Emotions in Second Language Teaching Theory, Research and Teacher Education Emotions in Second Language Teaching Juan De Dios Martínez Agudo Editor

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo Editor

Emotions in Second Language Teaching Theory, Research and Teacher Education Emotions in Second Language Teaching Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo Editor

Emotions in Second Language Teaching Theory, Research and Teacher Education

123 Editor Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo Faculty of Education University of Extremadura Badajoz Spain

ISBN 978-3-319-75437-6 ISBN 978-3-319-75438-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018931498

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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of Springer Nature The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland I don’t want to be at the mercy of my emotions. I want to use them, to enjoy them, and to dominate them. –Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) Foreword

Every moment I step into a classroom I feel the vibe; I am energized and I become more human as the lesson progresses and I have long stopped looking at watches or clocks and of course don’t always end on time. I leave each lesson better than I was before it and more exhausted as well because I have been through an emotional experience with other human beings. Teachers as emotional beings are moved by aspects of their work because they are passionate about their practice that includes human connections to their students from the moment they enter classes for the first time. Teachers make large personal and emotional investments in their practice that includes relationship building with their students. Indeed, teacher–student relationships are often at the core of any quality learning experience unless one treats the teacher as a computer delivering lessons in an emotionless state. This realization many years ago started me along my own path toward reflecting on my practice because of the wonderful life I was living as a language teacher meeting wonderful students and colleagues. Within the field of TESOL, however, this reality of teaching has not been acknowledged, and in some instances even been devalued by some administrators who consider the work of English language teaching as only teaching language. Indeed the field of TESOL teachers often feel this aspect of their contribution has not been recognized or valued at the academic or managerial/administration levels nor do we have a common vocabulary to discuss the emotional aspect of a language teacher’s work. What we have been neglecting over the past years in the professional and managerial discourse is the TESOL teacher’s well-being in terms of their personal and emotional investment into their practice. Good teachers are not well-oiled machines, and good teaching is not just a matter of knowing the subject matter, and being able to use all the latest techniques while teaching, or even being efficient. Good teaching is an emotionally charged event where teachers connect with each student as they passionately deliver their lesson in a pleasurable environment. Such classrooms reflect an environment where both students and teacher are enthusiastic and excited as they discover learning and risk-taking in a safe environment.

vii viii Foreword

This book, edited by a knowledgeable academic, Dr. Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo, Associate Professor of EFL Teacher Education, Spain, begins to fill the gap in the TESOL literature on the importance of emotions in teaching. As Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo points out, undoubtedly, teachers’ emotions are at the epicenter or heart of teaching. The book presents 23 different chapters that remind us of the importance of emotionality in L2 teacher education and more specifically L2 teaching. The book makes specific links between L2 teacher emotions, L2 pedagogy, and L2 teacher education. Taking an eclectic approach to research on L2 teacher emotions, this edited book begins with a contextualization of teacher emotion research within applied linguistics and TESOL research agenda which notes the limitations of a purely cognitive approach to language teaching and learning. Part II of the book presents various chapters on some current L2 emotion research which offers insights into the emotional nature of L2 teaching and especially the psychological perspectives of teacher emotion and how L2 teachers can handle their emotions. While part III provides various chapters that examine the relationship between L2 teachers’ personal beliefs and their emotions and how these can be managed. Part IV provides chapters on what the editor calls the multidimensional nature of teacher emotions in the context of L2 teaching. One chapter is directly related to my own work on reflective teaching and this reminded me once again of the emotional nature of reflection and how we should examine emotions when trying to make sense of our practice. Part V provides chapters on emotionality associated with L2 teacher discourse (verbal and nonverbal), the role of silence, and the subjectivity of the emotional climate of the L2 classroom. The last part of the book, part VI, examines how L2 teacher education can foster emotional competence in L2 teachers in different contexts. The contents of this timely book are a valuable source for researchers, teacher educators, teachers, and administrators interested in increasing their awareness of the role of emotions in teaching and learning L2. This excellent volume not only reminds us of the importance of emotional labor in teaching and learning L2 from diverse perspectives and varied classroom contexts, but also that in TESOL, teachers are not just deliverers of English lessons, but also emotional human beings that are impacted by their relationships with their students. For most L2 teachers, I believe that teaching is a labor of love and the research presented in this volume reminds us that emotions affect L2 teaching through various daily classroom interactions, otherwise classrooms would be (and unfortunately sometimes are) barren and boring places without it. I am confident that this volume will stimulate further dialogue and research among L2 teachers, teacher educators, researchers, and all who are passionate about their practice.

St. Catharines, Canada Thomas S. C. Farrell Brock University Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to thank all contributors for their excellent work without which this publication would not have been possible. Special thanks also to Profs. Thomas S. C. Farrell and Jack C. Richards for their generosity in writing, respectively, the Foreword and Afterword to this volume. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their judicious and constructive feedback which greatly contributed to improving the quality of the manuscript. I am also grateful to Jolanda Voogd and Helen van der Stelt from the Springer publisher for their support and guidance throughout the manuscript preparation process. On a more personal level, I am very grateful to my beloved wife, Paqui, who is always there to support me in countless ways, as well as my darling sons, Juan de Dios and Pablo, always so comprehensive and patient with their busy father. Last but not least, special thanks to my dear father, Juan, who passed away more than 20 years ago now and whom I miss so much every day, for his unconditional love, trust, and endless support in all of my decisions throughout life.

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

ix Contents

Foreword ...... vii Thomas S. C. Farrell Introduction and Overview ...... 1 Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

Part I Emotions in the Applied Linguistics and TESOL Research Agenda: Challenges and Research Methodology The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL: Signiﬁcance, Challenges and Prospects ...... 19 Cynthia J. White A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research: Advances, Challenges and Future Directions ...... 35 Yueting Xu

Part II Perspectives on Second Language Teachers’ Emotions Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging from the Shadows ...... 53 Lourdes Cuéllar and Rebecca L. Oxford Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second Language Classrooms in the Context of Education/Curricular Reforms: Directions for Future Research ...... 73 Kwok Kuen Tsang and Lianjiang Jiang L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological Perspective ...... 91 Peter I. De Costa, Hima Rawal and Wendy Li

xi xii Contents

Part III Personal Factors Associated with Second Language Teachers’ Emotions Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second Language Teaching: Implications for Teacher Education ...... 109 Ana Maria F. Barcelos and Maria Ruohotie-Lyhty Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching Experience, Proﬁciency and Gender Affect Their Classroom Practice? ...... 125 Jean-Marc Dewaele, Christina Gkonou and Sarah Mercer

Part IV Emotions in the Context of Second Language Teaching The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms: Felt Sense, Emotionality, and Practical Knowledge Acquisition ...... 145 Toshinobu Nagamine, Yutaka Fujieda and Atsushi Iida Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials Selection and Adaptation: Implications for Teacher Education ...... 165 Brian Tomlinson The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT into L2 Teaching: Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers and Implications for Teacher Education ...... 183 Gabriele Azzaro and Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo Assessment as an Emotional Practice: Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers Within Assessment ...... 205 Gavin T. L. Brown, Atta Gebril, Michalis P. Michaelides and Ana Remesal Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching and Assessing Students with Learning Disabilities and Difﬁculties ...... 223 Michael Dunn and Gisela Ernst-Slavit ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges in Professional Relationships with the School Community: Implications for Teacher Education ...... 243 Minh Hue Nguyen L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing Frustration and Demotivation Toward One’s Profession in a Japanese EFL Context ...... 259 Toshinobu Nagamine Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement for Personal Growth and Deeper Learning ...... 277 Oliver Meyer, Do Coyle, Margarete Imhof and Theresa Connolly Contents xiii

Part V Emotions in Second Language Teacher Discourse Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher Education and Future Research Directions ...... 301 Danuta Gabryś-Barker Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom: The Emotional Challenges for L2 Teachers ...... 323 Lesley Smith and Jim King Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language Competence and Their Feelings About Collaborative Experiences and Relationships ...... 341 Arthur McNeill

Part VI Emotionality in Second Language Teacher Education Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL in the Practicum Setting: Facing the Emotional Dilemmas and Challenges Associated with Professional Practice ...... 365 Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo and Gabriele Azzaro EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force of Sustainable Professional Development ...... 385 Evangelia Karagianni and Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching in Second Language Teacher Education: Opportunities and Challenges for Teacher Education in Poland and Turkey ...... 403 Joanna Madalińska-Michalak and Bünyamin Bavli Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity Development: Implications for Second Language Teacher Education ...... 425 Marie-Claire Lemarchand-Chauvin and Claire Tardieu Afterword ...... 445 Jack C. Richards Editor and Contributors

About the Editor

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo is Associate Professor of Second Language Teacher Education (TEFL) at the University of Extremadura (Spain). His research interests lie at the interface of SLA research, L2 teaching and L2 teacher education, particularly L2 classroom discourse analysis, teacher learning and thinking, and cognitive and affective aspects of L2 teaching and learning. He has published several books and research articles on these areas in national and international publications. His most recent edited books are Teaching and Learning English through Bilingual Education (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), English as a Foreign Language Teacher Education. Current Perspectives and Challenges (Rodopi/Brill, 2014), and Native and Non-Native Teachers in English Language Classrooms: Professional Challenges and Teacher Education (De Gruyter, 2017).

Contributors

Gabriele Azzaro Department of Human Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy Ana Maria F. Barcelos Department of Languages, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil Bünyamin Bavli Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies, Faculty of Education, Yıldız Teknik University, Esenler, İstanbul, Turkey Gavin T. L. Brown Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Theresa Connolly University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany Peter I. De Costa Department of Linguistics & Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African Languages, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Do Coyle University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK

xv xvi Editor and Contributors

Lourdes Cuéllar National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico, USA Jean-Marc Dewaele Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK Michael Dunn Teaching & Learning, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, USA Gisela Ernst-Slavit Teaching & Learning, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, USA Yutaka Fujieda Department of International Social Studies, Kyoai Gakuen University, Gunma, Japan Danuta Gabryś-Barker Institute of English, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland Atta Gebril English Language Institute, The American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt Christina Gkonou University of Essex, Colchester, UK Atsushi Iida University Education Center, Gunma University, Gunma, Japan Margarete Imhof University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany Lianjiang Jiang School of Foreign Languages, Jimei University, Xiamen, China Evangelia Karagianni Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece Jim King Applied Linguistics Section, Department of English, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK Marie-Claire Lemarchand-Chauvin University of Paris Est Créteil, Créteil, France Wendy Li Second Language Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Joanna Madalińska-Michalak Faculty of Education, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo Department of Didactics of Languages, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain Arthur McNeill The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China Sarah Mercer University of Graz, Graz, Austria Oliver Meyer University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany Michalis P. Michaelides Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Editor and Contributors xvii

Toshinobu Nagamine Department of English Language Education, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan Minh Hue Nguyen Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Rebecca L. Oxford University of Maryland, College Park, USA Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Hima Rawal Second Language Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Ana Remesal Department of Cognición, Desarrollo Y PsicologíadeLa Educación, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Maria Ruohotie-Lyhty Department of Language and Communication Studies, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland Lesley Smith Linguistics Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA Claire Tardieu University of Sorbonne Nouvelle—Paris 3, Paris, France Brian Tomlinson University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK Kwok Kuen Tsang College of Education Administration, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Cynthia J. White School of Humanities, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand Yueting Xu School of English and Education, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou, China Introduction and Overview

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

1 Rationality and Emotionality

Despite the fact that emotion is a mysterious human phenomenon that is at the very core of our existence (Ross 2015) and has puzzled us for centuries (Chen 2016), educational researchers have tended to focus their attention on cognitive aspects of learning, leaving the area of emotion largely neglected (Pekrun and Linnenbrink- Garcia 2014). Perhaps one convincing explanation of such neglect of emotion in the literature is that emotions are by nature highly subjective and, consequently, are neither easily observable nor—obviously—objectively measurable (Ross 2015). In relation to this, Benesch (2012) makes it clear that emotions have been certainly ignored in the research literature, in part because they have been seen as subjective, irrational, exclusively female, and hard to capture. Similarly, such inattention to emotions has also been justiﬁed, among other reasons, by the exaggerated power of reason over human emotions for a long time, thus privileging the ‘cognitive’ over the ‘affective’. To put it another way, such overemphasis on the mind and rationality has certainly left aside the consideration of human emotions and emotionality for a long time (Uitto et al. 2015). In the eyes of Kant—the supposed demonizer of emotion—(Williamson 2015: 1), emotions were regarded not only as separable from reason but “as the enemy of both reason and morality” (Sherman 1997: 28). Besides the Cartesian view that privileged rationality and marginalised emotionality, it has been recently assumed that emotions are “an integral part of cognition” (Swain 2013: 195), or rather, underlie most, if not all, cognition (Schumann 1997), all of which suggests that emotions and cognition cannot be separated. According to the emotional intelligence perspective, human cognition and emotion are inseparably linked and continuously interact and inﬂuence each

J. de D. Martínez Agudo (&) Department of Didactics of Languages, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_1 2 J. de D. Martínez Agudo other (Goleman 1995). Since emotions and cognitions are all intertwined in the complex reality of teaching (Nias 1996), what becomes clear is that both teachers’ cognitions and emotions strongly inﬂuence how they teach (Golombek and Doran 2014). Such interconnection between emotion and cognition in teacher professional identity development has been particularly emphasised in recent years (Zembylas 2005; Meyer 2009). Needless to say, emotions are an integral part of our lives and, as such, they are ever-present in all spheres of life. Hence, exploring the complex world of emotions that unceasingly arise from everyday human interactions in which individuals as emotional beings are involved is a challenging but also exciting venture.

2 Emotions in Education

Until humanistic education drew attention to the affective domain, it is probably true to say that almost no consideration was given to emotions. Overall, the humanistic approach emphasises the importance of the inner world in terms of the individual’s thought, feelings and emotions (Lei 2007). Before launching into an in-depth discussion of the multifaceted nature and impact of emotions in educational settings, it would be reasonable first to make clear what is meant by emotion. Such a conceptualization remains challenging and not straightforward. Overall, emotions have been viewed as complex and difficult to understand and, thus, define (Fried et al. 2015). While the terms affect and emotion are usually used synonymously in the research literature, what is clear is that the term affect is generally employed as an umbrella term which includes other affective states besides emotions. Although a universally accepted definition of emotion does not exist (Pavlenko 2008; Lorette and Dewaele 2015), emotions, in essence, are defined as subjective and conscious feelings that usually evoke certain spontaneous and involuntary responses or reactions in individuals to a particular event (Ross 2015). According to Keltner and Shiota (2003: 89),

An emotion is a universal, functional reaction to an external stimulus event, temporally integrating physiological, cognitive, phenomenological, and behavioral channels to facilitate a fitness-enhancing, environment-shaping response to the current situation. Since the 1990s (Marshak 1996; Hargreaves 1998), educational science is certainly experiencing an affective turn (Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014; Uitto et al. 2015) due, among other reasons, to the emotional revolution in psychology (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). As Golombek and Doran (2014) clearly state, the rationalist intellectual tradition has been challenged by a substantial amount of literature that has addressed the centrality and the multidimensional role of emotions in teachers’ day-to-day professional lives in and outside classrooms (Nias 1996; Hargreaves 1998, 2001; Day and Leitch 2001; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Zembylas 2005; Schutz and Pekrun 2007; Schutz and Zembylas 2009). Although emotions have been systematically ignored for a long time, the fact is that an Introduction and Overview 3 increasing interest in emotions in education has recently emerged in the research literature over the last decades, approaching this research area from varied perspectives or approaches (philosophical, physiological, psychological, sociological, cultural, feminist, political and ideological) which have provided helpful insights into the dynamic, multifaceted and sophisticated nature of human emotions. Such interest has been motivated partly by the understanding of teaching as ‘an emotional practice’ (Hargreaves 1998, 2001) and of the classroom as ‘an emotional place’ (Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014), thus emphasizing the key role emotions actually play in teachers’ professional lives in their emotional working environments (Hargreaves 2001; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Zembylas 2005; Schutz and Pekrun 2007; Leithwood and Beatty 2008; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Day and Lee 2011; Keller et al. 2014; Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014; Chen 2016; Bedrettin and Peercy 2016). However, as Swain (2013: 205) rightly recognises, emotions still remain the “elephants in the room—poorly studied, poorly understood, seen as inferior to rational thought”. Indeed just as important as the so-called rational aspects are emotional ones which are at the heart of the teaching and learning processes. At the same time, it is worth mentioning that learners’ emotions are as important as teachers’. Lastly, in relation to the conceptualization of language teacher cognition proposed by Borg (2003: 81), “what language teachers think, know, believe, and do”, Golombek and Doran (2014: 103) rightly suggest in this sense that “Noticeably absent from this definion is what teachers feel about what they think, know, believe and do”. Undoubtedly, teachers’ emotions are at the epicenter or heart of teaching (Nias 1996; Hargreaves 1998). In this regard, the metaphor proposed by Arnold (2011)of fuel for positive affect and cold water dousing the emerging flames for negative affect may be certainly appropriate for both teaching and learning processes as well as applicable to all educational contexts. Without emotions that unexpectedly arise from classroom interactions and situations, the truth is that very little teaching and learning would take place (Dewaele 2015). Based on the idea of teaching viewed not only as a rational activity but also as an emotional practice and/or process, what becomes clear is that addressing the impact of teacher emotionality within educational contexts is deemed essential to be able to understand how and under what conditions teachers actually teach in emotionally demanding classroom contexts. Such emotions seem to be intrinsically linked to professional practices in classrooms, as Reis (2015) reminds us, because emotions are dynamic processes in nature that influence behaviour. Overall, research concludes that teachers need to better understand the emotional dimension of their job, becoming more aware of their own emotions and those of their students’ in order to be able to create a suitable emotional climate for students’ learning, interact positively with students, and build authentic teacher-student relationships (Hargreaves 1998; Madalinska- Michalak 2015; Chen 2016). Certainly, teaching requires emotional understanding (Hargreaves 2001) since teachers’ emotions strongly influence how they teach and, accordingly, how their students actually perceive and respond to such emotions and, consequently, learn (Day and Lee 2011; Reis 2015). Since emotions contribute very actively to successful teaching and learning, understanding the multifaceted 4 J. de D. Martínez Agudo nature of teachers’ emotions in general and recognising their influence on teachers’ behaviours, instructional practices, professional identities as well as students’ learning achievement in particular would be essential (Zembylas 2005; Schutz and Pekrun 2007; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Day and Lee 2011).

3 Emotions in Applied Linguistics and TESOL

The neglect of emotions in psychological research has certainly filtered down to the educational psychology and applied linguistics fields, as Dörnyei (2009) rightly recognised. As a matter of fact, emotion has been, as Ross (2015) reminds us, the victim of significant neglect and is almost absent from the applied linguistics research agenda. While it is true that the cognitive perspective, which views emotions as innate and universal in the sense that they originate in the brain and thus are common to all humans, has historically dominated applied linguistics research in general (Swain 2013; Ross 2015; Benesch 2016), an affective turn may certainly be underway in applied linguistics (Pavlenko 2012). By and large, affect and emotions have received relatively little attention in the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) literature (Schumann 1997; MacIntyre 2002; Dewaele 2015). In this regard, Scovel (2001: 140) even claimed that “affective variables are the area that SLA researchers understand the least”. That is the reason why researchers like Dörnyei (2009) and Dörnyei and Ryan (2015) rightly suggest that SLA should incorporate the study of emotions. In today’s globalised world where “(bi)multilingualism is the norm whereas monolingualism is the exception” (Ouazizi 2016: 113), what is clear, as Dewaele (2010: 1) reminds us, is that “emotions play a crucial part in the lives of monolinguals and multilinguals”. In particular, Dewaele (2010: 7) examines how multilinguals perceive and feel about their languages and use them to communicate emotions or, more precisely, how LX users as legitimate and multicompetent users of an LX express their emotions ‘appropriately’ in an LX. The ways in which emotions are perceived and expressed in different languages and contexts by multilingual learners and/or users are particularly examined by Dewaele (2010). While the communication of emotion in an L2 may perhaps be the ultimate challenge for LX learners and LX users, Dewaele (2010: 6) also rightly recognises that “Communicating emotions in an LX, i.e. with limited communicative competence, is very hard”. In this regard, Lorette and Dewaele (2015: 63) conclude that “applied linguists are more interested in the way multilingual individuals communicate their emotions in their different languages (Dewaele 2013, 2015; Pavlenko 2005)”. Rather than insisting on treating emotions as internal to individuals, as psychological attributes of mind, Benesch (2017) is particularly interested in what emotions do socially, how emotions are culturally and discursively constructed as they are intimately associated with social context, thus agreeing with Introduction and Overview 5 poststructural/discursive approaches. In line with the increased emphasis on the social context (Pavlenko 2005;Dörnyei 2009), recent research into emotions has this new perspective in mind. While the cognitive and social dimensions of language learning and teaching have been extensively discussed since the sociocultural turn (Johnson 2006), what is clear is that much more attention to the affective dimension is certainly needed, in particular to the complexity and contradictions of those emotions often associated with L2 teaching. Broadly speaking, emotions in ELT have been discussed from different perspectives or approaches: the cognitive (Schumann 1997; Arnold 1999, 2011;Dörnyei 2009; Oxford 2012), the sociocultural (Golombek 1998; Freeman 2004; Johnson 2006), the multidisciplinary (Pavlenko 2006), and the embodied self in language (Kramsch 2009). The discussion in this publication mainly centers on the largely ignored but also potentially promising research area of emotionality in L2 education, in particular the emotional nature or dimension of L2 teaching, which, as already mentioned, is intimately interrelated with the cognitive and social dimensions. No doubt, L2 teaching, like all teaching, is an emotionally intense practice, a complex process saturated with a wide variety of emotions (Rosiek and Beghetto 2009). Although teacher emotionality still remains an unrecognised research area in TESOL (Benesch 2012), the limited research related to teacher emotion in TESOL is mostly concerned with the anxieties that non-native English teachers have about their language deficiencies (Horwitz 1996) as well as stress or burnout of language teachers (Crandall 2000). Recent studies in ELT (Golombek 1998; Benesch 2012, 2017) advocate the idea, according to Reis (2015), that understanding the complex relationships between teachers’ emotions and their teaching practice can provide a framework for supporting teachers in reconciling their emotions with their professional identities and roles (Postareff and Lindblom-Ylanne 2011). For example, Golombek (1998) offers convincing evidence of the link between ESL teachers’ emotional lives and concerns and their instructional practices. Since the advent of the critical turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL, emotions in language teaching and learning have been theorised from a critical theoretical perspective, largely unexplored to date (Benesch 2012, 2016). Beyond traditional cognitive conceptualizations of emotions which disregard social contexts and in keeping with the multidimensionality and context-specificity of teacher emotions, this edited volume mainly adopts a multidisciplinary perspective so as to better clarify and understand the impact of teacher emotionality in L2 classroom settings, in particular, the emotional aspects of L2 teachers’ professional and social lives in their emotionally demanding working environments. Given the practically non-existent research into L2 teachers’ emotions as well as the variety of existing approaches or perspectives, this publication makes connections linking L2 teacher emotions, L2 pedagogy and L2 teacher education. 6 J. de D. Martínez Agudo

4 Emotions in Second Language Teacher Education

Emotions, which are viewed as a functional component of language teacher professional development (Golombek and Doran 2014), should always be present into any discussion about L2 teacher education as academic emotions help to shape teachers’ emerging professional identities by influencing their teaching decisions and actions, their students’ academic achievement, the quality of communication and interactions with students in classrooms and classroom management. It is true that emotions in the learning-to-teach experience are often ignored or downplayed by teacher educators, as Golombek and Doran (2014: 102) clearly remind us. Until quite recently, the role of emotions in student teachers’ professional learning as well as the impact of the wide spectrum of academic emotions experienced in language classes have largely been neglected (Anttila et al. 2016). During their learning-to-teach process, as Golombek and Doran (2014) state, beginning teachers, who are in a vulnerable position by facing teaching for the first time, often experience a certain inevitable crisis of confidence about their own teaching competence, experiencing intense and conflicting emotions due to the high demands of early classroom teaching experiences because, as Golombek and Doran (2014: 105) point out, “when a contradiction exists between the ideal and real, negative emotions are likely to arise, indexing cognitive dissonance”. How L2 teachers manage to handle emotion-evoking classroom experiences and situations is the crux of the matter. As explained above, L2 teachers should be aware of their own emotions and feelings and their learners’ and proceed in accordance so as to take advantage of their teaching capability. According to Golombek and Doran (2014: 104), teacher educators consequently need to consider the link between cognition and emotion to mediate for example, in situations where their trainees require assistance. In this regard, as suggested by Meyer (2009) and Zembylas and Schutz (2009), teacher education programmes need to develop strategies to face and manage the emotional challenges associated with professional practice in working environments for teaching improvement. On the basis of what contribution emotions make to the professional lives of experienced EFL teachers, Cowie (2011) suggests the need for teachers to talk collaboratively about the emotional impact of teaching. Given the emotional workload involved in learning to teach and becoming a teacher, an in-depth understanding of the emotional component of teaching is vital. In view of the fact that routine is a killer in the classroom, as Dewaele (2015) quite rightly recognises, L2 teachers need to have some freedom to improvise and introduce unexpected, challenging and funny things so as to make L2 learning more attractive and, consequently, create a more fascinating and relaxing classroom atmosphere. Similarly, teachers’ indifference may certainly become students’ boredom, as Kramsch (2009: 208) rightly warns. As Chen (2016) reminds us, one of the greatest challenges that teachers face is to understand their own emotions, the role of emotions in teaching and the classroom, and how to manage such emotions com- petently, thus posing a real challenge for teacher education. In short, emotional education should be a real priority for L2 teacher education in view of its Introduction and Overview 7 tremendous educational impact. Lastly, based on the popular saying that ‘it takes two to tango’, Dewaele (2014) rightly concludes that the establishment of a good emotional atmosphere in the classroom depends on both teachers and learners or rather on all participants involved in the classroom context as the chemistry developed between the learner, the group of learners and their teacher will have a significant influence on the learning and teaching processes. Indeed, emotions (at any rate passion and enthusiasm) are the key to quality learning and teaching.

