openings covered by herbs and vast mountain massif in the heart of the grasses in the remaining stands. country lie above 1500m. These highlands cover about 44% of Ethiopia's land area, The mountain scrub steppe is found on accommodate 88% of the total population lower mountain sites and also in wind- and contain about 95% of the cultivated protected locations at altitudes of 3500 land. More than 67% of the national to 4500m. This shrub steppe is formed by livestock herd is also concentrated here a continuous grass blanket and scattered (EFAP 1993). Big trees and shrubs such as shrubs of Erica arborea and Lobelia Syzygium guineense, Cordia africana, Olea rhynchopetalum, pioneering species under welwitschii, Haginia abyssinica, Aningeria less extreme montane conditions. adolfi-friederici, Albizia schimperiana, Bersama abyssinica, Croton macrostachys, Prunus africana, Podocarpus gracilior, 2.3. Bamboo and palms Olea hochstetteri, Juniperus procera, Arundinaria atpina stands take the form Milletia ferruginea, Mimusops kummel, of scattered but large and compact Rosa abyssinica and Rubus spp are very concentrations at very high elevation above scattered. A considerable area is stocked the Juniperus forest (2500 to 3400m). with specimens of small diameter and They are mixed with single trees or groups poor growth. This can be explained by of trees such as Hagenia abyssinica, earlier forest clearings. Today, remnants Juniperus procera, Prunus africana, Milletia of these forests are seen only in the south ferruginea and Schefflera polysciadia. and southwestern part of the country and Typical representatives of the lower shrub around churches, where, by tradition, the storey are Rubus erlangeri and other trees are not cut (Figure 1). Rubus spp. Occasional stands are found at high altitudes in the broadleaved moist The cycles of events that lead to the forest, sometimes reaching a height of deforestation process involve many varying 18m with some diameters reaching 12cm. factors. However, most are ultimately The main bamboo areas in the highlands, initiated by the rapid growth of population however, occur where ecologically the (FAO 1985a). Figure 2 elucidates these humid montane woodland would find its events. habitat. 4. Uses also play major roles as good source of Despite the destruction, trees and their protein. The products of trees such as products will continue to be central to the Haginia abyssinica, Croton macrostachys, households' economies, as well as to food Prunus africana, Podocarpus graciiior, security and health through a number Milletia ferruginea have also been and of traditional practices in Ethiopia. For are still being used for the prevention and example trees such as Mimusops kummel, treatment of parasitoids, communicable Cordia africana and shrubs such as Rubus diseases and pests. This is indirectly spp, and Rosa abyssinica provide assurance related to the household's income: it against drought and crop failure and also provides good health to people and the provide a buffer during hardship period and livestock as well as crops. The trees/ 'lean seasons'. In areas where livestock shrubs such as Vernonia amygdalina serve is limited, the forest and tree products as animal fodder.

Shrubland

Shrubland/Grassland

Savannah

Deciduous Broadleaf forest

Deciduous needle leaf forest

Evergreen Broadleaf Forest

Evergreen needle leaf Forest

Mixed Forest

Figure 1: Map showing the current distribution of the Ethiopian forest resources (FAO 2000). Practically all of the species listed above reduced their area and created numerous and those not indicated in the short list and sometimes large openings covered by including the tree species like Syzygium herbs and grasses in the remaining stands. guineense, Olea welwitschii, Aningeria The current deforestation rate ranges adolfi-friederici, Albizia schimperiana, around 141,000 ha y r 1 (FAO 2007). At Bersama abyssinica, Olea hochstetteri, the current pace it is estimated that all Juniperus procera are used as sources of the remaining high forest of Ethiopia will building/construction materials, energy be finished within 15-20 years time. What and bee forage. These in turn provide is remaining will be the very few remnant materials for business such as, timber, forests localised in the most inaccessible crafts, honey etc., which in turn provide part of the country and with them these cash for use in purchasing food items and valuable trees and shrubs (EFPA 1993). cover other dues. Generally, forests and In fact trees/shrub species such as trees and their products provide the critical Juniperus procera, Prunus africana, Ocotea support to the national GDP, agricultural kenyensis, Dombeya aethiopica, Dombeya production, in terms of food, fuel, direct longibractata are among the species listed cash income and employment. If properly as the most vulnerable in the IUCN red list managed, the presence of forest and of threatened species (IUCN 2006). The trees maintain the ecology. Good soil Ministry of Agriculture has also recorded fertility and conservation with improved the following four species i.e Hagenia rainfall availability are partly a function abyssinica, Podocarpus gracilior, Cordia of forest and trees. However, these africana, and Juniperus procera as highly trees and shrubs have been subjected threatened tree species and has proclaimed to thoughtless clearing that has greatly those trees no to be cut (MOA, 1994).

Population growth

Land under crop Use of agricultural degenerates residues for fuel T

Over grazing of common lands I More land wanted for crops and grazing Grazing land Use of dung degenerates

t-orest destruction

Figure 2: The cycles of events that lead to forest destruction. 5. Research needs and factors research and development programmes. affecting forestry research Contrary to this, the forest research Institutions involved in forestry research institutions have remained quite small, in Ethiopia have achieved significant and programmatically frozen to classic milestones in seed technology and structures and paradigms that cannot physiology, seedling production and effectively address the rapidly growing implementation techniques, and research needs. The reasons to this are modest exotic species adaptation trials embedded in both internal and external and management in plantations and factors. utilisation. Improved ecological study results have also been achieved to assist in the development of sites for 5.1. Internal factors better tree growth and the processes 5.1.1. Ineffective structure associated with this. The adaptation, development and implementation of The national forestry research center is agroforestry technologies have also established as a quite small unit which contributed to accelerated tree planting is subdivided into classic forest research on farms. However, very limited success programmes and projects such as natural, has been recorded in the development, plantation, farm forestry, tree seed management and expansion of knowledge improvement and technology, timber, for sustainable management of the highly panel and fiber board and non-timber valuable indigenous trees/shrubs species. forest. Each of these projects are too Neither is there an intensive silivicultural weakly staffed and resourced to make a and screening trial of indigenous tree/ significant contribution. shrub species in place to contribute to their increased development, utilisation and entry into processing and markets; 5.1.2. Inefficient utilisation of nor are there studies avalaible on the available capacity roles of trees/shrubs in social and Available research capacity in the economic development and environmental universities is not strongly linked to that of amelioration including ecotourism. The research institutions. Thus, the enormous ethnobotany and economic botanical study research capacity of graduate students of the most important tree/shrub species remains untapped. They seem to work is also ignored. It appears that emerging independently, often addressing theoretical science and technologies in areas like problems. Despite the weak staffing at cloning, geneticengineering and geomantic research institutes, there is a relatively have eluded forest researchers, largely high rate of staff attrition for various due to lack of know-how and facilities. reasons: e.b. some leave the institutions Application of geographic information to join better paying organisations. Staff systems and remote sensing has not replacement often takes longer time due received enough support to generate to government recruitment procedures. the expected knowledge necessary for Besides, senior researchers are engaged resource planning and management. Key in meetings and extra-consulting services, areas like socio-economics are marginally eating into their research time, and handled. On the other hand, the number severely limiting the time they could spend and diversity of these pristine forests mentoring young researchers. that comprise these trees/shrubs are rapidly declining at a faster rate than 5.1.3. Lack of synergy or coordination ever imagined due to the increasing public demand for tree/shrub products. The projects identified above operate as These developments call for responsive semi-autonomous units, independently identifying and addressing research issues. 5.2. External factors In addition, there is little articulation of their research with research carried out 5.2.1. Policy and legislation in agriculture and other natural resource Shortage of fund is the major constraints sectors (hydrology, wildlife management of forestry research and more often etc.). Thus, forest research appears to be forestry is not among the most priority list isolated, truncated and not responsive to in the development options, policy set up the real needs of society. and legislative actions

5.1.4. Weakly linked to development 5.2.2. Unattractive career path Due to the nature of research issues Forest researchers are poorly remunerated addressed, the outputs are loosely directed and are working in very difficult at the public. There are no clear processes circumstances. They are under constant for research institutions to generate a criticism for being obsessed with trees research agenda from interactions with and forests, hiding from the real needs stakeholders and to share their findings of the society. The research, or generally with the general public, and this does forest career path becomes less and less not seem to be their focus or modus attractive. operandi.

5.2.3. Costly international partner­ 5.1.5. Lack of interaction with end ship users Opportunities for partnering with Forest research scientists seem to be international bodies come at a cost. In content with their own understanding of many cases, the international partner has research issues. Most research institutions the resources and determines the agenda. do not have regular mechanisms for This pulls researchers out of their national capturing research agenda from the public. commitments and plans to address This leaves them free to address priority issues that are sometimes irrelevant, but issues that are not necessarily current or personally rewarding contextualised in the public domain.

6. Recommendations 5.1.6. Leadership and coaching There is an urgency and need for major difficulties changes in forest research approach and There is a need for the development of prioritization of research agendas if current mid and long-term research strategies research efforts have to be more effective and plans and effective management of in delivering quality and relevant products research resources. For instance, the and services. Among the key changes private role seems to play a very limited proposed are: role in supporting research, despite the great potential. Research managers do little to "market" forest research services. 6.1. Establish a self-reliant independ­ This could be partly due to the fact that ent institution they operate as civil servants, only waiting The number and diversity of forestry for clients to come to them. stakeholders have been rising very rapidly due to the increased public awareness of the role of forests in social and economic development and environmental amelioration. But the forest research

84 institution has remained quite small, References and programmatically frozen to classic Breitenbach, V. (1963) Indigenous trees of structures and paradigms that cannot Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. effectively address the rapidly growing research needs. This calls for major Demel, T. (2004) Forestry research in Ethiopia: changes in the institutional arrangement Past, present and future. In: Proceeding of and research approaches if research efforts a national conference on forest resources have to be more effective in delivering of Ethiopia: Status, challenges and quality and relevant products and services opportunities, 27-29 November 2002. to all stakeholders. Institute of biodiversity conservation (IBC) and German Development Cooperation (GTZ), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 6.2. Paradigm shift to address relevant issues Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan (EFAP) (1993) Forest researchers need support and Forestry and wildlife conservation and training to work with society in identifying development department. Addis Ababa. research issues and solving development problems. This will bring them into Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan (EFAP) (1994) currency with the dynamic social, cultural, Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan. Forestry technological and economicconditions.This and Wildlife Conservation and Development would not only make research saleable, it Department. Addis Ababa. would also promote the role of forestry in social and economic development and raise FAO (1959) Forestry development report to the the profile of the researcher in society. government of Ethiopia. Expanded technical assistance programme. FAO. No. 1143.

6.3. Improved access to resources FAO (1985a) Trees growing by rural people. Food Forest researchers have to be prepared and Agricultural Organization. Forestry for a competitive research funding paper no. 60. Rome. environment to access global resources and reduce dependency on public funding FAO (2000) State of the world's forests. Food to effectively run this costly venture. and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Development Programme. Rome.

6.4. Networking and partnership FAO (2007) State of the world's forests. Food Forest researchers need to learn how and Agricultural Organization of the United to better work together, beginning with Nations Development Programme. Rome. internal and national collaboration among scientists to build up inter-institutional IUCN (2006) International Union for networking and peer linkages. This Conservation of Nature red list of threatened in turn necessitates the building of a species. [Online] Available from: http/ National Forest Research System and www/iucnredlist.org. [Accessed in October Forest Research Forum. This will help to 2006] overcome some of the problems that the forestry research sector is currently facing Last, G.C. (1962) The geography o f Ethiopia. and provide the opportunity to rescue these vanishing forests along with these Melaku, B. (2003) Forest property rights, valuable trees species right in front of our the roles of the state and institutional eyes. exigency: The Ethiopian experience. PhD thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) (1994) Proclamation for the conservation, development, protection and utilisation of forest resource No. 94/1994. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.

Sebsebe D. and Edwards S. (2006) Diversity of vegetation types, agriculture systems and crops in Ethiopia. In: Facilitating the implementation and adaptation of integrated pest management (IPM) in Ethiopia. Planning workshop from October 13-15, 2003, Melkasa Agricultural Research Center, EARO. Jointly organised by the association for advancement of IPM (ASAI) and the Ethiopian agricultural research organization (EARO). DCG proceeding. February 2006.

WBISPP (2000) Manual for woody biomass inventory. Ministry of Agriculture. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia. Woody biomass in the 21st century: A global perspective

Gerhard Glatzel

Institute of Forest Ecology, UNI-BOKU, Peter Jordan-Strasse 82, A-1190, Vienna, Austria Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In the 21st century, the production of crude oil is expected to peak and decline afterwards, as oil fields are exhausted. Natural gas and coal supplies will last longer, but ultimately they will also start to decline. As a consequence of increasing production costs of fossil fuels from difficult deposits and due to political instability in major production zones, prices have gone up. In order to lessen the dependency on fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gases and signal less dependency on politically incalculable suppliers, the European Union and other countries promote renewable energy. Biomass of woody plants is one option, as it can be produced on poor soils with less input of fertiliser than annual herbaceous crops and is suitable for direct conversion into thermal energy by firing and, more importantly from the perspective of industrialised countries, into easily transported and used biofuels. Simultaneously, the demand and, consequently, the price for timber and wood fiber has gone up, too, as competing, oil-derived synthetic materials have become more expensive. The rapid change in global trade and policy on biomass in industrial countries will potentially affect developing countries in various ways. Obviously, there are direct effects of rising oil prices on local fuel markets with a shift back to fuel- wood and other biomass. Bright market perspectives for woody biomass such as timber, raw material for industrial use, as well as biofuels will promote new tree plantations, which compete for food production and water. Carbon emission trading has introduced professional international companies into the woody biomass game. For people in rural areas with limited land resources, the competition for arable land and water may bring more hardship. In regions with abundant land, large commercial plantations will have an impact on social structures and biodiversity. In any case, a pre-emptive, knowledge-based approach is needed in order to cope with potential risks and recognise new chances.

87 1. Introduction products are still an extremely important Biomass form forests and woodlands have category of forest biomass in large regions played an important role throughout the of the world. history of mankind. The intelligent use of After fossil fuels had started to replace fire is an attribute of human development wood as a source of energy in the and thus the use of wood as fuel is very industrializing world, forestry focused conspicuous. However, for people living in on the refinement of woody biomass or near forests, biomass from these forests generated by nature in forests into timber used to be an important food source, too. and industrial wood. Landlocked Germany Edible parts of forest plants can be directly was leading in this process because of its used as food, while the gathering and limited and potentially insecure access hunting of herbivores provides animal fats to timbers from overseas colonies. In and proteins. Over time more complex the highly developed world forests are systems for exploiting forest biomass have nowadays seen as sources of timber and evolved. Livestock was grazed in forests industrial wood, as places for recreation, and the foliage from tree canopies that as sources of clean water, as reservoirs was beyond the reach of livestock was of biodiversity, as barriers against natural brought down by people as fodder. Forests disasters, but to a much lesser degree were transformed into home gardens as sources of biomass for thermal use or which were enriched by useful plants sources of basic food. During the last few and whose soils were managed in such a years this picture has begun to change and way to minimise nutrient loss. In shifting the energetic use of biomass from forests cultivation, the aboveground biomass of has become a hot topic. trees, which had shaded out weeds and lifted mineral nutrients from deep soil horizons, was burnt to allow crops to be 2. The current biomass boom grown on forest soil fertilised by the ashes In the 21st century, the production of of the trees. Composting forest biomass crude oil is expected to peak and decline together with animal dung and using it to afterwards, as oil fields are exhausted. fertilise arable land was an efficient system Natural gas and coal supplies will last to utilise unpalatable biomass from conifer longer, but ultimately will start to decline, forests for food production. too. As a consequence of increasing cost of production of fossil fuels from difficult When man started to use metals, biomass deposits and of political instability in major from forests became an indispensable production zones, on the long run the source of thermal energy, both in the form prices will all but go up. In order to lessen of wood and charcoal. Torches made from the dependency on fossil fuels, reduce resinous wood lighted mines and houses. greenhouse gases according to the Kyoto Until well into the industrial age, forests Process (visit www.globalcarbonproject. provided a plethora of raw materials for org/budget.htm) and signal less trades and crafts. Potash (potassium dependency to politically incalculable carbonate) was made by burning forest suppliers, the European Union and other biomass and refining the ashes. It was countries promote renewable energy. indispensable for glass and soap making Biomass of woody plants is one option, as and required large tracts of forest to be it can be produced on poor soils with less burnt before salts from salt mines replaced input of fertiliser than annual herbaceous it. Soot was needed for printing, fibers for crops and is suitable for direct conversion making rope, turpentine and resin were to thermal energy by firing, in addition traded for many uses, and bark from to many options for conversion to easily trees was the most important ingredient stored and transported products from for tanning leather. Non-timber forest charcoal to bio-fuel. The official homepage http://europa.eu/ on the global scale. China, in particular, is pol/ener/index_en.htm on Activities of interested in securing energy resources the European Union on Energy provides for its fast-growing economy (see detailed information on European energy e.g.: http://www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca/ policy and legislation. In the context of chinainstitute/resources.cfm, http://www. this paper, the Biomass Action Plan is of iags.org/nlll5044.htm, http://www. particular interest. Key statements are: undp.org.cn/index.php. But the US, too, are increasingly committed to renewable a) In the face of Europe's increasing energy and US investors take part in the dependency on fossil fuels, using biomass global biomass rush. Tropical countries is one of the key ways of ensuring the with sufficient precipitation, high climatic security of supply and sustainable energy growth potential and underutilised land, in Europe. This communication sets out e.g. secondary vegetation after forest a series of Community actions aimed in destruction, are prime targets. While most particular at increasing the demand for investors praise their schemes as a new biomass, improving supply, overcoming chance for impoverished countries of the technical barriers and developing South, critical voices talk about "Resource research. Imperialism" or ”Eco-Imperialism" (Driessen 2003) and liken the current b) Biomass currently meets 4% of the development to the rush for gold and EU's energy needs (69 million tons of oil diamonds in colonial times. An excellent equivalent =toe). The aim is to increase unbiased source is Louise O. Fresco's biomass use to around 150 million toe Duisenberg Lecture (2006) "Biomass by 2010. An increase of this magnitude for Fuel or Food: Is there a dilemma?" could bring such benefits as: diversifying (http://www.rabobankgroep.nl/download/ Europe's energy supply; significantly Lecture_Fresco_Biomass_fo r_food_or_ reducing greenhouse gas emissions (209 fuel_tcm43-38549.pdf). million tons); direct employment for 250 to 300.000 people; and potentially In the context of this paper, the ecological lowering the price of oil as a result of lower implications of the current energy policy demand. are of particular interest. Even though the future developments in renewable c) In its strategy, the Commission defines energy markets cannot be predicted in the role that renewable sources of biofuels detail, due to speculation on resources * produced from biomass may play in the and political instabilities, it is evident future as a source of renewable energy that the growing demand for biomass serving as an alternative to the fossil will provide new chances and markets for fuel energy sources (chiefly oil) used in agriculture and forestry. As fossil energy the transport sector. It also proposes declines and becomes more expensive, measures to promote the production and biomass production must, out of necessity, use of biofuels. become less dependent on fossil energy. Soil fertility and its conservation and d) The Commission also wants to support management will therefore be a central developing countries with potential in issue for further generations, restoration terms of biofuels. of degraded lands an urgent priority.