5 The Structure and Contents of the Book

Since the field of emotions is by nature highly interdisciplinary, this book takes an eclectic look at the subject and presents current research from different approaches or perspectives. The aim is to provide the reader with a holistic picture of teacher emotions as perceived by well-known scholars from around the world in the fields of applied linguistics, TESOL, educational psychology and L2 teacher education, thus making a valuable contribution to this largely unexplored but also highly promising research area. The book in fact explores a number of key issues or dimensions of L2 teachers’ emotions that have been rarely considered or totally overlooked in the research literature so far. This edited volume is made up of a Foreword by Thomas S. C. Farrell, beginning with an introductory chapter, followed by 22 chapters organised into six thematic parts focusing predominantly upon diverse aspects of the emotional nature or dimension of L2 teaching from different perspectives and classroom contexts, closing with a critical Afterword by Jack C. Richards. In the present chapter, the background and current state of knowledge about teacher emotions in L2 education as well as the main rationale and goals of the book are clearly outlined, followed by a very brief overview of each chapter’s approach and content. This introductory chapter thus sets the stage for a much more detailed discussion provided throughout the book. Part I contextualises the teacher emotion research area in the applied linguistics and TESOL research agenda, providing the reader with an overview of the main challenges of research methodology. In view of the widely recognised limitations of purely cognitive approaches to language learning and teaching, Cynthia White traces the growing awareness of the role of emotion in both applied linguistics and TESOL through a critical account of the avenues of enquiry into emotion. While it is true that the challenges are conceptual, theoretical and methodological, the author concludes that the turn to emotion in research will not only broaden the scope of research in applied linguistics and TESOL but will also provide us with a more holistic understanding of language learning and teaching, identifying gaps in the field and areas for future enquiry together with challenges in translating research findings into both policy and practice. 8 J. de D. Martínez Agudo

Given the limited knowledge of research methodologies appropriate for teacher emotion research (Zembylas and Schutz 2016), perhaps the most challenging and least addressed aspect at present together with its conceptualization, Yueting Xu seeks to address this gap by reviewing and discussing research methodological issues in L2 teacher emotion research in order to clarify the methodological approaches appropriate for conducting research on teacher emotion. Since the overall reliance on qualitative research methods and particularly narrative research, based on which methodological strengths and limitations are discussed, the author suggests that more transparent data analysis processes are needed and quantitative and mixed research methods need to be encouraged. Since emotions in education have recently received special emphasis, Part II presents current L2 teacher emotion research from diverse approaches and perspectives which offer valuable insights into the emotional nature of L2 teaching. Based on the belief that the human brain is an emotional brain (Le Doux 1998) and the fact that language teachers’ emotions have remained in the shadows of theory and research for too long, unlike language learners’ emotions which have been discussed frequently in the literature, Lourdes Cuéllar and Rebecca L. Oxford intend to draw teachers’ emotions out of the shadows and into the light by means of a narrative study, allowing all readers to understand the importance of teachers’ emotions. Selected theories of emotions drawn from very different perspectives (biopsychology, ecology, educational psychology, positive psychology, and universalist humanism) are clearly outlined so as to shed light on teachers’ emotions. Given that emotions are influenced by sociocultural contexts, Kwok Kuen Tsang and Lianjiang Jiang propose a sociological framework to investigate how teachers’ emotions in L2 classrooms are socially constructed in the context of education/ curricular reforms, which tend to drain the positive emotions of the teachers, resulting in ineffective teaching. The main emphasis of this chapter is then on the social dimension of emotions. Following the sociocultural turn (Zembylas 2005) in teacher emotion research and taking into account that teacher emotions are sociopolitically inflected and ideologically driven, Peter I. De Costa, Hima Rawal and Wendy Li mainly focus on the sociopolitical and ideological dimensions of teacher emotions from a critical perspective, considering the social ecologies in which teachers are embedded as well as their ideologies with respect to teaching. By placing sociopolitical issues (specifically, power relations) at the center of theoretical discussion and in light of neoliberal impulses within education, the authors certainly distance themselves epistemologically from the traditional cognitive approach, as they themselves recognise. Part III addresses the relationship between L2 teachers’ personal variables and their emotions. Based on the idea of how emotions shape and are shaped by beliefs or rather how beliefs and emotions interact with each other, influencing teachers’ actions and decisions in complex ways, Ana Maria F. Barcelos and Maria Ruohotie-Lythy discuss the interconnection or relationship between emotions and beliefs in L2 teaching and how these two interrelated concepts can contribute to language Introduction and Overview 9 teachers’ professional development in general and support their professional identities construction and decision-making processes in particular. Given the inseparability of cognition and emotion, helpful guidelines for teacher educators are provided in this direction. In the following chapter, Jean-Marc Dewaele, Christina Gkonou and Sarah Mercer stress the need for investigating teachers’ management of their own emotions and examine any possible links with their classroom practices. Specifically, this empirical study analyses the effect of various Individual Differences factors, in particular Trait Emotional Intelligence (EI) on ESL/EFL teachers’ self-reported classroom practices. Other variables, which could in turn connect with teachers’ Trait EI and their classroom practices, were also researched such as English proficiency, teaching experience and gender. As the authors quite rightly suggest, training in emotional competences could improve the effectiveness of L2 teachers’ classroom practices. Part IV, which is the most heterogeneous, provides a set of works focusing on the multidimensional nature of teacher emotions in the context of L2 teaching. Toshinobu Nagamine, Yutaka Fujieda and Atsushi Iida address the interrelationships between teacher emotionality and reflective teaching in L2 classrooms, focusing more specifically on ‘felt sense’ (i.e., a combination of emotion, awareness, intuitiveness, and embodiment) perceived by pre-service teachers during teaching practicum. Through TAE (Thinking at the Edge)-based reflection activities, pre-service teachers could accurately verbalise tacit practical knowledge through the meaning-construction process of a felt sense. Reflective teaching, which is an emotional, as well as cognitive, activity, is necessary for L2 teachers to make sense of their professional experiences. In view of the fact that emotions systematically shape decisions, Brian Tomlinson mainly focuses on the various emotional decisions and dilemmas faced by teachers in ELT materials selection and adaptation, thus emphasising that such decisions need to be principled and rational rather than emotive, proposing also ways of preparing teachers to resolve such dilemmas such as the use of simulations and reflection. Drawing on the premise that emotions play a crucial role in all the applications of technology to personal, professional and teaching activities, Gabriele Azzaro and Juan de Dios Martínez analyse the factors associated with Italian EFL teachers’ emotions towards the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in foreign language teaching, suggesting that L2 teachers need to be well trained to effectively apply ICT to daily teaching practices. Based on the understanding of assessment as an emotional practice, the emphasis of the study by Gavin Brown, Atta Gebril, Michalis Michaelides and Ana Remesal is on emotional challenges faced by L2 teachers in assessment processes, providing evidence of negative emotions around testing and assessment with three case studies of Egyptian, Cypriot and Spanish L2 teachers which reveal the complex nature of L2 teachers’ emotions in assessment contexts. The emotional challenges faced by L2 teachers when teaching and assessing students with learning disabilities and difficulties within the contexts of the United States and Canada remain the main focus of the chapter by Michael Dunn and 10 J. de D. Martínez Agudo

Gisela Ernst-Slavit. In the special education evaluation process, ESL teachers may feel anxiety about how to manage intervention programming and whether to initiate a referral for special education services. According to the authors, through being reflective, collaborating with colleagues and parents, and participating in ongoing professional development, an L2 teacher can attain more clarity about how to manage referrals and possible identification of L2 students who might need special education. Since emotional processes are situated in sociocultural contexts and constructed in social relationships in school situations (Xu 2013), Minh Hue Nguyen discusses ways in which ESL teachers respond to their emotional experiences and the challenges they face within their professional relationships and interactions with the school community (including students and their parents, colleagues and school administrators). The author in fact concludes that ESL teacher emotions emerge from and within professional relationships with the school community and that such relationships and interactions in turn shape the way they do their work. As professional burnout is indeed an epidemic all around the world due, among other reasons, to the fact that teachers are often viewed as machines, Toshinobu Nagamine addresses the problem of EFL teachers’ professional burnout and emotional stress in the context of their work in Japan where the teaching profession is governed by strict regulations concerning workload and teaching hours and subjected to successive education reforms. In particular, the author draws attention to Japanese EFL teachers’ emotional stress, frustration and demotivation toward the teaching profession and, thus, suggests that appropriate measures should be taken to mitigate such emotional stress and prevent teacher professional burnout. In the next chapter, Oliver Meyer, Do Coyle, Margarete Imhof and Theresa Connolly present a revised model of Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning (PTL) approach to learning, discussing the four dimensions which must be activated and integrated for deeper learning to occur, not only in bilingual classrooms (CLIL) but also in monolingual settings. Since emotional engagement, which has not received much attention in CLIL research despite being an important source for personal growth, is highly dependent on the quality of everyday school interactions, the authors conclude that, for deeper learning to occur, emotional scaffolding and multiple means of emotional engagement must be simultaneously offered. In order to better understand how emotions are constructed discursively, Part V of this volume features three chapters focusing on emotionality associated with L2 teacher discourse. Since classroom discourse constantly changes depending on existing circumstances and types of classroom interaction, Danuta Gabryś-Barker discusses the significance of emotionality in L2 teacher discourse expressed by both verbal dimension (teacher talk) and non-verbal signals such as gestures, body language, facial expressions, and eye contact in a variety of classroom contexts. Given the ecological nature of classroom emotions, Lesley Smith and Jim King emphasise the emotional effect of silences on classroom participants, which remains a largely unexplored research area to date. The authors in fact recognise that learner silence, when it is not appropriately managed, may seriously affect teacher emotions Introduction and Overview 11 and identity, adding to the emotional labour of teaching and, consequently, affecting teacher performance. While various forms of affective silence are discussed in this chapter, productive emotional regulation strategies for language educators are also offered. The subjectivity of the emotional climate of the L2 classroom is particularly stressed. In the following chapter, Arthur McNeill addresses native speaker teachers’ (NSTs) and non-native speaker teachers’ (NNSTs) self-perceived language competence and their feelings about collaborative experiences and relationships within the context of EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teaching at a university in Hong Kong. This paper particularly identifies the main causes of NNSTs’ anxiety and concern when reflecting on their ability to teach academic English, including doubts about their own L2 competence, particularly when working alongside native speaker colleagues. As the author quite rightly suggests, further research is needed on how emotions are communicated in different workplaces involving native and non-native teachers working together in the same teaching team. The last part of the book is mainly devoted to the role of emotionality in L2 teacher education, although diverse implications for teacher education have been offered throughout the whole volume. Accordingly, the last set of chapters included in this volume makes a substantial contribution in this sense. Given that emotions change and evolve over time because of their transitional nature, Juan de Dios Martínez and Gabriele Azzaro explore the wide spectrum of emotions experienced by Spanish student teachers in learning to teach EFL during the practicum experience, focusing particularly on the emotional challenges associated with professional practice in their daily classroom experiences and transactions. In particular, the personal and contextual factors influencing such emotions are discussed. Because of the paramount importance of teachers’ emotions for professional growth, the chapter by Evangelia Karagianni and Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra includes a follow-up study which examines whether teachers’ emotions maintain sustainability of teacher development and how this is realised, tracing particularly changes in four Greek EFL teachers’ emotions a decade after they participated in an informal ICT-based collegial network which aimed at their professional development through self-reflection, peer feedback and collaboration in an emotionally-safe environment. According to the authors, cognitive emotionality is developed as a driving force of sustainable professional development. Special emphasis is placed upon emotional education in the chapter by Joanna Madalińska-Michalak and Bunyamin Bavli who advocate the importance and need for developing emotional competence for L2 teaching in L2 teacher education, particularly focusing on the opportunities and challenges of such emotional education in Poland and Turkey. According to the authors, teacher educators should create a range of educational situations for developing prospective teachers’ emotional competence, especially in specific areas such as optimism, forgiveness, compassion and school culture which constitute real challenges for teacher education but also in other areas such as confidence, school ethos, relational which are perceived as opportunities for emotional education for L2 teachers. 12 J. de D. Martínez Agudo

The last chapter of this volume addresses the positive and negative impact of emotions on L2 teachers’ professional identity construction at the beginning of their careers in the field of L2 teacher education. Concrete ideas aimed at progressively developing a well-balanced professional identity for pre-service and in-service training are proposed by Marie-Claire Lemarchand-Chauvin and Claire Tardieu. For example, the benefits of reflecting on their own emotions via their logbooks or sharing such emotions with their more experienced peers in the context of their work, which are viewed as essential assets to develop teachers’ professional identity, are particularly highlighted.

6 The Book’s Audience

The issues raised in this edited volume will be of great value and interest not only to researchers interested in a deeper understanding of the emotional dimension of L2 teaching but also to L2 teachers from all over the world who need to be aware of how to manage not only their own emotions but also their students’. This awareness should allow teachers to optimise their teaching performance with the ultimate objective of enhancing L2 teaching and learning. This publication is also intended for all those teacher educators involved in education of L2/FL teachers around the world. Graduate students in applied linguistics and L2 education will also ﬁnd it helpful. Lastly, I hope the insightful contributions offered in this book will contribute to increasing readers’ appetite for the emotional dimension of L2 teaching, thereby deepening their knowledge while sheding some light on this still largely unexplored research area.

7 Conclusion

Given that the emotional complexity of teaching has been completely neglected in education for a long time until quite recently, the main rationale for this edited volume is to address the centrality of teacher emotionality in L2 teaching from diverse perspectives or approaches as well as varied classroom contexts. The ultimate aim of this volume is precisely to help to better understand the impact of teacher emotionality in terms of the emotional challenges faced by L2 teachers today all over the world who teach under different circumstances and at times under challenging working conditions. This is precisely what this edited volume strives to ensure. My growing interest in emotions associated with L2 teaching and learning mainly arose from my own classroom observation and experience as a former L2 student, L2 teacher and L2 teacher educator. What interests me most are in fact the emotions that continually arise and ﬂuctuate as a result of everyday classroom transactions and interactions, more precisely L2 teachers’ emotional temperature when teaching as well as the varied emotional climates affecting L2 classrooms. Introduction and Overview 13

As Dewaele (2011) quite rightly states, teachers need an emotional thermometer so as to lower foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and boost foreign language enjoyment (FLE). As Oxford (2012) clearly reminds us, a new language cannot be learnt unless we really want it, a point I could not agree more with. In this regard, it should be made clear that the emphasis in this book is not on what emotions are (or are not) but rather on what they do socially (Ahmed 2004; Benesch 2017), or more precisely, how they affect L2 teaching through daily classroom transactions and interactions. Needless to say, emotional education is of real value to all L2 teachers in their continuous learning to teach and, accordingly, should be ever-present in any discussion of L2 teacher education. All in all, assessing the impact of emotions on teachers’ professional lives is deemed essential so as to be able to understand the intricacies and complexities of L2 teaching and learning, which offers a highly promising avenue for research in Applied Linguistics and Second Language Teacher Education.

References

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Author Biography

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo is Associate Professor of Second Language Teacher Education (TEFL) at the University of Extremadura (Spain). His research interests lie at the interface of SLA research, L2 teaching and L2 teacher education, particularly L2 classroom discourse analysis, teacher learning and thinking, and cognitive and affective aspects of L2 teaching and learning. He has published several books and research articles on these areas in national and international publications. His most recent edited books are Teaching and Learning English through Bilingual Education (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), English as a Foreign Language Teacher Education. Current Perspectives and Challenges (Rodopi/Brill, 2014) and Native and Non-Native Teachers in English Language Classrooms: Professional Challenges and Teacher Education (De Gruyter, 2017). Part I Emotions in the Applied Linguistics and TESOL Research Agenda: Challenges and Research Methodology The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL: Signiﬁcance, Challenges and Prospects

Cynthia J. White

Abstract The fields of applied linguistics and TESOL have over the past two decades increasingly recognised the limitations of purely cognitive approaches to language learning and teaching, first with more socially informed approaches and then by a related turn to emotion. This chapter traces the growing awareness of the role of emotion in both applied linguistics and TESOL through a critical account of the avenues of enquiry into emotion, and the ways in which topics such as motivation and beliefs have been reworked from a more affectively informed perspective. Issues of concept and definition are explored together with the main theoretical frameworks used to enquire into emotion. The chapter then draws on recent research to illustrate the significance and diversity of a number of key research directions including anxiety in language learning, the contribution of positive emotion, the role of the teacher and the classroom environment and emotion and multilingualism. The chapter argues that the turn to emotion has transformed our understandings of language learning, language teaching and language use, and concludes by identifying gaps in the field and areas for future enquiry together with challenges in translating research findings into both policy and practice.

Keywords Emotion Á Affect Á Anxiety Á Positive emotion Á Agency Teacher role Á Foreign language enjoyment

1 Introduction

Historically the ﬁelds of Second Language Acquisition, TESOL and applied linguistics have been dominated by paradigms which emphasised the role of cognition (see for example Bown and White 2010a, b; Swain 2013); this prevailing focus has limited our understandings of the ways in which cognition and emotion are interrelated, and of the contribution of emotion to wider processes of language learning

C. J. White (&) School of Humanities, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 19 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_2 20 C. J. White and teaching. However, the attention given to rationality and cognition began to be challenged through an affective turn that followed (or in some cases accompanied) the social turn in social sciences, education and related fields. The turn to affect recognised emotion as a crucial element of human mental and social life and many key topics such as motivation and beliefs began to be reworked through an affective lens. Importantly too, the role and meaning of emotion in processes of language learning and teaching began to be examined from different perspectives opening up new avenues of enquiry for the field. Research into emotion however faced numerous challenges including how to define the concept (and to distinguish it from moods, feelings and affects, for example), how to establish theoretically informed approaches to studying emotion, and how to address the evident methodological challenges related to empirical enquiry. This chapter begins with a review of the emergence of research into affect and emotion, including evident concerns about the need for conceptual clarity to guide enquiry. The chapter then provides an overview of key topics such as anxiety, the contribution of the teacher and the classroom atmosphere, the role of positive emotion, and emotion and multilingualism. The latter part of the chapter outlines five landmark studies published within a relatively short period of time to illustrate the expansion of enquiry and something of the range of research problems which have been addressed. To conclude a number of future research directions are proposed which offer exciting prospects for the field. A number of topics are not covered by this review, including emotion and heritage language learning (Coryell and Clark 2009), emotion in the construction of space, place and autonomous language learning (White and Bown 2018), emotion in online language learning (de los Arcos et al. 2009) and emotion in language advising (Tassinari and Ciekansi 2013); each of these is worthy of further research attention and presents further exciting prospects for the field.

2 The Emergence of Research into Affect and Emotion

Early research into emotion in language learning (e.g. Chastain 1976; Curran 1976; Kleinmann 1977; Scovel 1978; Lozanov 1979) identified the significance of affect in language acquisition processes and the evident complexity in attempting to represent that significance. An early attempt to model the contribution of affect came through Krashen’s(1982) affective filter; he argued that each learner has an affective filter, and that when the filter is raised the degree of engagement with and processing of language input would be reduced. He then highlighted the importance of the role of the teacher in fostering a lowered affective filter, noting that this could be best achieved through providing low-anxiety environments, sparking interest and reinforcing learners’ self-esteem. Some of these early indications of the teacher’s role were to reappear in later studies. The importance of affect was subsequently identified within other frameworks such as affective strategy use in language learning (see for example O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990; The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 21

Bown 2006) and in the role of affective schemata in models of language ability (Bachman and Palmer 1996). Early on too the absence of conceptual clarity for the terms affect and emotion was noted, as for example by Scovel (1978: 129) who described affect as a “cover term under which is swept a wide range of disparate constructs and behaviours”. Affect was used to refer to such diverse constructs as self-esteem, attitudes, beliefs and motivation as well as to emotion; one example is the definition of affect by Arnold and Brown (1999:1)as“aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which can condition behaviour and influence language learning”. The ways in which emotions (and affect) were approached by SLA researchers drew a number of critiques. Pavlenko (2006: 34) for example argues that emotions have generally been reduced to “a laundry list of decontextualized and oftentimes poorly defined sociopsychological constructs, such as attitudes, motivation, anxiety, self-esteem, empathy, risk-taking, and tolerance of ambiguity” and dealt with as individual factors. Further critiques were that emotion was largely seen as essentially an individual phenomenon which occurs in response to external stimuli, with emotions characterised as dichotomous (either positive or negative), and with social or situational factors treated as external measurable variables that may influence an individual’s affective state in relation to language learning and associated with particular outcomes (Imai 2010). As the field developed, so too did a range of ways of viewing and defining emotion. While many were still based on psychological approaches, others emphasised the social aspects of emotions and the salience of interactions (see for example Maynard 2002; Imai 2010). For example, emphasising the social dimension of emotion Maynard (2002: 6) argues that human emotions are not internal to the person but rather are “experienced through interaction with other factors, including how the context influences the person, and how the interacting partner may emotionally react”. Social constructionist approaches regard emotion as a sociocultural experience and focus on the interpretation of emotion by individuals; the emphasis is on emotions primarily determined not by individual characteristics but by relationships and social contexts. Social constructionist approaches have a process focus which means that narrative and interpretive methodologies are required in order to gain access to the meanings of particular emotional experiences from an emic perspective. Zembylas (2007) identifies a further approach as interactional and performative, wherein emotions are viewed as neither exclusively private phenomena nor exclusively sociocultural phenomena but are seen as “crucial to the processes in which the psychological and social are produced” (Zembylas 2007: 63). Interactionist perspectives explore the role of language and sets of discourses, the body and social practices and align with critical theory and poststructuralist perspectives. Neuropsychological approaches offer yet another perspective (see Dewaele 2008 for a comparison of neuropsychological and constructionist positions). More recently too emotion has been approached from dialogical perspectives (Dufva 2003, White and Pham 2017) where emotion is seen as an inextricable part of awareness, knowledge and the potential of and for action. Within this framework emotion is viewed as central to agency (White 2016) and is 22 C. J. White part of “the process by which selves author themselves in a world of complex relationships with others” (Vitanova 2010: 132).

3 Anxiety in Language Learning

Anxiety has long been recognised as an emotion which pervades the experience of many language learners. The key starting point for the study of anxiety came from the research of Horwitz (1986), Horwitz et al. (1986) who observes that it was her early encounters with students who “crossed campus to tell me about their, sometimes extreme, discomfort in language learning” (Horwitz 2016: 933) that set her on the path to study anxiety in language learning. Earlier, Scovel (1978) had observed that anxiety was neither a simple nor well understood concept and that it was crucial that researchers specify the kind of anxiety being referred to in relation to aspects of language learning. Horwitz et al. (1986) responded to this challenge and provided empirical evidence for the existence of a specific anxiety that some people experienced in response to second language learning and/or the use of a second language. Based on a large-scale study with American college learners of Spanish and French they introducing a degree of conceptual clarity to the field through robust evidence for the reliability and construct validity of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). Up to that point, as Horwitz (2016: 934) notes language anxiety was “an intuitive but unsubstantiated idea”. Horwitz et al. defined language anxiety as a distinct form of anxiety, that is as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al. 1986: 128). In their 1986 article Horwitz et al. bring together their experience in trying to reduce, offset or compensate for the effects of anxiety in a strong conceptual framework for language anxiety based on communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. A key contribution was that researchers and teachers could then investigate and measure foreign language classroom anxiety which was seen as quite distinct from other types of apprehension. MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012a: 105) identify Horwitz et al.’s(1986) conceptual and methodological contribution noting that “from that point on, the uniqueness of the second language learning process was foregrounded and language anxiety was conceptually separated from other anxiety triggers”. Recently there have been two substantial reviews of language anxiety research by key researchers in the field. In 2010 Elaine Horwitz provided a timeline of research into foreign and second language anxiety: to do this she critically evaluated 44 articles in terms of the importance, impact and prominence of the research and which together represent milestones in the trajectory of the field of anxiety research. MacIntyre (2017) has provided a further comprehensive review of research into anxiety and the development of avenues of enquiry. What emerges is a picture of anxiety as “multi-faceted” construct (Horwitz 2010: 145) and, quoting Horwitz again, that learners who experience anxiety “have the trait of feeling state The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 23 anxiety when participating in language learning and/or use” (Horwitz 2017: 33). Anxiety, it is now argued can best be understood through a process-oriented lens, and, acknowledging that affective reactions are dynamic moment-by-moment needs to be seen in more than strict cause-effect terms. Later in this chapter we will return to this approach in reviewing a study by MacIntyre and Legatto (2011)on rapidly-changing affect.

4 The Inﬂuence of Positive Emotions

A key development has been the increasing attention given to the field of positive psychology, a field which broadly speaking seeks to explore how people thrive and flourish, and which has entered research into language learning and teaching largely through the work of Dörnyei, MacIntyre and Gregersen (see Dörnyei and Ryan 2015; MacIntyre et al. 2016; MacIntyre and Mercer 2014). MacIntyre and Mercer (2014), for example, argue the need to develop tools to build positive emotions and to foster increased and sustained engagement within the wider context of boosting appreciation and enjoyment of life, while Dörnyei and Ryan (2015: 205) raise questions about how researchers can “accommodate positive emotions more effectively into…descriptions of learner psychology?”. There has been renewed interest in the work of Csikszentmihalyi and others (see for example Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2014) who argue that the predominant focus of psychology has been on fixing what is seen as broken rather than focusing on subjective experiences that are valued by individuals (such as satisfaction, hope, contentment and flow). Importantly research and theorising in positive psychology suggests that positive affect has a qualitatively different function in human experience compared to negative affect: specifically, the ‘broaden and build’ theory of emotion (Fredrickson 2004; Fredrickson and Losada 2005) posits that positive emotions serve to extend our interest and thinking and build specific strengths in contrast to negative emotions which tend to focus the individual’s attention on specific tasks, obstacles or threats. Further, positive emotions serve to enhance the ability to be aware of and notice things in the environment and in the case of language learning, enhancing awareness of language input (Dewaele et al. 2016). MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012b) emphasise that the functions and effects of positive emotions go well beyond generating pleasant feelings: for example, positive emotions help to counter the lingering effects of negative emotions which can cause a narrowing of interest and focus and thereby a limiting of engagement with language input. Further positive emotions prompt learners to explore and to play, and it is these two activities that engender relationships and social cohesion. This perspective aligns with the early work of Gardner et al. (1985) in which he identified that attitudes together with interest, enjoyment and desire were identified as important contributors to language learning. Not only do positive emotions broaden the perspective of learners and help them remain open to the target language but as MacIntyre and 24 C. J. White

Gregersen (2012b: 193) posit, “emotion may be the key to the motivational quality of the imagined future self”. Building on an earlier study by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) into foreign language enjoyment and classroom anxiety, Dewaele et al. (2016) report on a quantitative study of 1736 foreign language learners from around the globe (1287 females, 449 males), based on a 21-item scale exploring Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) and Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA). The female participants in the study reported experiencing more positive and more mild negative emotions in the classroom. They also reported significantly higher levels of FLCA though this was mild FLCA in that they worried more than their male peers about making mistakes and reported lower levels of confidence in using the foreign language. Interestingly female participants also reported having more fun in the foreign language classroom than their male counterparts in that they felt interested in what they were learning and reported feeling more proud of their performance in the foreign language than their male counterparts. The authors conclude that the heightened emotionality reported by female participants is favourable in terms of both learning and using a foreign language. In addition they highlight a further dimension to the limitations of categorising emotions as positive or negative: they note that “although it might seem natural to conceptualize positive and negative emotion as operating in a seesaw fashion (one goes up and the other goes down), such a view is inconsistent with emotion research” (Dewaele et al. 2016:54–55). In other words in the context of their study the higher levels of both anxiety and enjoyment reported by female participants were interrelated: because the female participants found language learning more fun, appealing and interesting it also meant they cared about those learning experiences and this “raises the stakes” (Dewaele et al. 2016: 55) for learning, heightening both positive and negative emotion. The authors also conclude in a related point that even when we focus on a single emotion such as anxiety it is important to be aware that it will in all likelihood give rise to a constellation of emotions; thus researchers need to acknowledge and enquire into the network of emotions that encase and/or stem from anxiety. The study endorses the pedagogical principle established by Horwitz (1990) that techniques which aim to increase anxiety and which at the same time ignore interest and enjoyment are counterproductive and unjustifiable. A further study into foreign language enjoyment and anxiety (Dewaele et al. 2017) focuses explicitly on the relative contribution of teacher/classroom variables (more external variables) and learner-internal variables based on the responses of 189 British learners of foreign languages in two high schools. From within a positive psychology framework it aims to investigate the kinds of roles teachers play in orchestrating the emotions of their students, alongside learner-internal variables. A key finding is that FLCA seems less related to teachers or their practices than FLE, with a clear implication that teachers should focus on enhancing foreign language enjoyment rather than worrying too much about anxiety. The study revealed there were a range of sources of anxiety in this sample including peer relationships, attitudes towards the foreign language and levels of proficiency but that teachers did not appear to be the main source of anxiety. Here too an The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 25 important conclusion is that in focusing on anxiety to the exclusion of interest, enjoyment and positive emotions we may have gained a very limited and rather skewed view of the contribution of emotion to language learning. This is all the more significant given the more complexified findings that teachers’ attempts to reduce classroom anxiety may not directly or automatically amplify students’ foreign language enjoyment. A key pedagogical implication arising from this study is that teachers should seek to increase interest in the foreign language and should use the foreign language in class as much as possible in order to foster both enthusiasm and enjoyment which will help sustain engagement with the target language.

5 The Role of the Language Teacher and the Classroom Environment

Numerous studies have emphasised the importance of setting a classroom emotional climate that is conducive to engaging and encouraging learners to meet the challenges and appreciate the pleasures of learning a language (Dörnyei and Murphey 2003; Gregersen and MacIntyre 2014; MacIntyre and Gregersen 2012b). Borg (2006: 23), for example, in a study of the distinctive characteristics of foreign language teachers found that a key characteristic of effective language teachers was what he described as “an ability to communicate freely and to radiate positive feeling” as well as the ability to develop positive relationships with students. Arnold and Fonseca (2007) argue that setting an appropriate emotional atmosphere is closely linked to cognitive activity in that teachers have a responsibility to provide an accessible and comprehensible language environment (verbally and non-verbally) “where students believe in the value of learning a language, where they feel they can face that challenge and where they understand the beneﬁt they can get from attaining it” (Arnold and Fonseca 2007: 119). A further point is the need to create a fundamentally positive and safe environment in the classroom, which includes group solidarity and promoting experimenting and risk-taking in communication (Arnold 2000; Borg 2006; Dewaele 2015;Dörnyei and Murphey 2003; Gregersen and MacIntyre 2014). In a subsequent study on the importance of the teacher role Arnold (2011) identiﬁed that learners’ self-image is vulnerable when learning another language and that it then behoves the teacher to ensure a positive emotional atmosphere. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) explored the role of the classroom environment in foreign language enjoyment and classroom anxiety. Student narratives included reference to episodes which students found particularly favourable: these included teachers remaining positive, using humour, praising students when they performed well, and being well-organised and respectful. A further point concerns the subject matter or content of classes. Arnold (1999) emphasised that the content of language classes needs to be relevant to students and also high interest, noting the negative effects of boring classes with a negative atmosphere and lack of encouragement. Much more recently Dewaele (2015), 26 C. J. White building on the idea that too much routine and predictability in classes may work against a positive environment and enjoyment of learning, argues that teachers should be free to do funny, unexpected and challenging things in their classrooms.

6 Emotion and Multilingualism

In a study of the relationship between multilingualism and anxiety Dewaele (2010) investigates the effects of knowing other languages on the communicative anxiety of users of French through a questionnaire-based study of 953 users of French as an L1, L2, L3 or L4. In an earlier study Dewaele (2007) established that quadrilinguals and trilingual reported lower levels of foreign language anxiety when using their L2 than bilinguals, and based on subsequent studies concluded that having knowledge of more than one language may reduce or offset multilinguals’ anxiety about linguistic challenges that one inevitably meets in communicative situations in a new language, challenges which not be immediately apparent (Dewaele et al. 2008). Dewaele (2010) found that levels of proficiency appeared to have an effect: at the initial stages of language proficiency, and at the advanced stages, knowledge of other languages does not appear to play a major role in language anxiety; at intermediate levels however multilingualism can serve as an affordance particularly during linguistically challenging moments. In this study the notion of affordance was used as a conceptual tool to refer to the range and depth of accrued knowledge an individual brings to the process of learning and using a new language; it is based here on typological distances between languages that are already known and the new target language. Dewaele notes that it was those multilinguals with no knowledge of Romance languages or of any Germanic languages other than English who felt more anxious in French and emphasises that the participants were in general users rather than learners of French. He concludes that “at the intermediate levels of proficiency multilingualism and affordances can serve as a crutch in challenging communicative situations” (p. 105).

7 Signiﬁcance and Diversity of Enquiry into Emotion

In this section I provide a brief overview of key studies into emotion selected for the diversity of the research problems they address and the frameworks used, all of which are a departure from many of the studies reviewed earlier. The first four were published within a three year period (2009–2011) and as such demonstrate the opening up and expansion of enquiry within a very short time frame. The fifth study focuses on one teacher educator’s experience of dissonance in her professional practice, which extends further our earlier focus on teachers and learners. Taken together they mark out many of the smaller but nonetheless significant domains of enquiry into emotion in applied linguistics and TESOL. The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 27

7.1 A Longitudinal Study of Affective Responses to Learning Portuguese (Garrett and Young 2009)

Garrett and Young (2009) explore one student’s affective responses to learning Portuguese as a beginner, including the episodes which gave rise to those affective responses and her affective trajectory over 8 weeks. The study is largely based on Garrett’s journal which reveals the richness of her affective responses to her learning experience in four main areas: language awareness, teacher voice, social relations (in class), and culture learning (Brazilian culture). The research emphasises the influence of the immediate community (classroom) and the distant community (Brazilian culture). The importance of culture learning/cultural instruction was also evident in the study: it was experienced as novel and pleasant and Garrett felt she could cope better with her linguistic limitations with the help of culture learning. The study shows not only how emotional responses were engendered by particular topics and experiences but also how some of those responses were modified by new experiences, and how affective appraisals changed over time. A further contribution concerns the affective appraisal of language learning events which it was found often results in approach or avoidance when similar events occur in the future; this in turn influences cognitive and other lower order processes.

7.2 Emotions in Collaborative Learning Within an EFL Classroom (Imai 2010)

As the point of departure for this study Imai (2010) highlights mainstream assumptions prevalent in SLA research that are individualistic, cognitive, dichotomous and product-oriented. Such a view of affect and language learning ignores the interpersonal and communicative dimensions of one’s emotionality. Imai argues that there is a need to widen the scope of enquiry to explore the social aspects of emotion, that is emotions between people. In this study she explores how a group of ESL students constructed and shared their emotional attitudes in collaborative learning and how such emotional intersubjectivity affected the group work. To do this she focuses on the students’ manifestation of emotions in their verbal communication while working together to prepare for their group presentation. The ﬁndings showed that as the students participated in the group discussion to pursue their task goals in the immediate learning setting, they manifested and shaped various emotions, such as confusion, boredom, frustration, regret, and empathy. An important contribution of the study which draws on sociocultural theories of mind emphasising that collaborative relationships are essential to the learning of individuals, is that emotions are likely to be implicated in not only the ways in which collaboration takes place and proceeds, but also thereby in cognitive development. 28 C. J. White

7.3 The Interplay of Beliefs and Emotions in Foreign Language Learning (Aragão 2011)

Taking a contextual and discursive approach Aragão(2011) investigates the relationship between emotions and beliefs in foreign language learning based on the view that it is in languaging or linguistic activity that students create their worlds and articulate how they feel about learning a new language. The setting for this study was an Integrated Skills in English course at the pre-intermediate level in the initial stages of a language teacher education programme at a university in Brazil. Through a detailed qualitative study based on narrative research documents, videotaped episodes from students’ classes and students’ visual representations Aragāo reveals something of the interplay of beliefs and emotions and the ways in which that interplay is both historical and highly situated. The study also highlights the ways in which emotions are dynamic processes, related to beliefs and also to actions that are observable within classroom contexts. For example, findings show how emotions such as shyness and embarrassment interact with core beliefs and how this relationship influences the actions students take (or do not take) in the classroom. A significant part of the study are the images that students drew to represent their experiences which served to show that emotions, beliefs and contexts change in unison. This study demonstrates the ways in which emotions are embedded in particular classroom contexts moment by moment (including teachers, learners and the actions they take) and are intimately related to the beliefs learners have, hold and develop.

7.4 Rapidly Changing Affect and Willingness to Communicate (MacIntyre and Legatto 2011)

An example of more formative, process-oriented studies focusing on short episodes comes from the work of MacIntyre and Legatto (2011). To investigate affective responses to communication they gathered video recordings of L2 French speakers carrying out eight oral tasks based on a Q&A format: one example is “Can you describe what is happening in this painting?”. Participants completed the tasks and then watched the recordings and reported on their willingness to communicate (WTC); software was developed so students could indicate how their WTC rose and fell at particular moments. The results were then printed out and referred to as participants reviewed the video with a research assistant: at particular high and low points of WTC they were asked to talk about those ﬂuctuations. An important conclusion from the study was that “…changes in WTC seem to be somewhat independent of anxiety when considered within a person on a moment-by-moment basis. Anxiety can rise and fall without necessarily changing WTC” (p. 164). They also conclude that deciding to initiate conversation seems to be an affectively The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 29 different experience that more mid-stream moments such as searching for or stumbling over words.

7.5 Emotional Dissonance in the Experience of a Language Teacher Educator (Golombek 2015)

From a Vygotskian sociocultural perspective Golombek (2015) examines the emotional dissonance she experienced as a teacher educator in relation to the reflective journals of one of the teacher learners in her class; that teacher learner was simultaneously teaching an ESL class. This study opens up new research direction for the field in both the focus on teacher educators and in the forms of self-inquiry that are used in the study. Golombek analysed both the reflection journals of the teacher learner and then her own responses to those journals together with retrospective interviews: the interviews focused on the teacher learner’s conceptualization of journal writing and the ways she had used it in the past. The study reveals the layers of emotion involved in interactions and a key conclusion is that identifying a single emotion as a causal variable does not accurately represent the complexity of what is involved. Golombek elaborates by detailing how both language teacher educators and teacher learners alike “bring personal histories, emotions, experiences as language learners and teachers, beliefs, and knowledge to our relationships and interaction in the learning-o-teach context” (p. 481). The article makes a case for extending the boundaries of language teacher cognition research to include the interactions of both teacher learners’ emotion and cognition and teacher educators’ emotion and cognition in the course of their activity of teaching and learning. A further contribution of Golombek is in examining the ways in which the emotion and cognition of teacher learners and teacher educators are activated and shaped by their interactions during the course of learning-to-teach experiences. A further, related avenue of enquiry is opened up by White (2016) in an investigation of the interrelationships between emotion and agency in teacher narrative accounts of conflict in classes for immigrants and refugees.

8 Conclusions: Future Prospects

Research on emotions has expanded and diversiﬁed in the past two decades and we now have a much clearer understanding about the role of affective experiences in the work and lives of language learners and teachers within and across a range of contexts. From this research a number of avenues of research have opened up which present exciting prospects for future enquiry. Looking ahead, future research needs to develop more contextual and domain speciﬁc approaches to understanding the nature and impact of complex emotional experiences. For example, following 30 C. J. White

Dewaele et al. (2016) the very interesting results related to positive emotions in language learning suggest that future research should be devoted to developing a richer and more complete picture of the complex systems of positive and negative emotions that are at work in language learning processes, and in specific settings. Future enquiry can be directed towards how teachers work with emotions in classrooms contexts, how they attempt to scaffold positive emotional experiences, and how they attempt to offset the impact of negative ones as well as the significance they ascribe to those processes. An important related area concerns our lack of understanding of teacher skills in reading the emotions of students, especially in classrooms with students from a diverse range of cultural backgrounds; the ability of a teacher to tell when students are frustrated, discouraged or anxious (about their learning, a task, a moment of lack of comprehension) is crucial to being able to help students work with negative experiences but as yet we know relatively little about those skills. Finally we need further research which can illuminate the multiple, dynamic and situated nature of emotional experiences in and outside of language classrooms—including at different stages of those processes—and their significance in the lives of language learners. As discussed here the challenges are conceptual, theoretical and methodological but the on-going inclusion of emotion in research will not only broaden the scope of enquiry in applied linguistics and TESOL but will provide us with a more holistic understanding of language learning and teaching. Numerous challenges also remain in translating findings into policy and practice, yet it is crucial that attention is given to these processes if research and enquiry are to ultimately contribute to the endeavours and wellbeing of language learners and teachers. Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2017). Emotions and English language teaching: Exploring teachers’ emotion labor. London and New York: Routledge. This book focusing on teacher emotions examines the role of power, together with resistance to power, in teachers’ affective lives. The analysis of interviews with postsecondary English language teachers opens up new and more nuanced understandings of language teaching and of emotions in relation to teacher agency and resistance. – Gkonou, C., Daubney, M., & Dewaele, J. M. (2017). New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. This book gives a critical overview of current theory, research and practice in relation to language anxiety. It brings together studies and commentaries from key researchers in the field. The emphasis is on anxiety as a complex and dynamic construct, largely from a psychological perspective. – MacIntyre, P. D., & Gregersen, T. (Eds.). (2016). Positive psychology in SLA (Vol. 97). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. This collection is the first to explore theories of positive psychology underpinned by research undertaken with quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods The Emotional Turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL … 31

approaches. An important feature of the book is the range of ideas for classroom practice designed to enhance positive emotional states such as enjoyment and ﬂow. – Miyahara, M. (2015). Emerging self-identities and emotion in foreign language learning: A narrative-oriented approach (Vol. 89). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. The emphasis in this book is on the use of narrative-oriented approaches to enquire into emotions as part of processes of identity construction among Japanese university students of English. An important contribution is the sustained focus on methodological issues and challenges relating to longitudinal qualitative studies.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What kinds of research problems and questions can you now identify for enquiry into emotion in particular contexts? – What do you see as the implications of research into emotion for language learning, language teaching and for teacher education? Can you identify further implications in relation to a speciﬁc setting? – How do you evaluate more recent research into positive emotion in terms of your own experience of language learning and/or teaching? – What do you see as the value of research into the experience of emotion of teacher educators and teacher learners?

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Author Biography

Cynthia J. White is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Massey University, New Zealand and has published widely on affect, identity and agency in language learning and teaching including with reference to online distance contexts. She is on the Editorial Boards of eight international journals including TESOL Quarterly and is Associate Editor for Language Learning & Technology. She has been plenary speaker at international conferences and workshops in Germany, Thailand, Singapore, China, UK, Hawai’i and Malaysia and has completed collaborative research projects with Oxford University, Open University UK and Nottingham University. Her most recent project concerns teacher agency and emotion in narrative accounts of emergent conﬂict in the L2 classroom. A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research: Advances, Challenges and Future Directions

Yueting Xu

Abstract While increasing evidence reveals that teacher emotion influences teacher cognition, well-being, and professional performance, teacher emotion is still an underexplored area in second language teacher education research. It is due partly to the dominance of traditional positivism in educational research, and partly to limited knowledge of research methodologies appropriate for teacher emotion research. To address the latter gap, this chapter clarifies and problematizes research methodological issues in teacher emotion research based upon an overview of empirical studies published in English up until 2016. A synthesis of research methodologies used in publications of teacher emotion in the field of second language teacher education reveals an overall reliance on qualitative research methods. To explore potentially useful methodologies, the review is extended to teacher emotion research in the field of general education, and the strengths and limitations of various methodologies are discussed. This chapter concludes with challenges for innovative research methodologies and corresponding requirements for researchers’ expertise.

Keywords Methodological review Á L2 teacher Á Emotion research Strengths Á Limitations Á Research methodologies

1 Introduction

Teaching is an emotionally demanding profession (Hargreaves 1998, 2001). The daily work of teachers is both highly stressful (Borg 1990) and highly rewarding (Shann 1998). In and outside the classroom, teachers undertake various forms of “emotional labor” (Hochschild 1983) that involve managing, hiding, and regulating their emotions when interacting with students, parents, colleagues, and school

Y. Xu (&) School of English and Education, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou, China e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 35 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_3 36 Y. Xu administrators (Xu 2013). This suggests that teachers’ professional work is inevitably laden with emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Driven by the emotion-laden nature of this work, a growing body of studies has indicated that emotions are a signiﬁcant factor in the lives of teachers, as well as the academic and social outcomes of their students (Jennings and Greenberg 2009; Schutz and Zembylas 2009). Therefore, knowledge of emotions is essential to understanding teachers and teaching. Compared to seminal constructs like teacher cognition (Borg 2003) and pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman 1987), teacher emotion has received less attention in scientiﬁcally-based discourses on teacher effectiveness. Sutton and Wheatley (2003) attributed the paucity of teacher emotion research to two factors: (a) the recent rise of the emotional revolution in psychology, and (b) the long-held misleading belief that equates emotions with irrationality in Western culture. In addition to these two reasons, I feel that the slow evolution of teacher emotion research may also be due partly to the methodological ambiguity in this body of work, given that there does not exist a comprehensive review addressing important methodological issues in teacher emotion research. To address this gap, the present chapter intends to review methods used in extant research on teacher emotion in order to explore the partial reasons for this under-researched area and to clarify the methodological approaches appropriate to conducting research on teacher emotion.

2 Research on Second Language Teachers’ Emotion

Compared to emotional experiences of teachers who teach other subject disciplines such as science, math and history, the issue of emotions is particularly prominent for second language teachers because they teach in a language that is not their mother tongue or that of their students, which may bring them tremendous anxiety and uneasiness (Lee and Lew 2001). The challenge may be exacerbated if the teachers live in a foreign country and need to adapt to the context linguistically, socially, and culturally (Cowie 2011; Liu 2016). Research focusing on language teacher emotion is generally very limited, and earlier studies often were subsumed under the theme of language teacher anxiety. These studies compared the characteristics of native and nonnative language teachers and touched upon feelings of anxiety, uneasiness, discomfort, or concerning of non-native speaker teachers using the target language (Horwitz 1996; Lee and Lew 2001; Reves and Medgyes 1994). For example, drawing upon data from an international survey from ten countries, Reves and Medgyes (1994) found that the majorities of non-native English speaker teachers reported experiencing great concern over their performance in the target language. Horwitz’s(1996) study developed the Teacher Foreign language Anxiety Scale and revealed that non-native language teachers may suffer from foreign language anxiety with negative consequences for classroom instruction, such as choosing teaching approaches that decrease communication opportunities, which may actually lead to increased A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 37 student anxiety. Lee and Lew (2001) drew from teachers’ diaries to explore how a group of non-native speaker teachers enrolling in a graduate TESOL program suffered from significant feelings of language anxiety. Apparently, both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in research on second language teacher anxiety, although the display of the data remained at the descriptive level. In the recent decade, research on language teacher emotion has moved beyond the topic of anxiety to cover a wider range of emotions with more sophisticated research design and more rigorous data collection and analysis processes. Cowie’s (2011) study examined the contributions that emotions make to the professional lives of experienced EFL teachers. The data came from three rounds of phenomenological interviews (Seidman 1998) with nine carefully-selected EFL teachers working in Japanese universities. The interview data were later subjected to content analysis (Manning and Cullum-Swam 1994), going through such stages as ‘selecting text’, ‘defining content categories and sorting material into categories’, and ‘drawing conclusions from results.’ Validation strategies such as ‘member checking’ and ‘peer debriefing’ were also carried in this study to guarantee methodological rigor. The findings suggest that teachers had very positive emotional experiences with students, but much more negative emotional experiences with colleagues and institutions. Xu’s(2013) multiple case studies explored three novice English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ emotional experiences in relations with students, colleagues, parents, and administrators. Drawing upon two rounds of semi-structure interviews with individual teachers and their self-reflection journals, three teachers’ narratives were analyzed inductively and presented as condensed stories based upon Hargreaves’ (2001) framework of emotional geographies. Likewise, Liu (2016) reported on a narrative case study of an immigrant background ESL teacher’s emotional experience to explore emotional understandings/misunderstandings of teaching and the ways in which the teacher coped with the emotional challenges arising from these understandings/misunderstandings. The data from the case teacher’s 68 entries of ‘emotion diary’ and six bi-weekly interviews were analyzed in two main ways: critical event analysis (Webster and Mertova 2007) to record those charged moments and episodes that cause different emotional feelings; and a single case analysis to gain a nuanced understanding of an individual teacher’s emotional experiences. The narrative data were later condensed into five coherent stories, each aligning with Hargreaves’ (2005) emotional geography framework. Interestingly, Golombek and Doran (2014) conceptualized emotion as a functional component of language teachers’ cognitive development. Drawing upon content and discourse analysis of a novice language teacher’s journals, this study identified important emotional content that indexes areas of further cognitive/ conceptual development. The analytical framework used for the narrative data in the reflection journals, which comprised of nine categories of both content and linguistic indexes of emotions, is quite systematic and rigorous. They are: (1) affectively charged lexis indicating stance; (2) epistemic adjectives that convey emotion; (3) static verbs that convey emotion or attitude; (4) juxtapositions of negative appraisals with positive appraisals; (5) expressions of idealized beliefs and 38 Y. Xu goals; (6) explicit calls for validation/help through questions; (7) explicit calls for validation or help from others; (8) implicit calls for help/validation from others; and (9) metaphors. Although the researchers acknowledged that these categories do not provide an exhaustive list of emotional content, it stands as a useful example of systematic analysis of qualitative data in teacher emotion research. Song’s(2016) study was also interview-based, examining how teachers’ emotional experiences of ‘vulnerability’ affected different stories about their and their students’ English competence and curriculum, which in turn, affected their orientation to their ongoing professional development and self-transformation. Drawing upon interviews with five secondary English teachers in South Korea, the teachers’ emotional responses to the shifting teaching context against the backdrop of globalization were summarized as conflicted stories (i.e., cover and secret stories drawing upon Clandinin and Connelly’s 1995 framework). The rationale for using these conflicted stories as the analytical framework lies in the fact that the importance of emotions as an irrational aspect of teaching has not yet received due attention in language teacher education. Loh and Liew’s(2016) study examined the complex emotional work of English language teaching in Singapore secondary schools. Based upon individual interviews with ten teachers, the study collected these teachers’ narratives of their emotional experiences in English language teaching in and outside the classroom, which were later analyzed through constant comparison (Glaser and Strauss 1967) and presented under five prominent themes: passion, emotional burden of marking, English-related duties, the burden of the curriculum, and the ethical demands of teaching English. This study highlighted how an ethic of care that requires teachers’ intense emotional investment may be increasingly hard to manage in a context where teachers are held accountable for student achievement scores as the major evidence of their teaching effectiveness. Rastergar and Memarpour (2009) and Moafian and Ghanizadeh’s(2009) studies are among the few that used quantitative methods to understand language teacher emotions. To explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and self-efficacy among Iranian EFL teachers, Rastegar and Memarpour (2009) used Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) (Schutte et al. 1998) and Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) (Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy 2001) to test whether teachers’ development of EI leads to increased levels of self-efficacy, and vise versa. The two scales were administered among 72 high school English teachers in Iran. Analysis through Pearson Product-Moment Correlation showed that there was a positive significant correlation between perceived EI and self-efficacy (r = 0.5). Further analysis through t-test and ANOVA suggested no significant difference among EFL teachers with different genders, ages, and teaching experiences in terms of their EI and self-efficacy. Within the same socio-cultural context, Moafian and Ghanizadeh (2009) used both Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) and the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) among 89 Iranian EFL teachers and identified a significant positive relationship between EI and self-efficacy, which is similar to Rastegar and Memarpour’s(2009) finding. While the researchers acknowledged that their complete reliance on self-report data in the assessment of A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 39

EI and self-efﬁcacy might lead to self-representation biases, these two studies nevertheless explored potentially useful quantitative approaches for understanding language teacher emotion. Of course, a combination of the self-reported quantitative data and qualitative approaches, such as interviews and diaries, may provide more comprehensive insights into the EI and self-efﬁcacy of language teachers. Going a step further, Tum (2015) recently used mixed methods approach to examine pre-service teachers’ feelings of foreign language anxiety, what they attribute such feelings to, and how they believe their feelings of anxiety affect their approach to teaching the target language. Data sources of this study include: (1) results from Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) (Horwitz et al. 1986), which is a 5-point Likert scale with 33 items; (2) results from Teacher Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (TFLAS) (Horwitz 1996), which consists of 18 items with a 5-point Likert scale; (3) responses from two lists of foreign language teaching/learning activities adapted from TFLAS with each respectively addressing language-intensive and less language-intensive activities; and (4) two interviews with individual teachers, which were later subjected to thematic analysis. Although the mixed methods research design seemed more sophisticated than merely quantitative and qualitative alone, the analysis of quantitative data remained descriptive and did not offer insights to be probed further in the interviews that followed. Clearly, mixed methods design in research on language teacher emotion still has much room for improvement, especially in terms of integrating the two perspectives (i.e., quantitative and qualitative) to increase our knowledge of language teacher emotion. As indicated by the above review, the methodological trend in research on language teacher emotion can be summarized as largely qualitative, with few quantitative and scarcely any mixed methods studies. To explore more useful methodologies, I now extend the review beyond research on second language teacher emotion to teacher emotion research in general education.

3 Research on Teacher Emotion in General Education

An overview of research on teacher emotion in general education indicates that a great variety of methods have been used. These methods spread across quantitative (Chan 2004; Chen 2016; Taxer and Frenze 2015), through mixed methods (Jiang et al. 2016; Lasky 2005; Scott and Sutton 2009), and to qualitative (Day and Leith 2001; Hargreaves 1998, 2000;O’Connor 2008; Schmidt and Datnow 2005; Shapiro 2010; Sutton 2004; Van Veen et al. 2005). Among these studies, qualitative far outnumbered the other two types. The reasons for such domination could be threefold. First, issues of emotions have been conventionally associated with women and feminist philosophies. Being seen as elusive, vague, and unquantifiable, research on emotion has been excluded from the dominant rationalist structures (Xu 2013), although the emerging interpretive epistemological perspective and the ‘narrative turn’ (Riessman 2008: 14) in the past two decades would seem to justify 40 Y. Xu the importance of research on emotion. Second, teacher emotion is a long, complex process that requires improvisation in a particular situation, and thus qualitative approaches, such as narrative inquiry and ethnography, are more appropriate in addressing the nuances of teacher emotion. Third, qualitative approaches are useful in capturing teachers’ reflections on past emotional experiences, and are more likely to elicit responses and the sharing of emotions through narratives. Within those qualitative studies, interviews are the most frequently used approach for data collection. For example, Hargreaves (1998) conducted interview-based research with 32 secondary school teachers to understand how teacher emotions are embedded and expressed in the human relationship of schooling, and in the context of social and political forces that shape these relationships in times of dramatic social change. By analyzing the transcribed interviews manually, the researcher found that the teachers valued the emotional bonds and understandings they established with students, and their emotional commit- ments and connections energized and explained everything they did, including how they taught and planned, and which structures they preferred to teach. Likewise, Hargreaves’ (2000) study drew upon 53 teachers’ reports of critical episodes of emotions with students, colleagues, administrators, and parents, and described key differences in the emotional geographies of elementary and secondary teaching. Other examples include Van Veen et al. (2005) study, which drew on interviews with one case teacher to analyze his emotional expressions and to make inferences about his perceptions of educational reform; Schmidt and Datnow’s(2005) study, which drew on 75 teacher interviews to elaborate on how teachers make sense of reforms within their school and classroom contexts and the emotions that arise in the process; and O’Connor’s(2008) study, which explored how three school teachers engaged in caring behavior throughout their work with students based on two rounds of individual interviews. One of the commonalities among these studies is that the data analysis processes were either unspecified or missing. Hence, the methodological rigor of the data presentation and transparency of findings cannot be ascertained. Some variations have occurred in two recent interview-based studies. In Sutton’s (2004) study, which explored teachers’ goals for their own emotional regulation and their strategies for regulating emotions, the analytical approach to the interview data was quantitative. The researcher calculated the number of instances of spontaneous speech about emotional regulation and ran independent-sample t-test in SPSS to understand whether there were any differences in regulation times between teachers of different genders, as well as between those with more or less than five years’ teaching experience. Other analysis included the coding of the interview data into a priori or etic categories, followed by new categories based upon the interviewees’ responses. In Darby’s(2008) study, 19 critical interviews were supplemented by 19 documents of archival materials to examine teachers’ specific emotions during critical incidents in a period of the school reform and to explore the reconstruction of their professional self-understanding. Although the data sets in this study were richer than interview data alone, only the interview data were later subjected to inductive analysis, while the analysis of archival materials was not specified. A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 41

While it is acknowledged that one-time interviews have limitations in getting others to access and disclose their own emotions, these interviews enabled initial patterns and variations in teachers’ emotions to be identified across different school contexts and different kinds of teachers. To enhance methodological rigor, the inclusion of observation into the research design is recommended, as it would allow for the triangulation of data on teacher emotion from an observer’s perspective. Apart from interviews, teacher narratives drawn from autobiographical accounts and reflective journal entries are another important source of qualitative data for teacher emotion research. Similar to the limitations of interview-based studies, narratives in these studies were not reported to go through a rigorous analysis process. Day and Leith (2001) combined narratives drawn from autobiographical accounts of one principal and two teachers to understand the role that emotions play in their personal and professional growth without reporting the data collection and analysis processes. Although Shapiro (2010) provided her own coherent and well-structured narratives to explore the relationship between emotion and teacher identity, there was similarly no mention of collection or analysis, and thus the autobiographical data presented sounded anecdotal, making the validity of her arguments hard to judge. Both interview-based and narrative-based studies suggest that a greater variety of data sources and a more transparent data analysis process would result in more justified insights about teacher emotion. In Isenbarger and Zembylas’ (2006) collaborative action research, they provided an account of the emotional labour in enacting caring teaching in a inclusive classroom by drawing upon a wide range of data sources, including the teacher’s (Lynn’s) reflective electronic journals and lesson plans, the students’ binders, class notes and recordings, and documents of student work. The data were later analyzed using grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin 1994) to produce open codes and themes, which converged into two broad categories of caring and positive functions of emotional labor, and caring and negative functions of emotional labor. Another example of alternative data source for teacher emotion is Gao’s(2008) online ethnographic study that examined teachers’ vulnerability by drawing upon a range of messages from an online teachers’ forum in mainland China. After analyzing the teachers’ on-line messages manually, the researcher attributed the sources of teachers’ professional vulnerability to shifting education policies, complicated school relationships, teachers’ self-perceptions, and the Chinese cultural tradition. Although these findings reveal many aspects of teacher vulnerability, the researcher reflected upon the limitation of relying solely on messages from online communities and suggested supplementing them with more traditional methods such as interviews, focus groups, and questionnaires. From the above review, two major limitations are identified for qualitative methods used in teacher emotion research. First, given that teachers’ narratives are based upon their past experiences, qualitative methodology is unable to examine moment-by-moment experiences and unable to predict future emotional responses and regulations in similar educational scenarios. Second, findings from qualitative studies cannot be generalized beyond those who have participated in the studies. 42 Y. Xu

Therefore, teacher emotion research is in dire need of more studies using quantitative surveys, which can be used to make generalizations. The last decade has witnessed rising interest in quantitative approaches to teacher emotion research. Chan’s(2004) study is one of the earliest to examine teachers’ perceived emotional intelligence, their general self-efficacy, and self-efficacy toward helping others. Three instruments were included to collect the data: the emotional intelligence scale (EIS; Schutte et al 1998), which is a 33-item self-report survey to produce a global score on perceived emotional intelligence; the Wegner-Schwarzer-Jerusalem 10-item general self-efficacy scale (GSE; Schwarzer 1993); and the Schwarzer-Wegner 10-item self-efficacy toward helping scale (SETH; Schwarzer 1993). The study was conducted among a sample of 158 secondary school teachers in Hong Kong who were invited to complete all three surveys. The analyses of data from the three surveys were sequential: (1) exploratory factor analysis of the 33 EIS items to converge on four components; (2) confirmatory factor analysis to testify a trimmed 4-factor model of 12 items; and (3) multiple linear regression analyses to examine the four dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence as predictors of self-efficacy beliefs. Taxer and Frenze (2015) conducted a quantitative survey among a group of secondary school teachers (N = 266) to investigate the frequency teachers genuinely express, fake, and hide various emotions and how these regulations relate to key teacher variables. They used an adapted version of Glomb and Tews’ (2004) Discrete Emotions Emotional Labor Scale (DEELC), which consists of three subscales that measure genuinely expressing, faking, and hiding different discrete emotions. Three types of emotion are included in the scales: (1) the most common teacher emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, anxiety, and anger); (2) common self-conscious emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, and pride); and (3) other emotions that have been identified in research literature (e.g., enthusiasm, liking and disliking, pity, boredom, disappointment, and helplessness). The teachers were required to rate their frequency of emotional experiences on a zero-to-five scale in three different sets of scenarios, respectively referring to the ‘genuinely expressing,’‘faking’ and ‘hiding’ emotional experience and regulation. In addition to this DEELC scale, this study used six other instruments to examine the polyserial correlations between teachers’ emotional lives at a discrete level and teachers’ self-efficacy, relationships with students, and well-being including mental health, physical health, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. These above two studies suggest that valid instruments or inventories are crucial to conducting quantitative research on teacher emotion. Therefore, development of teacher emotion inventories is a key way to promote quantitative methods in this field. For example, Chen’s(2016) study developed and validated the Teacher Emotion Inventory (TEI) with the following steps: (1) defining five content domains based upon Parrott’s(2001) emotion tree theory (i.e., love, joy, sadness, anger, and fear) and generating sixty new items for these domains; (2) piloting with five voluntary primary teachers to examine whether all the important dimensions were covered and whether all the items were essential (the recommendations from these five teachers led to a five-dimension TEI with 58 items); and (3) validation of A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 43 items and domains respectively with a group of three teacher education professionals, a sample of 254 teachers, and a larger sample of 1830 teachers. The validation went through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), leading to a five-dimension model of 26 items. After the validation, the results of the TEI were reported with the remaining 26 items. Descriptive statistics for the frequencies with which teacher experienced different dimensions of emotions were displayed, and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with main effects for sex, school location, educational background, and teaching experience was used to test whether these demographic characteristics caused any significantly different levels of frequency in the teachers’ experience of different types of emotions. Another emerging trend is the use of the mixed-method approach (Jiang et al. 2016; Lasky 2005; Scott and Sutton 2009; Zembylas et al. 2011). Lasky’s(2005) exploration of the dynamic interaction among teacher identity, agency, and context is one of the earliest studies on teacher emotion that used the mixed methods approach. The design was sequential, with a self-report survey with a Likert 4-point scale to provide information about the school context, followed by critical-incident interviews with four voluntary teachers to provide in-depth discussions about teacher professional identity, vulnerability, and agency. The survey data were analyzed through exploratory factor analyses to determine the item loading, the number of items retained, and the alpha coefficient for the scale, followed by descriptive statistics of the aggregated means and standard deviations for the scales. The interview data were analyzed with a “start list” of constructs (Miles and Huberman 1994), followed by open and axial coding with emerging themes. The results from both approaches were later pulled together to suggest positive and negative components of professional vulnerability, teacher agency as redefined within classroom instruction and accountability, and the enduring effect of external meditational systems on the formation of teacher identity. Unlike Lasky (2005), Scott and Sutton (2009) utilized an equal-status sequential multitype mixed analysis (Onwuegbuzie et al. 2007) to explore the relationship between the types of teacher emotion and emotional change among 50 primary school teachers in the United States. The design consisted of two phases. The first phase is a longitudinal study, comprised of a pre-questionnaire, seven repeated questionnaires administered weekly during the professional development workshops, and a post-questionnaire administered 4 months later. The questionnaire included both scale and open-ended items. Data from this phase was used to examine trends in teachers’ emotions during the year, the reported changes in their teaching practice, and the relationship between the trends in emotion and changes in practice. The quantitative data from the questionnaires were analyzed through paired t tests, correlations and multiple linear regression, while the open-ended items went through classical content analysis with deductive category application for developing codes. The second phase was mainly semi-structured interviews with a convenience sample of ten teachers and a purposeful sample of 6 teachers to see how their reflections on emotions and changes in teacher practices illuminated the relationships between emotions and change in teacher practice, as revealed in 44 Y. Xu