As Europe competes with other energy- hungry regions for future supplies of 3. The future role of woody biomass biofuels, investments into securing Woody biomass has a long tradition as biomass resources for the future have fuel and industrial raw material. In the taken place, are negotiated or are planned industrialised world, the use as fuel has declined after fossil fuels came into use. active parts of trees such as foliage For the consumer fossil fuels, particularly and meristematic tissue contain similar oil and gas proved to be more convenient amounts of nutrients as many herbaceous than fuel wood and for forest owners it plants (Glatzel 1991). If only timber and was profitable to refine the net primary industrial wood of diameters larger than 10 production on forest land into high cm are harvested, the export of nutrients is price timber through silviculture and indeed quite low and most forests are able sophisticated forest management. Table to compensate losses from deposition of 1 compares herbaceous agricultural crops aerosol, weathering of rocks in the subsoil grown for energy generation or non­ and biological N fixation. Extracting small food industrial use with tree and forest diameter branches and foliage may amount biomass. only to an additional 10 or 20 percent of biomass, but may exceed the amounts of On the global scale biofuels rank top among nutrients in the wood fraction. In Central new concepts for biomass utilisation, Europe litter raking and lopping, i.e. the because they can easily be stored and harvesting of nutrient rich biomass from transported with conventional technology forests to subsidise agricultural crops with and used to fuel motor vehicles. For nutrients, has caused a marked decline in this reason there is massive investment forest soil fertility, and had left acidified in research on technology to convert soils of low productivity (Glatzel 1991). biomass into biofuels (Vertes et al. 2006). Thus exhaustive extraction of biomass While there is a substantial tradition in from forests and tree plantations without processing sugar cane into ethanol or returning the nutrients amounts to mining rapeseed and sunflower into biodiesel, and will not be sustainable in the longer palm oil has recently become a prime run. Fertiliser application in forests is not source of biodiesel. Indonesia, a member so easy from the surface and when done of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting from the air by helicopter the costs of Countries, is planning to operate biofuel- energy and money are high. fired power plants in 2007. The plants would use palm oil as their main energy If forests, particularly tropical rain forests, source. Malaysia is predicted to export 1 are converted to plantations with heavy million tons of biofuel next year (Watkins extraction of biomass (e.g. oil palm fruits 2006). However, the focus has most and trunks for bioethanol), the systems recently shifted towards converting woody will inevitably lose carbon from the soil biomass into ethanol. The first reason is compartment (Brown and Lugo 1990). that biomass from trees, including palms, Thus the question of total carbon balance has a high content of carbohydrates which has to be critically evaluated in view of can be converted into ethanol by a variety the claim that all forms of bioenergy of emerging new technologies. The second contribute to climate change protection reason is that trees grow all year round by reducing greenhouse gas emission. On on suitable sites, have a low demand on the other hand, carbon trade investments soil quality and require less fertiliser than into forest biomass plantations can agricultural crops. significantly contribute to bringing trees back to degraded land. A critical question is the maintenance of forest soil fertility under heavy extraction As major changes in land-use affect water of biomass for treethanol production. quality and quantity in watersheds, the While wood has indeed a very low content potential effects on the hydrology have to of plant nutrients, as already pointed out be considered. This must include potential by Justus von Liebig (1840), not all woody pollutant emissions from the conversion of biomass is wood. The physiologically biomass to biofuel.

90 4. Conclusions Ptasinski K.J., Prins M.J. and Pierik A. (2007) Bright market perspectives for woody Exergetic evaluation of biomass gasification. biomass as timber, raw material for Energy, 32 (4): pp.568-574. industrial use, as well as biofuels, will promote new forest plantations, which Schubert, C. (2006) Can biofuels finally take compete with food production and water. center stage? Nat Biotechnol, 24: pp. 777- Carbon emission trading has introduced 784. professional international companies into the woody biomass game. For people in Vertes A.A., Inui M. and Yukawa H. (2006) rural areas with limited land resources, Implementing biofuels on a global scale. the competition for arable land and water Nat Biotechnol, 24 (7): pp. 761-764. may bring more hardship. In regions with abundant land, large commercial Watkins E. 2006. Watching the world: The switch plantations will have an impact on social to biofuels. Oil Gas J, 104 (46): p. 32. structures and biodiversity. New concepts of the production of woody biomass by smallholders are urgently needed as such schemes would bring the benefits of expanding markets to a larger number of people in rural areas and could generate cash income. In any case, a pre-emptive, knowledge-based approach is needed to cope with potential risks and recognise new chances and opportunities.

References

Brown S. and Lugo A.E. (1990) Effects of forest clearing and succession on the carbon and nitrogen content of soils in Puerto Rico and US Virgin Islands. Plant and Soil, 124 (1): pp. 53-64.

Driessen, P. (2003) Eco-Imperiaiism: Green Power Black Death, Merril Press, ISBN: 09- 39-57123-4.

Glatzel, G. (1991) The impact of historic land-use and modern forestry on nutrient relations of Central European forest ecosystems. Fert Res, 27: pp. 1-8.

Hall C.A.S. and Uhlig J. (1991) Refining estimates of carbon released from tropical land-use change. Can J Forest Res, 21 (1): pp. 118- 131.

Liebig, J von (1840) Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. F. Viehweg Verlag, Braunschweig.

91 Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of energy generation from herbaceous agricultural crops and from forest and woody plant biomass.

Woody plants in forests and Herbaceous plants in agriculture plantations Substantial land areas which are not suitable as arable support forests and can be used to grow wood plants. Limited; only 11 percent of the land Competition with timber production. Potentially available surface is potentially arable without Potential conflicts with conservation land irrigation (FAO www.fao.org/AG/agL/). and water use. Conversion of primary Competition with food crops. forests into plantations may result in a negative carbon balance in view of climate protection. Demand on soil fertility high Woody plants can be grown on poor soils While some crops need irrigation, other For high productivity of forests, there is Demand on water crops have been adapted to dryland high demand for water. Irrigation only in farming. tree plantations Fertiliser application on forest land difficult Fertiliser use and soil management well Maintaining soil fertility and costly. Potential conflicts with water established. management, conservation and tourism. High potential; breeding well established, Breeding and genetic High potential by well-established biotechnology less established. Potential engineering technology. conflicts with conservation. Simple; if fruits are used, usually highly More complex, but harvesting time less seasonal; need for long time storage critical, often year round. Tree crops are Harvesting and storage with risk of spoilage or discontinuous usually more robust than herbaceous processing. crops. Locally particularly in developing countries still the most important resource for Mainly residues used directly as fuel; use thermal energy. In the industrialised world of animal dung for fuel is highly extractive Use as fuel decentralised heat/power generation and on plant nutrients and degrades soils. novel products for storage and transport Increasing potential for gasification (e.g. pellets). Gasification by thermal processes explored New technologies for conversion of woody Fairly simple; but many crops for biodiesel biomass into ethanol (treethanol) by (sunflower or rape seed) have low energy Fischer-Tropsch synthesis or enzymatic balances: typically corn for gasoline 1.3- conversion. Forests and plantation Conversion into biofuels 1.8 (output/input), compared to the much accumulate usable biomass over years more energy efficient sugar cane, where and decennia and thus reach high the output to input ratio is 8.6. energy densities per area. Danger of overexploitation by biomass "mining". Still increasing market for pulp and paper; Non-food/fodder Well established for a large variety of if access to sea is given, long distance ship industrial use specialised uses. transport of wood chips. High potential; breeding well established, Breeding and genetic High potential by well-established biotechnology less established. Potential engineering technology. conflicts with conservation. Fertiliser application on forest land difficult Fertiliser use and soil management well Maintaining soil fertility and costly. Potential conflicts with water established. management, conservation and tourism.

92 THEME 2:

WOODY AND HERBACEOUS BIOMASS AS FODDER AND ORGANIC FERTILISER SOURCES 94 Indigenous tree and shrub species for soil fertility improvement in Galessa and Jeldu areas, Western Shewa, Ethiopia

Kindu Mekonnen, Gerhard Glatzel and Monika Sieghardt

Institute of Forest Ecology, UNI BOKU, Peter-Jordan Strasse 82, A-1190, Vienna, Austria. Email: [email protected]

Abstract A study was conducted from 2004 to 2006 to identify and prioritise indigenous species for soil fertility improvement, and to assess soil properties, nutrient concentration and other quality characteristics of green biomass of indigenous tree and shrub species. The most preferred species for soil fertility improvement in Galessa-Jeldu areas were Senecio gigas, Hagenia abyssinica, Dombeya torrida and Buddieja poiystachya. The foliage and flower bud of S. gigas contained a higher P and K content. H. abyssinica had less lignin content in its foliage and flower bud. The variation among species for soluble phenolics in the foliage was from 10 to 169 mg g_1 and in the flower bud from 9 to 234 mg g 1. The soil pH values under H. abyssinica and S. gigas were >6.34. The soil organic C content at 0-15cm depth was higher under H. abyssinica than under B. poiystachya. Similarly, the soil under H. abyssinica and S. gigas had a high content of K at the 0-15cm depth. The contents of organic C, N, P, K, Ca and Mg showed a decreasing pattern from the top to the lower soil depths and from the closest to the distant horizontal positions. The soil under the vicinity of H. abysinica, S. gigas and Chamaecytisus palmensis contained a substantial amount of soil nutrients. Hence, the three species should be tested in farmlands and other land-use types of the high altitude areas, where soil erosion and soil depletion are critical problems. 1. Introduction and prioritise indigenous species for soil Soil degradation, poor crop productivity fertility improvement and (b) to assess and limited vegetation diversity are soil properties, nutrient concentration major problems in high altitude (> 2900) and other quality characteristics of green Galessa-Jeldu areas (German etal. 2005). biomass of indigenous tree and shrub The local people utilise both indigenous species. and introduced practices to manage soil degradation problems. Trees can potentially improve soilsthrough numerous 2. Materials and methods processes, including maintenance or The study area is situated in the upper increase of soil organic matter, uptake of plateaus of Dendi and Jeldu weredas nutrients from below the reach of crop (districts) of western Shewa zone, Oromia roots, biological N-fixation, reduced loss region, Ethiopia (Figure 1). The altitude of of nutrients by erosion and leaching, the study area ranges from 2900 to 3200m. increased water infiltration and storage, Barley is the most dominant crop, followed improved soil-physical properties, reduced by potato and enset (Ensete ventricosum). soil acidity and improved soil-biological The soil is characterised as Haplic Luvisol. activity (Young 1997). The chemical and physical properties of the soil are shown in Table 1. The use of green biomass of tree and shrub species is one of the traditional Two weredas (districts) and four kebeles practices that are currently in use in the (lower administrative units in the Galessa-Jeldu areas to improve soil fertility government structure) in the highlands and thereby increase crop productivity. of central Ethiopia were considered for This type of approach helps to sustain the study. Accessibility and diversity of agricultural productivity in tropical regions soil improving species were given much where the use of mineral fertilisers is attention forthe selection of the study area. limited. Green biomass of trees and Tree and shrub species growing location shrubs can be classified into high quality, and composition were investigated through intermediate-high quality, intermediate- direct observation, as well as group and low quality and low quality (Palm et al. individual discussions approaches. The 2001). A high quality green biomass farmers'tree species preference criteria for contains N >25mg g 1, lignin <150mg soil fertility improvement were identified g 1 and soluble phenolics <40mg g 1; and prioritised through group discussion. intermediate-high quality green biomass A total of 150 farmers (respondents) contains N >25mg g lignin >150 mg g 1 participated for questionnaire survey or soluble phenolics >40 mg g_1; and low (Roothaert and Franzel 2001, Thapa et at. quality green biomass contains N <25 mg 1997, Morrison et al. 1996, Mayr 1996). g 1, lignin >150 mg g 1 or soluble phenolics >40 mg g 1. The capacity of the high Senecio gigas Vatke (basionym: Solanecio quality biomass to supply N is high and gigas (Vatke) C.Jeffrey; Kew Bull. 41(4): immediate. The low quality green biomass 923 (1986)), Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) has a low direct nutrient effect and a high J.F. Gmel., Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) indirect mulching effect (Kumar et al. P. Bamps, Buddleja polystachya Fres. and 2003). Chamaecytisus palmensis (Christ) Bisby & K. Nicholls were included in the soil and Studies on soil properties under indigenous plant sampling scheme. Chamaecytisus species and nutrient concentration of palmensis (tree lucerne) was recently green biomass of trees are limited in the introduced an exotic N-fixing woody species. high altitude areas. A study was conducted A transect approach was considered for in Galessa - Jeldu areas (a) to identify soil sampling. Sampling locations were 75, 150 and 225cm distances (position) at both method (Olsen and Sommers 1982). sides from the base of each marked tree or Exchangeable element contents (K+, Ca2+, shrub species (Power et al. 2003, WEZEL Mg2+, Mn2+ and AI3+) were extracted from 2000, Hailu etal. 2000). Sampling depths air-dried samples with 0.1M NH4OAc at were 0-15, 15-30 and 30-50cm (Kindu et pH 7.0. The elements in the extracts were al. 1997). A total of 135 composite soil determined using a simultaneous ICP- samples were collected under the four OES. indigenous and one exotic tree and shrub species attributed as soil improvers. Soil A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) samples collected from similar depths and was carried out on CP, mineral composition, positions were thoroughly mixed to obtain ADF, NDF, ADL, condensed tannins and composite samples. IVDMD using SAS (SAS institute 1999). Significance between means was tested A total of 30 composite foliage and flower using the Least Significant Difference bud samples were collected from S. gigas, (LSD). H. abyssinica, D. torrida, B. poiystachya and C. palmensis. Sub-samples were 3. Results and discussion collected from all samples for water content determination. The fresh mass of each sub-sample was immediately recorded 3.1. Tree and shrub species in the field. All foliage, stem and flower identified and ranked for soil fertility bud samples and sub-samples were oven- improvement dried at 80°C for 24 hours. The dry-mass Farmers identified more than 15 tree and of the sub-samples was recorded and the shrub species that they believe potential moisture percentage was calculated. for improving soil fertility (Table 2). The tree and shrub species located mainly The total N content of the foliage and flower around homesteads and in forests. About bud was determined by Kjeldahl digestion 92% of the farmers need to plant more using Na2S04 and CuS04 as catalysts. indigenous soil improving trees around Oven dried foliage and flower bud samples homesteads for better management and were extracted with a mixture of HN03 protection purposes. Farmers ranked the and HCI04. The total P, K, Ca, Mg and S existing indigenous tree and shrub species content of the extracts were determined for soil fertility improvement based on by the use of a simultaneous ICP-OES their own criteria (Table 3). They also (Inductively Coupled Plasma - Optical considered change of soil colour, status of Emission Spectroscopy) with axial plasma soil moisture, crop growth and yield, and (Perkin Elmer, OPTIMA 3000 XL). soil structure as indictor for soil fertility improvement near or under the canopy or The soil pH was determined in 1:3 soil hedge of tree and shrub species. The most suspensions in deionised water for active preferred species for the farmers include: acidity, using a potentiometric pH-meter S. gigas, H. abyssinica and D. torrida (0NORM L1083 2005). Organic carbon (Table 4). was determined by C/S-Element analyzer LECO S/C 444, using oven-dry samples. Dry combustion at 1400°C in pure 02 3.2. Green biomass nutrient atmosphere and infrared detection of concentration and other quality evolved C02 was applied (ONORM L1080, characteristics 2005). Total N was determined by the The macronutrients content in foliage Semi-micro-Kjeldahl procedure, using the and flower bud differed depending on the air-dry samples (0NORM L1082 2005). species. The content of N in the foliage of Available P was determined by the Olsen H. abyssinica was comparatively lower than the N content of the other tree and shrub H. abyssinica is higher by 23.25, 24.53 and species (Figure 2). Similarly, C. palmensis 21.03mg g"1 than under B. poiystachya in had a low N content in its flower bud as the closest, midst and distant positions, compared to the other four tree and shrub respectively (Table 6). Similarly, the species. Senecio gigas showed a higher P difference in soil N at the 0-15cm depth and K content in its foliage and flower bud. is 1.85, 2.27 and 1.83mg g 1. The content The high content of P, K and S in S. gigas of soil P has the following order in the top may be traced back to the scavenging of 0-15cm soil depth of the closest and midst these nutrients in a large soil volume and horizontal positions: H. abyssinica > S. their accumulation in the aboveground gigas > C. palmensis > D. torrida > B. organs. According to Garrity and Mercado poiystachya (Table 7). The contents of K (1994), members of the/4sferaceae family, vary significantly at the 0-15cm soil depth to which S. gigas belongs, are effective of the three horizontal positions. The soil nutrient scavengers. under H. abyssinica and S. gigas has a high content of soil K at the 0-15cm depth Hagenia abyssinica had less lignin content in all three horizontal positions. in its foliage and flower bud as compared to other species (Table 5). The lignin content The high content of OC, N, P and K under of H. abyssinica, D. torrida and S. gigas the vicinity of H. abyssinica as compared to was lower in the foliage than in the flower B. poiystachya can be associated with the bud. On the other hand, B. poiystachya fact that the former has a more efficient and C. plamensis had more lignin content nutrient cycling power than the latter. in their flower bud than in the foliage. H. abyssinica constantly sheds a high The lignin contents of the foliage of most amount of leaves and provides the soil in of our tree and shrub species are below its vicinity with mulch and green manure. the critical level of 150mg g 1 dry matter. Kindu et al. (2006) reported the presence Lignin content above 150mg g 1 impairs of a high amount of litter deposition under the decomposition of tree foliages, since 64 months old H. abyssinica and Grevillea lignin protects the cellulose in the cell robusta on Nitisols of central Ethiopia. D. wall from microbial attack (Chesson 1997, torrida and S. gigas shed a substantial Palm and Rowland 1997). amount of leaves, even though their leaf shedding pattern is not as regular as that The content of lignin and soluble phenolics of H. abyssinica. in the foliage and flower bud differed from species to species. The variation Soil pH, organic C, N, P and depicted a among species for soluble phenolics in the decreasing pattern from the 0-15 to the foliage is from 10 to 169mg g 1 and in the 30-50cm soil depths and from the closest flower bud from 9 to 234mg g 1 (Table 5). to the midst and distant positions under According to Constantinides and Fownes most of the tree and shrub species. An (1994), the soluble phenolics content of improvement of soil nutrients by various green foliage of tree and shrub species tree and shrub species in topsoil and close can reach as high as lOOmg g 1. Soluble to the tree stems has been reported earlier phenolics content > 30 to 40mg g 1 results (Abebe et al. 2001, Ashagrie et al. 1999, in the immobilization of N (Palm 1995). Gindaba et al. 2005, Hailu et al. 2000).

3.3. Soil properties under the 4. Conclusions indigenous tree and shrub species Indigenous species in general and S. gigas The soil pH values under H. abyssinica and in particular showed superiority in terms S. gigas are above 6.34 (Figure 3). At the of the amount of macronutrients in the 0-15cm depth, the soil OC content under foliage and flower bud. The exotic species

98 had a reasonable amount of soluble Garrity D.P. and Mercado A.R. (1994) Nitrogen phenolics in the foliage. Based on the fixation capacity in the component species content of N, lignin and soluble phenolics, of contour hedgerows: how important? indigenous species have intermediate to Agrofor Syst, 27: pp. 241-258. high quality foliage and flower bud whereas exotic species have high quality foliage German L.A., Berhane K. and Kindu M. (2005) and flower bud for managing soil fertility. Watershed management to counter farming The soil under the vicinity of H. abyssinica systems decline: toward a demand-driven, and S. gigas contains a substantial systems-oriented research agenda. amount of nutrients. This is an indication Agricultural Research & Extension Network of the species' potential to improve the Network Paper No. 145. fertility of soils. H. abyssinica, S. gigas and C. palmensis can play a great role Gindaba J., Rozanov A. and Negash L. (2005) in farmlands and other land-use types of Trees on farms and their contribution to the high altitude areas, where soil erosion soil fertility parameters in Badessa, eastern and soil depletion are critical problems. Ethiopia. Biol Fertil Soils, 42: pp. 66-71. Hence, further research is urgently needed to evaluate the performance of Hailu T., Negash L. and Olsson M. (2000) Millettia S. gigas, H. abyssinica and C. palmensis ferruginea from southern Ethiopia: impacts outside homesteads of the high altitude on fertility and growth of maize. Agrofor agroecologies. Syst, 48: pp. 9-24.