Phase 1. Classical content analysis was used to determine the frequency of references to emotion and goal themes emerging from all cases to account for these references to emotions throughout the interviews. This study effectively utilized the strength of mixed methods design by providing a complete picture to understand the research questions. While the first phase found that neither positive nor negative emotions were related to changes in teacher practice, the second phase interrogated the findings of the first and found that participants often associated mixed emotions with change, which is a possibility that had not been conceived of or allowed for in the first phase. Without the two-phase design, the results from this study could have been misleading. Jiang et al. (2016) provided another good example of mixed methods design. They explored the relationship between 53 lower-secondary school students’ perceptions of their teachers’ emotions and four of their teachers’ emotion regulation. The mixed methods research design consisted of two steps. The first step was student survey, which required students to rate the frequency of display of the teachers’ emotions during teaching with a Likert 5-point scale in an eight-item questionnaire. The second step was individual semi-structured interviews with four teachers to discuss emotions they had experienced while teaching, whether and why they tried to control, regulate, or mask their emotional experiences, and how they increase their positive emotions and reduce their negative emotions in teaching. The quantitative data mainly went through Principal Component Analysis, descriptive statistics and independent-sample t-tests sequentially to respectively investigate construct validity, student perceptions of teacher emotion display, and whether cultural background and gender played a part in differentiating student perceptions. In contrast, the qualitative interview data were mainly analyzed through the deductive template approach (Crabtree and Miller 1999) by drawing upon Gross’ (1998) process model of emotion regulation (i.e., situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation). By using the student surveys and teacher interviews sequentially, this study successfully connected findings from both parts and provided important insights for the relationship between teacher emotion regulation and student perceptions. For example, the study revealed that the math teacher who reported using strategy of ‘suppression’ in emotion relation was perceived by his students to frequently display anger and annoyance. Such triangulation would have been impossible in single method studies. Situated in a special political social context in Cyprus, where there is the historical ethnic conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriot, Zembylas et al.’s(2011) mixed methods study investigated the main tendencies regarding Greek-Cypirot teachers’ perceptions and emotions towards reconciliation and the objective of peaceful coexistence, together with the challenges confronted Greek-Cypriot teachers when dealing with the prospect of peaceful coexistence and the ways in which this affected their emotional readiness to implement the new objective. In the first phase, a self-reported questionnaire was used to collect teachers’ perceptions of reconciliation in general, their emotions about reconciliation in Cyprus, and their perceptions of the new objectives and its practical A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 45 implementation. The questionnaire, consisting of items using either a 5-point Likert Scale or multiple-choice, was given to 660 primary and secondary school teachers. In the second phase, follow-up semi-structured interviews were conducted among 40 primary and secondary school teachers to further explore their understanding of the issues explored in the questionnaire. Unlike Scott and Sutton’s(2009) equal-status design, this mixed methods study was successive, with the results of the quantitative study serving as the road map for the design of the follow-up interviews. Meanwhile, the quantitative and qualitative studies complemented each other in purpose, with the first phase detecting the main tendencies in the bigger picture, while the second phase revealed the reasons underlying their perceptions and emotions. The above review suggests three major trends in the methodological change in research on teacher education in general education. First, although many earlier studies on teacher emotion adopted a qualitative approach, the incomplete reporting of the data analysis processes and the sole reliance on teachers’ self-reported narratives from interviews and reflective journals impeded this line of research from making itself transparent to readers. Thus, multiple sources of data and rigorous data analysis processes are needed in qualitative research design. Second, quantitative studies have been on the rise, although the promotion of quantitative methods largely relies on valid teacher emotion inventories, as well as the researchers’ quantitative data literacy (i.e., how to collect, analyze and reporting quantitative data). Third, the multiple-stage design in the mixed methods studies suggests that one single method may provide biased findings to the intended inquiries, and the triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data seem to offer more justified insights into various issues in teacher emotion. However, mixed methods studies are far more than the sum of both quantitative and qualitative design; they require sophisticated research design and researchers’ balanced expertise in both methodologies.

4 Conclusion

This chapter reviewed research methods used in studies on teacher emotion conducted among second language teachers and among teachers in other disciplines. The overview suggests that, although qualitative research design has dominated the field over the past few decades, it needs richer data sources and more transparent data analysis processes. It also suggests that quantitative and mixed methods studies are promising and need to be promoted. Their promotion, however, can only be guaranteed by the development of rigorously-validated teacher emotion inventories and balanced expertise in dealing with quantitative and qualitative data on the part of the researchers. In other words, researchers on teacher emotion (or any other field) may need to step outside of their ‘comfort zone’ to explore more useful and valid research methods for their studies, even though researchers understandably choose the methods with which they are most proficient to fulfill their research 46 Y. Xu purposes. In brief, innovations in research methodologies to be used in teacher emotion research ultimately rely on us—researchers who are able to inherit the methodological assets from previous studies and to create new research methodologies within our own expanding research expertise. Recommended Readings – Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.). London: Routledge. This book provides an excellent introduction to various research methods used in education, from planning a project to strategies of data collection and analysis. It can also serve as a resource book for researchers in any field, including teacher emotion. – Day, C., & Lee, J. C. K. (2011). New understanding of teacher’s work: Emotions and educational change. London: Springer. This edited book includes 14 original contributions from scholars from different contexts. Each chapter addresses key questions related to the role of emotion in teachers and teaching, educational change, teacher education and leadership. This book can serve as an introduction for readers who need to become familiar with both research topics and methodologies in teacher emotion research. – Hochschid, A. R. (1990). Ideology and emotion management: A perspective and path for future research. In T. Kemper (Ed.), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (pp. 117–134). Albany: State University of New York Press. In her seminal text on emotional work and labour in organizations, Hochschild’s definition of emotion can be understood as an international model that reflects a necessary link between social structures and social actors. This helps readers to understand studies on teacher emotions which are situated in specific institutional and social-historical contexts. – Schutz, P. A. (2014). Inquiry on teachers’ emotions. Educational Psychologist, 49(1), 1–12. In this article, Schutz urged researchers of teacher emotion to consider and include social historical factors in their research, which will broaden our hori- zons concerning how teacher emotion is shaped by social historical factors.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Which particular research methodologies have you used in your own research on teacher emotion? What are their strengths and limitations, compared to what is discussed in this chapter? – Which particular study reviewed in this chapter intrigued you most? Please go to the original reference, read the article in detail, and write a ﬂow chart based on the research methods. A Methodological Review of L2 Teacher Emotion Research … 47

– Which particular research methodology do you want to try in the future? What knowledge and skills do you think are necessary to conduct such a study? How do you plan to learn or acquire them? – What do you agree with most in this chapter? What (if anything) do you disagree with? Give reasons for your answers.

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Author Biography

Yueting Xu is an Associate Professor of School of English and Education at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies in China. Her research interests include teacher assessment literacy, classroom-based assessment, teacher identity, and teacher emotion. She has published in Teaching and Teacher Education, Language Teaching Research, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, TESOL Quarterly and Research Papers in Education. Her recent publication is a reconceptualization of teacher assessment literacy appearing in Teaching and Teacher Education. She has received several awards and grants from The International Research Foundation for English Language Education, British Council, Educational Testing Service, and The International Language Testing Association. Part II Perspectives on Second Language Teachers’ Emotions Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging from the Shadows

Lourdes Cuéllar and Rebecca L. Oxford

Abstract The human brain is an emotional brain. Emotion “functions as an amplifier, providing the intensity, urgency, and energy to propel our behavior” in “everything we do” (MacIntyre 2002: 61), including language teaching. The nature of emotions in general and the role of emotions in foreign and second language learning have been frequently discussed. Compared with the great attention researchers and theorists have shown toward language learners’ emotions, especially anxiety (Horwitz 2017), language teachers’ emotions have been in the shadows, invisible to most researchers and theorists and largely undiscussed in public by teachers themselves. This chapter intends to draw teachers’ emotions out of the shadows by means of narrative research. The first half of the chapter briefly presents selected theories of emotion from biopsychology, ecology, educational psychology, positive psychology, and universalist (sometimes called universal) humanism. The rest of the chapter describes the methodology for our narrative research; offers the narrative of Lila, a teacher of Chinese; and analyzes and interprets the narrative. After results and conclusions, we offer key questions and annotated sources for readers.

Keywords Emotion Á Teacher Á Context Á Complexity Á Emotional intelligence Empathy Á Positive psychology Á Universal humanism Á “Psychism”

Emotion is “the primary human motive” in human life (MacIntyre 2002: 61). Foreign and second language learners’ emotions have been extensively studied, but language teachers’ emotions—the focus of this chapter—have been hidden in the shadows for too long. This chapter’s general goal is to help pull teachers’ emotions out of the shadows and into the light, thus supporting the rest of the book.

L. Cuéllar (&) National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico, USA e-mail: [email protected] R. L. Oxford (&) University of Maryland, College Park, USA e-mail: [email protected]

The chapter has three speciﬁc purposes. The ﬁrst purpose is to present relevant theories of emotions drawn from very different perspectives. The second purpose is to explain the methodology of our narrative study a language teacher’s emotions and to present, analyze, and interpret the narrative, connecting it with some of the relevant theories. The third purpose is to provide implications for language teachers and researchers and offer conclusions. Additionally, we raise questions and provide several annotated references and the reference list.

1 Emotion from Varied Theoretical Perspectives

This section examines emotions from a range of theoretical perspectives: biopsychology, ecology, educational psychology, positive psychology, and universalist humanism. The theories discussed here are intended to be a creative prism revealing a selection of potentially important theories that might shed light on teachers’ emotions.

1.1 Dimension A: Biopsychology—The Nature, Role, and Biology of Emotions

Emotion is an amplifier, bringing urgency, intensity, and energy for all human behavior (MacIntyre 2002; Oxford 2015a). The human brain is emotional (Le Doux 1998; MacIntyre et al. 2016), creating complex, dynamic, nonlinear, organic, holistic relationships among emotion, cognition, social behavior, and other human characteristics. Emotions involve alterations in blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, and stomach sensations and are accompanied by conscious, subjective interpretations, i.e., feelings. Complexity of emotions is obvious. Lewis’ (2005) theory of emotion consists of arousal, action tendencies, attentional orientation, and affective feeling. A more detailed theory of emotion (Berry et al. 2002) contains antecedent events, appraisal of a situation/stimulus, subjective feelings, physiological reaction patterns, action readiness, behavioral expression, and emotion regulation. Schumann (1997), a language learning expert, when considering only stimulus appraisal, reported five dimensions: novelty, pleasantness, goal/need significance, coping potential, and self/social image. Emotion is a strong part of learning because cognition and emotion are inextricably linked (Le Doux 1998;Lewis2005). The system known as emotion has two subsystems: a primitive, automatic one including joy, sadness, anger, and other basic emotions, centralized in the amygdala of the limbic system and helping to shape perception, attention, and cognition; and the second, more sophisticated, and more regulatory subsystem in the cerebral cortex (Dörnyei 2009). Moreover, emotional Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 55 experiences vary on a continuum (Dörnyei 2009). Emotional states, or just “emotions,” are dynamic, continuously fluctuating processes that unfold in time. Moods are more prolonged and have less specific causes than emotions. Emotional traits (sometimes called affective styles, temperaments, or emotional habits) are stable, long-term predispositions to emotional responding.

1.2 Dimension B: Ecology—Emotions in Light of Context and Complexity

Ushioda’s person-in-context relational view focuses on authentic people in real contexts, not on “theoretical abstractions” (2009: 220). It pays attention to “the agency of the individual person as a thinking, feeling human being, with an identity, a personality, a unique history and background, a person with goals, motives and intention” (emphasis added) within a complex system of social relations and contexts. All complexity perspectives reveal a world that is complex, holistic, dynamic, and nonlinear (Oxford 2017b). Nestedness or embeddedness in a complex system means that the system contains many nested subsystems, and each of these can be viewed as complex systems with their own subsystems (Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008; see also Larsen-Freeman 2017). For example, within the complex system of the classroom there are subsystems, such as emotions, and each subsystem is also viewable as a complex system of its own (see Finch 2004). In complexity theory, emergence is the arising of new, nonlinear, and hence unpredictable patterns due to interactions, interconnections, or interconnectivities, which are two-way (bidirectional) inﬂuences between system components or across systems. This chapter’s title speciﬁcally refers to teachers’ emotions emerging from the shadows, these emotions interact with learners’ emotions and many other factors.

1.3 Dimension C: Educational Psychology—Classroom Climate

Unlike complexity specialists, who emphasize bidirectionality, classroom climate specialists often focus on the teacher’s one-way inﬂuence (the “invisible hand,” Bierman 2011) on students within four classroom dimensions: emotional, social, intellectual, and physical (Ambrose et al. 2010). The emotional and social dimensions are intertwined and can involve aspects such as setting clear expectations, encouraging cooperation but not competitiveness, and emphasizing classroom equity (Ambrose et al. 2010;Cruz2016). Research suggests that these behaviors can promote learners’ enjoyable emotions and enhance the classroom climate, but little classroom-climate research looks at teachers’ pleasurable emotions. 56 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford

1.4 Dimension D: Positive Psychology—Biasing for the Best

Positive psychology centers on the strengths in human existence, looks for the best in every person (Lopez 2008) and promotes human “well-being” and “ﬂourishing” (Seligman 2011). Major positive psychology works in language learning include MacIntyre and Gregersen (2014) and MacIntyre et al. (2016). This short discussion of Dimension D does not include ﬂow and peak experiences; for these, see Oxford’s EMPATHICS model (2016).

1.4.1 “Negative” and “Positive” Emotions: Not So Simple

“Positive” emotions are a foundation stone in positive psychology. Frederickson (2004) mentioned emotions such as happiness, curiosity, interest, pleasure, and joy as positive emotions, and Seligman (2011: 17) added “ecstasy, comfort, warmth, and the like.” In Frederickson’s(2004) “broaden-and-build” theory, positive emotions broaden the individual’s and options and build toward productive skills and talents, while negative emotions do the opposite, resulting in mere survival behavior. Unlike the broaden-and-build theory, which seemingly condemns negative emotions and segregates them from positive emotions, language learning studies suggest that “positive” and “negative” emotions are not neatly divisible. In fact, a negative emotion, anxiety, and a positive emotion, enjoyment, appeared together in each of numerous female students in one study (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014). In another study, Marcos-Llinas and Juan Garau (2009) found that negative emotions might call language learners to productive actions and hence lead them to pleasurable emotions. We question the validity of the positive-negative polarity of emotions. Ricard (2003) argued against it, saying that happiness (as a skill) involves accepting both pleasant emotions, such as joy, and painful emotions, such as sorrow; happiness cannot occur without both aspects. Van Deurzen (2012: 153) wrote that anxiety can be experienced as anguish or as excitement and anticipation. Because of the con- fusions in the positive-negative split, we prefer terms like “enjoyable” emotions and “painful” emotions, with the assumption that painful emotions and enjoyable emotions can have productive uses and are functional to life. Some of these issues are addressed in this chapter’s narrative.

1.4.2 Emotional Intelligence: Useful and Teachable

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the “ability to understand feelings in the self and others and to use these feelings as informational guides for thinking and action” (Salovey et al. 2011: 238). EI is teachable and learnable with effort. It includes the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one’s own and others’ emotions and use emotions to facilitate cognition (Salovey et al.). EI can reduce anxiety and Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 57 conﬂict; improve relationships; and increase achievement, stability, motivation, and harmony (Goleman 2005). Dewaele et al. (2008) found that adult multilinguals with higher EI, compared with those with lower EI, had lower language anxiety, greater conﬁdence and ability to gauge others’ emotions, and better stress-regulation. It is reasonable to assume that language teachers would show similar patterns.

1.4.3 Empathy: Not a Single Emotion

Empathy is formally deﬁned as an “other-oriented emotional response elicited by and congruent with the perceived welfare of someone else…. [It] is not a single, discrete emotion but includes a whole constellation of feelings… [such as] sympathy, compassion, soft-heartedness, tenderness, and the like” (Batson et al. 2011: 418). The best language teachers might be viewed as empathetic, recognizing the needs and emotional states of their students and having compassion and tender-heartedness toward them, but research needs to be done about how and when this emerges.

1.5 Dimension E: Universalist Humanism—Emotions as Part of a Grand System

Mario Luis Rodríguez Cobos, commonly known as Silo, was an Argentine writer and founder of universalist humanism (also universal humanism or new humanism). His obituary in El País (Rebossio 2010) described him as a transformative leader with followers in over a hundred countries and as a strange person for the West because of his rather Eastern spiritual characteristics. Silo (1989, 2010) discussed emotions and overcoming suffering to move toward freedom. (All concepts here are from Silo (1989, 2010), unless others like Ammann (1991) and Malo Pé (2010) are speciﬁcally noted.) Silo explored consciousness, sensation, image, cultural con- vergence, nonviolence, life’s meaning, mental representation, and moral choices for world transformation. He used the familiar psychological terms “stimulus” and “response” creatively to reﬂect transformative rather than mechanistic processes. Importantly, Silo described the psychism (the workings of the human mind embedded in the body and the environment; the keeper of the human-and-environment balance). The psychism is seen abstractly in Fig. 1 and more freely in the messy details in a person’s narrative (see Lila’s story in this chapter). The emotional center in the psychism interacts with three other centers. The emotional center, said to be “located” in the cardiac plexus (network of nerves at the base of the heart), responds to internal and external phenomena and regulates our movement toward pleasure and away from suffering (Ammann, after Silo), which is a useful emotional defense mechanism. Cenesthesia is the internal mass of undifferentiated sensations that make the person aware of the body and its 58 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford

Memory

external Perception Senses Consciousness internal (which has multiple levels)

Inner Sensitivity sensitivity of the Internal response response

Intellectual center Images External response EMOTIONAL CENTER

Motor center

Vegetative center

Fig. 1 Silo’s concept of the psychism. Source: Created in 2017 by Lourdes Cuéllar based on the ideas of Silo condition. Because of cenesthesia, the individual can experience suffering or pleasure based on a memory or an image, as well as an immediate situation. Emotions at a given time can have lingering effects. Emotions amplify our subjective interpretations of our lives (Malo Pé; compare MacIntyre 2002). Malo Pé explained that in our emotional experiences we perceive the congruence or the clash between reality and our own tendencies (purposes). If reality does not correspond to our tendencies, we might react with painful emotions; however, if the situation balances reality and our purposes, then pleasurable emotions will emerge. Thus, emotions, like consciousness in general, help regulate the balance between the self and the environment. Here is our explanation of emotions (building on Malo Pé and Silo) as applied to the language classroom. The classroom is full of emotions. Any emotional experience, regardless of when it initially arose, can be triggered and experienced as if it were present. Teachers and students come to the classroom with their own emotional tones, which have nothing to do with academic content but which permeate the environment and influence individuals’ ways of dealing with the content. They also arrive with beliefs and expectations about what language teaching and learning should be, and if these beliefs and expectations are not fulfilled, painful emotions (e.g., anger, guilt, or shame) can arise. For everyone in the classroom setting, a cenesthetic sense not only defines the current acceptance or rejection of the Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 59 situation, but is also recorded in memory, sometimes with long-term emotional influence. The teacher’s emotional reaction is especially important because it is the point of reference within the classroom. Faced with the same situation, different teachers can react in very different ways. Extraverted teachers can more readily give vent to their emotions, perhaps gushingly welcoming students or, when pressed too far, showing anger. In contrast, introverted teachers try not to let their emotions show; they try to hide them, but they do not stop living them. Data enter through the external senses and the internal senses. Perceived, remembered, and imagined feelings can together mobilize the response centers. We empathically identify with the joy or pain of someone else because we experience the emotion of that person. The empathic person who observes someone else in a suffering state receives a torrent of sensations, and, along with the other person, feels suffering.

1.6 Summary of This Section

In this section we identiﬁed the components of emotions based on biopsychology. We also considered emotion theories from other perspectives: ecology, educational psychology, positive psychology, and universalist humanism. We often explained research about these theories as applied to language learners, but we pointed out how these theories also need to be studied vis-à-vis teachers’ emotions. An additional emotion theory that is certainly relevant to language teachers is Averill’s concept of emotions as transitory social roles (1982, 1985, in Oxford 2015a). We now turn to a narrative study in which some key theories are recognizable.

2 One Teacher’s Emotions: A Narrative Study

2.1 Purpose

Our aim was to examine and analyze the emotions personally experienced and described by a language teacher, Lila. We believed that the story might expand, possibly signiﬁcantly, our ﬁeld’s understanding of teachers’ emotions.

2.2 Methodology

We chose narrative research methodology based on our understanding of the value of “narrative knowing” (e.g., Polkinghorne 1988) and our prior experiences with the 60 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford methods for and insights from narrative research (e.g., Cuéllar 2012; Oxford 1996; Oxford and Bolaños 2016; Oxford and Cuéllar 2014; Oxford et al. 1996, 2015).

2.2.1 Participants and Setting

Lila is a teacher of Chinese at a major, prestigious, national university in a large metropolis in México. To the study she brought her long experience in Chinese language teaching and her psychological and social self-awareness.

2.2.2 Instructions

Lila was instructed to write freely about her emotions linked to teaching. She came up with her own list of guiding questions, which she used in a broad fashion. No specific number of pages was required. Lila enthusiastically jumped into the writing task. 1. What has been your best experience as a teacher? 2. Why do you think it was your best experience? 3. What was your best experience as a language student? 4. Why do you think it was your best experience? 5. Describe how your relationship with your students was in the past and how it is now. 6. Do you remember any experience in which your mood has positively or negatively influenced your students? If so, describe it. 7. Do you remember any experience in which the mood of your students influenced you positively or negatively? If so, describe it. 8. Based on your own experience, what importance do you give to the topic of emotion in teaching?

2.2.3 Analysis Procedures

Working with the complete narrative, we used grounded theory analysis (Corbin and Strauss 2007), a technique by which the themes directly arise from (are grounded in) the narrative data, rather than being limited strictly by a literature review or guiding questions. The first stage of analysis was open coding, during which several dozen initial, highly specific themes arose, such as grief about Poland. The second stage, axial coding, involved finding relationships across the many initial themes. This stage resulted in broad themes, such as (a) painful emotions as teacher or learner, (b) enjoyable or pleasurable emotions as teacher or learner, (c) teacher-student interactions/ relationships, (d) classroom climate, and (e) resources. Rather than being treated separately, these themes are interwoven throughout Sect. 4.2.3. Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 61

2.3 Lila’s Story and Our Interpretation

Lila’s story exhibits amazing changes in attitudes and emotions concerning everything Chinese: language, culture, country, and people. It also shows great growth in her teaching ability. The lines in italics below are direct quotes from her story. Plain, unitalicized lines summarize parts of her story. Finally, the abbrevia- tion RC indicates “Researchers’ comment.”

2.3.1 Painful Emotions: Initial Antipathy Toward Most Things Chinese

When Lila was 20 years old, she wanted to go to Poland to study theater, but that program fell apart. She was extremely disappointed. The foreign affairs officer proposed that she should go to China instead. I never thought I had anything to do with China. I never liked it, never felt any attraction for that strange, far-away culture. […] My view of China was steeped in a very common, unconsidered attitude that was just part of the landscape: that the Chinese living in my country were strange or dirty. Lila’s negative images were not based on reflection on or knowledge about China, but they fostered painful emotions and negative attitudes toward China. Though she tried to convince herself that going to China was a great opportunity and a way to escape her despair over not going to Poland, she felt fearful and uneasy about China. I went to China without knowing anything about that country or its language, without a liking for the culture, without feeling a real attraction for what I was going to do, and perhaps preparing for the biggest failure of my life. Lila explained that foreign students’ life in China at that time was depressing and difficult. A few foreign students even committed suicide. Lila had no positive relationship with teachers and experienced neither empathy nor emotional understanding from them. I once asked permission to miss a week or two because I wanted to leave the city. I told them I was depressed and needed some space. They found my behavior very odd, but they did not say anything to me then or when I returned. Much later I found out that […] in China, […] the value of studying was too great to justify an absence for personal problems, especially those of an emotional nature. […] I felt hostile toward the environment. Nevertheless, she liked the language classes, the ideograms, the stories, and writing Chinese characters. I was excited. It was like deciphering hieroglyphs that eventually revealed their meaning. That was motivating. Overall, though, she felt frustrated. She did not like anything in China enough to stay three for four more years, until the end of her scholarship. She decided to give up the scholarship and return home to México, with a feeling of not wanting to have contact again with China and with the Chinese people ever again. Even possible career advantages of knowing Chinese did not move her. Therefore, I just left it and forgot about it for almost 12 years. [RC: Here we can see how an emotion, hidden within a cenesthetic web of 62 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford sensation that cannot be clearly explained, can powerfully—and without basic reasoning—influence the individual’s path to the future.] She finally returned to the Chinese language when invited to teach it in Mexico as an assistant to a native Chinese speaker and military man who will be called Colonel X. I did not remember much Chinese, and it was a great challenge to take up the language and relearn what I had forgotten, but I liked the idea of teaching. That was my passion. However, it was nearly intolerable to assist Colonel X, who was rigid, did not care about teaching, and paid no attention to learners’ needs. Students suffered and despaired in class because they could not meet Colonel X’s expectations, and Lila was greatly frustrated because she could not help them adequately. [RC: The teacher’s expectations, though often left unsaid, are always a reference point in the class. If students feel they cannot reach the teacher’s expectations, they will experience painful emotions. Suffering like this complicates the learning and harms the classroom climate.] At the end-of-course ceremony, the best student in the class read a speech in Chinese (obviously written by Colonel X) that was totally unintelligible. I had a conversation with this excellent student after the ceremony, and I particularly remember his great feeling of frustration and failure. Although I was not the head teacher, it was a big failure for me, too. [RC: In Silo’s psychism concept, when someone sees others in pain, the whole perception system becomes charged with the emotion, so that the individual seeing others suffering suffers as well, both at the time and later in memory. This is a form of empathy. Unfortunately, Colonel X’s distain for teaching and students kept him from being empathetic or even emotionally aware.] In contrast, the young teacher of Korean at the Center for Higher Naval Studies had an excellent relationship with her students. The Korean course lasted only half a year, unlike the Chinese course that lasted a year, but in the Korean case, the students managed to develop a good command of the language in six months. At the same closing ceremony where the student of Chinese read the incomprehensible speech, a student gave an engaging, understandable, emotional speech in Korean. At the end, he gave a spontaneous, lovely statement of praise for his Korean teacher. Hearing the flowing speech in Korean compared to the incomprehensible speech in Chinese, Lila and the students of Chinese felt their whole year had been wasted.

2.3.2 Relationships and Attitudes: “Human Rights Defender” and Attitude Shift

The only rays of emotional brightness in Lila’s frustrating role as assistant to Colonel X were her extraordinary relationships with the students, a change in her relationship to the Chinese language, and the enhancement of her instructional understanding and materials. I played a mediating role, trying to soften the tensions, seeking to give clearer explanations, and establishing a kinder relationship with the students, to the degree that they began to describe me as the “human rights Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 63 defender.” Even though I still had not developed a strong taste for Chinese language and culture, my relationship with the language changed. I found in my teaching the opportunity to understand my own learning process and to put that experience at the service of my students. […] I set out to find teaching materials that were more appropriate for the type of students I had, and I also prepared materials that might help me explain some points that would be particularly difficult for Mexican students. [RC: During this period Lila started developing an emotional trait involving caring for her students and their needs, becoming the “human rights defender” and the materials creator. In addition, she used her history of pain in Chinese language learning to help her understand her own learning process and help her students. (See earlier discussion about using painful emotions to engender change, which can lead to more pleasant emotions.)] Changes were ahead for Lila through developing strong relationships, adapting teaching materials, and taking more responsibility. The following year I had the opportunity to take more active role when another Chinese teacher came in to replace the first Chinese teacher, who had not been interested in teaching. We had a new group and a new teacher, and I continued as an assistant. By that time, I had recovered enough of the language, and the new teacher even let me teach half of the class. This second course was much better than the first. Instead of a textbook, we used some materials that I adapted for this particular group, and we tried to generate a better learning environment for the group. My relationship with this new teacher was much better, and we worked as a team, which allowed our students to be more comfortable and less tense. Their learning and performance were definitely better than in the previous group.