References Kindu M., Buresh R.J. and Jama B. (1997) Root and inorganic nitrogen distributions in Abebe Y., Fissaha I. and Olsson M. (2001) sesbania fallow, natural fallow and maize Contribution of indigenous trees to soil fields. Plant soil, 188: pp. 319-327. properties: the case of scattered trees of Cordia africana Lam. in croplands of Kindu M., Glatze G., Tadesse Y. and Yosef A. western Oromia. Ethiop J Nat Resour, 3: (2006) Tree species screened on Nitisols pp. 245-270. of central Ethiopia: biomass production, nutrient contents and effect on soil nitrogen. Ashagrie Y., Mamo T. and Olsson M. (1999) J Trop For Sci, 18: pp. 173-180. Changes in some soil chemical properties under scattered Croton macrostachyus Kumar P., Tarafdar J.C., Panwar J. and Kathju S. trees in the traditional agroforestry system (2003) A rapid method for assessment of in northwestern Ethiopia. Ethiop J Nat plant residue quality. J Plant Nutr Soil Sc, Resour, 1: pp. 215-233. 166: pp. 662-666.

Chesson, A. (1997) Plant Degradation Mayr, A. (1996) Evaluation of indigenous fodder by Ruminants: Parallels with Litter trees and shrubs in different agro-ecological Decomposition in Soils. In: Cadisch G. and zones of western Kenya. Msc Thesis. Institut Giller K.E. (eds) Driven by Nature: Plant fiir Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzuchtung. Litter Quality and Decomposition. CAB Universitat fur Bodenkultur, Vienna, International, Wallingford, UK: pp. 47-66. Austria: p. 104.

Constantinides M. and Fownes J.H. (1994a) Morrison B.J., Gold M.A. and Lantagne D.O. N mineralization from leaves and litter of (1996) Incorporating indigenous knowledge tropical plants: relationship to nitrogen, of foddertrees into small-scale silvopastoral lignin and soluble polyphenol concentrations. systems in Jamaica. Agrofor Syst, 34: pp. Soil Biol Biochem, 26: pp. 49-55. 101-117. Olsen S.R. and Sommers L.E. (1982) Phosphorus. Thapa B., Walker D.H. and Sinclair F.L. (1997) In: Page A.L. (ed): Methods of soil analysis; Indigenous knowledge of the feeding value Part 2: Chemical and microbiological of tree fodder. Anim Feed Sci Tech, 67: properties. Am Soc Agron, Soil Sci Soc Am, pp.97-1 14. Madison, WI., USA: pp. 403-430. Wezel A. (2000) Scattered shrubs in pearl millet fields in semiarid Niger: effect on millet ONORM L1080 (2005) Chemical analysis of soils; production. Agrofor Syst, 48: pp. 219- determination of humus by dry combustion 228. o f carbon. Austrian Standards Institute. Young A. (1997) Agroforestry for soil manage­ ment. CAB International, Wallingford, UK ONORM L1082 (2005) Chemical analysis o f soils; and ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. determination of total nitrogen. Austrian Standards Institute.

ONORM L1083 (2005) Chemical analysis of soils; determination of acidity (pH value). Austrian Standards Institute.

Palm, C.A. (1995) Contribution of agroforestry trees to nutrient requirements in intercropped plants. Agrofor Syst, 30: pp. 105-124.

Palm C.A. and Rowland A.P. (1997) A Minimum Dataset for Characterization of Plant Quality for Decomposition. In: Cadisch G. and Giller K.E. (eds) Driven by Nature: Plant Litter Quality and Decomposition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK: pp. 379-392.

Palm C.A., Giller K.E., Mafongoya P.L. and Swift M.J. 2001. Management of organic matter in the tropics: translating theory into practice. Nutr Cycl Agroecosys, 61: pp.63-75.

Power I.L., Thorrold B.S. and Balks M.R. (2003) Soil properties and nitrogen availability in silvopastoral plantings of Acacia melanoxylon in north Island, New Zealand. Agrofor Syst, 57: pp. 225-237.

Roothaert R. L. and Franzel S. (2001) Farmers' preferences and use of local fodder trees and shrubs in Kenya. Agrofor Syst, 52: pp.239-252.

SAS Institute (1999) SAS/STAT User's Guide, Version 8. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA. Figure 1: Location map of the study area.

Table 1: Some physical and chemical properties of the soil in the study area. Table 1. Some physical and chemical properties of the soil in the study area.

Depth pH OC Tot. N Av. P Sand Silt Clay (cm) (HiO) (m g g ') (m g g ') (m gg'1) (%) (%) (%) 0-18 6.28 48.280 4.796 0.083 12 47 41 18-60 6.19 15.290 1.316 0.018 11 37 52 60-125 5.66 4.356 0.459 0.021 4 34 62 125-160 5.97 2.027 0.198 0.022 28 33 39 Tot. N - total N, OC - organic C, Av. P - available P Table 2: Soil improving tree and shrub species identified in Galessa-Jeldu areas.

Species Local names Family names Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P. Bamps Danisa Sterculiaceae Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel. Heto Rosaceae Buddleja poiystachya Fres. Anfari Loganiaceae Rubus apetalus Poir. Gora/Yedega Injore Rosaceae Rubus pinnatus Willd. Gura/ Yedega Injore Rosaceae Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. Chochinga Asteraceae Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. Kombolcha Celastraceae Myrica salicifolia I Iochst. ex A. Rich. Reji Myricaceae Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. Gatira Cupressaceae Phytolacca dodecandra L Her Indode Phytolaccaceae Urtica simensis Hochst. ex steud. Dobi (sama) Urticaceae Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms Luke Araliaceae Senecio gigas Vatke Osolie Asteraceae Kalanchoe deficiens (Forsk) Asch. & Schweinf. Bosokie Crassulaceae Dracaena steudneri Schweinf. ex. Lankuso/Hareg Agavaceae Trichilia roka (Forsk.) Chiov. Anona Meliaceae Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) M.Iwarsson Bokolu Lamiaceae

Table 3: Criteria used by farmers to evaluate indigenous tree and shrub species for soil fertility improvement in Galessa-Jeldu areas of western Shewa.

Table 3. Criteria used by farmers to evaluate indigenous tree and shrub species for soil fertility improvement in Galessa-Jeldu areas of western Shewa. Number of Criteria respondents'1 Score Rank Fertility related criteria " Regular leaf shedding 148 649 1 Fast decomposition of leaves 139 514 2 Fast growth 120 228 4 liasv propagation 118 204 5 Production of high biomass 138 469 3

Sample size was 150 households. " If a farmer selected the criteria first, it received a value of 5; if second, a value of 4; if third, a value of 3; if fourth, a value of 2 and if fifth, a value of 1. Score is sums of individual farmer value given to the respective criteria.

102 Table 4: Indigenous tree and shrub species ranked for soil fertility improvement based on farmers' criteria in the Galessa-Jeldu areas of central Ethiopia.

No. of Soil improving species respondants* Score Senecio gigas 142 743 Hagenia abyssinica 147 734 Dombeya torrida 133 512 Vernonia auriculifera 122 357 Bu ddl ejapo lystachya 99 272 Myrica salicifolia 100 205 Leonotis africana 60 106 Kalcmchoe deficiens 9 39 Dracaena steudneri 5 16 Juniperus procera 3 10 Maytenus senegalensis 3 8 Note: Sample size was 150 households. Each household scored six. preferred fodder tree species. a Number of respondants who selected the species in the top 6. If a farmer selected a species first, it received a value o f 6, if second, a value of 5, if third, a value of 4, if fourth, a value o f 3; if fifth, a value of 2 and if sixth, a value of 1. Score is sums o f individual farmer value given to the respective species.

Table 5: Lignin and soluble phenolics composition of foliage and flower bud in five tree and shrub species.

H. abyss­ D. B. polyst- C. palm­ S. Foliage inica torrida achya ensis gigas SEM

Lignin 53c iooDC 173a 124Da OC 12.37 Soluble 169a 54b 82b 10c 79° 14.41 Flower bud Lignin 73d 199a 161b 98dc 106c 12.84 Soluble 234a 15c 14c 9C 38b 23.16 -i , Lignin and soluble phenolics are in mg g" dry matter. SEM - Standard error of the means (n = 15). Means with different letters within a row are significantly different (p <0.05).

103 104 pce. ro asaeSM ih n = with SEM 15. are bars Error species. Figure 2: Trends of macronutrients in the foliage and flower buds of five tree and shrub and tree five of buds flower and foliage the in macronutrients of Trends 2: Figure

Mg(mg g'1) K (mg g'1) N (mg g'1) 20.0 20.0 30.0 60.0 70.0 40.0 50.0 10.0 0.0 nh^iF^lnfi □ K in foliage d K in flower bud flower in K d foliage in K □ f r 'OD U 'a s 00 21.0 26.3 10.5 15.8 0.0 5.3 b r i i f - t f a n foliage in Ca n E C a in flower bud flower in a C E r i b - * and (c) 225cm position from the stem of five species. Error bars are bars Error species. five n= of 15. with stem SEM the from position 225cm (c) and iue : rnso ol H t a 7c psto () 5c position 150cm (b) position 75cm (a) at pH soil of Trends 3: Figure Soil pH (H 20) (c) oldph (cm) depth Soil 15-30

Table 6: Total N, organic C and pH at different depths and positions from five tree and shrub species.

Dept Organic C (mg g") T otal N (mg g") h 75 cm 150 cm 225 cm 75 cm 150 cm 225 cm Species (cm) position position position position position position B. polystachya 15 51.3 lb 40.33b 39.73b 4.75a 3.99b 3.83b C palmensis 61.37ba 58.63ba 56.36ba 5.92a 5.74ba 5.19ba D. torrida 63.50ba 59.86ba 57.59a 4.92a 5.36ba 5.36ba H. abyssinica 74.56a 64.86a 60.76a 6.60a 6.26a 5.66a S. gigas 58.93ba 55.1 lba 53.00ba 5.36a 5.15ba 5.04ba SEM 3.302 3.372 2,899 0,335 0,333 0,274 B. polystachya 30 38.00a 32.52a 33.01a 3.64a 2.66a 3.03 a C. palmensis 50.84a 44.82a 39.34a 4.94a 3.98a 3.82a D. torrida 44.04a 37.70a 38.63a 4.22a 3.68a 3.68a H. abyssinica 5<5.29a 43.92a 44.42a 5.2 l a 4.13 a 4.14a S. gigas 43.76a 36.95a 33.84a 4.07a 3.28a 2.89a SEM 3.199 2,654 2,279 0,280 0,284 0,227 B. polystachya 50 32.41a 24.96a 21.12b 2.92a 2.14a 1.96b C. palmensis 29.12a 26.50a 28.18ba 2.67a 2.45a 2.51ba D. torrida 31.25a 28.24a 28.49ba 2.91a 2.60a 2.2 8ba H. abyssinica 38.37a 35.37a 36.30a 3.36a 3.19a 3.19a S. gigas 39.37a 22.57a 21.48b 3.46a 1.93a 1.9 lb SEM 2.120 1.992 2,099 0,200 0,213 0,183 Means with different letters within a column at similar depth and position are significantly different (p <0.05). SEM - Standard error of the means (n = 15).

Table 7: Exchangeable cations at different depths and positions from five tree and shrub species.

Available? (ppm) Exchans;eable K (jig g"1) Depth positio 150 cm positio positio positio positio Species (cm) n position n n n n B. polystachya 15 15.53° 14.47“ 13.87a 826° 568a 455c C. palmensis 54ba 53.07°a 55.23a 1428°a 1409a 1291bac D. torrida 19.27° 26°a 24.47a 927° 77 l a 639°° H. abyssinica 99.8a 81.40a 72.53a 1929°a 1592a 1642a S. gigas 78.4ba 76.47a 72.67a 2306a 151 Sa 1507°a SEM 11,77 10,16 9,76 215,11 175,62 167,27 B. polystachya 30 12.40a 9.93a 9.80° 489a 444a 424a C. palmensis 39.47a 22.93a 17.67°a 1171a 1154a 1389a D. torrida 12.87a 13.40a 12.67° 539a 53 l a 482a H. abyssinica 55.40a 33.27a 27.60a 1483a 1205a 1324a S. gigas 49.13 a 36.20a 25.67a 1544a 1259a 1222a SEM 8,3 4,37 2,36 183,33 178,74 183,44 B. polystachya 50 10.13d 9.13° 8.27a 33 9a 480a 470a C. palmensis 15.53° 13.93°a 13.80a 8403 876a 915a D. torrida 9.80° 11.00ba 9.80* 343a 325a 344a H. abyssinica 20.40°a 10.80ba 11.90a 1048a 938a 1141a S. gigas 31.13 a 15.73a 14.60a 1372a 1232a 1197a SEM 2,57 0,94 0,99 166,41 158,13 157,64 Means with different letters within a column at similar depth and position are significantly different (p <0.05). SEM - Standard error of the means (n = 15).

106 Targeting various organic resources and legume best bets to various system niches to reverse decline in land productivity

in East African Highlands (Abstract)

Tilahun Amede

African Highlands Initiative/ International Centre for Tropical Agriculture, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Sustainable land management is a complex phenomenon affected by biophysical, socioeconomic and policy factors, which is partly associated with a decline in the vegetation cover. Decline in the system biomass affects systems and livelihoods through a shortage of fuel wood, shortage of feed, and a decline in the soil fertility status, a decline in the water holding capacity of soils and systems, exposure to erosion and land slides and a decline in the overall system productivity. Up to very recently, natural fallows were used to restore soil fertility, mainly in the cereal-based highlands of Ethiopia. However, due to an increasing demand for land as a result of population pressure, natural fallows with such a long duration are no longer a viable option for improving soil fertility. It has been recognised that natural fallow requires longer time to achieve the required level of soil fertility that can lead to optimal crop yields. Short duration fallows of legume cover crops and selected multi-purpose trees are now becoming more appreciable, although short-duration fallows do not maintain soil fertility at levels similar to those achieved under long-duration natural fallows. Legume cover crops have the advantage of in situ accumulation of biomass, optimising nutrient cycling through nutrient pumping from subsoil layers and litter falls, enhancing soil biological activities and maximizing the use efficiency of minimal external inputs. Successful experiences have been drawn in East and Central Africa in identifying best bets of forages, multipurpose trees and dual- purpose legumes and to integrate these options into various system niches, considering agro-ecology, socio-economic status, system variability, adoption of the species to the specific niches and compatibility to the targeted farming systems. The paper will display experiences of the African Highlands Initiative and Tropical Soils Biology and Fertility of CIAT on how to identify best-bets, with win-win benefits, addressing trade-offs among different household production objectives, including soil fertility decline, livestock feed and cooking fuel in the Ethiopian highlands. It will also consider the after-effects and residual effects on crop yields, address organic quality indicators, but also display decision guides on how to use the different types of organic resources to various land management scenarios. Utilisation of the biomass of trees and shrubs as organic fertiliser source: Experiences from Holetta Agricultural

Research Center (Abstract)

Berhane Kidane1 and Asgelil Dibabe2 h o le tta Agricultural Research Center, EIAR, RO.Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected] 2 Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, RO.Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Abstract Soil fertility decline, mainly due to soil erosion is a major challenge in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. Cognizent of the soil fertility depletion problem, strip plantings of Sesbania sesban and different grasses were established on sloppy lands in the highlands of the Dendi district, West Shewa Zone, in the Oromia region of Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of pruned biomass and barrier hedges of S. sesban and other herbaceous plants on soil fertility and crop grain yield. The result showed that the application of lOt biomass h a 1 on a dry weight basis in the main cropping seasons of 1998 and 1999 increased the grain and straw yield of wheat as compared to the control plots. However, in 1997 the application of 15t ha 1 provided the highest crop and straw yield, followed by the application of lOt biomass h a 1. During a participatory evaluation of the experiment, farmers realised the importance of contour hedges for minimizing the speed of water and thereby controlling the loss of fertile soils. On the other hand, farmers mentioned the challenges associated with contour hedges. The first and most frequent one was free livestock grazing, which affects early survival and the promotion of this technology. Moreover, farmers indicated the difficulties of narrow inter-contour hedges for oxen plowing. A minimum of 8m inter-contour hedges was suggested by farmers for future implementation. Indigenous tree and shrub species for fodder production in Galessa and Jeldu areas, West Shewa, Ethiopia

Kindu Mekonnen, Gerhard Glatzel and Monika Sieghardt

Institute of Forest Ecology, UNI BOKU, Peter-JordanStrasse 82, A-1190, Vienna, Austria. Email: [email protected].

Abstract The foliage of indigenous tree and shrub species are used as source of supplemental animal feed in Galessa-Jeldu areas. A study was carried to identify and prioritise indigenous species for fodder production, and to evaluate chemical composition and anti-nutritional factors in the foliage and flower bud of indigenous fodder tree and shrub species. The species studied were Hagenia abyssinica, Dombeya torrida, Buddieja poiystachya and Chamaecytisus palmensis. The chemical composition, tannin content and in vitro dry matter digestibility of foliage and flower bud samples were determined. The content of P in the foliage and flower bud of the four species ranged from 2.50 to 4.71mg g 1 and 2.24 to 5.37mg g-1 dry matter, respectively. The sodium content of the foliage and flower bud in the four species was not adequate to fulfill the minimum requirement of all classes of animals. The crude protein content of the foliage and flower bud in the four fodder species was much higher than the minimum required level. B. poiystachya had a high content of acid detergent lignin and condensed tannin in the foliage. The in vitro dry matter digestibility of the foliage and flower bud from H. abyssinica and C. palmensis was reasonably high. The foliage and flower bud of all investigated woody species are potential to be used as sources of fodder with a proper feeding management scheme. 1. Introduction survey. According to Eyobe et al. (1997), Natural pasture and crop residues are farmers with more than 3ha of land and major sources in the highlands. These sufficient number of oxen, cows and feed resources are characterised by low other farm animals are considered as rich digestibility, protein content and mineral farmers. Farmers who own l-3ha of land, composition (Seyoum and Zinash 1989). pair of oxen and other domestic animals is Fodder tree and shrub species are mostly in the medium wealth category. Farmers required as supplement to low quality that own less than 0.5ha of land with or feeds. Fodder tree and shrub species without farm animals are grouped under are considered important contributors to low-income farmers. grazing animal nutrition in the highlands of Galessa-Jeldu areas. During the dry and Tree and shrub species' growing locations crop-fallow season, farmers traditionally and composition were investigated through feed indigenous fodder species to meet direct observation, as well as group and nutritional requirements of the grazing individual discussions approaches. A total animals. So far, very little work has been of 150 farmers (respondents) participated done on the identification, prioritization for questionnaire survey (Roothaert and and characterization of indigenous fodder Franzel 2001, Thapa et al. 1997, Morrison and soil improving trees and shrubs in et al. 1996, Mayr 1996). The farmers' high altitude areas of Galessa-Jeldu areas. criteria for the selection and prioritization Similarly, farmers' local knowledge on of fodder species were identified through indigenous fodder trees and shrub species group discussion and quantified at the are not strongly supported by scientific time of the questionnaire survey. investigations. The objectives of the study were (a) to identify and prioritise Hagenia abyssinica, Dombeya torrida, indigenous species for fodder production, Buddleja poiystachya and Chamaecytisus and (b) to evaluate chemical composition palmensis were included in the nutritional and anti-nutritional factors in the foliage evaluation process of the fodder species and bud flower of indigenous fodder tree as they are priority species of the farmers. and shrub species. Chamaecytisus palmensis (tree lucerne) was recently introduced an exotic N-fixing woody species. 2. Materials and methods The study was conducted from 2004 to Foliage (leaves and twigs) and flower bud 2006 of Dendi and Jeldu Weredas (districts) samples were collected from H. abyssinica, in the western Shewa zone, Oromia region, D. torrida, B. poiystachya and C. palmensis. Ethiopia (Figure 1). The altitude ranges Flower buds were included in the sampling from 2900 to 3200m. Barley is the most scheme since most species produce an dominant crop, followed by potato and abundant quantity of flower buds that are enset (Ensete ventricosum). Cattle, sheep palatable by livestock. The total number of and horses are dominant in the study sites. composite foliage and flower bud samples Accessibility and diversity of soil improving was 24. and fodder producing species were given much attention for the selection of the Total N content of the foliage and flower study area. A total of 14 villages in four bud was determined following the Kjeldahl kebeles (lower administrative units in the procedure. The total P, K, Ca, Mg and S government structure) of Dendi and Jeldu content of the extracts were determined weredas were considered for the study. by the use of a simultaneous ICP-OES with Similarly, 9 to 12 households (3-4 rich, an axial plasma and SCD (Perkin Elmer, 3-4 medium income and 3-4 low income) OPTIMA 3000 XL). Crude protein (CP) was from each village were considered for the calculated by multiplying N * 6.25. Acid