2.3.3 Lila’s Life at UNAM: Growing into Emotional Strength

After that ﬁrst teaching experience, I entered the UNAM [National Autonomous University of México], where I have now been working for 13 years. At UNAM I have my own authority and freedom. My challenge has always been to get my students to learn Chinese less arduously than I did. [RC: Compared to her own Chinese-learning experience, Lila wanted students to be happier and struggle less. This is a sign of her empathy with and concern for students.] Therefore, for many years, I have taken time to observe my students and identify common errors and their origins. That led me to develop strategies and materials addressing my students’ speciﬁc needs. I did not always achieve what I expected at the technical level, and my teaching strategies were not always effective, but I was happy because I always managed to convey my genuine interest in the students’ learning, and I established very good relationships with them. 64 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford

2.3.4 Lila’s Emotions at UNAM, Part 1: Frequent Happiness and Satisfaction

In their end-of-course evaluations and emails, many UNAM students wrote about Lila’s generous support and patience. Enacting these tendencies gave Lila great happiness and satisfaction, and it was a means of generating the same emotions in students. To one student, Lila’s support was a personal gift, manifested in treating students with demands but with consideration. I think that you are a demanding but considerate teacher and to the extent that you push us, you also give of yourself. Another stated, I truly thank you for the support you have always given me. Without trying to flatter you, I honestly say that you provided one of the best teaching experiences in my time in the UNAM. Thank you. According to a third, Thank you very much for EVERYTHING, it really changed my view of China. You are an excellent teacher, and I wish you well. Thank you for sharing those experiences and for giving the best in each class. A fourth commented, THANK YOU! THANK YOU! THANK YOU! Thanks to your perseverance as a teacher and the motivation you instill in us, I decided to continue learning Chinese even if sometimes it was very difficult and I wanted to quit. If I did not understand or if I felt despair, you always gave me a perfectly supportive scolding and offered patience and perfect tips. According to a fifth student, Once again I reiterate my admiration and respect for the work you do. […] I truly thank you for the patience and attention you have shown me. […] I know that the rules of the game are clear: I study, I get good results. […]. According to the following anecdote written by a student, Lila showed kind support regarding errors. My opinion of the teacher is very good, because she understands the difficulties that I encountered in studying a language that is rad- ically different from my own. She sought to reduce those limitations. As a result, I discovered that my belief in the complexity of Chinese is not related only to the language itself but also to the attitudes and deeply-rooted ideas about Chinese that I have as a Spanish speaker. This realization makes it easier for me to know which aspects can be improved. This realization also made the student happier and more willing to continue studying. Helping the student with his errors and watching him overcome problematic attitudes gave Lila contentment and satisfaction.

2.3.5 Lila’s Emotions at UNAM, Part 2: Enthusiasm, Passion, Discovery-Based Delight, and Joy in Humor

Students’ evaluations and emails revealed Lila’s emotions, such as enthusiasm, passion, delight in discovery, joy in humor, and ease based on freedom from anxiety. She encouraged students to join her in these emotions, and this made the Chinese classroom entirely unlike other classrooms they had encountered. Here are statements from students. First, The atmosphere in the classroom was very pleasant, and we learned to lose our fear of making mistakes—well,… much of it. […] Chinese class is not only a place to learn, it is also a place to relax, enjoy, laugh, be Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 65 surprised, and discover new skills that we thought we did not have. The Chinese class does not last 2 h 4 days a week; instead, we take it with us all the time. I think that’s why we have reached this level and why we are still here. Second, My best memory learning Chinese here in CELE is deﬁnitely the laughs that we often shared and the cool1 relationships that were formed inside the classroom. Third, As a student, I greatly value the fact that my teacher, Lila, always shares with me her enthusiasm and her passion for her work. Since I entered this course, my interest in learning Chinese revived and increased. Fourth, What I like is the interaction with the teacher. The class is very lively and fun. Fifth, Students respect you, listen to you when you talk. They think you are funny and that you keep the class fun. [RC: Students noticed and picked up on Lila’s emotions, which became contagious, stimulating students’ consciousness, enhancing the classroom climate, and strengthening learning.]

2.3.6 Lila’s Emotions at UNAM, Part 3: Courage, Joy, and Love

Lila taught beyond the basics of the Chinese language. She stated, My interest in teaching and in young people led me to dedicate my class time to interactions on topics that some might consider peripheral to language; it is no less important to understand and accept other cultural patterns as to learn the language. For example, she shared her own experiences in China and with the Chinese language. The class also explored topics like students’ personal concerns about the present and the future, educational problems, and general problems in Mexico. Sometimes I have feared criticism for this type of digression, but […] in the free end-of-course evaluations and in students’ emails, I have always received acceptance and even thanks for allowing the class to talk about less formal issues and about personal issues and attitudes. Lila experienced courage, received acceptance and thanks from students, and intrinsically enjoyed the process. “Enjoyment” comes from the core emotion of “joy.” As she taught cultural themes and encouraged personal sharing in class, Lila felt joy, spread joy, and experienced students’ joy, resulting in greater motivation on all sides. Students also commented on this general theme, using words and terms like “enjoyed,”“the ‘plus’ of the class,” and “feed our spirit.” First, I really enjoyed how we learned lots of different things about Chinese culture and Chinese history, because I think that this really helps in learning the language. Second, I think the “plus” of the class is the comments the teacher makes about China, or about what happens in our country, or about the philosophy or ideology that can feed our spirit or help us grow as people. Third, I really like the comments outside of (additional to) language instruction. Fourth, You were right to help me understand not just the language, but also the culture, people, and religion!

1The slang word “cool” here means, of course, “warm.” 66 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford

Going beyond just language teaching helped students love the language and the culture, as two students eloquently stated. The first wrote, I am in love with this culture, this language, this class. The best thing that can happen to me in my daily life is this class. The second wrote, I think I have fallen in love with Chinese. I gave myself the task of exploring a little about the Chinese culture, since the teacher also told us a little about what was going on in China, the customs, and her experiences after newly arriving in China. She also gave a detailed description of the radicals, including the idea that each radical contains a cultural idea. All this aroused something inside me and motivated me to continue studying Chinese. My motivation was no longer to learn Chinese for financial purposes; it was no longer a question of ego or competitiveness. Now I had a feeling for the Chinese language and culture, despite the complexity and difficulty. Chinese interested me more and more.

2.3.7 Lila’s Emotions upon Reading UNAM Students’ Comments: Happiness, Satisfaction, Love, Joy, and Gratitude

Students’ emotionally responsive end-of-course evaluations and emails evoked in Lila happiness, satisfaction, love, joy, and gratitude. In these informal communications, my students provided great support to me and my efforts. They expressed happiness and satisfaction. In several cases they even expressed love. Their comments made me feel grateful, satisﬁed, and truly joyous. I believe that by teaching Chinese with a creative blending of language and culture and by building personal relationships with my students, I am doing something very important for everyone.

2.3.8 Lila’s Understanding: Teaching and Learning Are Loving Acts

Lila then wrote what might be the study’s most profound statements. As students tell us, teaching is a loving act. It has more to do with sharing emotions rather than doling out specialized knowledge to students. To me learning is a reciprocally loving act; students give back to me in powerful ways. Students have a great, positive effect on my life. [RC: Love was subtly threaded throughout classroom actions and words. Students responded with love to Lila’s personalized, loving care toward them. She was aware of the emotional mutuality between herself and her students. What she gave, she received in equal measure.]

2.4 A Few More Comments About Lila’s Emotions

Lila’s pleasurable emotions in teaching did not occur by magic or sheer luck. Based on her loss of the Polish opportunity and her extremely rough time as a student in China, she knew what painful emotions could do to a person if these emotions are Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 67 not managed. Later, as a teacher of Chinese, she worked very hard to regulate her emotions (Gross 2014; Oxford 2015b, 2017a, b) and gave students strong emotional and cognitive support, so they would not experience the suffering she had undergone as a language learner. In her teaching life, Lila used her formerly painful emotions as guides for invoking positive change inside herself and for helping students. Her experience contradicted Frederickson’s(2004) assertion that painful emotions (Frederickson called them “negative” emotions) destroy opportunities for broadening and building. In the case of Lila, painful emotions occurring in youth eventually led her, with contemplation and emotion regulation, to increased strength. She created happiness through acceptance of both painful and pleasant emotions over time (see Ricard 2003). She taught herself to teach with joy and passion, thus sparking the same excitement in her students. Lila might have encountered all sorts of background difﬁculties in her career (e.g., academic inﬁghting, salary problems, and overwork, to name three problems frequently experienced by university faculty), but such issues, if they existed for her, did not touch her emotions and compassion in the classroom. She managed her emotions, was a remarkable teacher, lovingly gave students everything she could, and was in turn beloved by them.

2.5 Conclusions

Language students’ emotions have been discussed frequently in the literature (e.g., Gkonou et al. 2017), while teachers’ emotions have remained in the shadows of research and theory.2 This chapter draws teachers’ emotions out of the shadows by means of Lila’s story, thus allowing all readers to understand the importance of teachers’ emotions and showing teachers that they can manage their emotions to serve the learning process. Teacher’s emotions can be understood via various theoretical perspectives, such as biopsychology (biology of emotions; emotions as an ampliﬁer), ecology (context and complexity), educational psychology (in this case, classroom climate), positive psychology (“positive” and “negative” emotions, emotional intelligence, and other issues), and universalist humanism (the psychism and the ways emotions operate). From these perspectives, we ﬁnd that emotions add urgency and operate complexly in immediate contexts, in memory, and in image. As a teacher, Lila used her emotional intelligence and certain painful, deeply remembered emotions as catalysts for several productive purposes: to strengthen caring as an emotional trait, make the classroom an emotionally welcoming space, and meet students’ needs. Lila taught Chinese language and culture with great personal care, gave unstintingly to her students, and

2Though teachers’ emotions have been in the shadow for many researchers and theorists, we have noticed that students are usually quite aware of their teachers’ emotions as expressed through body language, tone of voice, or facial expression. In this study we found that students had great insight into their emotions and Lila’s. 68 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford ignited joy, satisfaction, and passion in students and herself. The written comments of Lila and her students strongly supported our concept of powerful teacher-student “emotional reciprocity” in the classroom. In Lila’s instructional sphere, the teacher-student mutuality of emotional inﬂuence richly enhanced the classroom climate, the quality of language learning, and the lives of all involved. Recommended Readings – Dewaele, J.-M. (2012). Emotions in multiple languages. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. This book was written by a highly regarded, multilingual, and multicultural scholar and reports qualitative and quantitative ﬁndings about how multilinguals communicate emotions. – Gkonou, C., Daubney, M., & Dewaele, J.-M. (2017). New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research, and educational implications. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. This book deals with language (learning) anxiety in relation such themes as self-image, self-esteem, perfectionism, communication, assessment, ecology, and transformation. Horwitz (2017) argued against facilitative anxiety in this volume. Ideas in the book are useful for studying teachers’ emotions. – Gross, J. J. (Ed.). (2014). Handbook of emotion regulation. (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. Also: Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (2008). Handbook of emotions. (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. These classic handbooks of theory, research, and practice should be carefully studied by specialists in language teaching and learning. – Oxford, R. L., & Bolaños, D. (2016). A tale of two learners: Discovering motivation, emotions, engagement, perseverance, and mentoring. In C. Gkonou, D. Tatzl, & S. Mercer (Eds.), New directions in language learning psychology (pp. 113–134). New York: Springer. This chapter depicts two EFL learners, whose emotions of love, joy, and devotion, along with other qualities, helped them become successful teachers. – Silo, aka Rodríguez Cobos. M. L. (2010). Apuntes de psicología [Psychology Notes]. Santiago, Chile: Virtual Ediciones. http://www.silo.net/collected_works/ psychology_notes The author explains the psychism as a function of human life and portrays its expression in the environment. He analyses consciousness and the three ways of human experience and, most importantly for our readers, explains the emotional center.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Why are narratives often more valuable than quantitative questionnaires or overly simple brain diagrams for understanding the extraordinarily complex emotions, experiences, and issues of language teachers and learners in varied contexts? How can we gather narratives from teachers in order to explore, analyze, and interpret emotions? Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging … 69

– What does Lila’s narrative tell us about her language teaching emotions (in all jobs), her language learning emotions, and the great instructional advantages she gives her students of Chinese based on her own emotionally and socially painful experiences from the past? – In what way are Lila’s emotions and her students’ emotions clariﬁed by including students’ response data (end-of-course evaluations and unsolicited emails); and more broadly, what does the student response data tell us about how teachers’ and students’ emotions interact? – To what extent do classroom climate theory and various positive psychology theories relate to each other, to what extent are they different, and how might any of them contribute to our understanding of teachers’ emotions? – As a framework newly introduced to applied linguistics, how might universalist humanism add to existing theories and frameworks for understanding emotions in the classroom, including but not limited to teachers’ emotions?

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Author Biographies

Lourdes Cuéllar is a Chinese teacher at the Foreign Language Teaching Center (CELE), Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and a social worker as well. She holds a degree in education, a diploma in self-directed learning and a specialization in virtual learning environments. She is currently doing postgraduate studies in virtual learning environments (University of Panama). She studied Chinese and theater in Beijing, China, and was project leader in the implementation of Chinese in the self-access center of CELE, where she was an academic advisor for three years. She has developed various educational technology projects. Main lines of 72 L. Cuéllar and R. L. Oxford research include development of intercultural competence, learner autonomy, and virtual learning environments. She has also published narrative research on positive psychology in Chinese language learning.

Rebecca L. Oxford’s Lifetime Achievement Award states that her “research on learning strategies has changed the way the world teaches languages.” She is Distinguished Scholar-Teacher and Professor Emerita, University of Maryland, where she served as an administrator and award-winning teacher. She currently teaches at the University of Alabama. She has presented her research in more than 40 countries, published 14 books, co-edited three book series and eight special issues, and authored approximately 250 articles and chapters. Topics include learner emotion (going beyond anxiety), learning strategies, second language and culture, transformative education, positive psychology, and peace. Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second Language Classrooms in the Context of Education/Curricular Reforms: Directions for Future Research

Kwok Kuen Tsang and Lianjiang Jiang

Abstract Effective teaching in second language classroom involves intense positive emotions such as love and passion. Without such emotions, teachers will become less motivated, committed, and self-efﬁcacious in teaching. However, current education/curricular reforms tend to drain the positive emotions of the teachers, resulting in ineffective teaching. Since emotion is both a psychological and social issue, this chapter argues that further studies should study teachers’ emotions in second language classroom from sociological perspectives in addition to psychological perspective. Thus, this chapter attempts to propose a sociological framework to investigate how teachers’ emotions in second language classroom are socially constructed in the context of reforms. At the end, the chapter will propose a research agenda for further studies and discuss the implications to secondary language teacher education based on the proposed sociological framework.

Keywords Teacher Á Second language classroom Á Emotions Á Sociology Agency Á Structure

1 Introduction

Emotion is an essential dimension of teaching. Without positive emotions, teachers may not be passionate to, motivated to, and interested in facilitating students’ academic, social, moral, and psychological growth (Day and Qing 2009; Hargreaves 1998; Nias 1996; Sutton 2005). However, current education/curricular reforms tend to drain teachers’ positive emotions. Much research has reported that

K. K. Tsang (&) College of Education Administration, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China e-mail: [email protected] L. Jiang (&) School of Foreign Languages, Jimei University, Xiamen, China e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 73 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_5 74 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang teachers feel demoralized, depressed, stressed, frustrated, anxious, dissatisﬁed, guilty, and ashamed in the context of education/curricular reforms (Brooks et al. 2008; Farouk 2012; Hargreaves 2003; Jeffrey and Woods 1996; Kelchtermans 1996; Leithwood and Beatty 2008; Marshak 1996; Santoro 2011; Saunders 2013; Tsang and Kwong 2017; Zembylas 2010). Therefore, in recent years, research on teachers’ emotions has increased to understand why teachers feel negative in teaching in order to improve their emotional experiences (e.g. Chen 2016; Corcoran and Tormey 2012; Day and Lee 2011; Frenzel 2014; Fried et al. 2015; Hargreaves 2000; Isenbarger and Zembylas 2006;Nias1996; Qiao 2005; Schutz 2014; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Winograd 2003; Zembylas 2005). Nevertheless, there is a lack of attention to secondary language teachers’ emotions (Benesch 2012). As emotions are closely intertwined with the teaching and learning of English as a second/foreign language across various sociocultural contexts, there is a critical need for more research on the emotions of teachers of learners who learn English as a second/foreign language. Since a large number of teachers all over the world have been found to feel negative in the context of education/curricular reforms, it can be suggested that teachers’ emotions go beyond individual and psychological factors and has become a social issue. In this sense, sociology can provide us a signiﬁcant framework to understanding the social sources of language teachers’ emotions (Tsang 2015). Thus, this chapter will outline a sociological perspective of teachers’ emotions. Based on the perspective, suggestions for further research on secondary language teachers’ emotions and implications to secondary language teacher education will be discussed.

2 Sociological Perspective of Emotions

Sociologists have regarded emotions as socially constructed experiences in the sense that what and how people feel are conditioned by the sociocultural contexts in which they situate (Barbalet 1998;McCarthy1989; Spencer et al. 2012; Stets 2012;Thoits 1989;TurnerandStets2005). This emphasis on social construction of emotions reflects the sociological interests in understanding how emotions are influenced by social institutions and systems (Turner and Stets 2005). For examples, some sociologists investigate how ideologies and cultures define what emotions people need to feel and express in a given context (e.g. Hochschild 1979; Peterson 2006); some sociologists are interested in the examination of how emotional experiences are stratified by power, status, and class (e.g. Collins 1990;Turner2011) and by gender (e.g. Hearn 1993; Lupton 1998); and some other sociologists explore the pattern of emotionality in power relations (e.g. Kemper 2006), exchange relations (e.g. Lawler and Thye 2006), Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 75 ritualized social interactions (e.g. Collins 2004; Summers-Effler 2006), and structured and institutionalized interactions (e.g. Burkitt 1997;Stryker2004). Although these sociological studies highlight the social dimension of emotions, it does not mean that sociologists neglect the effects of agency on emotions. To many sociologists, agency, the capacity to make choices and meanings for actions, is an essential component of emotionality (Denzin 1984; Rosenberg 1990; Thoits 1989; Turner 2011). According to them, emotions can be conceptualized as self-feelings. That means people’s emotions are feelings towards an object, including self/selves, aroused by a reflexive process like the interpretation or appraisal of that object and the feelings are consciously experienced and felt by the people (Damasio 1999; Denzin 1984; Thoits 1989). In this sense, positive emotions and negative emotions do not imply any moral meanings. The terms just refer to the outcomes of positive and negative interpretation or appraisal of an object (Turner 2007). For example, if a teacher evaluates teacher-parent interaction as a thankless duty, negative emotions like hate and dislike will be aroused towards such kind of interaction; otherwise, positive emotions like joy and happiness will be aroused (Lasky 2000). Moreover, positive emotion also implies the motivation to engage in and commit to those things that people positively interpret; on the other hand, negative emotion implies the motivation to avoid those thing that people negatively interpret (Collins 1990; Turner 2007). Therefore, the teacher in the above example may not be willing to participate in any teacher-parent interaction if he or she has negative emotional experiences about that, while he or she may welcome such kind of interaction if he or she has positive emotional experiences about that (Lasky 2000). It does not mean the sociologists do not see emotions as socially constructed, even though they pay more attention to the reflexive process. This is because the reflexive process is shaped by the sociocultural contexts around people. Studies show that people with different sociocultural backgrounds may interpret an object and express a feeling toward the object differently (Hochschild 1979; Kemper 1987; Peterson 2006; Scheff 1990). Accordingly, emotions are a duality of structure implying that emotions are a phenomenon caused by the dynamic interplay between structure and agency (Turner 2007). In the duality of structure, Giddens (1984) argues that structure is a set of rules and resources: rules provide generalizable procedures (normative rules) and codes of significance (interpretive rules), and resources offer material (alloca- tive) and non-material (authoritarian) capabilities for the possession of power (Turner 2004). On the other hand, people have agency so that they can reflectively and purposively monitor their actions by the mobilization of rules and resources (Giddens 1984). In other words, structure (re)produces and is (re)produced by agency simultaneously. Every phenomenon, including emotions, are constructed in the virtue of the duality of structure (Giddens 1984). 76 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang

3 Teachers’ Agency and Emotions

In sociology literature, self is a concept that reflects and implies agency. According to Ritzer and Goodman (2004: 211), “the self is the peculiar ability to be both subject and object”. This is because the self can “take itself as the object, to regard and evaluate itself, to take account of itself and plan accordingly, and to manipulate itself as an object in order to bring about future states”(Burke and Stets 2009: 9). In other words, the self is a reflexive process through which people can communicate with themselves, perceive themselves in situations, and in turn plan and monitor their actions (Blumer 1969). Higgins (1987) suggests that self is composed of actual self (the attributes people are believed to actually possess), ideal self (the attributes people ideally hope to possess) and ought self (the attributes people are expected to possess as a result of obligations and responsibilities). A discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self or between the actual self and the ought self will cause negative emotions like shame and guilt, while an absence of self-discrepancy may cause positive emotions like pride and satisfaction. The emotions may then influence people’s actions, because emotions provide meanings to self (Denzin 1984). For example, shame and guilt signify that a person has failed to accomplish social expectations or has broken social rules (Higgins 1987). Thus, the emotions may result in a negative meanings to the self which leads the person to confess, apol- ogize, and make corrections or to behave in a different way in the future in order to avoid a devastation of the self (Turner 2007). A similar process of emotion construction is deliberated by identity theory. According to the theory, self is a structure of identities (Burke and Stets 2009). Identities are conceptualized as self-meanings, i.e. the sets of meanings people hold for themselves that define who they are (Burke 2004). The theory sees a person has multiple identities. For example, a man can have teacher identity, father identity, peer identity, and the like. All these identities are hierarchically ordered and a particular identity can be more salient than others in a given situation (Stryker 2008). For instance, the man tends to define himself as a teacher (teacher identity) when he interacts with his students in a classroom, as father (father identity) when he plays with his son at home, and as a good friend (peer identity) with someone during a friend gathering. The salient identity becomes a reference for a person to perceive his/her character and attributes and to control his/her actions (Burke and Stets 2009). For example, when teacher identity is more salient than other identities in classroom, a person tends to commit to work for the interests of student learning and growth (O’Connor 2008; Wilson and Deaney 2010) because these are generally categorized as essential characteristics of teachers (Cheung 2008; Connell 1985). In other words, people try to verify their salient identity in a given situation by monitoring their actions in that situation based on the salient identity (Burke and Stets 2009; Stryker 2008; Stryker and Burke 2000). If their actions verify the identity, positive emotions will arouse; otherwise, negative emotions will be aroused (Burke and Stets 2009). Moreover, identity theory further suggests that Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 77 emotion is not only the result of identity verification, but also an important factor for identity formation and reformation (Burke and Stets 2009; Stryker 2004). Accordingly, understanding the teacher self/identity should be an important step to acquaint us with teachers’ emotion construction. There are many studies on teacher self/identity in the literature (Beauchamp and Thomas 2009; Beijaard et al. 2004). The findings of these studies consistently indicate that teacher self/identity is moral (Hansen 1998). For examples, studies have shown that teachers may define themselves as “kindness and caring” (O’Connor 2008), “supportive and caring teacher” (Yuan 2016), “mother of the students” (Yin and Lee 2012), “warm demander” (Yin 2016) or something similar in general (Isenbarger and Zembylas 2006; Yuu 2010). These kinds of teacher identity imply that the teachers see that they are or should be the persons who devote themselves to students (Cross and Hong 2009; Farouk 2012; Lortie 1975; Nias 1999; Oplatka 2007; Saunders 2013). The moral self/identity of teacher is also evidenced by teachers’ purpose in teaching. Research has shown that teachers can hold different purposes in teaching, such as to earn a living, to have a stable job, to keep connections with a subject, to work with students, and to gain social reputation, but to make a difference in students’ lives seems to be the most important one (Day and Qing 2009; Lam 2011; Lortie 1975; Tsang and Kwong 2016). Therefore, many teachers are willing to spend a lot of time and energy to educate students no matter how busy they are (O’Connor, 2008). In their study, Buzzelli and Johnston (2001) and Johnston et al. (1998) find that ESL teachers held a moral purpose in teaching would motivate teachers to exercise their authority and power to support their teaching in order to achieve the moral purpose. When the teachers perceive they accomplish the moral purpose, they may interpret their moral self/identity as verified, resulting in positive emotions (e.g. pride and fulfillment); otherwise, they will feel negative (e.g. guilt and shame) (Day and Qing 2009; Nias 1999; Santoro 2011; Saunders 2013). Research has also shown that positive emotions may signify teachers as “good/ competent teachers”, while negative emotions a signal that they are “bad/ incompetent teachers” (Cross and Hong 2009; Hargreaves 2003; Kelchtermans 1996; Zembylas 2003). The “good/competent teacher” and “bad/incompetent teacher” self/identities may become an object by which the teachers reflexively interpret and monitor themselves and their actions in teaching and arouse new emotional experiences to teachers (Beijaard et al. 2004; Timoštšuk and Ugaste 2012; van Veen et al. 2005). Although teachers may try to verify the moral self/identity by reflexive monitoring of actions in teaching, research has indicated that it is hard for them to reach the verification of the moral self/identity in the context of education/curricular reforms (Maclure 1993; Zembylas 2010). This may explain why teachers tend to feel negative in teaching in the context of education/curricular reforms. However, why do education/curricular reforms make teachers difficult to verify the moral self/ identity? We argue the reason should be that reforms change the structure of education system, which further conditions teachers’ agency. 78 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang

4 Structure of Education System and Teachers’ Emotions

Researchers of education policy have noted that current education/curricular reforms in many parts of the world are influenced by neoliberalism (Ball 2012). Neoliberalism is as an ideology that centers on the free market mechanism in the operation of public and social services. As influenced by the ideology, education/ curricular reforms have emphasized economy, efficiency, and effectiveness in education (Mok and Welch 2002). In other words, the reforms attempt to maximize the quality of education service by minimizing the cost. To achieve the goal, many states all over the world have reformed their education and curricula by a lot of neoliberal measures, such as accountability, inspection, performance indicator, school choice, school-based management, privatization and marketization of education, lounge table, and high-stake examination (Anagnostopoulos 2003; Hawkins 2000; Helsby 1999; Mok and Welch 2002; Penrice 2012; Valli and Buese 2007). All these reform initiatives affect the structure of education system that constrains teachers’ work in teaching. According to Giddens (1984), structure has two important priorities, including rules and resources. Therefore, we will respectively discuss how education/curricular reforms affect rules and resources of education system and in turn teachers’ emotions.

4.1 Rules of Education System in Education/Curricular Reforms

Rules have normative and interpretive elements, which respectively provide frameworks to guide human actions and interpretations (Giddens 1984). Under neoliberal reforms, the normative rule of education system tends to require teachers to put administrative and non-instructional duties in a higher priority than instructional duties. In general, neoliberal reforms intensify teachers’ administrative and non-instructional duties, such as school impression management, school promotion and admission, documentation, and preparation of reports for school inspections (Apple 1982; Ball 2003; OECD 2005; Woods 1999). Since all these duties generally link up with school survival, school leaders would like to monitor and even force teachers to do these duties (Ball 2003). As Tsang and Kwong (2017) shows, putting the administrative and non-instructional duties as the first priority may become a rule of education system in Hong Kong. Therefore, the Hong Kong teachers tend to choose to spend much of their time and energy on the administrative and non-instructional duties rather than their instructional duties like lesson preparation and assignment marking. Other studies have reported that a similar issue happened in other states, such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand and UK (Ball 2003; Hargreaves 2003; Helsby 1999; Penrice 2011; Smyth et al. 2000). Moreover, the normative rule of education system may also define teachers that they should comply with imposed imperatives with quality of teaching measured by Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 79 performance indicators (Day 2002). Therefore, teachers may sacrifice their leisure to do the instructional duties in order to maintain their quality of teaching (Tsang 2016; Tsang and Kwong 2016). However, the quality of teaching may not be considered in terms of how teachers influence students’ whole personal growth positively, but in terms of the measured academic results of students. As a result, teachers need to focus on how to improve students’ academic performance, especially those related to high-stake examination, instead of how to facilitate students’ social, emotional, and moral development (Valli and Buese 2007). Teachers may disagree with this instructional practice because they may think education is not just about academic performance (Anagnostopoulos 2003). Consequently, the education system may require teachers to do a lot of administrative and non-instructional duties and/or engage in a certain instructional practices which teachers disvalue (Shin 2012). In such a condition, teachers may feel demoralized, depressed, frustrated and other negative emotions because they do not see that they can facilitate students’ whole-personal growth resulting in a negative teacher identity (Hargreaves 2003; Kelchtermans 1996;Nias1999; Santoro 2011; Saunders 2013; Zembylas 2003). In their current study, Tsang and Kwong (2016, 2017) find that teachers’ feeling negative in teaching may be caused by how they interpret the nature of their duties. According to their research findings, Hong Kong teachers had to do a lot of duties related to whole-personal education, such as moral and civic education, sex education, and career education, but the teachers were unhappy to do the duties since they regarded the duties as non-instructional. Tsang and Kwong (2017) discover the reason why the teachers regarded the duties as non-instructional is that the education/curricular reforms in Hong Kong changed the goals of the duties from educational to administrative. This reflects that the reforms may influence the interpretive rule (code of significance) of education system that conditions how teachers understand the nature of their duties. Especially, reforms may affect the interpretive rule of education system by intensifying the administrative workload relating to whole-person education, emphasizing performativity, and increasing the tension of school competition (Tsang and Kwong 2017).

4.2 Resources of Education System in the Context of Education/Curricular Reforms

Education/curricular reforms affect the resources of education systems that empower teachers to fulfill their moral purpose and in turn verify the moral self/ identity. Many researchers have pointed out that the education/curricular reforms tend to reduce the professional status (authoritarian resources) for teachers through neoliberal measures such as accountability, inspection, and performance indicators. (Jeffrey and Woods 1996; Morris 2004; Robertson 2000). With a low professional status, teachers are disempowered to decide and design what, how, and when they 80 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang should do in teaching (Apple 1982; Ball 2003; Harris 1994; Smyth et al. 2000). Therefore, as discussed above, teachers generally are forced to do a lot of duties that are unrelated to education or that they disvalue. Moreover, without professional status, parents may challenge teachers’ instructional practices that do not match their expectations (Cross and Hong 2012; Hargreaves 2001; Lasky 2000). Since teachers are disempowered, it becomes difficult for them to do what they want in teaching in order to achieve the moral purpose of making a difference in students’ lives. Consequently, it is easier for them to suffer from negative emotions in teaching. Moreover, neoliberal education/curricular reforms may affect the cognitive resources that teachers use to make meanings to their work. In a recent study, Tsang and Liu (2016) illustrate that teachers may not be able to understand the educational values of their duties, such as the duties related to moral, civic, sex, and career education, in the context of neoliberal education/curricular reforms. They identify that the reforms made the school administrative system become more bureaucratic. The bureaucratic system made the teachers hard to find the educational values behind the duties, because most of the duties were decided top-down without any open consultations. When the teachers were assigned to do the duties, they did not see why the duties were worthy for education, especially when the duties included a lot of administrative work. Since the lack of cognitive resources is caused by the education/curricular reforms, Tsang and Liu (2016) call this phenomenon as cognitive disempowerment. Therefore, teachers may feel negative about doing the duties, even though the duties have education values (Cox and Wood 1980; Dworkin et al. 2003; Tsang and Liu 2016). Accordingly, there is a dual process of teachers’ emotion construction. First, teachers’ emotions are affected by teacher agency. Teachers as a moral agents attempt to verify the teacher moral self/identity by reflexively monitoring their actions in teaching. If they interpret what they do in teaching helps them verify the moral self/identity, they may experience positive emotions that contribute to the development of a positive self/identity. On the other hand, if they think they cannot verify the moral self/identity in teaching, they may feel negative and a negative self/ identity may then be constructed. Second, teachers’ emotions are affected by the structure of education system that may be influenced by neoliberal education reforms. In the reforms, the normative rules of education system may require the teachers to do a lot of duties unrelated to education and the interpretive rules of education system may make teachers perceive the nature of most of their duties as non-instructional. Moreover, the reforms tend to reduce the authoritarian and cognitive resources for teachers to take actions to achieve their moral purpose of making a difference in students’ lives and to uncover the educational values behind their duties. Therefore, many teachers feel negative in teaching in the context of education/curricular reforms. Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 81

5 Further Research

It is noted that the two processes of teachers’ emotion construction are interplayed. Theoretically, teacher agency is conditioned by the structure of education system, which is used by teacher agency to reproduce the structure of education system. However, the above discussion does not show it clearly. This is because our discussion is based on the existing literature and research which study either the role of teacher agency or of structure in teacher emotion construction. Therefore, further research should study how the two processes interplay and co-construct teachers’ emotions. Nevertheless, it is hard for a researcher to study a phenomenon by focusing at both agency and structure levels at the same time. In order to overcome this difficulty, Giddens (1984) recommends researchers to employ the strategy of methodological bracketing. That means research can bracket structure when they pay attention to agency or bracket agency when they pay attention to structure. The former is called as institutional analysis and the letter is referred to analysis of strategic conduct (Giddens 1984). Since agency and structure are linked with each other, we will discover agency in the institutional analysis if we bear in mind that agency matters. Similarly, if we remember structure matters we will discover structure in the analysis of strategic conduct. In other words, bracketing does not mean ignoring but recognizing. To those who are interested in the institutional analysis, they may investigate: what are the normative and interpretive rules of secondary language classroom? How do the rules guide secondary language teachers’ actions in the teaching and interpretation of their work? What resources does secondary language classroom offer or not offer to secondary language teachers? How do the rules and resources facilitate or prevent secondary language teachers to fulfill their moral purpose and moral self/identity resulting in the patterns of teachers’ emotions? How and why do education/curricular reforms change the rules and resources resulting in teachers’ emotions? To those who are interested in the strategic analysis, they may examine: what is the salient self/identity of secondary language teachers? What do secondary language teachers do to verify the salient self/identity? How do the secondary language teachers know their salient self/identity as verified or not? How do they feel if they think their salient self/identity as verified or not? How is the self/identity formed and reformed? What are the relationships between secondary language teachers’ emotions to the salient self/identify formation and reformation? How do secondary language teachers interpret their work and work environment? How and why do the interpretations affect their emotional experiences? How do secondary language teachers’ emotions affect their actions in teaching and self/identity? How do secondary language teachers mobilize structure to help them to verify the salient self/ identity? How do secondary language teachers respond to education/curricular reforms? What extent the salient self/identity is moral? 82 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang

6 Implications to Second Language Teacher Education

Within second language teacher education, scholars (e.g. Benesch 2012; Wolff and De Costa 2017) have called for a need to expand the language teacher identity landscape and attend to the emotional demands and struggles of teachers in training and in particular, those nonnative English-speaking teachers of English as a second/ foreign language. For a long time, the field of second language acquisition and TESOL has been plagued by the native speaker myth. In his exploration of non- native English-speaking teachers’ emotional experience, Reis (2015) noted that the status as nonnative has led to negative effects of insecurities and low privilege among nonnative English-speaking teachers. What Reis (2015) reports is a case in point to show that emotion is not merely a cognitive individual possession, but is socially constructed and closely related to teacher identity. Besides, it also indicates an important need to empower nonnative English-speaking teachers by showing them how they could identify, acknowledge and manage their affective responses to unfavorable social conditions. It is then possible to build up a stronger and emotionally-healthier workforce in TESOL. The field of second language education has witnessed a long-term research focus on negative emotions, which certainly deserve research attention because, as Benesch (2012) has rightly acknowledged, this process “invites them [teachers] to explore their feelings not as personal but political” (p. 128). Nevertheless, there is also a critical need to focus on positive emotions, highlighting how underprivileged teachers (e.g. nonnative English-speaking teachers) can reframe their experience by successfully managing their insecurities and adverse social conditions with positive effects on their professional identity development. It is then possible to develop workable strategies for language teachers to cope with various sources of anxiety, fear or insecurity in their specific sociocultural contexts. Second/foreign language teaching and learning, as stated by the Douglas Fir Group (DFG) (2016: 36), “is an emotionally driven process at multiple levels of experience”. To better understand such a process, we, aligning with DFG’s(2016) view, suggest to view emotion as a transdisciplinary entity. As what Turner and Stets’s(2005) assert, emotions are “results of a complex interplay among cultural, social structural, cognitive and neuro-logical forces…[the] goal should be to figure out how they are interconnected” (p. 9). It is also our view that the emotions of second language teachers are closely intertwined with their agency, identity and social power, with subtle consequences on teachers, learners as well as the enterprise of second language teaching and learning. It is hoped that in second language teacher education program, teacher emotions and the pertaining strategies to tackle emotional demands could be integrated so as to empower teachers, particularly those nonnative English-speaking practitioners in TESOL, to develop their pedagogy, identities and to negotiate emergent challenges in the time of educational reform. Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 83

Recommended Readings – Turner, J. H., & Stets, J. E. (2005). The sociology of emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This is the first book comprehensively, systemically, and critically introduce and review different sociological perspectives and theories of emotions. – Day, C., & Lee, J. C. K. (Eds.). (2011). New understandings of teacher’s work: Emotions and educational change. New York: Springer. This book involves different scholars to share their latest research on teachers’ work in the context of educational change. In short, all chapters in the book emphasizes emotions as a new and important perspective to understand teachers’ work and teaching in the 21st century. – Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society: Education in the age of insecurity. Maidenhead: Open University Press. This book presents two large-scale projects concerning with teachers’ work and emotions during improvement and reform in Canadian and U.S. secondary schools. The book provides insightful theoretical and methodological perspective for the study of teachers’ work and emotions. – Wolff, D., & De Costa, P. I. (2017). Expanding the language teacher identity landscape: An investigation of the emotions and strategies of a NNEST. The Modern Language Journal, 101(Sumpplement 2017), 76–90. http://doi.org/10. 1111/modl.12370. This article examined how one NNEST participant, Puja, was confronted with and successfully negotiated numerous challenges in her first year in a U.S. MATESOL program. Drawing on data sources that included interviews, observations, journal and stimulated verbal and written reports, the article highlights the reflexive relationship between Puja’s emotions and her subsequent identity development. The article then calls for a new pedagogical models that help teachers develop reflexivity and negotiate potential emotion-related challenges they may encounter in their professions.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – To what extent do you agree that teachers’ emotions are socially structured? Why? – How do second language teachers sustain positive emotions during education/ curricular reforms from the sociological perspective presented in the chapter? – What is the school administrators’ role in the process of social construction of teachers’ emotions? How do they mediate the effects of education/curricular reforms to second language teachers’ emotions? – If a focus on positive emotions can serve as the basis for new pedagogical models to help teachers develop their reﬂexivity and negotiate emotional challenges, how can such a focus be achieved in teacher education program? What needs to be done if TESOL program has to embrace “teacher identity, emotion and strategy as pedagogy” (Woff and De Costa 2017: 88)? 84 K. K. Tsang and L. Jiang

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Author Biographies

Kwok Kuen Tsang obtained his Ph.D. from Faculty of Education, the University of Hong Kong. He is currently an Assistant Professor at the College of Education Administration, the Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University. His research interests include teachers’ work and emotions, school and teacher effectiveness, education reform, school culture, and school administration. Sociological Understandings of Teachers’ Emotions in Second … 89

Lianjiang Jiang obtained his Ph.D. from Faculty of Education, the University of Hong Kong. He is currently an Associate Professor teaching English as a foreign language to adult learners at the School of Foreign Languages, Jimei University. His research interests include the incorporation of multimodal and digital literacies into L2/EFL curriculum, the investment of L2/EFL learners, and teachers’ use of technology in language teaching. L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological Perspective

Peter I. De Costa, Hima Rawal and Wendy Li

Abstract Following the sociocultural turn (e.g., Zembylas in Teaching with emotion: a postmodern enactment. Information Age Publishing, Greenwich, CT, 2005a) in teacher emotion research, we explore second language (L2) teacher emotions from a critical perspective. Such a perspective extends Benesch’s (Considering emotions in critical English language teaching: theories and praxis. Routledge/Taylor & Francis, New York, 2012) examination of teacher emotions from a broad sociopolitical perspective and De Costa and Norton’s (Mod Lang J 101-S:3–14, 2017) recent call to investigate social issues that L2 teachers face in light of neoliberal impulses within education. We also argue that critically-inﬂected teacher emotion research needs to take into consideration the social ecologies in which teachers are embedded. As Khong and Saito (Educ Rev 66(2):210–225, 2014) rightly observe, teacher emotions are shaped by social, institutional, and personal forces, a point that is instantiated in Wolff and De Costa (Mod Lang J 101 (S1):76–90, 2017), who illustrated how the emotions of their focal teacher were shaped by macro-level (e.g., language policy), meso-level (e.g., the school environment), and micro-level (e.g., teacher identity) forces. Building on these developments, we trace how two Mathematics teachers in English medium of instruction high schools in China and Nepal, respectively, managed their emotions as they used language and other affordances to accomplish their pedagogical goals and accommodate students’ diverse needs in these two distinct contexts.

Keywords Teacher emotion Á Emotional burnout Á Teacher agency English medium instruction in content courses

P. I. De Costa (&) Department of Linguistics & Germanic, Slavic, Asian and African Languages, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA e-mail: [email protected] H. Rawal (&) Á W. Li (&) Second Language Studies, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA e-mail: [email protected] W. Li e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction

Applied linguists have developed distinct lines of scholarships, such as teacher cognition (Borg 2015), teacher identity (Norton 2013), and teacher agency (Kayi-Aydar 2015), all of which have contributed to the proliferation of language teacher research in the past decades. While these lines of research have yielded helpful insights into the professional lives of language teachers, there has been relatively little investigation on language teachers’ emotions. Admittedly, some studies have evidenced a close relationship between teacher emotions and the quality of teaching (e.g., Day and Gu 2009), as teachers’ emotions have been known to impact teacher-student interactions and behaviors in the classroom, which in turn, affect students’ academic performance (Frenzel et al. 2009; Meyer and Turner 2006). More recently, the increasing phenomenon of teacher attrition and teacher burnout has imposed an urgent need for research on teacher emotions (Wolff and De Costa 2017). One key source of teacher burnout, according to Mercer et al. (2016) is the growing emphasis placed on teacher accountability and high-stakes standardized tests. This situation is especially pressing for language teachers and subject teachers who teach content subjects through a foreign language (Cowie 2011; Mercer et al. 2016), as they might undergo additional stress. For example, language teachers might experience anxiety due to their language deﬁciencies as non-native speakers, which might affect their teaching quality (Mousavi 2007). In addition, Loh and Liew (2016) observed that teachers often have to help students assimilate into the local culture, which might create further emotional demands. In view of this reality, this study seeks to bridge the gap in the literature of language teacher research by investigating emotions experienced by two English medium instruction teachers in Nepal and China. Informed by Benesch’s(2017) critical perspective on language teacher emotions, we investigate our focal teacher participants’ emotional experiences and make visible the power relations under- pinning these experiences by examining their interactions with students, colleagues, institutions. By focusing on these various interactions, we take into consideration the sociopolitical and ideological dimensions of teacher emotions while also examining the social ecologies in which teachers are embedded.

2 Theorizing Teacher Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological Perspective

As noted, in this chapter, we take a critical approach to teacher emotions by exploring the sociopolitical and ideological dimensions that underpin teacher emotions. In taking such a perspective, we aim to do two things. First, we build on earlier emotion research (e.g., Hargreaves 2000; Lasky 2005; Zembylas 2005a, b) that view emotions as relational and social, and thus call for a need to examine L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 93 teachers’ sociocultural contexts and their social relations in the classroom and the school settings. Second, we seek to unpack how unequal power relations impact teacher emotions at multiple levels, which include the classroom (micro-level), school (meso-level) and society (macro-level). Importantly, these levels, as we will illustrate, work in overlapping ways to restrict teacher agency as teachers engage in the emotional labor (Benesch 2017; Loh and Liew 2016; Wolff and De Costa 2017) of their profession. At the same time by placing issues of power at the center of theoretical understanding of teacher emotions, we distance ourselves epistemologically from a cognitive approach (e.g., Frenzel et al. 2009) to teacher emotion, that is one that constructs teacher emotions as internal individual trait and an individually-enacted sensation that derives from the evaluation of external stimuli in the context. That teacher emotions bear a sociopolitical dimension is underscored by several teacher emotion researchers such as Benesch (2012, 2017), Loh and Liew (2016), and Wolff and De Costa (2017). Invoking the notion of emotional labor, Benesch (2017), for example, explored how ESL teachers struggled with the power residing in high-stakes literacy tests. Such tests, she illustrated, also constrained teacher agency when it came to decision-making regarding instruction and pedagogy due to the oppressive need to prepare students to pass the standardized tests. The impact of high-stakes tests on teachers’ emotions was also examined by Loh and Liew (2016) who worked with English language teachers in Singapore. Loh and Liew articulated their concerns about the overarching ‘performance culture’ and increasing teacher accountability in Singapore, and how this prevalent ideology affected the teaching profession as it prevented teachers from actualizing their own teaching beliefs and values. Extending the work of Benesch (2012, 2017) and Loh and Liew (2016), as well as taking into account Khong and Saito’s(2014) observation that teacher emotions are shaped by social, institutional, and personal forces, Wolff and De Costa’s(2017) case study demonstrated how the emotions of their teacher participant were shaped by macro-, meso- and micro-levels forces. In highlighting the multi-level dimensions of teacher emotions, Wolff and De Costa foregrounded the need to locate teacher emotions in the social ecologies—a point that we will return to shortly—in which teachers are embedded. Thus far, we have established that when examining teacher emotions from a critical perspective, the complexities surrounding unequal power relations (e.g., sociopolitical issues) constitute a primary focus. Also crucial to note are the multiple layers (e.g., micro, meso and macro) and factors that shape teacher emotions. One key factor that influences teacher emotions is their ideologies, which are often invisible and warrant unpacking. According to Shkedi and Horenczyk (1995: 108), teachers participate in ‘lived ideologies’, namely, ‘amalgams of implicit and explicit beliefs, attitudes, and perspectives that have emerged from patterns of personal and collective experience within a certain cultural framework.’ Shkedi and Horenczyk presented a comprehensive mapping of teacher ideology and identified four sources for potential conflict that may arise from (1) within the teacher’s ideologies in a given area (e.g., a specific subject matter); (2) between aspects of the teacher’s ideologies 94 P. I. De Costa et al. from different areas (e.g., subject matter vs perceptions of students); (3) between the teacher’s ideologies and the ideologies held by other participants in the educational setting (e.g., principals, parents); and (4) between the teacher’s ideologies and realistic constraints (108). In short, and in keeping with the importance of adopting a multi-level approach to understanding described earlier, a critical understanding of teacher emotions recognizes how a teacher’s own ideologies as well as other ideologies that circulate within the broader social ecology can shape not only the emotions of teachers but also their pedagogical practices and interactions with others (Pachler et al. 2008). Put simply, because of the porous nature of ideologies, it is not uncommon for teachers to be affected by native and non-native speaker ideologies (e.g., Wernicke 2017) and language ideologies related to L2 accent (e.g., Falkert 2016), for example, as they grapple with the emotional labor of teaching. Taking into account that teacher emotions are sociopolitically inflected and ideologically driven, the present study explores the emotional professional lives of two experienced math teachers in China and Nepal from a critical perspective. The two research concerns that guided our study are: (1) What emotions emerged from those two teachers’ interactions with their local contexts?; and (2) How did these emotions affect their professional practice?

3 Methods

Our two participants recruited were (1) Grace, a Chinese math teacher, who has taught mathematics in English to high school students for seven years; and (2) Bhim, a Nepali, who has taught mathematics in English at a private high school for eight years. Both participants were interviewed individually by the second and third authors, who hailed from Nepal and China, respectively. Care and caution were exercised during the interview, in order for participants to feel secure and comfortable sharing their emotional reactions and experiences. A semi-structured protocol was observed during the interviews, when the participants discussed their emotional experiences working as math teachers in their local contexts, and also as they talked about the emotions that emerged from interactions with students, colleagues, and institutions. Follow-up questions, however, were mostly driven by the ﬂow of each interview. The interviews, which were conducted through Skype between September 2016 and March 2017, were transcribed and translated into English.

3.1 Focal Participants and Study Contexts

Grace Grace, who is in her early 30s, has been teaching A-level math to high school students in a private international school in Shenzhen, China for one year. The L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 95 school has two parallel education systems: (1) a Chinese high school system in which students study for three years and take the national university entrance exam (Gaokao), and (2) a UK secondary school system for students who seek to pursue an undergraduate education in the UK. Grace was hired to teach A-level mathematics to students in the latter system, and her textbook was imported from the UK. Before teaching at this school, Grace also taught at another private international school in Shenzhen upon graduating from her master’s program at a Chinese university. During her graduate work in Applied Mathematics, Grace tutored a high school graduate in A-level math. This teaching stint changed her future career orientation. In the first interview, she said, My original plan was to teach math in a public high school in China after graduation. But when I read the A-level mathematics textbook, I soon fell in love with the way math was described and presented in the textbook. It seems that mathematical concepts and theories somehow could be explained in a way that is more straightforward and easier to understand in this English [math] textbook than our Chinese math textbook. So, I decided to teach A-level mathematics. After graduation, she was able to find a job that allowed her to teach A-level math in a private international high school. Grace identified herself as someone who specialized in math but who also has a relatively sound command of English. After three years of teaching at that school, she was offered a better paying job at another private international high school in the same city. Instead of teaching A-level math at this new school, she had to teach Advanced Placement (AP) math-related courses, such as AP calculus, as students in this school sought to apply for undergraduate programs in the US. After three years of teaching AP course at this school, however, she went back to teaching A-level math at her current school. The school where Grace now teaches is like many other private secondary schools in China which have grown in popularity because of the prevalent trend of sending children overseas in pursuit of western education (Yang 2007). In order to maintain the competitive edge in the expanding market of private international schools, the administrators at Grace’s school implemented policies that correspond to market needs (for details about the neoliberal turn in Chinese education, see Li and De Costa 2017). As disclosed by Grace in an interview, the policies include (1) requiring content teachers to use 100% English in their class for teaching; (2) specifying pedagogies in the classroom; streamlining teaching methods and student management; and (3) connecting students’ academic performance with material incentive for teachers. Such a business-oriented approach to running schools created pressure on teachers and constrained their ability to act agentively in the classroom. Bhim Bhim, a male Nepali teacher, is in his mid-thirties. He has been teaching at a private school for the last eight years in the far-western part of Nepal. While the school runs classes from kindergarten through grade 10, Bhim teaches Math at a secondary level (grade 9 and 10). Having earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in Education with a specialization in teaching math, Bhim considers himself as having 96 P. I. De Costa et al. a working proficiency in English. His expertise in math, according to him, afforded him the opportunity to work at an English medium private school. In Nepal, all students after grade 10, regardless of whether they attend a public or private school, have to take a national school leaving exam that is administered by the Ministry of Education. The test items are available in both English and Nepali, however, and the exam is pen and paper based. The textbooks at the secondary level are distributed by the nationally regulated curriculum development center. All schools are mandated to use the same textbooks although private schools also have some extra books in English to provide their students with additional practice for exam preparation. Like China, Nepal has seen an increase in the privatization of English-medium schools in the past decade (Phyak et al. 2017).

3.2 Data Collection and Analysis

Our data consisted of a total of four in-depth interviews—two with each participant—and their teaching materials. All interviews were then translated into English. These teaching materials, including their syllabi and power point slides were sent to the researchers through email. As stated, our interviews sought to (1) reveal how teachers’ emotions regarding their teaching and relationships with the surroundings were discursively constructed, and (2) identify the emotional norms in their respective teaching contexts in order to understand how these norms inﬂuenced their emotions in ways that affected their professional practice. These aims guided our data analysis. Following the six phases of thematic analysis identiﬁed by Braun and Clarke (2006), we assigned codes to the texts in the transcripts with recurring patterns. Next, we focused on the emotions that occurred in those codes and categorized them into three broad areas: (1) their emotional experiences in the interactions with students, colleagues, and institutions, (2) the challenges they had in using English to teach math, and (3) their general feelings of teaching in their local contexts. We then re-examined those themes from different (micro, meso and macro) levels and tried to make connections of those emotional responses to the larger broader sociopolitical context in order to unpack how their pedagogical practices were impacted.

3.3 Analysis and Findings

After comparing and contrasting these aforementioned areas, the three themes that emerged from our data were: (1) teacher emotional burnout, (2) limited teacher agency, and (3) teacher anxiety over using English to teach math. L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 97

3.3.1 Emotional Burnout

Both participants experienced emotional burnout that stemmed from minor fatigue to changing the schools and teaching spaces. Grace, for example, mentioned that one of the reasons she left her previous school was her stressful interactions with the school administrators.

My negative feeling in another school mainly comes from the administrative level. They know nothing about teaching, but they like to mingle and tell you what to do in the class and how you should treat students. The “bosses” like to sit in and observe our teaching, and evaluate our teaching. This evaluation is closely related to your salary…two western teachers were hired to supervise our Chinese teachers. I don’t think the bosses trusted us. We also did not get along with those western supervisors because they never stand for us when some critical incidents happen. They do not take any responsibility for those problems (Grace/excerpt 1). The above excerpt shows that Grace was not satisﬁed with the fact that her teaching practices and pedagogies were subject to critical evaluations by the administrators who embraced a West-is-Best ideology that privileged English native speakers (Wernicke 2017). To fulﬁll institutional expectations and requirements, Grace was given less autonomy to make decisions regarding her teaching. This sense of not being trusted at the institutional level was reinforced by the policy of having western teachers supervise and evaluate Chinese teachers’ work. Grace’s exclamation that “they never stand for us” suggests that Chinese teachers and their western supervisors were pitted against each other, with the latter not providing support for the former. In addition, the circulating ideology among the school administrators that Western teachers are better at performing their duties led Grace to question her status as a teacher. Situated in this relatively hostile environment, Grace later acknowledged in the interview that addressing the stressful relationship between teachers and administrators took up most of her energy, which deprived her of the opportunity to invest more time and effort in her teaching. Bhim also described his stress related to emotional burnout. However, his emotions were more related to a lack of value and recognition assigned to the teaching profession, fatigue, and a lack of resources. According to him:

Teachers have less prestige in society… we are not called professionals like other profession…people think that anyone can become a teacher. It’s more of inferiority complex because we are viewed to be of less value in society. Even my family members compare me with other siblings and cousins in the family who are less educated than me but earn more money than I do. This makes me feel so low that at times I think of changing my profession (Bhim/excerpt 1). Bhim also emphasized that teachers are paid less in comparison to other professions, which made him take on extra tutoring classes outside school in order to earn a supplementary income. In addition, the lack of ‘incentives’ from the institutions make him feel “tied to the profession rather than motivated,” underscoring a sense of obligation as opposed to genuine desire to work at his school. More importantly, that teaching as a profession was undervalued by society and even his 98 P. I. De Costa et al. own family highlight the role of such macro- and meso- level ideologies in contributing to his emotional burnout. Bhim also shared that as a math teacher, his work is relatively more taxing than that of his fellow teachers who only teach language courses. He noted, “I can’t rest even during my leisure period because I have to collect my students’ homework notebooks and correct them everyday. I don’t have time to breathe. I feel tired like a donkey at the end of the day.” This situation was exacerbated by his low emotional energy that resulted from the lack of pedagogical resources at the teaching site.

It’s very difficult to find good Math books written in English. Even the books have very little use of English… there are so many mistakes in printing… so many mistakes in the answer sheets given at the end of the textbooks… I have to use my own expertise in Math to help my students trust me and not the mistakes… it’s so hard sometimes… I feel as my energy is drying and I can’t function well.” (Bhim/excerpt 2) The data illustrate that emotional burnout was inextricably linked to power inequalities that occurred at the micro (individual), meso (school) and macro (society) levels. Such inequalities were further magnified by ideologies that sorted and sieved teachers in ways that disempowered Grace and Bhim.

3.3.2 Emotion and Limited Teacher Agency

The level of agency and power she could exercise in her profession also impacted Grace’s sense of powerlessness in the classroom because she was obligated to use an assigned textbook to prepare her students for the A-level math exam. She revealed:

When I went back to teach British math [after three years of teaching AP math courses], I found it left limited space for teachers to teach in their own way. The textbook is written in a way that serves the exam. So, when teaching this course, I felt a little bit tired and not quite interested, but in order to prepare students for the test, I have to review the key points over and over again and have them do exercises day by day. It’s really boring. I feel really tired. (Grace/excerpt 2) Grace’s emotional distress can also be traced to the exam-oriented nature of the math textbook and the course that was geared towards preparing students for the high-stakes exam. Interestingly, after several years of teaching, her fascination with working with an English math textbook had waned. More importantly, however, such limited ﬂexibility led her to feel professionally vulnerable due to the constraints placed on her agency. This emotional feeling of being positioned less powerful was also observed in Bhim’s data. His agency-related emotions resulted from his inability to use multimodality in his classes and his lack of autonomy in making decisions. Regarding the former, he said:

I love using technology in my class but you know that we are not equipped at that level… and in math we have to practice so much that we keep on writing the solutions… sometime I make my students come in front of the class and write on the board… yeah they use L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 99

calculators for some purposes…. We are still book and [black]board dependent and this makes me extremely anxious about my students. (Bhim/excerpt 3) Thus, with regard to the lack of autonomy, Bhim’s experience resembled Grace’s in that he had to negotiate the restrictions imposed upon him by the test orientated teaching culture in Nepal. As observed by him:

Teachers and in fact the whole schools are evaluated in terms of how our students’ score in exams so we focus on helping them score high in exams. In doing so, we might neglect the overall connection with the students. A student I taught has become an artist now but when he was at school, we never even thought that he had that talent… all rote learning. We lose that connection with the students and I feel hollow inside. (Bhim/excerpt 4) As illustrated, Bhim lamented the loss of an emotional connection with his students because of the pressure to produce good exam results. Similar emotional pressure was evident in our data on Grace when she talked about preparing students for standardized tests. Grace revealed that her success in teaching by the school administration was based on her students’ achievement in the A-level exam, which compelled her to teach to the test. This added layer of responsibility in turn placed an emotional burden on her. In short, the emotional states of our focal teacher participants were not uniquely contingent upon one particular issue or cause. Rather, their emotional well-being was tied to multiple reasons, one of which is the English medium instruction setting of their schools.