110 Detergent Fibre (ADF), Acid Detergent farmlands and other niches (Table 1). The Lignin (ADL), and Neutral Detergent Fibre fodder tree and shrub species were mainly (NDF) were determined by the methods concentrated around homesteads and in of Van Soest and Robertson (1985). NDF forests. More than 86% of the farmers was determined with amylase and sodium need to plant trees around homesteads sulphite. The in vitro digestiblity was for better management and protection determined by the method of Van Soest purposes. The percentage of farmers and Robertson (1985). The insoluble who mentioned a lack of seedlings, a NDF-bound proanthocyanidins (codensed free grazing livestock system, shortage tannins) were determined as described by of land and a lack of awareness as major Reed et al. (1982). problems for the planting of indigenous fodder species was 66%, 27%, 25% and A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) 17%, respectively. was carried out on CP, mineral composition, ADF, NDF, ADL, condensed tannins and Farmers ranked fodder tree and shrub IVDMD using SAS (SAS institute 1999). species based on plant and animal related Significance between means was tested criteria (Table 2). The most preferred using the Least Significant Difference tree species for fodder in their order of (LSD). importance include: H. abyssinica > D. torrida > B. poiystachya > Maytenus senegalensis (Table 3). About 98% of the 3. Results farmers feed the fodder trees to cattle, 63% to sheep and 2% to horses. Tree 3.1. Household and farm leaves and straw fill the gap of the feed characteristics shortage in the dry season (April and Out of 150 farmers, 85.3% were male and May). Most farmers (64%) cut branches 14.7% female. Very low, low, intermediate of trees and feed them to their animals. and high-income farmers constitute 8.7%, About 35% of the farmers collect fallen 28%, 36.7% and 26.7%, respectively, of leaves under fodder trees and feed to their the total respondents. The household sizes animals. There are also very few farmers of the respondents ranged from 2 to 14 (4%) who feed leaves of Dombeya torrida persons. The mean household size was with salt. The mixture of leaves and salt 7.53. Fifteen percent of the respondents enhances the fattening of oxen and sheep. had a household size of 7. There were more The utilisation of industrial by-products literate respondents than illiterate ones. (oil seed cake) is minimal. Only some rich Forty three percent of the respondents farmers buy oil seed cake and feed it to had attended formal education and 18.7% their animals. could write their names. On the other hand, the respondents who could not 3.3. Mineral composition of the fodder read and write at all made up 38%. The cultivable land holding of farmers ranged tree and shrub species from 0-6 ha. The range for the number Differences among species for P were more of cattle (oxen and cow) holding was pronounced in the foliage than in the flower between 0 and 5, sheep holding 0-30 and bud (Table 4). The Mg content in the foliage horse holding 0-5. and flower bud of the three indigenous fodder species was high as compared to C. palmensis. D. torrida had the highest 3.2. Tree and shrub species identified K content in the foliage and flower bud. and ranked for fodder production The K level of the foliage and flower bud Farmers identified more than 30 tree in the indigenous as well as exotic species and shrub species around homesteads, was above the requirements and below the maximum tolerable concentration for the four species was much higher than the beef and dairy cattle. The high K level in minimum required CP level (70mg g_1) of relation to Ca and Mg has been associated beef cattle (Minson and Milford 1967). The with reduced magnesium absorption. CP content of D. torrida (234mg g 1), B. Potassium reduces Mg absorption when polystachya (229mg g 1) and C. palmensis the K/(Ca + Mg) ratio exceeds 2.2 (Kemp (228mg g_1) in the present study was high and t'Hart 1957). The K/(Ca + Mg) ratios as compared to the CP range (134-213mg of the foliage of the four species were g 1) reported for six Acacia species in below the critical level. Kenya (Abdulrazak et al. 2000). The high CP content in the foliage of C. palmensis The S content of the foliage in D. torrida can be accounted for by the N fixing ability and B. polystachya was higher than the of the species. The non-N-fixing species S content of the foliage in H. abyssinica in our study only cycle the N present in and C. palmensis. The S content of the the soil. On the other hand, C. palmensis flower bud in D. torrida was higher by cycles the N present in the soil and also 2.01 mg g-1 than the S content of the adds N into the system through biological flower bud in C. palmensis. The Na content N fixation. of the foliage and flower bud in the four species was comparable. The content of The NDF content of the foliage and flower Na in the foliage and flower bud was below bud in H. abyssinica was less by 215 and the requirement. Common salt or local 383mg g 1 than the NDF content of the mineral sources such as mineral soil can foliage and flower bud in C. palmensis, improve the deficiency of Na in the foliage respectively (Table 4). The ADF content of and flower bud feed resources. Sodium is the foliage in H. abyssinica and D. torrida important to regulate osmotic pressure, was comparable. The ADF content of the acid-base and water balance in the animal flower bud was high in B. polystachya body. Low levels of Na in feeds affect and low in H. abyssinica. The contents of absorption of Mg (Martens et al. 1987). NDF and ADF in H. abyssinica, D. torrida, The Fe and Mn contents of the foliage in C. B. polystachya and C. palmensis was palmensis were higher than the Fe and Mn within the range reported for browse tree content in the three indigenous species. species by El Hassan et al. (2000), Larbi However, the four species did not show et al. (1998), Abdulrazak et al. (2000) and significant differences in the content of Fe Khanal and Subba (2001). and Mn in the flower bud. Manganese is a major component of enzymes and serves The ADL content of the foliage in H. as an activator of enzymes. All the foliage abyssinica was less by 46, 71 and 119mg and flower bud samples from the four g_1 than the ADL content of the foliage in D. species fulfill the Mn demand of beef and torrida, C. palmensis and B. polystachya, dairy cattle. respectively. The ADL content of the flower bud in H. abyssinica was low as compared to other investigated species. 3.4. Chemical composition of the tree The variability for CT content among and shrub species species was more in the flower bud than The crude protein content in the foliage in the foliage. The CT content of the flower and flower bud of the four species varied bud in D. torrida was exceptionally high. from 188 to 234mg g 1 and 124 to 170mg High ADL and CT content can limit the g-1, respectively (Table 5). The CP content voluntary feed intake, digestibility and of the foliage in H. abyssinica and the nutrient utilisation of ruminant animals flower bud in C. palmensis were low as (Khanal and Subba 2001). The level of compared to the other species. The CP ADL and CT in foliage and flower bud of content of the foliage and flower bud in most of the species may not be considered References to have effects on the feed intake and performance of ruminants because of two Abdulrazak S.A., Fujihara T., Ondiek J.K. and reasons. Firstly, farmers in the study area 0rskov E.R. (2000) Nutritive evaluation of provide the foliage and flower bud of the some acacia tree leaves from Kenya. Anim fodder species not as a basal diet, but only Feed Sci Tech, 85: pp. 89-98. as supplemental feed. Secondly, farmers do not find a sufficient quantity of foliage El Hassan S.M., Kassi A.L., Newbold C.J. and and flower bud to provide their animals for Wallace R.J. (2000) Chemical composition long duration. and degradation characteristics of foliage of some African multipurpose trees. Anim The IVDMD of the foliage and the flower Feed Sci Tech, 86: pp. 27-37. bud for H. abyssinica and C. palmensis was comparable. The high IVDMD of the foliage ICRAF (1990) Agroforestry: potentials and from H. abyssinica could be associated research needs for the Ethiopian highlands. with the low level of NDF, ADF, ADL and AFRENA report No 21, ICRAF, Nairobi, CT. The IVDMD of H. abyssinica in our Kenya. study was high as compared to the IVDMD reported for Chamaecytisus palmensis, Kabaija E. and Little D.A. (1987) Potential of Leucanea leucocephala, Sesbania sesban agricultural by-products as sources of (15036), Acacia angustissima and Vernonia mineral nutrients in ruminant diets. In: amygdalina (El Hassan et al. 2000). Said N and Dzowela BH (eds) Overcoming constraints to the efficient utilisation of agricultural by products as animal feed. 4. Conclusions Proceedings of the 4th annual workshop, The four woody fodder species had Bamenda, Cameroon, 1987. adequate mineral nutrients in their foliage and flower buds except for Na. The Kemp A. and t'Hart M.L. (1957) Grass tetany in indigenous species had higher contents of grazing milking cows. Neth J Agric Sci, 5: P, K, Ca and Mg than the exotic species. pp. 4-17. The contents of Na, Fe and Mn in the foliage and flower bud both from the indigenous Khanal R.C.and Subba D.B. (2001) Nutritional and exotic species were comparable. The evaluation of leaves from some major three indigenous species had CP contents fodder trees cultivated in the hills of Nepal. comparable to that of the exotic species. Anim Feed Sci Tech, 92: pp. 17-32. However, on top of the indigenous species, the N-fixing woody fodder species need to Kindu M. (2001) Practices, constraints and be integrated into the farming system to agroforestry interventions in Yeku sustain the production of N rich fodder watershed, north-eastern Ethiopia. resources. The foliage NDF, ADF and ADL Ethiopian J Nat Resour, 3(1): pp. 149-166. content in H. abyssinica and D. torrida was relatively low. The in vitro dry matter Larbi A., Smith J.W., Kurdi I.O., Adekunle I.O., digestibility of the foliage and flower bud Raji A.M. and Ladipo D.O. (1998) Chemical from H. abyssnica and C. palmensis was composition, rumen degradation, and reasonably high. In general, the foliage gas production characteristics of some and flower bud of all investigated woody multipurpose fodder trees and shrubs species are potential to be used as during wet and dry seasons in the humid sources of fodder with a proper feeding tropics. Anim Feed Sci Tech, 72: pp. 81- management scheme. 96.

Martens H., Kubel O.W., Gabel G. and Honig H. (1987) Effect of low sodium intake on magnesium metabolism of sheep. J Agric Tilley J.M.A. and Terry R.A. (1963) A two-stage Sci (Camb.), 108: pp. 237-243. technique for the in vitro digestion of forage crops. J Br Grassl Soc, 18: pp. 108-112. Minson D.J. and Milford R. (1967) The voluntary intake and digestibility of diets containing Van Soest P.J. and Robertson J.B. (1985) different proportion of legume and mature Analysis of forages and fibrous foods. Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens). Aust Laboratory Manual for Animal Science. J Exp Agric Anim Husb, 7: pp. 546-551. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Mohamed S. and Abate T. (1995) Feed improvement to support intensification of ruminant production systems in the Ethiopian highlands. In: Proceedings of the 3rd national conference of the Ethiopian society of animal production, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 27-29 April 1995.

National Research Council (1984) Nutrient requirements o f beef cattle. National Academy Press, Washington.

National Research Council (1985) Nutrient requirements of sheep. National Academy Press, Washington.

National Research Council (1989) Nutrient requirements of dairy cattle. National Academy Press, Washington.

National Research Council (1996) Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. National Academy Press, Washington.

Reed J.D., McDowell R.E., Van Soest P.J. and Horvath P.J. (1982) Condensed tannins, a factor limiting the use of cassava forage. J Sci Food Agric, 33: pp. 213-220.

Seyoum B.( Getnet A., Abate T. and Dereje F. (2001) Present status and future direction in feed resources and nutrition research targeted for wheat based crop-livestock production system in Ethiopia. In: Wall, PC (ed) Wheat and weeds: food and feed. Proceedings of two stakeholder workshops, CIMMYT, Santa Cruz, Bolivia: pp. 207-226.

Seyoum B. and Zinash S. (1989) The composition o f Ethiopian feeds. Institute of Agricultural Research Report No 6, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Figure 1: Location map of study area.

115 Table 1: Fodder tree and shrub species identified in the Galessa-Jeldu areas, wets Shewa, Ethiopia.

Species Family Local names Dombeya torrida (J.F. Gmel.) P. Bamps Sterculiaceae Danisa

Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel. Rosaceae Heto

Buddieja polystachya Fres. Loganiaceae Anfari Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. Celastraceae Kombolcha

Enset ventrcosum (Welw.) Sheeseman Musaceae Workie

Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Myrsinaceae Abeyi Olea africana Mill. Oleaceae Ejersa

Rhamnus prinoides L' Her. Rhamnaceae Gesho

Rubus apetalus Poir. Rosaceae Gora/Yedega Injore

Rubus pinnatus Willd. Rosaceae Gura/ Yedega Injore

Salix subserrata Willd. Salicaceae Barodo Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae Ibicha

Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims. Pittosporaceae Sole

Myrsine africana L. Myrsinaceae Kechemo Arundinaria aipina K. Schum. Bambusaceae Kerkeha

Podocarpus gracilior Pilg. Podocarpaceae Birbirsa

Lantana trifolia L. Verbenaceae Kusaye (kese) Hypericum revolutum Vahl Hypericaceae Hini (Ini)

Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Dergu

Calpurnia subdecandra L' Her. Schweikerdt. Papilionaceae Cheka (digita) Pterolobium stellatum (Forsk.) Chiov. Caesalpiniaceae Arangama/qontir

Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Benth. Icacinaceae Odabeda

Dracaena steudneri Schweinf. ex. Agavaceae Lankuso/Hareg Ido-Antuta/Yeayiti Stephania abyssinica (Qu. - Dill & A. Rich.) Walp. Menispermaceae Areg

Hida, Idefeti/Azo Clematis hirsuta Perr. & Guill. Ranunculaceae hareg Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth Mimosaceae Lafto/Bazra Girar

Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fres. Loganiaceae Qawisa/Chechiho

Maytenus ovatus (Wall, ex Wight & Arn.) Loes. Celastraceae Anjito/Atati Vernonia auriculifera Hiern. Asteraceae Chochinga

Myrica salicifolia Hochst. ex A. Rich. Myricaceae Reji Table 2. Criteria used by farmers to evaluate indigenous fodder tree and shrub species in Galessa-Jeldu areas of Central Ethiopia.

Criteria No. of respondents3 Score

Tree related criteria11 Availability in the dry season 150 555

High biomass 149 399 Coppicing ability 143 368

Fast growth 122 138 Animal related criteria' Palatable by animals 150 444

Harmless to animals 138 270 Improve weight of animals 53 64

Note: Sample size was 150 households. Score is sums of individual farmer value given to the respective criteria. a Number of respondents who identified the criteria. b If a farmer selected the criteria first, it received a value of 4; if second, a value of 3; if third, a value of 2 and if fourth, a value of 1. c If a farmer selected the criteria first, it received a value of 3; if second, a value of 2; if third, a value of 1.

Table 3: Indigenous fodder tree and shrub species ranked based on farmers' criteria in the Galessa-Jeldu areas of Central Ethiopia.

Fodder species No. of respondants3 Score

Hagenia abyssinica 148 790

Dombeya torrida 140 658 Buddleja poiystachya 136 534

Maytenus senegalensis 128 417 Dracaena steudneri 92 227

Arundinaria alpina 68 131 Hypericum revolutum 59 110 Myrica salicifolia 55 107

Maytenus ovatus 15 28 Myrsine africana 7 27

Olea africana 10 27

Note: Sample size was 150 households. Each household scored six preferred fodder tree species. a Number of respondants who selected the species in the top 6. If a farmer selected a species first, it received a value of 6; if second, a value of 5; if third, a value of 4; if fourth, a value of 3; if fifth, a value of 2 and if sixth, a value of 1. Score is sums of individual farmer value given to the respective species. Table 4: Macronutrient and micronutrient composition of four tree species.

Normal Foliag e H.abyssinica D. torrida B. poiystachya C. palmensis requirment** P (mg g'1) 3.71b 3.76b 4.71a 2.50c 1.2-4.8

K (mg g-1) 21.22b 27.00a 21.55b 14.93c 5.0-10.0 Ca (mg g*1) 9.69b 22.97a 10.93b 9.30b 1.9-8.2

Mg (mg g_1) 2.38ba 2.81a 2.07b 1.97b 1.0-2.5 S (mg g-1) 2.03c 3.62a 3.46a 2.55b 1.5-4.0

Na (Mg g 1) 305a 224a 214a 268a 600-1800 Fe (pg g 1) 197b 364ba 284ba 450a 30-50

Mn (fjg g 1) 61b 144b 104b 374a 20-40 F lo w e r bud

P (mg g 1) 4.54a 4.33a 5.37a 2.24b 1.2-4.8 K (mg g 1) 22.04ba 24.59a 16.52b 10.35c 5.0-10.0

Ca (mg g 1) 5.54b 10.59a 5.64b 2.08c 1.9-8.2 Mg (mg g 1) 2.53a 2.34a 1.67b 0.80c 1.0-2.5

S (mg g-1) 2.70b 3.74a 2.98b 1.73c 1.5-4.0 Na (Mg g 1) 169a 200a 212a 179a 600-1800

Fe (Mg g 1) 442a 263a 248a 223a 30-50 Mn (Mg g 1) 39a 67a 44a 95a 20-40

Means with different letters within a row are significantly different (p <0.05). **Recommended mineral elements for all classes of ruminants according to NRC (1984, 1985, 1989, 1996).

Table 5: Foliage and flower bud nutritional value for four tree species in the highlands of central Ethiopia.

Foliag e H. abyssinica D. torrida B. poiystachya C. palmensis SEM@ CP (mg g 1) 188b 234a 229a 228a 7.24

NDF (mg g1) 356c 451b 526ba 571a 26.47 ADF (mg g 1) 303b 354b 449a 361ba 19.89

ADL (mg g*1) 54c lOObc 173a 125ba 14.79 CT (AU g 1) 4.59c 19.25b 29.76a 11.68c 2.98

IVDMD (%) 70a 59b 47c 71a 3.10 F lo w e r bud

CP (mg g 1) 170a 165a 170a 124b 7.63 NDF (mg g 1) 340c 610b 608b 723a 42.70

ADF (mg g 1) 295c 473a 435b 463ba 21.96 ADL (mg g*1) 73c 199a 162b 98c 15.78

CT (AU g l ) 9.34b 119.51a 24.40b 8.76b 14.18 IVDMD (%) 60a 52b 58a 60a 1.14

@ Standard error of the means (n = 12) Means with different letters within a row are significantly different (p <0.05). Experiences on utilisation of indigenous fodder trees and shrubs in Kenya (Abstract)

Ralph Roothaert

International Livestock Research Institute/ Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, RO. Box 5689, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract There are opportunities for increasing milk production in central Kenya through the use of tree fodder, leading to a higher farm income. Most research on the intensive use of fodder trees has been carried out on exotic species, neglecting indigenous ones. The objectives of this study were to assess the potential of indigenous and naturalised fodder trees and shrubs (IFTS) in central Kenya, involving farmers in all phases of research in order to increase the adoption of so developed technologies. Formal surveys and feedback meetings were conducted. Farmers chose tree seedlings, planted them on- farm, and the performance was monitored. Farmers' assessments of qualities of IFTS were compared with laboratory nutritive analyses. Two feeding trials with dairy heifers were conducted, involving seven fodder tree species. Farmers used a total of 160 different IFTS. Their ratings on palatability for cattle and goats and milk production for goats differed significantly among tree and shrub species. On-farm assessment of planted IFTS provided useful information on the preference of species, in addition to the survey results. There were strong relationships between the laboratory nutritive analyses and the farmers' assessment of the quality of IFTS and useful characteristics of individual species were obtained by comparing the two methods. Dry matter intake by heifers was higher for some IFTS than for the popular exotic species Calliandra calothyrsus. Selective feeding behaviour of heifers caused an improvement of nutrient concentrations of the consumed feed of up to 29%. It was concluded that there is a large potential for an intensive use of IFTS in central Kenya. Promising species for the subhumid zone are: Ficus thoningii, Lantana camara, Morus alba, Manihot glaziovii, Sapium ellipticum, Tithonia diversifolia, Trema orientalis, Triumfetta tomentosa and Vernonia lasiopus; for the medium and semi-arid zone they are: Acacia ataxacantha, Aspilia mossambicensis, Crotalaria goodiiformis, Grewia tembensis, Indigofera lupatana, Lantana camara and Melia volkensii. Future research is needed on experiments with lactating cows, agronomic performance, protein quality and current mechanisms preventing the toxicity of L. camara.