3.3.3 Teacher Anxiety Over Using English to Teach Math

The emotions of Grace and Bhim were both directly tied to the English medium of instruction policy that was adopted in the private schools where they taught. Grace’s emotional burnout was related in part to her perceived proﬁciency in English. Distinctly aware of her own linguistic proﬁciency, she shared:

This is a really big problem. The reason why I haven’t been able to deliver the whole class in English is because nowadays some high school students’ English proﬁciency is better than mine. They would prefer me to use Chinese in the class. In the previous school, I compromised and used Chinese all the time, which caused the dissatisfaction of my American supervisor. Then the boss was not happy about me using Chinese. At that time, I was not able to use English to explain calculus clearly, so I had to compromise. (Grace/ excerpt 3). Although Grace’s past teaching experience related to the use of English was one of the reasons that prompted her to change schools, she ﬁrmly believed that the content in math can be taught effectively through the use of her students’ L1. As she put it:

You can use any language to learn math. Math is math. But the difference lies at students who take tests like the SAT but learn math in Chinese would need to undergo a transfer process, ﬁrst they need to translate the English instructions into Chinese and then refer to the knowledge they learned in Chinese. They need to solve math problems in English. So the language would impede their thinking process (Grace/excerpt 4). 100 P. I. De Costa et al.

Grace’s belief that the use of L1 in teaching math is acceptable conﬂicts with the meso-level school ideology that demands better English proﬁciency of students in order to prepare them well for the high stakes A-level exam. She also believed that although math can be taught effectively in Chinese, she was bound to use English because her students were preparing to study abroad with English being of paramount importance to achieving that purpose. Bhim felt the same way about using English in his math classes as he noted:

I was trained as a math teacher and that’s all I have as my knowledge. The main purpose of using English is to help students get admission in good colleges and help them go abroad for further studies but knowing English is considered knowing everything or being intelligent which is not true but many people have that thinking … [which] discourages me a lot (Bhim/excerpt 5). He further explained,

I was very hesitant to teach because I was not very ﬂuent as English teachers of this school but still they hired me… because they needed an expert in Math… I try my best to use English in my classes but I don’t know when I start using Nepali during my class [laughs]. I think it is ok to use Nepali sometimes because it is easy. (Bhim/excerpt 6) Recalling one of his experiences, Bhim stated that some of his students’ parents, who subscribed to an English-only ideology, complained to the school administration about his use of Nepali in his math class. However, when most of his students scored above ninety percent in the national level exam, his teaching style was praised by both the parents and administration. However, since the students who are enrolled in the private schools aspired to gain admission to better colleges upon graduation, they aimed to take content courses conducted in English, thereby contributing to Bhim’s belief that the global and powerful status of English makes all the difference in the academic lives of his students and his own professional practice. Crucially, Bhim’s belief corroborated with Grace’s regarding the idea that the content in math has nothing to do with teaching it through certain languages. Grace’s maxim “math is math” and Bhim’s assertion that “numbers and numbers” indicate that language has a secondary role to play in the teaching of content. However, their emotional responses—in particular their anxiety—were related to the circulating ideology that assigned a higher value to English over the students’ and their own L1, which in turn affected how they were positioned by those around them and how they viewed themselves as teachers.

4 Discussion and Conclusion

Adopting a critical approach (Benesch 2012, 2017) to explore our research questions, we found three themes related to our participants’ emotional experiences: emotional burnout, emotion and agency, and anxiety related to the use of English as a medium of instruction in math classes. In light of these ﬁndings, we align ourselves with Hargreaves’s(2000: 235) observation that teaching is indeed L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 101

‘irretrievably emotional’ because the emotions of our teacher participants were intricately woven with different aspects of their professional lives. Emotional burnout among teachers often results from different causes such as fatigue, lack of resources and support (Acheson et al. 2016; Cowie 2011), as well as ideologies and values related to the teaching profession (Pachler et al. 2008). Professional fatigue, according to Schwarzer et al. (2000) is a part of emotional exhaustion, which constitutes a core component of emotional burnout (Maslach et al. 2001). Crucially, such fatigue is related to Loh and Liew’s(2016) notion of performance culture which exerts emotional pressure on teachers as they attempt to carry out their professional responsibilities. For example, one of Bhim’s emotional pressures regarding performance culture was related to his daily grading of his students’ homework and classwork. His reduced professional status can be attributed to the circulating ideology that constructed teaching as a less prestigious career compared to other highly specialized professions, such as law, medicine, and engineering (Ingersoll and Perda 2008). Such a positioning of his profession demonstrates how emotional stress can take its toll on teachers like Bhim. By contrast, Grace’s perceived lack of support in her previous job resulted in her lack of professional commitment. Her decision to leave her former school shows that tensions within a strained teacher-administrator relationship can impact a teacher’s professional commitment (Cowie 2011; Hulpia et al. 2011) because of the neoliberal demands on teachers to produce sterling exam results. Such a strained relationship also stemmed from an English native-speaker ideology that permeated her workplace, which in turn fueled Grace’s emotional burnout. Our participants’ emotional levels were also dependent on how much agency they could exercise in various aspects of their teaching. As shown in previous studies (e.g., Rogers 2012), when granted agency to make their own decisions, teachers feel less stressed, which ultimately contributes to their overall professional well-being (Mercer et al. 2016). The lack of agency due to the textbooks used at the institutions where they work and test oriented teaching culture, for example, rele- gated Bhim and Grace to less powerful positions. In Grace’s case, the institutional decision to adopt exam-oriented textbooks constrained her from enacting her teaching agency. Both Grace and Bhim viewed the high stakes tests as curbing their agency because both their institutions were evaluated in terms of student test scores, which subsequently had a washback effect on their teaching. Bhim, for example, was unable to adopt the teaching methods he had learned during his teacher training because he had to prepare his students for the tests. This conflict between his training and beliefs (Benesch 2017) resulted in him being emotionally less connected to his students and his profession. Significantly, our findings corroborate with Zembylas’s(2005b) observation that teachers are constructed through discursive practices and power relations such as teaching-to-the test situations. The emotional effects related to high stakes tests and issues surrounding power inequalities invites comparison to the notion of value consonance described by Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011). According to them, the consonance between teachers’ personal beliefs or values and institutional norms or ideologies strengthens their sense of belonging and satisfaction in their profession. 102 P. I. De Costa et al.

In our study, both participants experienced value dissonance rather than consonance which, in turn, contributed to their emotional burnout. For example, Bhim’s description of his disconnect with his students due to the focus on test-oriented teaching resulted in a dissonance between what he wished to do and what he was obligated to do. Such a dissonance only underscored the lack of agency and its attendant emotional effects encountered by teachers like him as they wrestle with a lack of agency at school. This lack of agency, as seen in our data, was exacerbated by the schools’ decision to use English as the medium of instruction to teach content math courses. Our participants’ curtailed agency and the emotional distress they experienced stemmed from their perceived lack of high proficiency in English and the gate- keeping role it played for their students who had aspirations to further their education either in their home country (in Bhim’s case) or abroad (in Grace’s case). To some extent, such distress could have been averted if the schools had allowed both teachers to use their respective L1s in order to deliver math instruction. But perhaps more importantly, our findings do reveal how deeply entrenched ideologies about English in China (Pan 2016) and Nepal (Phyak 2016) to the point that they permeate family and school settings in ways that negatively impact the emotional health of teachers like Grace and Bhim. In focusing on two teachers, one in China and another in Nepal, we acknowledge that our findings may not be generalizable to all teachers. That said, we would like to emphasize that, some key implications can be drawn from our study that would have a direct impact on teacher education and the teaching and learning process as a whole. For one, recognizing and handling the causes of emotional burnout such as lack of supportive teaching environment, work related fatigue, performance pressure, perceived low self-esteem, and lack of agency can help with teacher retention. Efforts to arrest trends in growing teacher retention should also be coupled with a greater focus on teacher identity development given the fact that teacher identity and emotion are inextricably linked (Wolff and De Costa 2017; Yazan and Peercy 2016). After all, how teachers feel about themselves is directly related to the ways in which they are positioned by those around them. In light of this pedagogical reality, educating teachers not only on what and how to teach, but also on how to manage their emotional pressure so as to better connect to their students and profession is an integral part of teacher education programs and pre-/in- service teacher training, and one that should not be overlooked. Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2012). Considering emotions in critical English language teaching: Theories and praxis. New York: Routledge. This book presents different (cognitive, socio-cultural and multidisciplinary) approaches to studying emotions in English language teaching. Benesch foregrounds a critical approach to investigate emotions. The book also focuses on feminist theories and praxis in various educational settings. L2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Sociopolitical and Ideological … 103

– Benesch, S. (2017). Emotions and English language teaching: Exploring teachers’ emotion labor. New York: Routledge. Benesch expands on the concept of teachers’ emotion labor in light of how teachers often struggle between feelings, rules, and their professional training and ethics. Drawing on interview data from 13 postsecondary English language teachers, Benesch examines how teachers face conflicting emotions due to different challenges in teaching. – Mercer S., & Gkonou, C. (2017) Teaching with heart and soul. In T. Gregersen & P. MacIntyre (Eds.), Innovative practices in language teacher education (pp. 103–124). New York: Springer. This book chapter underscores how emotional intelligence and social intelligence are integral components of language teachers’ competencies. Based on a survey-based study, Mercer and Gkonou report on a positive correlation between teachers’ trait emotional intelligence and social intelligence and “educational-context-specific” emotional intelligence and social intelligence. – Wolff, D., & Costa, P. I. (2017). Expanding the language teacher identity landscape: An investigation of the emotions and strategies of a NNEST. Modern Language Journal, 101(S1), 76–90. This narrative-based study investigates the relationship between teacher identity and teacher emotions by tracing the trajectory of an MA TESOL student over the period of an academic year in a US university. By focusing on the student’s reflexivity, Wolff and De Costa illustrate how their participant managed her emotions in a positive way by deploying her teaching strategies in an optimal manner when working with her students. – Zembylas, M. (2011). Teaching and teacher emotions: A post-structural perspective. In D. Christopher & C.-K. L. John (Eds.), New understandings of teachers’ work (pp. 31–43). Dordrecht: Springer. This book chapter is organized into three sections. The first section presents the implications of post-structural views of emotion on teaching and teachers. The second section describes the methodological implications of studying teaching and teacher emotions through a post-structuralist perspective. The final section discusses the implications of such a perspective on educational leadership and teacher education research.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Identify some potential sources that might inﬂuence teachers’ emotions in an adverse manner. To what extent do these sources emanate from an individual, institutional and societal level? – What are some strategies that teachers may adopt to self-regulate their emotional behaviors and to manage their emotional states? – How can teacher emotions affect their own professional growth and well-being? In what ways is student learning impacted? – What steps can be taken to enhance teacher agency and to foster the development of positive teacher emotions? 104 P. I. De Costa et al.

– How can content teachers who work in an English-medium instruction setting evade emotional burnout?

References

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Author Biographies

Peter I. De Costa is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Languages at Michigan State University. His primary areas of research are identity and ideology in SLA. He is the author of The Power of Identity and Ideology in Language Learning (Springer, 2016). He also recently edited Ethics in Applied Linguistics Research (Routledge, 2016). His work has appeared in AILA Review, Applied Linguistics Review, International Journal of Applied Linguistics, Language Learning, Language Policy, Language Teaching, Linguistics and Education, Research in the Teaching of English, System, TESOL Quarterly, and The Modern Language Journal.Heis the incoming co-editor of TESOL Quarterly (starting January 2018).

Hima Rawal earned an M.A. in TESOL from Michigan State University under the Fulbright Grant. Currently, she is a Ph.D. student in the Second Language Studies program at Michigan State University. For over a decade, she taught at both K-12 and university levels in the EFL context of Nepal. She has also taught English to adult immigrants in the US. Her research interests include language teacher professional development, teacher identity and ideologies, teacher/learner beliefs, teacher/learner emotions, study abroad, home language policy in multilingual contexts, linguistic landscape and South Asian languages in diaspora settings.

Wendy Li is a Ph.D. student in the Second Language Studies program at Michigan State University. She received a Bachelor Degree in English Education from Jiangxi Normal University in China, and a Master Degree in TESOL from Lancaster University, UK. Before beginning her doctoral studies, she taught English as a foreign language at different educational institutions in China. Her research interests are centered on instructed second language acquisition, computer-assisted language learning and teaching, identity and ideology in language learning and teaching, language teacher and learner emotions, language teacher agency, and language teacher professional development. Part III Personal Factors Associated with Second Language Teachers’ Emotions Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second Language Teaching: Implications for Teacher Education

Ana Maria F. Barcelos and Maria Ruohotie-Lyhty

Abstract Studies on language teacher beliefs have long indicated that in order to better understand teacher beliefs, we need to look at their connections with emotions (Borg 2006). Researchers in ﬁelds such as social psychology (Frijda et al. 2000) and education (Rosiek 2003; Gill and Hardin 2014) have pointed out how emotions shape and are shaped by beliefs. These suggest also that emotions and beliefs are fundamentally interconnected in individuals’ decision-making processes, with emotions providing the necessary impetus for change and beliefs deciding the course of actions. In order to have a complete view of second language teachers’ beliefs, it is crucial to have a clear understanding of these fundamental connections. However, in applied linguistics, there have been only a few studies that have explored this interrelationship. In this chapter, we review studies about emotions and beliefs in second language teaching highlighting their main points, theoretical framework and main results. Our aim is to provide an overview of the ways in which emotions and beliefs are interconnected and how this understanding can be used to support language teacher development. We suggest implications for research on teachers’ beliefs and emotions. We conclude with guidelines for how teacher educators can work with student teachers’ beliefs and emotions.

Keywords Beliefs Á Emotions Á SL teaching Á SL teachers Á Language teacher education Á Language teacher development

A. M. F. Barcelos (&) Department of Languages, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] M. Ruohotie-Lyhty (&) Department of Language and Communication Studies, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland e-mail: maria.ruohotie-lyhty@jyu.ﬁ

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 109 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_7 110 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty

1 Introduction

According to current understandings in Applied Linguistics (AL henceforth), learning and teaching a language means primarily being in a relationship to self and others (Kubanyiova and Crookes 2016). Teaching and learning are thus recognized to be processes that involve a complex web of cognitive, relational and emotional resources. Teaching and learning also touches an individual’s identity and agency (Barcelos 2015; Kubanyiova and Crookes 2016; Liddicoat and Scarino 2013). In language teachers’ daily professional lives they invest in the development of their pupils’ skills, beliefs and identities and must constantly respond to different pupils and different situations in a pedagogically meaningful way. Language teachers must also maintain and develop these relationships, which demand a great deal of sensitivity and, usually, emotional labor on their part (Gao 2008; Golombek and Doran 2014). Language teacher education, therefore, has the demanding task of revealing these fundamental relationships and making the skills needed to create and maintain those relationships learnable (Moate and Ruohotie-Lyhty 2017). Although awareness of the emotional and personal sides of teaching has become more present in research, there are still few models with which teacher education follows (see, however, Golombek and Doran 2014). Language teacher education and teacher education have recently been criticized for focusing on preparing teachers for delivering predetermined curriculum instead of handling complex social situations in the classroom (Lipponen and Kumpulainen 2011; Ruohotie-Lyhty 2013). Although beginning language teachers possess the latest theoretical knowledge of learning a language, they struggle with these complex situations, often resorting to authoritative and emotionally deprived teaching models (Dewaele 2015) from their past personal school experiences (Ruohotie-Lyhty 2011). Studies show that this is often related to emotions of guilt and disillusionment that threaten teachers’ further professional development (Sabar 2004; Kumazava 2013). To be able to develop language teacher education in the direction of recognizing the emotionally and situationally sensitive nature of the language teacher profession, the theories of language teacher beliefs and emotions provide a useful lens (Golombek and Doran 2014; Golombek 2015). In this chapter, we look at the latest understanding on emotions and their fundamental relationship with beliefs. Through these theorizations we then further shift our view into the emotional development of teacher beliefs and its implications for the development of language teacher education. Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 111

2 Towards an Understanding of Beliefs and Emotions as Intrinsically Related

In this section, we discuss teacher beliefs and emotions as interrelated co-constructed concepts. We do this by ﬁrst bringing to the forefront what the literature on Education and Social Psychology mentions about the relationship of these two concepts. We cite previous research on this topic to further clarify said concepts. Then, we analyze how looking at these two concepts interrelatedly can contribute to language teacher development.

2.1 The Relationship Between Beliefs and Emotions

During the last 20 years, AL research has become interested in socioculturally and dialogically informed ways of studying emotions and beliefs (Barcelos and Kalaja 2011; Benesch 2012). In this vein, beliefs and emotions have often been defined in similar terms, showing the parallel roles they hold in teaching and teacher development. Although these studies show the obvious roles of emotions and beliefs and raise the importance of understanding their interconnection, these concepts have not been studied together in AL until very recently (for exceptions see Barcelos 2015; Rodrigues 2015). In this section, we discuss this relationship and add recent developments in the field of AL. Due to limitations of time and space, it is not our intention to review studies on language teacher beliefs and emotions separately, or to provide a lengthy discussion on the definitions of these two concepts (for reviews on language teacher beliefs, please see Barcelos and Kalaja 2013; on language teacher emotions, please see Benesch 2012). However, it is important to briefly delineate our understandings and contemporary views of these concepts in order to arrive at a theoretically sound understanding of their interconnection.

2.1.1 Teacher Beliefs

Although beliefs are now a common theme in the language teacher education field, it has not always been like that. Before its beginning in the mid-70s with studies on teachers’ thoughts and beliefs, teaching was viewed and studied with a focus on the product or results: students’ learning and behavior. Thus, teachers’ thoughts did not have much emphasis. This changed when researchers started recognizing the situated and cognitive nature of teaching. Thus, the emic or insider perspective of the teacher was brought to life into research on teacher thinking, beliefs and cognition. Teacher beliefs began to be seen as important because they help: (a) teachers reflect about their practice and understand some of the conflicts and resistance that may occur in the classroom; (b) researchers understand why teachers act the way they 112 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty do, how they respond to change, and how they learn how to teach. As Barcelos and Kalaja (2013) point out, “It is crucial to find out about [teacher] beliefs about language learning and teaching as these might be reflected in their practices not only in classroom contexts but also in out-of-classroom contexts with possibly far-reaching consequences” (p. 1). Seminal books (Woods 1996) and state-of-art articles (Borg 2003) in AL contributed to further understandings of the role of beliefs in language teaching. Woods’ (1996) study investigated the beliefs and decision-making process of ESL teachers in Canada through the use of ethnographic interviews, observations, and stimulated recall interviews based on videotaped lessons. Woods’ results added to a view of beliefs as dynamic and in relationship with each other and with other phenomena in the world. In addition, Woods’ study helped us understand the so called “contradictions” or “inconsistencies” between teachers’ beliefs and practices as significant to an understanding of their beliefs. Thus, a key aspect when investigating teacher beliefs is paying attention to the tensions between their beliefs and actions, an aspect which was been taken up by research more recently (see Golombek and Doran 2014). Another vital aspect that was mentioned by Borg as well is the role of context in teacher beliefs. According to Borg (2003), contextual factors play an important role in determining to which extent teachers teach according to their beliefs. Some of the contextual factors that shape classroom realities, cited by Borg are: demands of parents, principals, schools and society, classroom arrangement, policies, colleagues, exams, and difficult work conditions, among others. As we will also see later, these aspects also influence and trigger many teacher emotions. Because of this complex nature of beliefs, recent work in AL (Kalaja et al. 2016; Barcelos and Kalaja 2011) emphasizes the contextual nature of beliefs, character- izing them as dynamic and emergent, socially constructed, contextually situated, potentially paradoxical and dialectical. As such, they are social and individual, shared, diverse and uniform; and constitute a complex dynamic system that is interrelated, embedded, nonlinear, multidimensional and multilayered (Barcelos and Kalaja 2011; Mercer 2011; Feryok 2010).

2.1.2 Teacher Emotions

The study of emotions has mostly focused on learners’ emotions or affective factors or variables (Arnold 1999). According to Swain (2013), emotions are the elephant in the room: poorly studied and understood and “seen as inferior to rational thought” (p. 205). Some researchers (Swain 2013; Zembylas 2005) have criticized how emotions have been investigated. According to these authors, emotions are investigated out of context, thus neglecting their dynamic and situated nature and their relationship to ideologies and power (for an exception see Benesch 2012). Fortunately, however, things have changed and nowadays we seem to be experiencing what Pavlenko (2013) has named an affective turn, which not only shows how affect inﬂuences learning, but also how learning can inﬂuence emotions. Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 113

But, what are emotions? Our understanding of emotions comes from Social Psychology and Education. As stated elsewhere (Barcelos 2015), we understand emotions as dynamic constructs, a complex network which colors our perceptions and influences how we choose to act in the future. Similarly to So (2005), we understand emotions as “the psychological outcome of dynamic interactions between different layers of internal and external systems—physiological, cognitive, behavioral and social” (pp. 43–44). According to this author, we should talk more about emotional processes instead of emotional states since they are “dynamic,” “self-organizing,” as well as “nonlinear and constantly emerging through the causal interdependence among internal and external variables on different timescales” (p. 5). We also believe, as pointed out by Barcelos’ (2015) review of emotions based on authors in Social Psychology, that we can characterize emotions as having five interwoven aspects: behavioral, physiological, phenomenological, cognitive, and social. In sum, emotions are interactive, contextual, social, embodied (Benesch 2012) and embedded in discursive and ideological practices (Zembylas 2006). Language teacher emotions as a subject of study has had scarce attention in AL, contrary to changes in the field of Education following the seminal issues on teachers’ emotions of the Cambridge Journal of Education (Nias 1996) and of the special issue of Teaching and Teacher Education (Hargreaves 1998). From this point onward, several publications in education point out the important role of emotions in teaching (Rosiek 2003; van Veen and Lasky 2006; Winograd 2003; Zembylas 2004, 2005 to cite just a few). According to (Uitto et al. 2015) the study of teacher emotions had its beginning in mid-90s, reaching its peak in the 2000’s. These authors, in their thorough review of articles published on the journal Teaching and Teacher Education on emotions in teachers’ work and lives from 1985 to 2014 (a 29-year span), found out that the highest number of articles was related to the following themes: 1. Emotions in teacher identity and professional learning 2. Emotional exhaustion among teachers 3. Teacher emotions and relationships 4. Teachers’ emotions in historical, political and societal contexts and educational reforms 5. Teachers’ impact on student emotions 6. Teachers’ emotional intelligence, skills and knowledge 7. Teachers’ emotions and regulation of emotions. In the field of Education, studies have emphasized how emotions are inextricably tied to teaching and their essential role in understanding teacher thinking, reasoning, learning and change. According to Zembylas (2004: 198), “Emotions and teaching are deeply interrelated in complex ways, both epistemologically and constitutively.” Zembylas (2005)defines teaching as “a way of being and feeling, historically, in relation to others” (p. 469). In fact, Zembylas (2005) criticizes the fact that the concept of teacher knowledge has not incorporated the emotional dimension into it. According to him: 114 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty

Emotional knowledge is also an important part of teaching and thus it is greatly needed in understanding teaching and teachers. Certain aspects of teaching can only be learned in practice through how one feels and are not easily described by cognitive schemes. Teacher knowledge is a messy kind of knowledge that involves content knowledge, learning research and teaching techniques as well as knowledge that can only be attained in social practice or by personal exploration through how a teacher feels (Zembylas 2005: 468–469). As suggested by Zembylas, in trying to understand teachers’ emotions, the studies in education inevitably link it to teacher identities and highlight the role that structures of power, context and emotional cultures play. Zembylas (2005) examines “the emotional characteristics of teaching by examining how school politics, power relations, and personal purposes affect the positive and negative emotions a teacher reports experiencing as a result of her interactions with students, colleagues, and school administrators” (p. 188). He conducted an in-depth ethnographic study with elementary school teacher over 3 years. The data consisted of interview transcripts, field notes and videotapes from observations, and an emotion diary. One of the assumptions of the study was that the teachers’ emotions “are involved with self-evaluations based on accepted emotional rules and partly constituted perceptions of how she constructs her teacher-self” (p. 188). His study showed how the teacher responded and constantly negotiated her pedagogy, her epistemologies, and her decision making. In his view, the teacher emotions “are vehicles for symbol- izing and affecting social relations”. In addition, he states that “emotions are practices that reveal the effects of power in the context of teaching” (p. 198). The study also yielded two main themes: emotional suffering and emotional freedom. Emotional suffering refers to “ways in which emotional rules within the school culture function to impose certain roles on her [the teacher], and the ways in which such rules are internalized resulting in emotional suffering” (p. 473). Emotional freedom, according to (Zembylas 2005: 477), “is at the core of a teacher’s capacity to act (or not to act) as one chooses or prefers, without being normalized by any external compulsion or restraint, although the existence of emotional rules or norms is clearly unavoidable”. Zembylas (2005) proposes the concept of “genealogies of emotions in teaching” which are defined as “accounts of the strategies and tactics that have taken place in various emotional practices at different moments in relation to one’s teaching” (p. 936). He argues that “The place of emotion in teacher identity formation plays a central role in the circuits of power that constitute some teacher-selves while denying others. The critical understanding of these processes of discipline and domination in teaching is crucial, if we are to promote the possibility of creating new forms of teacher-selves” (p. 936). In the language teaching field some studies about teachers’ emotions began to appear in the beginning of 2010 (Cowie 2011; Golombek and Doran 2014). More recently, however, this has been changing with more articles on language teacher emotions by applied linguists or language teacher researchers, either in journals in the Education field (such as Ruohotie-Lyhty et al. 2017) or in AL journals (Wolff and De Costa 2017;Song2016). These studies have shown several aspects that are worth considering. Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 115

First, these studies have pointed out that emotions are an important aspect of teachers’ careers and development shaping what they do in class as well as their relationship with colleagues, students and the profession itself. In this relationship, teachers feel a range of emotions including positive and negative ones related to all these different aspects that may at times influence whether they stay or leave the profession. Cowie’s study (2011), for instance, investigated nine experienced EFL teachers working in Japanese universities through the use of interviews. The results have shown the complexity of teachers’ emotions related to their colleagues and students. Whereas emotions towards their colleagues were identified as frustration, disappointment and anger in institutional terms, their emotions towards students were both of emotional warmth, caring and affection, as well as anger over short critical behavioral incidents. The author concludes his article asking why such an essential aspect of teaching had been completely ignored for so many years and stressing the importance for teacher education to include it in our development and in teaching discussions in a safe environment. Second, research on teacher emotions should focus on what they “do” instead of what they are (Pavlenko 2013). Thus, the focus should not be on internal, inner states of teachers, but rather on their actions in the classroom. This would imply a focus on observing teachers’ practice and looking at their behavior as well. Considering teachers’ emotions in context would help putting the emphasis on the social, cultural and political aspects that influence emotions as already pointed out by Zembylas (2005). In short, the studies on teacher emotions have suggested how emotions are contextual, social, situated and dynamic. In order to study it is important to consider the role of context, ideologies, identities and their relationship with beliefs, a topic to which we now turn to.

2.1.3 Beliefs and Emotions as Interrelated

Part of the complexity of emotions and beliefs refers to their interrelationship. Both are situated, contextual, and dynamic. Yet they are different concepts. The similar definitions and empirical results about their nature suggest that they are somehow part of the same developmental process, but the roles they play in it and their interrelationship are aspect that have only recently been explored. According to Gill and Hardin (2014), “To ignore affective constructs such as emotions is to present an incomplete and even faulty understanding of teachers’ beliefs” (p. 232). To more thoroughly comprehend language teachers’ development, understanding the double tie that emotions and beliefs form is important. Emotions and beliefs are involved in teachers’ experiences of their daily professional lives and in the ways they interpret these events to inform future actions. This interpretation process is both personal and social, drawing on personal history and available discursive resources of the environment (Meijers 2002). These processes allow teachers to authenticate their pedagogical beliefs and emotions and transform them (Meijers 2002). As pointed out in Barcelos (2015), researchers in Social Psychology have looked at the relationship between beliefs and emotions and have characterized the intersection 116 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty between these two constructs as interdependent and reciprocal (Hannula et al. 2004). In addition, emotions provide evidence for beliefs and guide our attention towards information that is relevant to our goals (Winograd 2003). Thus, emotions can shape, create, alter or make beliefs more resistant to change (Frijda et al. 2000). In short, the relationship between beliefs and emotions is dynamic, interactive and reciprocal, with cognitions influencing emotions and vice versa (Clore and Gasper 2000; Frijda and Mesquita 2000; Parkinson 1995). To show how this theoretically claimed interrelationship can further our understanding of language teacher development, we next review the first pioneering studies that have researched this interconnection in the contexts of pre- and in-service language teaching. In the following section, we aim to describe the ways in which emotions and beliefs together inform language teacher development to further discuss the meaning of this understanding for teacher education. In describing the process of teacher development we draw on concepts such as “emotional spirals” (Frijda and Mesquita 2000), “indexicality of emotions” (Golombek and Doran 2014), and “teacher vulnerability” (Zembylas 2002; Song 2016) to help highlight the dynamic, interactive and reciprocal bond of emotions and beliefs in language teacher development.