THEME 3:

TENURE AND TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION

Land tenure security and adoption of natural resource management technologies in Ethiopia

Chilot Yirga

Holetta Agricultural Research Center, EIAR, RO.Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract This paper examines the linkage between the degree of land tenure security and adoption of sustainable natural resource management practices among smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. A review of the available literature indicated that the land tenure system of the Imperial regime was characterised by a complex pattern of land ownership, namely communal, church ownership, private and state holdings. Since 1975, however, all rural land has become a public property. Essentially, the land tenure of current Ethiopia is similar to what prevailed during the socialist regime. Under both regimes, the land policy is based on the logic of providing access to land to all households who aspire to make a livelihood through working the land. The land policy, however, neither succeeded in providing access to all land claimants nor did it provide tenure security. Frequent land redistribution was mentioned, among others, as the major reason for tenure insecurity. Empirical results confirmed the main hypothesis that improved security of land tenure significantly increased the probability and intensity of soil conservation efforts as measured by stone/soil bund structures in the highlands of Ethiopia. Furthermore, public assistance with sharing initial costs of constructing soil conservation structures, and farmers' education and access to information on soil degradation and other soil related problems is found essential for farmers to make a long-term investment in conserving soil resources. Improved land tenure, therefore, is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a sustainable use of natural resources. 1. Introduction Demeke et al. 1997, Shiferaw and Holden Ethiopia with 67.2 million people is the 1998, Gebremedhin and Swinton 2003, second most populous country in Africa Bekele and Drake 2003, Croppenstedt et (CSA 2004). The total area of the country al. 2003). As a result, the productivity is 1.12 million km2, of which about 66% of Ethiopian agriculture has remained of the land is considered to be suitable for one of the lowest in the world. Yield per agriculture. Although land and labor are ha of cereals remained low at 1.2t ha-1 the two most abundant resources vital compared with the global average of 4.0t for its economic development, the fast h a 1 (FAO, 1998). As a consequence, food growing population, currently estimated availability per person has progressively to be increasing at 2.9%, and the current declined (MEDaC 1999). land-use appear to be in disharmony, threatening the sustainable use of its A review of a large body of literature natural resources, particularly that of land, revealed that efforts to increase agricultural which forms the basis of livelihood for the productivity, improve farm income and majority of the population. The problem contain natural resource degradation have is more severe in the highlands, in areas been severely hampered by a combination higher than 1500m, which constitute 44% of the biophysical environment, population of the land area, 95% of the cultivated pressure, the institutional setup and socio­ area and support 88% of the human and economic conditions of farmers (Campbell 75% of the livestock population. Available 1991, Yirga et al. 1996, Demeke et al. data indicate that out of the 60 million ha 1997, FAO 1999, Adunga and Demeke of agriculturally productive land, about 2000, Adal 2003). The land tenure policy of 27 million ha are significantly eroded, successive governments has been singled 14 million ha are seriously eroded, and out as the major hindrance among others 7 million ha are considered no longer for a sustainable use of natural resources agriculturally productive (FAO 1999). in Ethiopia (Campbell 1991, Adunga and Furthermore, the high natural forests that Demeke 2000). had once covered about 35-40% of the country's land have largely been converted This paper has two objectives. First, based into cultivated lands. Currently, the forest on literature it summarises the land tenure cover is estimated at about 2.4%. regimes that prevailed during successive governments of Ethiopia. Second, using a In an effort to increase agricultural case study from the central highlands, it productivity, improve farm income and provides empirical evidence of the linkage contain natural resource degradation, between the degree of tenure security, improved agricultural technologies socio-economic factors and adoption of soil (improved crop varieties, commercial conservation practices among smallholder fertilisers, better agronomic practices farmers in the central highlands of and pest control measures) have been Ethiopia. The paper provides evidence promoted among smallholder farmers that land tenure security is a necessary by government and non-government but not sufficient condition for sustainable organisations (NGOs). Reforestation and management of natural resources. soil conservation development programmes were also launched in various parts of the The paper is organised into six sections. country. However, despite these efforts, Section two provides a theoretical adoption of both improved crop production background forthe divergence between the and sustainable natural resource private and social optimal rates of natural management practices by smallholder resource depletion. It also summarises farmers across the country have remained the hypothesised relationship between below expectations (Yirga et al. 1996, improved tenure security and sustainable use of natural resources. Section three transactions. Externalities are thus costs describes the land tenure regimes prevalent and benefits arising in the process of in the pre- and post-1975 land reform production and consumption, which are programme. While empirical evidence of not reflected in market prices. Examples of the impact of land tenure insecurity on negative externalities arising from use of adoption of soil conservation is discussed natural resources include the sedimentation in section five, section six concludes by of dams and irrigation channels. While providing implications for policy. society as a group is concerned with both on-site and off-site effects of depletion of natural resources, individual farmers are 2. Reasons for the divergence between primarily concerned with on-site effects. the optimal private and social rates of Farm households as rational economic natural resource utilisation agents equating their private marginal Sustainable natural resource management costs and benefits of natural resource from a practical point of view could be conservation, which do not include off-site considered as any practice or action externality costs, hence are likely to under­ taken by the land user in an attempt to invest in natural resource conservation, reduce the effect of natural resource due to the divergence between private and degradation by means of biological, social objectives concerning the optimal mechanical and chemical measures. This level of natural resource conservation essentially implies that, like any other (Barbier 1995, Shiferaw and Holden investment decisions, farmers intending 1999). Consequently, in a setting where to invest in natural resources are faced significant off-site costs subsist, the with inter-temporal resource allocation optimal private and social rates of natural decisions and hence have to consider not resource use diverge considerably. only current costs and benefits, but also future costs and benefits associated with b) Imperfect input and output the investments. In developing countries markets: Under perfectly competitive including Ethiopia, the rate of natural conditions, prices reflect the marginal resource use from a social point of view scarcity value of using resources. However, is believed to be excessive and is a cause in most less developed countries, markets for concern (Shiferaw and Holden 1999, for agricultural inputs and outputs are Kidanu 2003). For instance, efforts of far from competitive and even totally the federal and regional governments of absent for some assets such as soil quality Ethiopia to rehabilitate degraded lands, (Barbier 1995; Shiferaw and Holden maintain and expand national parks, 1999). For instance, in the highlands natural forest reserves and plantations of Ethiopia, farmers have only usufruct are in sharp conflict with the interest rights to land, but land is neither traded of local people to clear up the areas for nor used as collateral. Consequently, cultivation or grazing. Needs of individual smallholder farmers may not take the full households for immediate grazing and fuel user costs of natural resource depletion wood collide with community interest for into consideration when making decisions woodland (Shiferaw and Holden 1999, regarding natural resource conservation Kidanu 2003). The divergence between investments, resulting in too little the optimal private rate of natural resource conservation in relation to what society use and the social rate arises from: desires. The same applies to capital markets operating in such settings where a) Externalities: An externality occurs farmers usually face major imperfections whenever the activities of one economic that often raise the opportunity cost of agent affect the activities of another agent using available funds for making long­ in ways that are not reflected in market term investments in natural resource conservation. Hence, smallholder farmers d) Technological improvements: who are facing imperfect capital markets Obviously, technological innovations and who often lack access to risk mitigation are geared either to devise substitutes mechanisms if left on their own may or increase the productivity of scarce under-invest in long term natural resource resources. In the short run, technological conservation technologies. innovations by increasing the productivity of natural resources such as land (e.g. c) Time preferences: Time preference through the use of improved seeds) or refers to the value people attaches to providing substitutes for lost nutrients (e.g. present against future income (Barbier commercial fertiliser) might reduce the 1995). Time preference is commonly economic significance of natural resource considered to have two components, degradation both in the developed and pure time preference and the marginal developing countries. However, on the long opportunity cost of capital. While pure run, the natural resource capital being an time preference refers to the people's essential input in agriculture, particularly attitude to risk and uncertainty, as well in developing countries where chances as to household poverty, the marginal for a technological breakthrough are slim, opportunity cost of capital represents the natural resource degradation will continue scarcity value of savings and returns to to be a potential threat to a sustainable alternative investments. The discount rate, agricultural development. representing both pure time preference and the marginal opportunity cost of e) Policy incentives: Government capital, is often used to compare present intervention in agricultural markets in and future costs and benefits arising from SSA is widespread and believed to have alternative investments (Barbier 1995, significant effects on farm level incentives Shiferaw and Holden 1999). The discount for conservation (Barbier 1995, Adugna rate employed by private individual farmers and Demeke 2000, Shiferaw and Holden in general and smallholder farmers in SSA 1999). Policy distortions arising from in particular are considered to be very interventions in input and output markets, high compared to what society as a group exchange rate manipulations, insecure deems appropriate, suggesting individual land tenure and imperfect competition farmers attach less value to the future often distort the true costs and benefits and hence degrade the environment much of natural resource conservation, thereby faster than society as a group wishes affecting farmers' perceptions about (Barbier 1995). For instance, Shiferaw and the optimal level of natural resource Holden (1999) in the Ethiopian highlands conservation. estimated the nominal discrete rates of time preference among smallholder The above discussion suggests that farmers to be 71% on average. The high improved land tenure is a necessary but time preference displayed by smallholder not sufficient condition for a sustainable farmers is believed to be associated use of natural resources. Therefore, with poverty, risk aversion behavior and attempts to redress policy distortions to insecure land tenure. In contrast, society bring about the private rate of natural as a whole having a wider asset base is resource depletion, in line with the optimal less risk averse and thus displays lower social rate of natural resource depletion, time preferences. Hence, the optimal rate need improved understanding of not of natural resource depletion for society only the land tenure policy, but also the would be much lower than the level chosen biophysical and economic processes and by individual farmers (Barbier 1995, the decision-making behavior of farmers Shiferaw and Holden 1999). shaping that relationship. Land tenure (land policy) represents the Batie 1987, Soule et al. 2000). Increased social relations and institutions governing security of tenure defined in terms of access to and ownership of land and private freehold ownership recognised natural resources (Maxwell and Wiebe and protected by the state (Maxwell and 1998). Land tenure, therefore, through Wiebe 1998) is therefore presumed to be the rights and obligations it bestows on necessary to internalise costs and benefits farm households determines both short and to capture the future income streams and long-term investment decisions and resulting from investments. the benefits landholders derive thereof. Land tenure rights often derive from both statutory and customary laws. Research 3. Evolution of the land tenure systems in Ethiopia in land tenure has shown that land tenure regimes are rarely static and hence As in most parts of Africa, land tenure in evolve in response to political, economic Ethiopia has been the subject of debate and demographic changes. Although the among farmers, policy makers, researchers importance of appropriate land tenure and the public at large. Historically, in policy to agricultural development was Ethiopia, land was viewed not only as a recognised long ago, there has not been source of livelihood to the majority of the any agreement as to what constitutes population, but also as a source of political an appropriate land policy (Maxwell and and economic power to all groups who Wiebe 1998, EEA\EEPRI 2002). Land aspire to hold political power (Adal 2000, reform (agrarian reform) programmes are Adal 2003, EEA/EEPRI 2002, Rahmato usually justified on the basis of efficiency 2004). The following section describes the and equity goals. In reality, however, evolution of land tenure policy in Ethiopia. political motives often outweigh economic considerations. As a result, land tenure reforms often focus in times of political 3.1. Land tenure prior to 1975 uncertainty. Prior to the 1975 land reform, land tenure in Ethiopia was characterised by a complex Tenure status affects investments in system of ownership, namely communal, sustainable NRM by altering the planning church ownership, private and state horizon. A number of studies have shown holdings (Rahmato 1984, Campbell 1991, that land ownership increases incentives of Adal 2003). State or government holdings adopting NRM technologies by lengthening were most prevalent in the less densely planning horizons and the share of benefits populated and pastoral areas of the accruing to adopters, while lowering the lowlands, irrespective of the geographical rates of time preference. Others argue location, whereas communal ownership that the effect of tenure on adoption locally referred to as "Rist", and church depends on the type of technology under holdings characterised the northern consideration. A technology with a high highlands including Gojam, Gonder, Tigray potential to conserve input use, reduce and parts of Wollo. Private holdings were a cost, and provide economic benefits such as feature of the South. conservation tillage could create incentives for adoption even among renters, part- The communal system (Rist) was based time renters and part-time operators on the principle that land is the collective (Norris and Batiel987, Soule et al. 2000). property of the community that bestows Nonetheless, it is generally held that access and transfer rights to its individual renters of farmland are less likely to invest members who can trace their kinship ties in conservation practices because short­ back to the founding ancestors. However, term leases reduce incentives to maintain land could not be sold or mortgaged. The the productivity of rented land (Norris and presence of a descent system that allows an individual to be a member of different renting, share-cropping or gift). Land was kinship groups at the same time, often frequently re-distributed in order to reduce arising from intermarriages, entitles the landlessness, as well as to address land individual to claim land from several kinship quality differences until 1990, which had groups, irrespective of the residence of the the effect of leveling down differences in individual or the geographical locations of land holdings and reducing land allotted to the contested land. As a result, the number community forests and grazing (Rahmato of people with "rist" rights is generally very 1984, Campbell 1991, Adal 2000). high. Consequently, farmers used to end Smallholder farmers were also evicted up in endless land related litigations, which from their holdings to give way for state claimed valuable time and resources, led farms and producer cooperatives. to land fragmentation and in certain cases In addition to frequent land redistribution, to absentee landlordism (Rahmato 1984, the socialist government promoted Campbell 1991, EEA/EEPRI 2002). economic polices such as controlled agricultural input and output markets, In the south, private ownership of land forced food grain deliveries at fixed prices was developed as a result of land grants and involuntary villagization of farm by the government to loyalists of the households. Thus the land policy of the imperial regime. This has resulted in military regime, which was characterised land concentration in the hands of a few by state ownership of land coupled with individuals subjecting the cultivators of the its economic policy of nationalization of land to treats of arbitrary eviction and an industries, collectivizing commercial private exploitative landlord-tenant relationship. farms, government control of agricultural The land tenure system during the imperial input and output markets, forced food grain regime, therefore, did not provide enough deliveries at fixed prices and involuntary incentives for the cultivators to manage villagization of farm households by land in a more sustainable manner. denying favorable economic environment and the private incentives required for sustainable use of natural resources, 3.2. Land tenure from 1975 to 1990 contributed to the degradation of natural Following the overthrow of the imperial resources (Rahmato 1984, Campbell 1991, government and establishment of EEA/EEPRI 2002). Furthermore, the land the military regime in 1974, the tenure policy of the military governments military regime issued the land reform resulted in a diminution of the size of land Proclamation of February 1975, formally holdings and tenure insecurity with all its known as the "Public Ownership of Rural adverse effects of unsustainable utilisation Lands Proclamation". This proclamation of natural resources (Campbell 1991, nationalised all rural land and ended Rahmato 1994, Adal 2000, EEA/EEPRI all forms of tenancy (Rahmato 1984, 2002). Campbell 1991, Adal 2000, Teklu and Lemi 2004). Peasant associations (PAs) In 1990, the military regime introduced were established, which were bestowed mixed economic policy, which in effect with administering land. Consequently, stopped land redistribution and brought the PA distributed land to farm households along some tenure security and informal based on family size with little regard to land markets resulting from the need to other factors such as resource endowment equalise factor proportions. Nonetheless, (e.g. oxen ownership, adult labor and the land reform of 1975 managed to working capital). The new land tenure destroy the landlord-tenant relationship system provided farmers with restricted characterizing much of the south and usufruct rights, prohibiting the transfer benefited landless households, particularly of holdings in any form (inheritance, social groups that did not traditionally own land in the communally "Rist"-dominated price, is considered the key to the success north. For instance, in areas where the of the development programme (Demeke communal "Rist" system was prevalent, et al. 1997, MEDaC 1999, EEA/EEPRI Muslims and Flashas (black Jews), who in 2002). most instances did not have "Rist" rights, benefited from the reform. Nonetheless, while the current government introduced a series of economic reforms 3.3. Land tenure since 1991 to date in line with a free market philosophy, it The Transitional Government of Ethiopia has effected little substantive change to (TGE) replaced the socialist regime in farmers' land rights (EEA/EEPRI 2002, 1991. The TGE, subsequently renamed USAID 2004, Gebremedhin and Nega as the Federal Democratic Republic of 2005). Article 40 (3) of the 1994 Ethiopian Ethiopia (FDRE), adopted an Economic Constitution clearly asserts land to be Reform Programme in 1992 (ERP). The the collective property of all nations, programme, aimed at stabilization and nationalities and peoples of Ethiopia trade liberalization to revive the economy under the custody of the government. that had suffered from many years of civil Proclamation No. 89/1997, "Rural Land war, food security crises and heavy control, Adminstration", further clarifies Ethiopia's took several measures: devaluation national land policy. The Rural Land of the local currency, disbanding of Administration Proclamation of 1997 producer cooperatives, drastic reduction entrusted regional governments with of subsidies to state farms, elimination the responsibility of land administration, of compulsory food grain quotas and including the assignment of holding rights liberalizing input markets (Demeke et al. and the distribution of landholdings. This 1997, MEDaC 1999, EEA/EEPRI 2002). law allowed land leasing and inheritance, These policy reforms have been further though subject to some restrictions. strengthened through the adoption of a new development strategy popularly Land distribution in the Tigray region and known as "Agricultural Development Led some parts of the Amhara region that were Industrialization (ADLI)". liberated before 1991 was implemented in 1990. In much of the Amhara region, ADLI, primarily focusing on the agricultural however, land was distributed following the sector, aimed at bringing about productivity Rural Land Administration Proclamation of improvements to the smallholder 1997, whereas other regions have not yet agriculture and expansion of private implemented any land distribution since commercial farming. Improvements the fall of the socialist government (Adal in the agricultural sector were hoped 2000, Adal 2003, Rahmato 2004, Teklu to provide commodities for exports, and Lemi 2004). satisfy domestic food requirements and supply industrial inputs. Improvements The recent land redistribution in the in the agricultural sector in turn were Amhara region such as Debere Birehane expected to help expand the market for benefited newly formed households and domestic manufacturing as a result of households headed by women who did not an increased income of smallholders. own land for various reasons. However, Establishing an effective input delivery most of the women-headed and newly and marketing system which can ensure established young households unable adequate and sustained agricultural inputs to cultivate by their own, due to lack of such as fertilisers, improved seeds and access to key resources (oxen, labor and crop protection chemicals to smallholder seed), leased out their newly acquired land farmers in the required quantity, product to households who have oxen and capital mix, at the right time and at a reasonable (mainly households who lost land during the redistribution) (Teklu and Lemi 2004, The appropriate model suggested and USAID 2004, Yirga 2006). often used in the literature is the Tobit model (Green, 2000). The Tobit model, Of recent, efforts are underway to improve a more general case of probit, besides land administration and tenure security the probability of adoption as in the through land certification (cultivated lands) probit model, estimates the value of the and the distribution of marginal lands continuous response for the case when (waste lands) to individual households and y" = b i , +e,. communities for tree (USAID, 2004). The success of this recent move in improving tenure security and adoption of sustainable (i) natural resource management is yet to be Where is an N * 1 vector of explanatory seen. factors, 3 is a vector of coefficients, e and 'are independently and normally 4. Empirical evidence of the linkage distributed error terms with mean zero between the degree of tenure security r 2 y* and adoption of soil conservation and variance, . If 1 is negative, practices the variable that is actually observed,

v . 4.1. Data and study area the length of stone/soil bund 1 is zero. The primary concern of this section is to estimate the consequences of tenure When y*1 is positive, y 1 — y* 1 . The Tobit insecurity and other socio-economic model is preferable to OLS for it allows the factors on the soil conservation adoption inclusion of observations with zero values. behavior of smallholder farmers in the The Tobit model requires maximum central highlands of Ethiopia. Cross- likelihood methods (MLE) to estimate section data were collected from 229 the coefficients of the adoption equation randomly selected households managing (Green 2000). some 1411 plots in the Dendi and Debre Birehan districts in the central highlands The study seeks to investigate the linkages of Ethiopia during 2003. The collected between tenure insecurity and adoption data include plot characteristics (size, of soil conservation measures. Based distance from residence, severity of soil on previous studies and analyses of the degradation, fertility level, perceived plot agriculture sector of Ethiopia (Ervin and productivity, and slope), soil fertility and Ervin 1982, Feder et al. 1985, Norris and soil conservation practices used, and Batie 1987, Shiferaw and Holden 1998, production. Major socio-economic variables Gebremedhin and Swinton 2003, Bekele measured include demographic structure and Drake 2003), a range of household, of households, farm size, livestock owned, farm and plot characteristics, institutional access to credit, extension, and improved factors, and agro-ecology variations are inputs. hypothesised to influence the adoption of soil conservation technologies by smallholder farmers in the highlands of 4.2. The empirical model and choice Ethiopia (Table 1). of variables The dependent variable, intensity of use of stone/soil bunds, measured in mt ha- 1, is a censored continuous variable. This censoring arises due to the fact that not all sample households use stone/soil bunds. 4.3. Empirical results 4.3.2. Empirical results of the Tobit soil conservation adoption model 4.3.1. Adoption rate and pattern of In empirical adoption studies involving soil conservation technologies cross-section data, multicollinearity often Soil conservation practices promoted by poses a major econometric challenge. the various projects on cultivated lands Hence, as a first step, prior to estimating in the highlands include cut-off drains the Tobit model, the independent (golenta), stone and soil bunds, grass- variables were scrutinised for possible strips and Fanya juu. While the first strong correlations among them. Among three practices are not completely new, the variables hypothesised to influence grass-strips and Fanya juu represent adoption behaviour, the age of the head soil conservation practices introduced by of the farm household was found to be various SWC projects. correlated with the education level of the household head (p=0.29), farm size Cut-off drains are semi-permanent (p=0.26) and the number of livestock drainage ditches constructed around a plot owned (p=0.22). Farm size was also found or parcel to protect draining water from to be correlated with plot area (p=0.39), upslope fields to inundate a parcel. While number of plots (p=0.17) and number cut-off drains are used in both districts, of livestock owned (p=0.31). Hence, age the use of stone/soil bunds is restricted and farm size were dropped from further to the Debre Birehan district, constructed consideration. on 42% (2.5% in reasonable condition and 39.4% in excellent shape) of the Table 3 presents the parameter estimates cultivated plots, compared to 1.4% (0.24% of the Tobit model. The likelihood ratio in reasonable condition and 1.2 in good statistics of the Tobit model is significant shape) in the Dendi district (Table 2). The (P<0.001), suggesting a strong Debre Birehan district, identified as one of determining power of the independent the heavily degraded areas in the central factors taken together on the intensity highlands and one with a tradition of of the use of stone/soil bunds among the using soil conservation practices, received surveyed farmers. government assistance for constructing stone and soil bunds on individual and As expected, the type of land ownership (PA communal holdings in the 1980's and allotted land as opposed to plots acquired 1990's. Interestingly, despite the widely through informal transactions) significantly held view that smallholder farmers remove influenced both the adoption decision and much of the soil conservation practices intensity of the use of stone/soil bunds constructed by public assistance, only by smallholder farmers. Stone/soil bunds 7.7% and 16.3% of the plots that had are long-term investments, the benefits of some type of soil conservation structures which are realised after several years of (3.9% and 3.7% of the total plots) in initial investment. It is therefore rational Debre Birehan and Dendi, respectively, for a household to restrict soil conservation were removed. Adoptions of grass strips investments on their own land (land were dismal due to their incompatibility allotted directly by a PA to a household) as with the land tenure system, where opposed to land acquired through informal stubble fields after harvest are considered land markets. While a household has as communal (open to all community legally defensible rights on land allotted members for grazing livestock). Fanya juu by PA officials, thus enjoying the benefits was also rejected for its alleged problem of of soil conservation investments until a aggravating water logging. time of land redistribution, plots acquired through informal mechanisms have to be surrendered to the legal owner at the end

131 of each cropping season. In a similar study Bekele and Drake (2003) for the eastern of the impact of socio-economic factors highlands of Ethiopia reported a positive on adoption of soil fertility management correlation between slope and likelihood of practices, Yirga (2006), found that the using soil conservation structures. likelihood of using animal manure and integrated soil fertility management was The number of livestock owned, a proxy higher on land that carries higher security for the wealth position of a household, (land directly allotted to the farmer) than positively and significantly conditioned on share-cropped and rented plots. On the the likelihood and intensity of stone/soil other hand, the chances of using inorganic bunds. In Ethiopia, livestock are sources fertilisers on less secure lands (leased-in of cash and security against climatic plots through the informal land markets) uncertainties. Households with livestock, were found to be higher compared to PA therefore, are in a better position to invest allotted plots. A possible explanation, on soil conservation, for they have the other things being equal, could be that financial resources to pay for the extra farmers who lack legally defensible use labour required for initial investments, rights prefer to use inorganic fertilisers on as well as to afford the short-term yield leased-in land in an attempt to maximise declines resulting from reduced plot size short-term benefits and save available (due to area taken by stone/soil bunds). manure to be used on relatively secure Access to extension, measured by the PA allotted plots. Studies by Teklu (1997), number of contacts a household head had Alemu (1999) and Gebremedhin and with extension personnel was positively Swinton (2003) also provide evidence and significantly (10.3%) related with the of a significant and positive relationship likelihood of using stone/soil bunds. In between increased tenure security and Ethiopia, agricultural extension services the use of long-term soil fertility and soil provided by the MOA are the major conservation practices. source of information on agriculture and natural resource conservation. The Education is positively and significantly results therefore confirm the hypothesised correlated with the adoption and intensity positive role extension would play in of stone/soil bund use. Household heads natural resource conservation in general with relatively better formal education and soil conservation in particular. are likely to foresee the productivity consequences of soil degradation and soil Surprisingly, access to institutional credit conservation. Providing access to formal for the purchase of inorganic fertilisers education would therefore play a crucial had a negative and significant influence role in the fight against soil degradation both on the likelihood of adoption and and its consequences on food insecurity intensity of use. The results suggest that and poverty in the highlands of Ethiopia. the chances of investing in permanent soil conservation structures drop by 11.5% Among the farm and plot characteristics, for a new household having access to plot size and plot slope positively and short-term institutional credit. Similarly, significantly affect both the likelihood of among those who are currently using soil adoption and intensity of use. Similarly, conservation structures, the intensity of use other things being equal, the chances of would be lower by 12.7% for an average constructing soil conservation structures farmer having access to institutional would be higher by 12% for plots having credit compared to a household who did a medium slope compared to plots on not have access. A possible explanation is bottom lands. In their soil conservation that households who have access to short­ adoption studies, Shiferaw and Holden term credit for the purchase of inorganic (1998) for the central highlands and fertilisers are likely to use inorganic fertilisers to compensate for lost soil Another important and noteworthy result nutrients and hence postpone the adoption is that district (proxy for unobservable of soil conservation practices. Several factors such as traditional values, attitudes other studies have shown the importance and aspirations of the community) of improving smallholder farmers' access positively and significantly influenced the to credit in enhancing the adoption of likelihood and intensity of investment inorganic fertilisers (Yirga et al. 1996, in soil conservation structures. The Croppenstedt et al. 2003). The current chances of investing in soil conservation short-term credit schemes, targeted at structures would be higher by 14.7% raising the number of households using for a household in the Debre Birehan inorganic fertilisers and the intensity of district compared to a similar household inorganic fertiliser use per unit of cropped in Dendi. This could be explained by the area, would only help solve the short-term relative extension efforts exerted in the treats of soil degradation (soil nutrient two districts and by local tradition. A mining), but could have a detrimental number of soil conservation projects were effect on the sustainable use of soil also implemented by government and resources, as inorganic fertiliser use does NGOs, which helped improve awareness not compensate for soil lost due to water and contributed to the actual construction erosion. of soil conservation structures. In the Dendi district, however, extension efforts As expected, perception of the severity concentrated on extending improved crop of soil degradation and government packages consisting of improved crop assistance for initial construction of soil varieties, agronomic practices and the conservation practices positively and recommended type and rate of inorganic significantly influence the use of stone/ fertilisers. soil bunds. The chances of investing in soil conservation structures would be 5. Conclusions and policy implications higher by 23.1% for a household receiving As in most parts of Africa, land tenure in assistance compared to a household who Ethiopia has been the subject of debate did not receive such assistance. This result among farmers, policy makers, researchers contradicts the widely held view that and the public at large. In Ethiopia, land is assistance programmes for construction viewed not only as a source of livelihood to of soil conservation structures in Ethiopia the majority of the population but also as a were largely unsuccessful and that soil source of political and economic power to all conservation structures constructed groups who aspire to hold political power. under assistance programmes were Consequently, the land tenure reforms that partially or wholly removed (Shiferaw Ethiopia has witnessed had been designed and Holden 1998). The result, however, and implemented in the light of the political is consistent with the findings of Bekele advantages they were presumed to yield and Drake (2003), who focused on the to successive governments, with very little soil conservation research project (SCRP) economic rationale. A review of available site, whereas our study areas are located literature revealed that the land tenure of outside the SCRP sites, and hence are the Imperial regime was characterised by broadly representative. Similarly, the a complex system of ownership, namely chances of investing in soil conservation communal, church ownership, private structures on plots displayed some degree and state holdings, whereas all rural land of degradation would be higher by at became a public property underthe military least 14% compared to plots perceived regime and the current government. to be free from any symptom of physical The current government, although it degradation. introduced a number of policy reforms in line with the philosophy of open market, has not implemented significant changes a) Associative ownership. Rahmato in land policy. The logic of the land policy (1994) suggested associative ownership since 1975 to date has been based on of rural land could provide the desired providing access to land to as many rural level of tenure security and incentives households as possible who want to make for sustainable management of natural a living out of farming. However, the policy resources. In associative ownership, land neither succeeded in providing access to belongs to the community with freehold all land claimants, nor did it provide tenure rights vested on individuals. Individuals security and with it the much needed have the right to rent and mortgage, but productivity improvement and sustainable can only sell to members of the community. natural resource management. Although associative ownership provides security of tenure and prevents the much The results of the case study confirmed feared land concentration in the hands of the main hypothesis that improved the urban elites, it has several drawbacks. security of land tenure significantly Firstly, it does not allow the development increases the probability and intensity of of land markets or at best creates a highly soil conservation efforts as measured by fragmented market. stone/soil bund structures in the highlands of Ethiopia. Furthermore, public assistance Secondly, it limits the value of land as with sharing initial costs for constructing collateral. Thirdly, the mere fact that soil conservation structures, farmers' associative ownership prohibits transfer of education, and access to information on land outside community members is likely soil degradation and other soil related to create inefficiency by restricting the problems were found essential for movement of land to those who can make farmers to make long-term investment in the best out of it. conserving soil resources. On the other hand, improved small farmers' access b) Long-term leases. Some believe to short-term credit for the purchase of that long term leases, which vest strong inorganic fertilisers presents a disincentive secondary rights in landholders, would for long-term conservation practices, an help to address some of the weaknesses important trade-off with serious policy of the existing land tenure system (EEA/ implications to be carefully evaluated. EEPRI 2002, USAID 2004).

In Ethiopia, efforts are underway to improve c) Individual ownership. Many believe land administration and the security of that individualization of land tenure tenure through land certification. Yet by increasing tenure security and the the existing land policy does not take reduction of transaction costs provide into consideration the economic and incentives for increased investment and demographic dynamics taking place in adoption of sustainable natural resource Ethiopia. A natural question, then, would management practices. In a recent be whether there are alternative forms of empirical investigation of the land policy land ownership patterns to the current land of Ethiopia, Gebremedhin and Nega policy. Current debate on land policy issues (2005) found the expected probability in Ethiopia dwells on public/state ownership of preference for private ownership to versus a radical measure of complete be 32% well below the 53% for public privatization. Others suggest that partial ownership with improved security. measures would be as effective as the radical measure of complete privatization The debate on alternative forms of land (EEA/EEPRI 2002, Gebremedhin and Nega ownership and hence improved tenure 2005). Alternative land tenure systems security, therefore, needs to be based on suggested for Ethiopia include: empirical evidence including ownership patterns other than the two polarised ones Highlands of Ethiopia: a case study of the of public/state ownership and complete Hunde-Lafto area. Ecol Econ, 46: pp. 437- privatization. 451.

Campbell, J. (1991) Land or peasants? the References dilemma confronting Ethiopian resource Adal, Y. (2000) Preliminary assessment of the conservation. Afr Affairs, 90: pp. 5-21. impacts of the Post-Derg land policy on agricultural production: a case study of land Croppenstedt A., Demeke M. and Meschi M.M. redistribution in two communities in north­ (2003) Technology adoption in the presence western Ethiopia: pp. 173-190. In: Workneh of constraints: the case of fertiliser demand N., Legesse D., Abebe H.G. and Solomon in Ethiopia. Rev Dev Econ, 7(1): pp. 58- B. (eds) Institutions for rural development. 70. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Conference of Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, Demeke M., Ali S. and Thomas S.J. (1997) 23-24 November 1999, Addis Ababa. Promoting fertiliser use in Ethiopia: the implications of improving grain market Adal, Y. (2003) Problems and prospects of performance, input market efficiency, rural land policy in Ethiopia: pp. 49-62. and farm management. Working Paper In: Workneh N., Legesse D. and Abebe 5, Ministry of Economic Development H.G. (eds) Agricultural policy in Ethiopia's and Cooperation: Grain Market Research economic development: scope, issues and Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. prospects. Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference of Agricultural Economics Ervin C.A. and Ervin D.E. (1982) Factors Society o f Ethiopia, 30-31 August 2002, affecting the use of soil conservation Addis Ababa. practices: Hypotheses, evidence, and policy implications. Land Econ, 58(3): pp. Adugna T. and Demeke M. (2000) Institutional 277-292. reforms and sustainable input supply and distribution in Ethiopia: pp. 125-156. In: Ethiopian Economic Association/Ethiopian Workneh N., Legesse D., Abebe H.G. and Economic Policy Research Institute (EEA/ Solomon B. (eds) Institutions for rural EEPRI) (2002) Land tenure and agricultural development. Proceedings o f the 4th Annual development in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa. Conference of Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, 23-24 November 1999, FAO (1998) Food and Agricultural Organization Addis Ababa. production yearbook. Rome, Italy.

Alemu, T. (1999) Land tenure and soil FAO (1999) Integrated soil management for conservation: Evidence from Ethiopia. sustainable agriculture and food security in PhD thesis. University of Gothenburg, southern and eastern Africa. Proceedings of Gothenburg. the Expert Consultation, Harare, Zimbabwe, 8-12 December 1997. Food and Agricultural Barbier, E.B. (1995) The economics of soil Organization of the United Nations, Rome. erosion: theory, methodology and examples. [Online] Available from: http:// Feder G., Richard E.J and David Z. (1985) www.eepsea.org/publications/specialp2/ Adoption of agricultural innovations in ACF2B4.html. [Accessed on July 12, 2004] developing countries: a survey. Econ Dev Cult Change, 33: pp. 255-298. Bekele W. and Drake L. (2003) Soil and water conservation decision behavior Gebremedhin B. and Nega B. (2005) Land of subsistence farmers in the Eastern and land policy in Ethiopia in the eyes of Ethiopian farmers: and empirical Rahmato, D. (2004) Searching for tenure investigation: pp. 1-19. In: Alemayehu S., security? The land system and new policy Assefa A., Befekadu D., Berhanu N., Mulat initiatives in Ethiopia. FSS Discussion Paper D. and Tadesse B.K. (eds) Agricultural No. 12, Forum for Social Studies, Addis production/ marketing. Proceedings of Ababa. the 2nd International Conference on the Ethiopian Economy, Volume II, Ethiopian Shiferaw B. and Holden S. (1998) Resource Economic Association (EEA), Addis Ababa. degradation and adoption of land conservation technologies in the Ethiopian Gebremedhin B. and Swinton S.M. (2003) highlands: a case study in Andit Tid, North Investment in soil conservation in northern Shewa. Agr Econ, 18: pp. 233-247. Ethiopia: the role of land tenure security and public programmes. Agr Econ, 29: pp. Shiferaw B. and Holden S. (1999) Soil erosion 69-84. and smallholders' conservation decisions in the highlands of Ethiopia. World Dev, Green, W. H. (2000) Econometric Analysis, 4th 27(4): pp. 739-752. ed., New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2000. Teklu, A. (1997) The impact of land rights on Kidanu, S. (2003) Using Eucalyptus for soil and land fragmentation and investment in water conservation on the highland Vertisols stallholder agriculture in Ethiopia: evidence of Ethiopia. Tropical Resource Management from Tiyo Woreda, Arsi. Faculty of Business Papers, Wageningen University and Research and Economics, Department of Economics, Center, Department of Environmental Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa. Science and Water Conservation Group, the Netherlands. Teklu T. and Lemi A. (2004) Factors affecting entry and intensity in informal rental land Maxwell D. and Wiebe K. (1998) Land tenure markets in Southern Ethiopian highlands. and food security: a review of concepts, Agr Econ, 30: pp. 117-128. evidence and methods. LTC Research Paper 129, Land Tenure Center, University of USAID (2004) Ethiopian land policy and Wisconsin-Madison. administration assessment. Final report. Broadening Access and Strengthening MEDaC (1999) Survey of the Ethiopian Economy: Input Market Systems (BASIS) IQC. review of post-reform development (1992/93-1997/98), Addis Ababa, Yirga, C. (2006) The Dynamics of soil degradation Ethiopia. and incentives for optimal management in the central highlands of Ethiopia. PhD Norris E.P. and Batie S.S. (1987) Virginia thesis. University of Pretoria, South Africa. farmers' soil conservation decisions: an application of Tobit analysis. Southern J Agr Yirga C., Shapiro B.I. and Demeke M. 1996. Econ, 19(1): pp. 89-97. Factors influencing adoption of new wheat technologies in Wolemera and Addis Alem Rahmato, D. (1984) Agrarian reform in Ethiopia. areas of Ethiopia. Ethiopean J Agr Econ, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1(1): pp. 63-84. Uppsala.

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136 Table 1: Definition of variables hypothesised to condition the adoption of soil fertility management practices by smallholder farmers in the central highlands of Ethiopia, 2003.

Variable Description Values HH characteristics Age Age of the head of the farm HH Years Education Level of formal schooling attained by the Highest grade attend head of the HH Livestock Number of livestock owned by a HH Number in TLU House type Whether a HH owned corrugated iron roofed 1= yes, 0=no house or not Family size Number of family members of a HH Number Farm and plot characteristics Farm size Total area (crop, fallow, grazing) managed Area in hectares by a HH Plot area The physical size of a plot Area in hectares No. of plots Plots owned and managed by a HH Number Plot distance The distance of a plot from the homestead Minutes walked Slope Slope of a plot 1=flat, 2=medium, 3=high Soil fertility Farmers' perception of the level of soil l = poor, 2=medium, 3=fertile, 4=manured fertility of a plot (kossi) Degradation Farmers' perception of the severity of soil l=none, 2=light, 3=severe, 4=very severe loss on a plot Institutional factors Tenure Whether plot is owned (allotted to HH by l=owned, O=otherwise PA) or rented/share cropped Extension Whether HH has access to extension 1= yes, 0=no services Assistance Whether HH has received assistance 1= yes, 0=no from government/NGO for constructing conservation structures Credit Whether a HH has access to institutional Amount of money borrowed (Birr) credit for inorganic fertiliser Off-farm Income from off-farm activities during the Estimated average income (Birr/year) survey year Agro-ecology Upper highlands or mid highlands l=upper highlands, 0=mid highlands District Dendi and Debre Birehan 1= Debre Birehan 0=Dendi

HH=household; Local currency, 1USD=8.6 Ethiopian Birr Table 2: Use of soil conservation practices by smallholder farmers on cultivated lands (% of plots treated), central highlands of Ethiopia, 2003.

Debre Birehan Dendi Both districts Soil and water conservation practices (N=724) (417) combined (1141) Not ever constructed 50.00 79.38 60.74 Cut off drains (golenta) only

Removed 1.66 2.88 2.10 Reasonable condition 0.14 1.68 0.70 Excellent condition 4.14 14.15 7.80 Stone and soil bunds Removed 2.21 0.48 1.58 Reasonable condition 2.49 0.24 1.67 Excellent condition 39.36 1.20 25.42

Source: Farmer's survey Table 3: Parameter estimates of the Tobit adoption model for the intensity of stone/soil bund-use, central highlands of Ethiopia, 2003.

Adoption (index) Expected use Marginal Variable Coefficient P-level Marginal effects (m/ Elasticity effects Elasticity ha) Constant -320.4803*** 0.000 Tenure1 37.1450** 0.012 0.2769** 0.0763*** 0.0869** 8.4359** Education2 6.0547* 0.068 0.0637* 0.0133** 0.0200** 1.4458** Off-farm income3 -26.7276* 0.083 -0.0652* -0.0567* -0.0205* -6.2248* Livestock4 3.1450* 0.077 0.1650* 0.0069* 0.0518* 0.7510* Plot area5 82.1367** 0.010 0.3153*** 0.1798*** 0.0989*** 19.6137*** No. of plots -3.5717 0.169 -0.1931 -0.0078 -0.0606 -0.8529 Plot distance6 0.0148 0.966 0.0022 0.0000 0.0007 0.0035 Soil degradation7 Severe 127.4936*** 0.000 0.1415*** 0.3237*** 0.0444*** 37.7390*** Medium 158.7275*** 0.000 0.2886*** 0.3962*** 0.0905*** 47.1408*** Light 159.2407*** 0.000 0.4400*** 0.3802*** 0.1380*** 44.1137*** Credit8 -54.8909* 0.061 -0.1767* -0.1153* -0.0554* -12.7187* Extension9 43.1145 0.250 0.0231 0.1023 0.0072 11.1684 Plot slope10 54.7832*** 0.000 0.2406*** 0.1199*** 0.0755*** 13.1464*** Assistance11 91.7587*** 0.001 0.0607*** 0.2307*** 0.0190*** 26.0110*** District12 70.7553** 0.029 0.4032** 0.1470** 0.1265** 16.3012** Diagnostics No. Observations 1141 Wald Chi-Square 80.29***

***, **, * = Significant at 1%, 5% and 10% probability levels, respectively;

1 dummy variable, 1 denoting PA allotted plots; 2 number of years; 3 dummy variable, 1 denoting participation in off-farm activities; 4 Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU); 5 hectares; 6 minutes walked from residence; 7 the comparison category is plots perceived as not having shown any form of soil degradation; 8 dummy variable, 1 denoting access to institutional credit; 9 dummy variable, 1 representing access to government extension; 10 dummy variable, 1 representing plots on a higher slope (upland); 11 dummy variable, 1 denoting access to project assistance; 12 dummy variable, 1 referring to the Debre Birehane district. Scaling up of natural resource management technologies: Experiences and issues

Shenkut Ayele1, Elias Zerfu2 and Berhanu Kuma1

1 Holetta Agricultural Research Center, EIAR, RO.Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Email: [email protected] 2 IFPRI/ISNAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

Abstract There is an observable dynamism of technology development and transfer approaches in the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute (EIAR), as well as in the National Agricultural Research and Extension System (NARES) of Ethiopia. Using some of the critical elements to compare approaches, it is obvious that scaling up is superior to pre-extension and other participatory approaches for technology development and transfer. As such, scaling up is getting more momentum and synergy. Since scaling up aims to provide 'more quality benefits to more people over a wide geographical area more quickly, more equitably and more lastingly', this approach is gaining constantly more acceptance and popularity in EIAR, among both its partners and stakeholders, to develop and transfer crop, livestock and, to a limited extent, natural resources management (NRM) technologies and knowledge. Improved technologies and innovations are essential to support an increased productivity of natural resources in watershed management. Many research and development programmes and projects on NRM have been conducted in Ethiopia and potential technologies and knowledge for scaling up have been generated. However, very few of the recommendations from research have been put to use by the target end-users. Therefore, there is a huge potential for utilizing scaling up approaches in the area of NRM. The nature of interventions in NRM, lack of institutional and professional commitment to scale up NRM technologies and knowledge, and the failure of research projects to have a communication strategy of research findings to stakeholders other than farmers are some of the challenges that must be dealt with in order to successfully scale up NRM technologies. This paper will evaluate the importance of a scaling up approach for NRM technologies and knowledge development, as well as transfer, and the challenges in the area of NRM scaling up.

140 1. Introduction Even though one cannot underestimate Ethiopia's current development strategy, the contribution of this approach towards known as Agricultural-Development Led the promotion of improved technologies, Industrialisation (ADLI), was designed with significant and visible impacts have not the objective of transforming the traditional been observed as yet. In other words, it economy into a modern economy closely cannot go beyond creating awareness of linked with the rest of the world. In a the improved technologies, which means nutshell, the strategy by and large shows that a full utilisation of the technologies' the direction towards an improvement of potential is not adequately realised. Hence, the productivity of smallholder agriculture once the successful technologies are and industrialisation, based on the established and awareness is created, the utilisation of domestic raw materials and issue is how to disseminate the technology labour-intensive technology. and information on a widerscale. Cognizant of this fact, EIAR has recently designed a In this regard, agricultural research and comprehensive and innovative approach to technological improvements, therefore, develop and transfer its research outputs significantly contribute to the alleviation with the aim to create a wider impact on of poverty by improving agricultural users' livelihood through the technology productivity and raising the income of rural SCALING-UP initiative. However, there are community. However, the policy comes still many issues to be dealt with, such with challenges as well as opportunities as the dimensions of NRM technologies/ for agricultural research and development information scaling up. programmes. A major challenge for agricultural research and development is 2. Scaling up of agricultural technolo­ to create an impact on a wider level. gies in EIAR Consequently, various agricultural Using some of the critical elements to research results that could help to compare approaches, more than pre­ increase agricultural production and extension and participatory approaches productivity have been developed and for technology development and transfer are being generated. Nevertheless, these scaling up has superiority over the former useful research results have not reached once. Therefore scaling up as an approach the intended target/ goal efficiently and of technology development and transfer effectively. Among the different factors is getting more momentums and synergy. constraining agricultural development, Since scaling up aims to provide 'more lack of effective agricultural technology quality benefits to more people over a development and transfer is one of wide geographical area more quickly, the constraining elements among the more equitably and more lastingly' this different factors impeding agricultural approach is getting more acceptance and development. To overcome this constraint, popularity in EIAR, among its partners various methods, viz. pre-extension and stakeholders to develop and transfer demonstration, popularization, training, crop, livestock and to a limited extent field days, workshops, production of NRM technologies and knowledge. The extension materials have been devised very nature of this approach is that strong and utilised so as to strengthen technology and synergistic collaboration among development and transfer activities. relevant stakeholders and coordination However, these mechanisms mainly have of activities with immense follow-up are served to introduce new agricultural the determinant factors of success to the technologies to a very small number of approach. client farmers with limited areas. As an entry point, before launching a Organizing field days and programmes full-scale scaling up project, EIAR has for the scaling up activities have provided implemented the scaling-up approach on a series of mass media coverage. The a pilot level by some agricultural research media has proved its partnership in centers (Debre Zeit, Holetta and Melkassa) this regard. The scaling up activity has with few crops and technologies (lentil, received appreciation and support from durum wheat, potato and haricot bean). higher officials and policy makers (some They have also established confidence participated in the field days and most in the success of the approach as it has watched it through, heard and read recorded remarkable achievements. about it in the mass media), as informal observation indicates. Given the benefits and advantages of such The scaling up project of EIAR has clearly initiatives, scaling-up these initiatives to indicated the activities as well as their enable a wider impact is highly important. components in its documentation before Therefore, EIAR is promoting the scaling- implementation (and most of them up of agricultural technology, principles, are executed). Some of them are the approaches and techniques from the following: already successful experiences to reap the potential benefits through the scaling up of • Selection and identification of proven selected proven agricultural technologies potential agricultural technologies to attain the ultimate goal: improving the livelihood of the rural poor people. • Site selection and identification of participant farmers and other The activity of scaling up has been collaborative stakeholders launched throughout the country and around 15,000 farmers have been • Description of the role of important addressed. Concerning regional coverage, stakeholders five regions have been covered. However, the Oromia region has taken the major • Conducting a baseline survey about share of the scaling up activities, as many the target areas and clients of EIAR's centers are located in this region. To a limited extent SNNP, Tigray, Amhara, • Implementation of scaling up Benishangul Gumuz and Afar regions are activities and enhancement of the also addressed. The different technologies active participation of farmers scaled up through the project include: malt barley, pyrethrum, haricot beans, maize • Provision of technical support, (melkassa-1), finger millet, striga resistant organization of training, field days, sorghum, soybean, coffee rejuvenation visits, experience sharing (stumping), highland maize, durum wheat, lentil, chickpea, forage (oats and • Organization of participatory vetch mixture-little storey), shallot (little monitoring and evaluation. storey), poultry, multi-nutrient block (urea molasses), ground nut, finger millet, dairy • Dissemination of the results cows, potato, sesame, hides and skins, aquaculture, arthimesia, rock phosphate, In different forums EIAR has presented lime, bio-fertilisers, sweet potato, linseed, the comparative advantage of the present field pea, faba bean and wheat. Out of all scaling up approach, in comparison with the scaled up technologies/information, different approaches that have been only few are related with NRM. practiced in the research system, and has shown the superiority of the scaling up approach for technology development and

142 transfer. The major elements and criteria activities. In this type of system, increasing that can be used to compare approaches impact implies disseminating material, and include: primary goals of the approach, making sure it reaches as many people as institutional setting, type of technology, possible. A significant amount of research information or innovation provided, level was done on technology adoption/diffusion of farmer participation in decision-making with the goal of improving the extension/ for priorities and activities and resource dissemination process (Rogers 1995, allocation. The research and extension Ruttan 1996). The result of the research methods that were used include the indicates that there are barriers for investigation of how farmers participate, innovations to be scaled and that may not as well as of costs, funding mechanisms reflect a fault in the innovation itself. and control of funding, programme geographical coverage (area), qualitative In cases where there is a high diversity impact and change, assumptions and of environmental conditions, and impact assessment. users' preferences are poorly defined (as is generally the case with poorer smallholders), the technologies developed 3. Issues of scaling up NRM may not be useful or desirable to large technologies / information numbers of the rural poor. This, in turn, The issue of scaling up has been the center leads to lower levels of adoption, which of much recent debate within research and implies limited impact. Key restrictions development (R&D) institutions, especially of adoption include the small farmers' those concerned with NRM. This interest inability to be flexible with land, labor, has arisen in the context of several and capital inputs. Often one or all are in important developments in thinking about short supply, so the technology cannot be R&D. First, government, donors and civil adopted. Moreover, small-scale farmers society are increasingly pressuring that need to protect household welfare; money spent in R&D must bring about hence they are very cautious about a lasting impact on the lives of the rural changing established practices. Marketing poor. Second, the recognition that many challenges of products also limit their relevant technologies and approaches are adoption. For innovations to be adopted, not achieving their full potential impact these constraints must be addressed. The because of low levels of adoption has led heterogeneous characteristics of small to more emphasis on the effectiveness farms and families make vertical scaling of research to produce adoptable up especially challenging, and perhaps technological options. impossible without adaptation or fine- tuning. These challenges have led to the Besides, in the past, agricultural R&D development of new ways of working with institutions traditionally adopted a end-users in order to both develop and technology-focused approach (Biggs scale up innovations. 1990). This implies a system in which scientists in institutions develop and test the technologies, such as germplasm, 3.1. Systems' approaches which they consider relevant to farmers, Confronted with the complexity of the and once this process is complete, problems facing farmers, an integrated disseminate them, often through national approach often needs to be taken which agricultural extension services. Farmers works with different components of were often involved in this process; the system, including social, economic, however, their participation was usually not biophysical, and policy dimensions. The systematic nor were they in a position to farming systems' research initiatives of make decisions over research priorities or the 1970s and 1980s, which introduced social science inputs, and more recent Interest in going to scale with these types participatory and gendered approaches, of innovations also has to do with how seek to address both the complexity and integrated systems research is conducted. equity challenges (Collinson 2000). This In order to integrate research on many change was also accompanied by a shift aspects of a problem, work often must in focus from global or regional scales focus on a single or very small number towards expanding efforts into local and of physical sites. Large impact may be intra-household perspectives. Partly as observed in a site, but it is difficult to a consequence of the development of identify causality, given the high and research methods and perspectives, often sustained level of intervention of the types of innovations that centers researchers and others. Observed results are producing evolve from relatively are often due to both the research process easy-to-use technologies (e.g., seeds) and the technologies, so to some extent to more knowledge- and management­ both must be replicated to achieve a intensive innovations, such as guidelines similar impact elsewhere. How to do this for soil management or integrated pest is the essence of the scaling up challenge. management (IPM), or methods for This problem is faced not only by research organizing adaptive research or watershed projects working in field sites, but also by management. Integrated natural resource NGOs who work in a limited number of management and integrated soil fertility communities yet hope to achieve impact management are examples of this (Amede in many. et al. 2003). An integrated approach also implies involving other actors, and 3.2. Types and definitions of scaling including end-users in the research process up in order to address multiple dimensions of Scaling aims to provide"more quality a problem. benefits to more people over a wide geographical area more quickly, more Part of the interest in going to scale—as equitably and more lastingly" (IIRR 2000, opposed to disseminating technologies— Gundel et al. 2001). However, there are has arisen in the context of these changes, different types of scaling up and they are which have led to more complex research provided as follows: outcomes and new ways of working with end-users. Scaling up these more knowledge- and management-intensive 3.2.1. Quantitative scaling up innovations has created new challenges. Spread: increasing numbers of people The knowledge of breeders is effectively spontaneously adhere to the organization "packaged" into the seed, so in order and its programmes, perceiving them as to transfer this knowledge it may be serving their interest/preferences. necessary only to make sure that the Replication: a successful programme farmer has access to the seed and some (methodology and mode of organization) basic technical knowledge. To pass on is repeated elsewhere. the knowledge a scientist has about how Nurture: a well-staffed and well-funded to evaluate different varieties (in the outside agency, using a specific incentive- case that the seed is not appropriate to based methodology, nurtures local the farmer), or about other topics, such initiatives on an increasingly large scale. as soil nutrient flow and management is Integration: a programme is integrated far more complex (Simon Cook, personal into existing structures and systems and communication 2002). Thus, going to scale in particular government structures after is similar to extension/dissemination in it has demonstrated its potential. the sense that they both aim to get more benefits to more people more quickly. 3.2.2. Political scaling up Vertical scaling up Information and mobilization: an Vertical scaling up is higher up the ladder. organization's members or local It is institutional in nature and involves communities are encouraged to participate other sectors/stakeholder groups in the in the body of politics. process of expansion—from the level of Aggregation: federative structures grassroots organisations to policymakers, designed to influence policy making are donors, development institutions, and created. investors at international levels. Scaling up Direct entry into politics: grassroots therefore implies adapting knowledge and organisations, or their leaders, either innovations to the conditions of different create a political party or join an existing end-users, which requires understanding one. the principles underlying an innovation. For this to be done successfully, those 3.2.3. Organizational scaling up doing the scaling out, whether extension Diversification of donors; increase in agents or farmers will need more training the degree of self-financing, through and support networks in order to work subcontracting, consultancy or fees- with communities to adapt innovations to for-service; and creation of institutional their needs. variety, both internally and externally. In addition to technologies, methodologies can also be end products of research. 3.2.4. Functional scaling up The farmer participatory research (FPR) Horizontal integration: unrelated methodologies, such as Committees for new activities are added to existing Local Agricultural Research (CIALs, the programmes, or new programmes are Spanish acronym), participatory plant undertaken by the same organization. breeding modules, or farmer field schools Vertical integration: other activities (FFSs), are also research outputs that related to the same chain of activities as can be horizontally, and in some cases the original one is added to an existing vertically, scaled up. A CIAL is a model for programme. involving specified actors in a structured However, for the interest of this paper, process with set objectives. only horizontal and vertical scaling up will be dealt with. An example of horizontal scaling up (often referred to as scaling Horizontal scaling up out) could be the adoption in different Horizontal scaling up of the more complex communities of a tool for managing soil research outcomes referred to above nutrient content. Vertical scaling up may differs in many respects from the process mean moving from individual to collective of disseminating a new variety. Because decision making, or it may involve moving these complex research outcomes involve from simple organisations based on face- the end-users and work with several to-face interaction to complex, hierarchical different components of a complex organisations. An example of this is if the system, immediate research outcomes same integrated soil nutrient management will be less applicable for others. In terms tool goes from being used by individual of geographical spread, more people farmers to being used in a coordinated and communities are covered through way by a group of farmers in the same replication and adaptation, which also community, or by an association of farmer involves expansion within the same sector groups in many communities. Such vertical or stakeholder group. Decision making scaling up might allow farmers to deal with takes place on the same social scale. soil management problems beyond the plot level. As one goes higher up the institutional process. Many institutions are structured levels (scaling up), the greater the chances in a way that does not easily allow for are for horizontal spread; likewise, as one the creation of multidisciplinary teams or spreads farther geographically (scaling direct interaction with end-users. out), the greater are the chances of influencing those at the higher levels. 3.4. Elements of effective scaling up Horizontal scaling up almost certainly The following section discusses key will involve adaptations and unexpected strategies for scaling up: impacts; however, the general process is well defined. Replicating CIALs according 3.4.1. Incorporating scaling up to the methodology, but allowing and even considerations into project planning encouraging adaptation, is an example of Scaling up must be considered from the scaling out. beginning of the research and planning process. This implies: A similar argument could be made in favor of methodologies for organizing • Building scaling up strategies into the watershed management associations, technology development process and or implementing FFSs. Thus, replication including them in project proposals of these methodologies is complicated can ensure that these considerations because in order to scale up these are given full attention throughout innovations horizontally, it will be the life of the project. The likelihood necessary to adapt them to the conditions of scaling up can be increased if key and demands of other communities. opportunities and challenges are Again, this implies building capacity and identified at an early stage, thereby transferring understanding about the allowing key channels for scaling up underlying principles rather than just the research activities and development methodologies themselves. outcomes to be identified. In this way, it forms an integral part of the 3.3. Institutionalization technology/methodology development process, and much work can be done Where the principles underlying an during the research process to lay the innovation and the adaptive capacity groundwork for going to scale. mentioned above become an internal part of an institution in a sustainable • Involving stakeholders as decision way, we can refer to this process as makers from the beginning of the institutionalization. This implies not only a innovation process: This is crucial change in the way people work, but also in identifying real priorities and in a change in the written and unwritten developing appropriate solutions rules of the institution, as well as a change to problems. Therefore, research in the way people within that institution outputs (technologies, processes, think. This is the subject of much debate methods) are shaped at an early within participatory literature. stage of the project in collaboration with stakeholders and users, and can Often these processes of institutional subsequently be adapted throughout change are a necessary precondition the project. for successfully going to scale on an innovation. As mentioned above, many innovations now involve a multi­ disciplinary approach that incorporates a variety of stakeholders into the research

146 3.4.2. Capacity building up process, it is important to invest in a In order for complex innovations, such process of documenting, drawing lessons as a soil nutrient management tool, to be and experiences, and also undertaking adapted and applied in a variety of different corrective measures throughout the contexts, those involved need to have a project cycle. Learning and corrective good understanding of the knowledge loops should be central to scaling up and principles underlying the innovation. processes, in deciding what should be This implies rigorous capacity building of scaled up and how this might be achieved, staff in local institutions and building the and in providing validated evidence to adaptive capacity mentioned above within influence policymakers. This involves local institutions and local communities. several aspects:

Capacity building is an important strategy, a) Participatory monitoring and evaluation especially in the implementation and exit (PM&E), which involves identifying stage, to internalise new ideas within indicators of change and building a process communities and institutions. This involves to monitor and evaluate change, and to building the capacity of farmers and measure impact and process of scaling scientific personnel and the institutional up/out. PM&E ensures that learning systems to sustain and replicate the and corrective loops are built into the process. innovation process.

Building and strengthening the capacity b) Effective impact assessment will also be of communities to innovate may often necessary in order to learn from, and gain be just as, or even more important than, credibility on, the effectiveness and extent the technologies themselves. It is critical of impact of innovations, and to provide for stakeholders to understand that the validated evidence to influence decision underlying principles behind a technology makers at different levels. Furthermore, can help communities cope with changing impact assessment will help to identify environments, and in addressing arising factors that are important for adoption problems. Finally, strengthening local that may contribute to the success of capacities empowers farmers and local innovation. However, if innovation occurs communities, and helps create broad-based as the result of the interaction of the results support and effective local implementation of many simultaneous and independent (or of scaling up activities. perhaps only loosely coordinated) research initiatives, the traditional concepts of In addition to building the capacity of diffusion, adoption, and impact (especially communities, it is important to develop attribution of impact to a specific research a critical mass of R&D personnel with investment) may not be appropriate. skills and experience in modalities for conducting agricultural and NRM research. 3.4.4. Building linkages This can include skills in consulting and collaborating with stakeholders, skills Developing partnerships and strategic in working across disciplines, and an alliances with other stakeholders (private understanding of scaling up strategies, sector, NGOs, governmental organisations amongst others. [GOs], communities) is one of the essential strategies for successfully scaling up innovation. This will increase pathways 3.4.3. Information and learning through which the innovation can be scaled In order to ensure informed, effective, up, and thus leverage scarce resources to and appropriate decision making by a achieve greater impacts. These linkages wide range of stakeholders in the scaling- have to be robust, ideally with direct participation of the other stakeholders in 4. Conclusions and recommendations the research process, in order to ensure The authorities responsible for the research local ownership and to ensure that the system should take the following points necessary adaptive capacity is developed. into consideration and try to improve the This can involve several strategies, scenario in relation to NRM technologies' such as developing partnerships and scaling up: strategic alliances, and linking with other stakeholders (private sector, NGOs, GOs, At present only few technologies/ communities). This includes expanding and information of NRM are scaled up strengthening links amongst institutions by EIAR's scaling up project and and organisations with complementary this situation needs attention in agendas, expertise, resources, and "reach", the future. To change this scenario as leverage resources. Inter-institutional both professional and institutional collaboration and coordination is not only commitment is crucial. important, it is crucial, and a prerequisite The role of the research system for maximizing impact. (through its extension directorate wing) and researchers (in 3.4.5. Engaging in policy dialogue allocating their time for promotion It is necessary to engage in dialogue with activity) in scaling up is rarely policymakers, not only to gathersupportfor recognised or promoted in innovations and projects, but also to create policies and strategies that guide the right institutional environment for research on NRM. innovations to be scaled up. For example, The mind-set of most of research it may be necessary to convince managers planners, managers and of the need to work with end-users, but it researchers in soil and water may also be necessary to encourage the management are still fixated in a changes within the institutional structure linear dissemination approach of necessary to overcome the institutional reaching the ultimate beneficiaries barriers mentioned above. Engaging in through extension services. policy dialogue on pro-poor development Research programmes and agendas is critical in achieving impacts. projects rarely include scaling up plans during their inception. Research programmes and 3.4.6. Sustaining the process projects are rarely evaluated (funding) for communication, knowledge For the process to be sustainable reliable sharing, uptake and utilisation funding is required. Thus, donors need of knowledge and technologies to be lobbied to obtain long-term flexible produced. funding, which allows for a learning process A very small proportion of to take place. Appropriate mechanisms also programmes and project budgets need to be developed to sustain capacity and activities are committed or for expansion and replication. This involves used in the communication and paying special attention to mechanisms uptake promotion of research for self-financing, input/output markets, results. capacity building, and local and regional Research outputs rarely include networking. specific advice to farmers, input suppliers (e.g. fertiliser suppliers, manufacturers, extension services, policy makers and other clients). Researchers are not adequately trained for communication and policy environment for uptake uptake promotion. (e.g. service providers, policy The rewards and incentives actors, private sector suppliers, systems for researchers do educators and researchers). not demand evidence for the (7) Pathway for dissemination or utilisation and impact of their up-take refers to the routes or research. channels by which information and technologies reach the 'users'. Pathways are multiple Definitions and terminologies and complex, especially with (1) Information (relating to natural respect to reaching poor people resources) has been defined as and responding to their needs. "patterned data allowing us to (8) Stakeholders are considered to give meaning to the environment" include all those who affect and/ (Roling and Engel 1991). or are affected by the policies, (2) Technologies refer to the decisions and actions of a given application of such information system (Grimble etal. 1995). This to the activities of human goals, definition should alert us to the either in the form of hardware possibility that stakeholders in a (tools, equipment, machines), given venture may not necessarily or as software (knowledge, share the same interest (e.g. experience, skills). grain protectant manufacturers (3) Information and technology are both stakeholders in post­ may be derived from scientific harvest storage issues and research or from farmers' own competitors). experimentation. (9) Scaling-up aims to provide 'more (4) Promotion is the activity of quality benefits to more people making potential users aware of over a wide geographical area the information or technology, more quickly, more equitably and increasing its accessibility. and more lastingly' (IIRR 2000, (5) Dissemination is the act of Gundel et al. 2001). distributing information to various audiences in forms appropriate to their needs. 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Collinson, M. (ed.) (2000) A history of farming systems research. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), NY, USA. 432 p.

Grimble R. and Chan M.K. (1995) Stakeholder analysis for NRM in developing countries. Nat Resour Forum, 19(2): pp. 113-124.

Gundel S., Hancock J. and Anderson S. (2001) Scaling up strategies for research in NRM: A comparative review. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, GB.

IIRR (International Institute for Rural Reconstruction) (2000) Going to scale: Can we bring more benefits to more people more quickly? IIRR Workshop, Silang, PH. 114 p.

Roling N. and Engel P. (1991) Information technology from a knowledge systems perspective: Concepts and Issues. In: Knowledge in Society: the international Journal of Knowledge transfer. Special Issue, February 1991: pp. 6-18.

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150 Table 1. Dynamism in approaches, the past, the present and future scenario in EIAR.

Approaches in EIAR at various levels

The participatory approach The conventional approach [Participatory research and Scaling up and out approach [Pre-extension technology extension approaches: COR, transfer] FRG,FEG]

- Increase household productivity through agricultural and other livelihood - Impact creation through value-chained Just letting few farmers improvements. approach (generation, transfer, marketing, and woreda ARDO what - Encourage farmer policy, and other related issues) technologies does we have, participation and community - Value chain can be achieved through Primary goals of the productivity through yield mobilization in research and institutional networking approach increases, if technologies are extension. - Going beyond little success stories further disseminated (scaled - Build skills and capacity for or aiming at bringing wider impact of up) local empowerment (especially research farmer leaders/promoters). - Create (or strengthen) relation with district BOARDO.

- MOU, signed agreement - Beyond institutional empire building - Strategic alliance with synergy and complementarity's - Role sharing - Institutions collaboration, networking, planning together for a common goal - At a separate base At a separate base but - Resources towards one commonly Government extension invitation for participation agreed value-chained impact, service - Government extension service - Experience, value and expertise of each Institutional setting - University - University institution will be shared - Research institutions - Research institutions - Wider horizontal (all relevant ■ Local and international - Local and international developmental institutions, GOs, NGOs, private firms, industries, financial institutions, unions and vertical (policy making, decision making bodies, top management) institutional networking - Sustainable and chained move of institutions - Joint evaluation

- Relevant to almost any technology, production system or regime - Farmer-centered approaches tend to focus more on pro-poor - Pre-success stories and proven needs, priorities and contexts technologies - Approaches appear to be - Actors' and partners' (market, GOs, more appropriate for extension NGOs, farmers, all involved partners) - Improved seed varieties programmes that focus on food agreement - Cropping recommendations production/food security and - Approaches appear to be well-suited for Type of technology, - Market information sustainable livelihoods more commercial, overtly market-based information or innovation - Soil and water conservation - Approaches appear to production settings provided - Intensive animal production be more appropriate for - Approaches focus more on change and - Cash crop production (coffee, complex, integrated farming impact on the farming community tea, vegetables) systems which require more - Impact and change through value- complex NRM strategies, or chained approach, beyond participation, more information-intensive empowerment production systems, e.g. organic agriculture - Approaches appear not to be well-suited for more commercial, overtly market- based production settings

None to minimal Level of farmer Minimal to medium participation in decision­ High level when it is making for priorities Medium to high High participatory extension and and activities, resource research approach allocation - Almost any extension method may be applicable - Effective use of any particular method is more dependent upon the emphasis that is given to the specific and active role of farmers, e.g. farmers as trainers - Lectures, demos - Several methods have - Films, videos and other - Role documentation of each actor and proven to be more effective for audio-visual — Pamphlets and programme preparation eliciting farmer participation, Research and extension other written materials - The media is a critical partner in this e.g. farmer cross-visits or methods used - Farmer training respect exchanges; farm er field - Radio programmes - Expanding the impact of technologies days and exhibitions; - Farmer field days through partnership building demonstrations; films, videos - Exhibitions, fairs and other audio-visual media; shared labor work groups. - Active farmer participation in on-farm experimentation for technology demonstration is a proven method that effectively channels farmer inputs and perspectives

- Participate in and/or facilitate community problem analysis - Determine pre-extension - Participate in external priorities and are actively assessment of community involved in extension planning problems, or assist in - Provide feedback to the pre­ community problem analysis extension activities and/or new - Assist in pre-extension technologies In addition to participatory research and planning How do farmers - Conduct small-scale extension approaches (COR, FRG, FEG) - Receivers of technical participate? experimentation and/or - Market orientation messages participate in on-farm - Networking skill empowerment - Provide feedback to experiments extension activities and new - Monitor and evaluate pre­ technologies extension accomplishments - Participate in (researcher- Participate in (and often led) on-farm experiments organise) networking and information exchange mechanisms

- Entails low to medium costs compared with conventional Generally entails medium to - Resources sharing among partners extension programmes, but is Costs, funding high costs Low cost compared to its impact, if all not a no-cost mechanism for mechanisms and control Control of funding resources partners participate actively service provision of funding is usually through the - The assumption is to technology provider participate in resources mobilization

- Large scale vertically and horizontally - Covers regions and nation - Appears to be most - Usually covers small - Targets all possible partners, vertically appropriate on a limited scale Programme geographical geographical areas with few as well as horizontally - Target woreda ARDO and coverage (area) farmers, e.g. 4- 12 farmers examples of haricot bean and Soya bean farmers per PA in rift valley, south and pawe addressing more than 8700 farmers

- Participatory, value-chained, impact and change oriented, market oriented, collaborative, institutional and partnership network for sustainable change, coping with changing dynamism and global change - Availability of proven and working Assumptions technologies - The availed technologies are not well pushed for to create value-chained impact - Development of a system that facilitates joint intervention from generation to marketing continuum is required working

Impact assessment Inbuilt system as a strategy

152 WORKSHOP DISCUSSION investments such as tree plantings. OUTCOMES Livestock causes considerable damage to young planted trees. The need for a The lesson learned from the study on livestock rearing policy or community indigenous fodder and soil improving tree agreement was stressed, and suggestions and shrub species is that the studies are for schemes reviewing national and supposed to be scaled up to cover more regional land use and tenure policies were species both within the study and outside made. An facilitating policy environment the study areas. Within the study area, the is critical for a successful scaling up of lessons can be disseminated or scaled up natural resource management innovations. at the farm, homestead, and landscape Policy interacts with scaling up in several and watershed level. A total of seven major different ways: policy constraints may issues were identified from the workshop limit the dissemination of new tree-related and the group discussion forum: innovations, policy incentives may be drawn upon for promoting their adoption, a) Germplasm and policy makers may be engaged in The lack of planting material is repeatedly promoting or even financing scaling up identified as one of the most important activities (Franzel et al., 2004). Whereas constraints to the wider dissemination of much attention is paid to how policy tree and shrub related innovations. As a affects the uptake of new tree-related result, the need for a sustainable supply of innovations, little consideration is given germplasm is strongly voiced. Apart from to directly engaging policy makers in the the efforts of the Forestry Research Center scaling up process. Raussen etal. (2001) (FRC) and the International Livestock argue that policy makers, both at the local Research Institute (ILRI), there is no and national level, are an often untapped institution in Ethiopia that is responsible for resource in scaling-up strategies. the multiplication and distribution of tree seeds. There is still a huge gap between d) Local institution issues seed demand and supply of the various Local institutions are the most important tree and shrub species. Small-scale private entry points, especially for mass and community based initiatives need to mobilization and technology dissemination. be initiated and supported. Because local institutions are based on interests, group members are more or b) Partnership issues less homogeneous. A farmer is usually Partnership issues are another important a member of more than one institute. factor for the scaling up of potential That means if one farmer is informed species. Partnerships in scaling up offer about a technology, he or she can quickly high potential benefits: organisations with disseminate their knowledge to other complementary strengths, resources and members, so the information exchange is 'reach' can improve the efficiency and fast. effectiveness of their scaling up efforts. The workshop participants stressed the e) Networking issues need to identify possible actors, develop Here, the importance of the establishment plans of action, define responsibilities and of networking among varius partners and design strategies for mobilizing resources. stakeholders for information sharing was discussed. Networking among stakeholders c) Policy issues would help to bridge the information Free grazing has been identified as the gaps about tree-related technology most relevant bottleneck for sustainable alternatives, to understand the issues land use and for the aggravation of which are critical for the dissemination degraded lands. It hinders long-term of tree-related innovations, to undertake appropriate actions for the dissemination of technologies and to reach out to the large number of technology users. f) Capacity building issues Capacity building, especially the importance of training at all levels, was identified as a key factor for effective scaling up. Organization of regular seminars, training programmes and exposure visits are considered important for a wider dissemination of tree-related innovations. g) Resource issues The identification of potential and sustainable financial sources is the key to an effective scaling up of lessons or successes.

The issues identifed from the workshop and the groups' discussion forum can be useful inputs for developing scaling up strategies of potential fodder and soil-improving species. It is, therefore, an urgent requirement to the research institutions and other partners to develop scaling up strategies and implement the strategies accordingly.

References Franzel S., Denning G. L., Lillesp J. P. B. and Mercado A. R. Jr. (2004) Scaling up the impact of agroforestry: Lessons from three sites in Africa and Asia. Agroforestry Systems, 61: pp. 329-344.

Raussen T., Ebong G. and Musiime J. (2001). More effective natural resources management through democratically elected, decentralised government structures in Uganda. Development in Practice, 11 (4): pp. 460-470. WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Mr. Getachew Agegnehu Mr. Chilot Yirga HARC/Holetta HARC/Holetta Tel: 0112370292 Tel: 0911942549 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Amare Haileslassie Mr. Berhane Kidane ILRI/Addis Abeba HARC/Holetta Tel: 0116463215 Tel: 0911641376 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Girmay Ggebru Dr. Bayeh Mulatu TARI/Mekele HARC/Holetta Tel: 0914722574 Tel: 0112370289 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Getachew Alemu Dr. Elias Zerfu HARC/Holetta IFPRI/ISNAR Tel: 0911470041 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Tel: 0911113525

Dr. Amare Gizaw Mr. Mesfin Tsigaye HARC/Holetta HARC/Ginchi Tel: 0911761376 Tel: 0911896341 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Ms Biruktayet Assefa Mr. Kassahun Bekele FRC/ Addis Abeba HARC/Holetta Tel: 0116456576 Tel: 0911190928 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Diriba Beoere Mr. Hailu Beyene OARI/Bako HARC/Holetta Tel: 0576650183 Tel: 0112370291 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Zenebe Admassu Mr. Dereje Fekadu HARC/Holetta HARC/Holetta Tel: 0112370300 Tel: 0911408085 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Efrem Lemu Dr. Asgelil Dibabe Farm Africa/Ginchi EIAR/Addis Abeba Tel: 0112580438/9 Tel: 0116460134 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Adugna Wakjira Mr. Berhanu Kuma HARC/Holetta HARC/Holetta Tel: 0917812190 Tel: 0911352296 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Mr. Yohannes Gojjam Dr. Tilahun Amede H ARC/Holetta CIAT/AHI Tel: 0911572740 Tel: 0911230135 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Bizuayehu Belete Mr. Surafel Demissie Agri. Office/Jeldu Agri. Office/ Dendi Tel: 0112380287 Tel: 0112580040

Mr. Berhanu Dandesa Mr. T/Himanot Tesfatsiyon Agri. Office/Jeldu Agri. Office/ Dendi Tel: 0112380424 Tel: 0112580015

Mr. Dejene Bekele Dr. Getachew Mulugeta Agri. Office/Welmera SARI/Awassa Tel: 0911353299 Tel: 0462209980

Mr. Jemal Aman Mr. K/Mariam Hagos Agri. Office/Ejere EIAR/Addis Abeba Tel: 0911543943 Tel: 0116462633

Mr. Mehari Alebachew Mr. Seyoum Bediye HARC/Holetta HARC/Holetta Tel: 0911356756 Tel: 0911173293 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Deribe Gurmu Mr. Abebe Kirub FRC/Addis Abeba EIAR/Addis Abeba Tel: 0911617097 Tel: 0116460137 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Alemu Gezahgne Mr. Shenkut Ayele EIAR/Addis Abeba EIAR/Addis Abeba Tel: 0116454452 Tel: 0911489487 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Berhanu Bekele Dr. Taye Bekele HARC/Holetta NSRC/Addis Abeba Tel: 0112370300 Tel: 0115508300 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Angaw Tsige Prof. Gerhard Glatzel HARC/Holetta BOKU/Vienna Tel: 0911831415 Tel: +431476544100 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Mr. Kindu Mekonnen Prof. Georg Gratzer BOKU/Vienna BOKU/Vienna Tel: +431476544117 Tel: +431476544105 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

156 Mr. Endalkachew Teshome BOKU/Vienna Tel: +431476544120 [email protected]

Mr. Hailu Regassa HARC/Holetta Tel: 0911107112 Email: [email protected]

Mr. Agaje Tesfaye HARC/Holetta Tel: Email: [email protected]

Ms Tafesu Abay ENA Addis Abeba

Mr. Fekadu Legesse Agri. Office/Jeldu Tel: 0112380411