2.2 Beliefs and Emotions in Teacher Development

When entering the language teaching profession, novice teachers encounter an interactively and intellectually challenging environment that necessitates immediate decision making and capacity to develop their own agency to reach preferred goals. This process of development often demands a lot of personal investment and is experienced as under supported and demanding (Ruohotie-Lyhty 2013). However, studies also show the possibilities that teacher education offers for helping teachers to encounter the challenge of teaching (Golombek and Doran 2014). Until recently, teacher education has counted on providing teachers with new information and tools for reﬂecting and developing their former beliefs without paying substantial interest in emotions (Ruohotie-Lyhty 2013). Although language teacher development is still understood to be based on experiences of cognitive dissonance, a state of imbalance between original beliefs and actual events, and its positive counter- part, cognitive congruence, these processes cannot occur without emotional involvement. Recent research shows that cognitive and intellectual challenges alone have little impact on teachers’ actions, but that teacher development always also includes emotions (Golombek and Johnson 2004). Rodrigues (2015), in a recent study, demonstrates the reciprocal relationship of beliefs and emotions and the emotional spirals they can form together in language teacher development. Rodrigues’ study set out to investigate student teachers of English in Brazil and the relationship between the beliefs and emotions they felt as language learners and as student teachers during the language teaching practicum. Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 117

Interviews, open-ended questionnaires, written narratives, diaries, documents and field notes were used as data collection instruments. Rodrigues’ results showed that student teachers held beliefs about EFL learning; English classroom content; the concept of a good English teacher; the relationship between teacher-students-students; and private and public schools. As student teachers during the practicum, they revealed emotions of anxiety, insecurity, disappointment, fear, motivation, excitement and satisfaction. These emotions had three sources: (a) relationships (with professors, colleagues, school teachers and students); (b) context: working conditions; school structure, system, organization, school atmosphere (Zembylas 2003); and (c) teaching resources. Her study also showed how emotions and beliefs interact with each other reciprocally. Thus, students who believed English teachers had to have a high proficiency, felt pres- sured to learn the language well. As they did not learn it quickly, they felt frustrated and demotivated, thus forming two other beliefs: (a) language learning is a process and takes time and (b) a good English teacher does not need to know everything. These two re-signified beliefs gave rise to emotions of acceptance and being more comfortable with one’s proficiency level. On the other hand, pleasant emotions contributed to more positive beliefs, such as the case of two student-teachers. They felt excited and engaged to learn the language and thus believed that good teachers need to feel excited, engaged and attempt to make learning fun. In general, the study suggested that beliefs and the actions in line with beliefs produce positive emotions, whereas beliefs in dissonance with actions produce negative emotions. However, the situation is more complex than that and beliefs and emotions may change and transform as we interact in the world. Thus, one of the study participants, Mya, felt terrified of becoming a teacher for all the contextual problems teachers face in Brazil (see Barcelos 2016 for a review). The emotions of “sadness, disappointment, frustration, discouragement, and depression she experienced during one teaching project reinforced these beliefs and her negative view of teaching, which in turn increased her terror of becoming a teacher in an “emotion-belief spiral-like process (Frijda and Mesquita 2000)” (Rodrigues 2015: 105). However, having successful teaching experiences in a private school context contributed to her change in these beliefs and emotions. She started believing teaching could be rewarding and she felt more motivated and excited about her profession. In short, Rodrigues’ study showed that positive and negative emotional experiences helped student teachers to form new beliefs, which were modified to reduce the cognitive dissonance (Harmon-Jones 2000) between the desired outcomes and reality (Rodrigues 2015: 119). In addition, dissonance between beliefs, emotions and actions affected teacher identities. Other studies on in-service language teacher development have shown the importance of emotions in accompanying changes in beliefs (Kubanyiova 2012; Golombek and Doran 2014; Ruohotie-Lyhty 2016). In these studies, which draw on experiences within teacher narratives, positively experienced emotions were found to signify cognitive congruence, a sense of balance between their own beliefs and the interpretation of the events; whereas negatively experienced emotions, similarly to Rodrigues’ study (2015), were found to signify cognitive dissonance (Golombek 118 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty and Johnson 2004; Ruohotie-Lyhty 2016; Kubanyiova 2012). For this reason, positive emotions had a straightforward relationship with belief development by strengthening teachers’ sense of direction and helping them to develop their practices and their beliefs, whereas negative beliefs were connected to development in more complex ways. On the other hand, negative emotions often indicated a need to reconsider either language teachers’ previous beliefs or conceptualizations of the events (Golombek and Doran 2014; Ruohotie-Lyhty et al. 2017). In this sense, negatively experienced emotions formed opportunities for transforming practices and developing relationships with pupils and colleagues. On the other hand, negative emotions could also arouse in teachers a defensive need to solidify their original positions, finding the cause of the problem outside their own beliefs or practices (Ruohotie-Lyhty 2016). Some studies describe the complex role that negatively experienced emotions play in the development of teachers’ beliefs in terms of teacher vulnerability (Zembylas 2002, 2005; Song 2016). As emotions are both individually and socially negotiated, the existing personal life-histories and contextual resources come to the forefront in teachers’ attempts to make sense of their cognitive and emotional dissonance regarding interactional and pedagogical demands. Depending on the personal resources and environmental support, an experienced gap between ideal and real can lead to either open or protective vulnerability that have different roles in teacher development (Song 2016; Zembylas 2002; Ruohotie-Lyhty 2016). This phenomenon is studied by Song (2016) in a language teaching context in Korea. Song (2016) collects teachers’ interviews as data and explores the case of Korean English teachers who encounter Korean students after they return from studying English abroad. When the Korean teachers interact with the returnees, they experience a significant sense of unease because they feel the returnees challenge their authority as language experts. Song’s study also shows that Korean hierarchical discourses about the teacher role easily causes teachers to interpret this dissonance negatively and resort to strengthening their authoritative and grammar related beliefs about language expertise. However, Song’s study also showed cases where the situation offers possibilities for open vulnerability, through which teachers critically consider and transform their original beliefs, agency and emotions in the language classroom. Ruohotie-Lyhty’ study (2016) also shows that teachers choose to either solidify their original identities and beliefs or open them for transformation when they encounter events that destabilize their emotions and former beliefs about the teacher’s role. Typically, the studies of Song (2016) and Ruohotie-Lyhty (2016) find that teachers struggled alone with their emotions, without significant support from colleagues. This isolation perhaps stressed the language teachers’ need for pro- tecting their professional beliefs and roles. Thus, a space for teachers to receive support and discuss difficult emotions caused by interactional problems, lack of time and materials, can aid teacher development (Pappa et al. 2017). In recent years revolutionary theoretically-based experiments, with the purpose of forming models which embrace the role of negative experiences in language teacher development, have appeared. Moate and Ruohotie-Lyhty (2017) and Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 119

Aragão(2011) show that supportive environments and safe groups (i.e. a group where one can feel safe and appreciated and feel emotional security), in addition to facilitating development, encourage language teachers to reflect on their previous negative beliefs of themselves as language learners and to positively reconstruct their experiences as a resource for foreign language teaching. In these cases, language teacher education succeeds in offering compensatory experiences that cause student teachers to doubt their previously held negative emotions. Golombek and Doran’s study (2014) also presents a model of working with emotions and beliefs in teacher education that aids teacher educators in recognizing negative beliefs in their index character to be able to mediate open vulnerability in their student teachers. This is done not only by offering emotional support by recognizing the perezhivanie i.e., student teachers’ lived experience, but also by offering sufficient cognitive tools to resolve the conflict between ideal and real on the level of activity (Golombek and Doran 2014). Further studies are, however, still needed to more thoroughly grasp the embeddedness of emotions and beliefs in student teacher development.

3 Conclusions

This chapter aimed at reflecting on the relationship between beliefs and emotions of language teachers. The review provided here of studies in fields of Education, Social Psychology and AL suggests that there is a connection between beliefs and emotions. We contend that in order to have a complete picture of language teacher education, beliefs and emotions cannot be treated separately, but seen as interrelated co-constructed concepts. This is because beliefs and emotions, as discussed in this chapter, interact with each other, influencing teachers’ actions and decisions in complex ways. In addition, language teacher education is seen as a process in which teachers’ beliefs and emotions relate to each other and help build their professional identities. In light of this, what are the implications for language teacher education? We would like to suggest three. First, it is necessary that language teacher education recognizes the role of beliefs and emotions in the trajectory of language teachers’ identities and in their decision-making process. One can say that this is already done given the vast literature on teacher beliefs. However, what we are proposing is the inclusion of these two interrelated concepts and their role for pre-service development. In other words, if teaching is a relational and emotional process, we need to understand how beliefs and emotions relate to each other and what their role is in helping teachers learning to teach, becoming professionals and acting in the language classroom. We perceive this as essential in uncovering the complex relational processes of teaching languages and making them learnable for student teachers (Barcelos 2015; Kubanyiova and Crookes 2016; Liddicoat and Scarino 2013). Secondly, considering the mutually constitutive role of emotions in teacher development and the role of the environment in supporting teachers’ emotional 120 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty labor (Song 2016), the big question for language teacher education becomes the ways in which it seeks to create an emotionally and cognitively rich environment for teacher development. As some studies show, teacher education can offer student teachers compensatory emotional experiences that can help them to reconsider their previously held negative beliefs about their language competences (Moate and Ruohotie-Lyhty 2017; Aragão 2011). Instead of seeing negatively experienced emotions as a hindrance for development, teacher education should also recognize their potential in helping pre-service teachers become aware of their relationships with beliefs and the need for reflecting on their actions. Actively helping student teachers to reflect on their own negative emotions in a particular situation could help them to turn these experiences into an opportunity to increase understanding. Further research is needed in developing practical models for teacher educators and student teachers to recognize and reflect on emotional expressions (Golombek and Doran 2014). Third, to help student teachers to encounter their emotions and understand their significance, teacher education needs to continuously develop spaces to support open vulnerability. Song’s study (2016) shows how institutional and societal discourses might inhibit teacher development by making them resort to authoritative discourses on teacher roles. In teacher education contexts, supporting open vulnerability would demand critical consideration of structural and pedagogical factors, such as assessment and student teachers’ and teacher educators’ roles. Although we, as teacher educators, feel the pressure of accountability and are forced to assess our student teachers, we should, however, find ways of creating space for them to be able to address difficult emotions, such as uncertainty, fear, or irritation. We would like to end with three questions for further research. First, what are teacher beliefs about emotions and how do they shape the emotional life of the classroom? In other words, what do teachers believe about their own emotions and about their students’ emotions? How do these beliefs affect how they deal with their emotions and their students’ emotions in the classroom? Secondly, we believe that research on language teachers’ beliefs and emotions could investigate them lon- gitudinally and in transition phases, since this could provide further understanding of the role of these two concepts in more dynamic and complex ways. And finally, methodologically, future research could benefit from the use of some innovative approaches. Until now, the studies have been based mainly on language teachers’ interviews and narratives. We suggest the use of visual narratives (Kalaja et al. 2016), diaries and observation to help researchers gain a fuller perspective on the cognitive and emotional lives of language teachers. In conclusion, although the study of the interconnection of beliefs and emotions in language teacher research is still in its infancy, it has already proved to be a prominent field of research in informing language teacher education and further language teacher professional development. For this reason, we call for more research in this field to provide a more holistic picture of language teacher profession. Teachers’ Emotions and Beliefs in Second … 121

Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2012). Considering emotions in critical English language teaching: Theories and praxis. Abington: Routledge. In her book, Sarah Benesch explores the emotional dimension in critical English teaching. The volume provides a thorough review of the concept of emotions as well as a personal and practical view into language teaching practices. – Kubanyiova, M. (2012). Teacher development in action: Understanding language teachers’ conceptual change. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. The book offers a perspective into change in language teachers’ beliefs and actions. The book starts with a theoretical view of what constitutes language teacher change and continues with an empirical report of a longitudinal study on language teacher development and the role of cognition and emotion in development. – Schutz, P. A., & Pekrun, R. (2007) (Eds.). Emotion in education. Amsterdam: Elsevier. This edited volume provides an extensive view into the role of emotions in education and the empirical research done in this ﬁeld. The chapters of the book discuss the role of emotions in different contexts ranging from basic education to universities worldwide. – Zembylas, M., & Shutz, P. A. (2016). (Eds.). Methodological advances in research on emotion and education. Springer International Publishing. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29049-2 In this edited volume, Zembylas and Shutz explore the methodological dimension of conducting research on emotions in education. The book draws on insights from interdisciplinary ﬁelds and showcases different and innovative methods of research on emotion within different theoretical frameworks and international contexts.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – How can teacher educators cater to teacher emotions during their pre-service education and throughout their continuing education? – How can schools help build an emotionally literate safe space for teachers to share and work with their emotions towards the language and also towards students, colleagues, and parents? – Have you ever stopped to think about the kinds of emotions you frequently experience in your daily teaching practice? What do they tell you about your beliefs about the profession, your students and the pedagogical environment? – Do you know the kinds of emotions that your students feel as they learn? How can you expose students, teachers, and student-teachers to the topic of emotions in language learning? Try to create at least one classroom activity to foster discussion on this topic. 122 A. M. F. Barcelos and M. Ruohotie-Lyhty

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Author Biographies

Ana Maria F. Barcelos is Full Professor of English at the Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil. Her main interests include beliefs about language learning and teaching as related to emotions and identities. She has co-authored and -edited Beliefs about SLA: New Research Approaches (2003), Narratives of Learning and Teaching EFL (2008) and Beliefs, Agency and Identity in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (2016).

Maria Ruohotie-Lyhty is Senior Lecturer of applied linguistics at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Her main areas of research include foreign language teachers’ professional development, agency, emotions and identity as well as the development of language teacher education. She is a co-author of the book Beliefs, Agency and Identity in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching (2016). Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching Experience, Proﬁciency and Gender Affect Their Classroom Practice?

Jean-Marc Dewaele, Christina Gkonou and Sarah Mercer

Abstract Emotions are a key part of language education for all stakeholders. Yet, to date, learner emotions have been studied more frequently than those of teachers. In this chapter, we argue that it is crucial to investigate teachers’ management of their own emotions and examine any possible links with their classroom practices. We use the metaphor of teachers being like orchestra conductors, attuned to—and regulating—the emotions in the classroom. Using an online questionnaire, we collected quantitative feedback concerning classroom behaviours from 513 ESL/ EFL teachers from around the world. Independent variables included Trait emotional intelligence (EI), years of teaching experience, general English proficiency and gender. Statistical analyses revealed that Trait EI and teaching experience were positively linked with levels of self-reported creativity, classroom management, and pedagogical skills and negatively linked with predictability. Level of English proficiency was only positively linked to self-reported creativity and gender had no effect. Reflecting on the implication of these findings suggests that training in emotional competences could improve the effectiveness of (trainee) teachers’ classroom practices and, ultimately, also their professional well-being.

Keywords Teacher emotions Á Trait emotional intelligence Á ESL/EFL teachers Teacher proﬁciency Á Gender Á Teaching experience

J.-M. Dewaele (&) Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] C. Gkonou (&) University of Essex, Colchester, UK e-mail: [email protected] S. Mercer (&) University of Graz, Graz, Austria e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction

All education is imbued with the emotions of both teachers and learners. As Aristotle most famously said, “educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all”. The challenge facing all educators is how best to teach with a recognition and consideration of the emotional dimensions of learning and teaching. In the foreign language classroom, learners’ emotions have been compared to those of wild horses, which in the hands of a good teacher can be harnessed fruitfully towards language learning (Dewaele 2015). The teacher acts as an attentive and encouraging guide, attuned to the linguistic, social and emotional needs of the students, gently steering them forward in their language learning journey acknowledging and working with the emotions in the classroom in the pursuit of learning objectives and broader educational goals. A good language teacher has to acknowledge the anxieties that may arise and how to manage these effectively (see Gkonou et al. 2017) as well as how to generate positive emotions to create engaging lessons, interest in the language per se, and learners’ beliefs in their own potential to learn. Indeed, Dewaele et al. (2017) found that foreign language (FL) learners’ enjoyment (although not their anxiety) in the classroom was strongly related to their teacher. A useful metaphor for the FL teacher is that of a conductor of an orchestra with junior musicians, such as Gustavo Dudamel and the Simon Bolivar Youth Orchestra that he directed to great acclaim at the BBC Proms in 2007, 2011 and 2016. The qualities of a good conductor could be conceived of as similar to that of a good teacher. According to concert artist Robert Meyer, “There are many attributes a good conductor should have: ﬁrst, musicianship; second a good, clear beat; third, a good rapport with the orchestra; and fourth, a sense of personal magnetism. There are several other requisites but these are the main ones”1. Replacing “musicianship” by “linguistic and cultural knowledge of the FL”, the “clear beat” could be the clear voice and guidance, a good rapport with the students, and a sense of personal magnetism all apply to the FL classroom equally as well as to the orchestra. Essentially, a good language teacher needs to be in a position to manage the emotional tenor of the classroom. This means not only should they be able to harness the emotions of their learners, but they should also be able to regulate their own emotions to ensure they are in the right frame of mind to create positive rapport with learners, generate enjoyment and manage any anxieties. Reﬂecting on how interconnected teacher and learner psychologies are (Mercer 2016), it is surprising to note how little attention is paid to the teachers themselves in language learning psychology research, especially compared to the depth and breadth of work on learners (Dewaele 2017a; Gkonou et al. (2016); Mercer et al. 2016; Mercer 2016; Mercer and Kostoulas 2018). We therefore feel that there is a need to work towards a deeper understanding of language teacher psychology including in particular how

1https://robertmeyer.wordpress.com/2007/04/11/what-makes-a-conductor. Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 127 they manage the emotional complexity of the FL learning classroom for themselves and their learners. The current study represents a small step towards filling that gap by attempting to identify some sources of individual differences (IDs) in teachers’ classroom behaviour connecting their emotional intelligence to their classroom practices. Specifically, we will investigate the effect of a range of IDs on EFL and ESL teachers’ self-reported classroom practices focusing on the possible links with Trait Emotional Intelligence (Trait EI; Petrides 2009), English proficiency, length of their teaching experience, and gender.

2 Literature Review

A key ability for managing emotions of oneself and others is emotional intelligence (EI), which can be thought of as a developing competence or as a level of personality trait. The concept of Trait EI emerged from the distinction between the two EI constructs (Ability EI and Trait EI; Petrides and Furnham 2000, 2001). Trait EI is formally deﬁned as a constellation of emotional perceptions located at the lower levels of personality hierarchies assessed through questionnaires and rating scales (Petrides et al. 2007). Trait EI essentially concerns people’s self-perceptions of their emotional abilities and their inner world. An alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efﬁcacy (ibid). The authors describe people who score high on EI as being

flexible and willing to adapt to new conditions (…) forthright, frank and willing to stand up for their rights (…) clear about their own and other people’s feelings (…) capable of communicating their feelings to others (…) capable of influencing other people’s feelings (…) capable of controlling their emotions (…)reflective and less likely to give into their urges (…) capable of having fulfilling personal relationships (…) successful and self-confident (…) driven and unlikely to give up in the face of adversity (…) accomplished networkers with excellent social skills (…) capable of withstanding pressure and regulating stress (…) capable of taking someone else’s perspective (…) cheerful and satisfied with their lives (…) confident and likely to ‘look on the bright side’ of life (ibid: 274). Insights from general education have revealed that high levels of Trait EI in teachers have implications for their classroom management and practice. For example, empirical research has shown that highly emotionally intelligent teachers are better able to deal with the challenges of contemporary classroom life such as working with diverse heterogeneous classes, managing group dynamics or coping with increasing levels of teacher stress and burnout (see, e.g., Brackett et al. 2010; Chan 2006; Corcoran and Tormey 2012a, b, 2013; Jennings and Greenberg 2009). It has also been shown that such teachers tend to design more engaging lessons aimed at promoting learners’ motivation (Elias and Arnold 2006; Graziano et al. 2007; Nizielski et al. 2012) and work at reducing rates of bullying and antisocial behaviour in their classes (Gross and Levenson 1993, 1997; Richards and Gross 1999). 128 J.-M. Dewaele et al.

Within applied linguistics, research into Trait EI remains scarce, albeit with some notable exceptions. For example, Dewaele et al. (2008) found that high Trait EI was linked with lower levels of communicative anxiety in the L1 and of foreign language anxiety in the L2, L3, L4 and L5 of 464 adult multilinguals. The authors suggested that the high Trait EI reflected participants’ capacity to control and communicate their emotions and their ability to empathise with their interlocutors. This allowed them to gauge whether the interaction was going well, adjusting if necessary, which had the overall effect of lowering their anxiety. Low Trait EI participants, on the other hand, remained in the dark about the emotional state of their interlocutors and the success of the interaction, with little capacity to adjust if necessary, leading to increased anxiety across their languages. With regard to FL teachers, high Trait EI among language teachers was found to be connected to stronger teacher self-efficacy (Moafian and Ghanizadeh 2009) and stronger emotion-regulation skills during teaching (Gregersen et al. 2014). Additionally, interesting findings emerged through a recent project which investigated English language teachers’ emotional and social intelligence (see Gkonou and Mercer 2017; Gkonou and Mercer 2018). In particular, the quantitative findings revealed that English teachers reported high levels of Trait EI (M = 107.4; min = 20, max = 140), and that gender and length of teaching experience were significant predictors of Trait EI. The qualitative findings also showed that these highly emotionally intelligent English teachers drew on their teaching experience and the variety of past classroom experiences to interpret and respond to current classroom events and manage the class accordingly. Teacher expertise and the subsequent intuitive knowledge gained through their long and varied teaching experience shaped their Trait EI and were activated when called upon to take emotion-related decisions in class. In a study based on data collected from the same participants as in the present study, Dewaele and Mercer (2018) considered variation in 513 EFL/ESL teachers’ self-reported attitudes towards their students. The authors found that teachers with high levels of Trait EI had more positive attitudes towards their students and enjoyed their lively students more. An implication of this finding is that people with low levels of EI may find the teaching profession particularly challenging; however, specific training may boost trainee teachers’ levels of EI (cf. Vesely et al. 2014). Another encouraging finding was that more experienced teachers had more positive attitudes towards their students although they did not explicitly enjoy working with lively students more. Because of attrition in the teaching profession, it is possible that the participants with longer experience may simply have been the “better” teachers anyway. Teachers’ English proficiency also emerged as an important independent variable. More proficient teachers reported significantly more positive attitudes towards their students and also reported enjoying working with their lively students more. This was interpreted in terms of self-efficacy and linguistic in/ security. Teachers with higher levels of English proficiency did not have to worry about their position as “expert” in the FL classroom and were therefore potentially more confident and optimistic. Gender turned out to be a significant variable also, with female teachers reporting significantly more positive attitudes towards their Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 129 students. The authors concluded that (trainee) teachers need to be aware of their EI competences, self-efficacy, and FL proficiency, as they are likely to affect their professional well-being as well as the relationships with learners in their classrooms. Reflecting on the review of the literature on Trait EI in applied linguistics raises some interesting questions and reveals many yet-to-be-explored areas. As such, our aims in the present study are to begin exploring by empirically examining possible interconnections among variables which have not been researched or highlighted to date and which could connect with language teacher Trait EI and their classroom practices.

3 Research Questions

The present study aims to address the following four research questions: (1) What is the effect of Trait EI on teachers’ self-reported teaching practices? (2) What is the effect of years of teaching experience on self-reported teachers’ teaching practices? (3) What is the effect of English proﬁciency on teachers’ self-reported teaching practices? (4) What is the effect of gender on teachers’ self-reported teaching practices?

4 Method 4.1 Instruments

Data were collected through snowball sampling, which is a form of non-probability sampling (Ness Evans and Rooney 2013). An open-access anonymous online questionnaire was used. Calls for participation were sent through emails to teachers, students, and informal contacts asking them to forward the link to colleagues. The questionnaire remained online for six months in 2016 and attracted responses from 520 mono- and multi-lingual ESL/EFL teachers across the world, of which 513 ﬁlled out the questionnaire completely. Online questionnaires are ideal for collecting large amounts of data from participants from different parts of the world belonging to various age groups and language proﬁles (Wilson and Dewaele 2010; Dewaele, to appear). The geo- graphical diversity boosts the ecological validity of the results, as the effects of local educational practices are averaged out. Finally, the psychometric properties of online versions of traditional questionnaires are very similar to the pen-and-paper versions (Denissen et al. 2010). 130 J.-M. Dewaele et al.

The research design and questionnaires received ethical clearance from the first author’s research institution. Participants started by completing a short sociobiographical questionnaire with questions about gender, age, nationality, country of residence, language history, and numbers of years in the profession. Participants also filled out the short version of the Trait EI Questionnaire (Short Form; Petrides 2009), which contains 30 items and yields a global Trait EI score. Items include: “On the whole, I’m able to deal with stress”, “Expressing my emotions with words is not a problem for me” and “Generally, I’m able to adapt to new environments”. We ran a Cronbach alpha analysis on the 30 items to investigate the reliability, i.e., “the internal consistency across individual items on a data collection instrument” (Loewen and Plonsky 2016: 40). The Cronbach alpha score was 0.84, which can be described as good. The mean score was 4.55 (SD = 0.6), with scores ranging from 2.7 to 5.9 (absolute min = 1, absolute max = 7). Three groups were created: those within 1 standard deviation (SD) around the mean (the middle EI group: n = 339), those with scores more than 1 SD above the mean (the high EI group: n = 74) and those with scores more than 1 SD below the mean (the low EI group: n = 85). The next part of the survey consisted of the English version of the LEXTALE, a 60-item lexical test developed by Lemhöfer and Broersma (2012). The authors describe LEXTALE as a “quick and practically feasible test of vocabulary knowledge for medium to highly proficient speakers of English as a second language. It consists of a simple un-speeded visual lexical decision task”, which takes “on average 3.5 min to complete” (Lemhöfer and Broersma 2012)2. The test gives a good indication of overall English proficiency. LEXTALE scores have been found to correlate highly with TOEIC test results, an established test of English proficiency (ibid). Thus, even though LEXTALE was not designed to capture general English proficiency fully, it is nevertheless a useful indicator of it (ibid). The English L1 users scored higher on the LEXTALE: (mean = 94.8, SD = 7.6) than the LX users (mean = 83.5, SD = 12.9)3. The difference was statistically significant (t = 12.2, p < 0.0001). Scores ranged from a minimum of 15 to the maximum possible score of 100. Three groups were created for proficiency: the “low” linguistic proficiency group with scores more than 1 SD below the mean (n = 94), the “medium” linguistic proficiency group (n = 306), and the “high” linguistic proficiency group (n = 53). Some participants had only just started teaching while one had been a teacher for 52 years (mean = 15 years, SD = 10). Three groups were created following the same procedure for years of experience in the teaching profession: the “low” experience group with scores more than 1 SD below the mean (n = 78), the “medium” experience group (n = 348), and the “high” experience group (n = 87).

2http://www.lextale.com/whatislextale.html. 3We prefer the neutral dichotomy First Language Users (L1 users) versus Foreign Language Users (LX users) rather than the value-laden “Native versus Non Native Speakers” (cf. Dewaele 2017b). Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 131 4.2 Participants

A total of 513 participants (377 females, 131 males4) ﬁlled out the questionnaire. The mean age was 40 years (SD = 10). The majority of female participants is typical in web-based language questionnaires (Dewaele, to appear; Wilson and Dewaele 2010). The largest group were British (n = 71), Americans (n = 40), followed by Ukrainians (n = 37) and smaller groups of participants with the following nation- alities (in decreasing order): Greek, Azerbaijani, Argentinian, Chinese, Indian, Spanish, Turkish, Macedonian, Canadian, Austrian, Croatian, Pakistani, Belgian, Bulgarian, Egyptian, French, Polish, Portuguese, Swiss, Hungarian, Iranian, Japanese, Saudi, Slovenian, Australian, German, Brazilian, Finnish, Italian, Jordanian, Romanian, Serbian, Singaporean, South African, South Korean, Uruguayan, Irish, Israeli, Mexican, Russian, Swedish, Algerian, Angolan, Dutch, Indonesian, Libyan, Moroccan, Nigerian, Taiwanese, Thai, Japanese, Armenian, Belarusian, Bosnian, Chilean, Cuban, Czech, Ethiopian, Filipino, Iraqi, Jamaican, Kenyan, Malaysian, Montenegrin, Mozambican, Nepalese, New Zealander, Panamanian, Peruvian, Syrian, Tunisian, Turkish Cypriot, and Venezuelan. The sample of participants consisted of 15 monolinguals, 113 bilinguals, 174 trilinguals, 104 quadrilinguals, 81 pentalinguals, 22 sextalinguals, and 4 septalinguals. English was the most frequent L1 (n = 136), the remaining 376 participants had English as an LX. A majority of participants were teaching English at university (n = 290), with smaller numbers teaching in secondary schools (n = 154), primary schools (n = 63), and nursery schools (n = 6). The largest group of participants were working in Ukraine (n = 37), Greece (n = 32), Spain (n = 30), Azerbaijan (n = 25), Japan (n = 25), UK (n = 17) and USA (n = 17). The remaining participants worked in 103 different countries.

4.3 Dependent Variables

To generate a broad overview of self-reported teaching practices, data were elicited through the following general closed questions: (1) Would you describe yourself as a creative teacher? Responses included: No, A little, to some extent, yes, yes-very much so. (2) How predictable are your classes (i.e., how much do you stick to similar routines)? Possible answers included: Very predictable, predictable, it varies, not predictable, very unpredictable.

4Five participants did not answer this question. 132 J.-M. Dewaele et al.

(3) How would you describe yourself as an English teacher in terms of classroom management skills? Responses included: Far below average, Below average, Average, Above average, Far above average. (4) How would you describe yourself as an English teacher in terms of pedagogical or didactic skills? Responses included: Far below average, Below average, Average, Above average, Far above average. We operationalised teachers’ teaching practices through classroom management and pedagogical skills as these represent two key competencies for teachers and teaching in general. We have also included two additional constructs, namely creativity and predictability, given that these variables yielded interesting ﬁndings in previous studies (Dewaele et al. 2017). A one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test revealed that the scores on the four 5-point Likert questions were not normally distributed (all p < 0.0001), see also Fig. 1 that shows the distribution of scores. Mean score for creativity was 3.9 (SD = 0.8), for predictability it was 3.0 (SD = 0.7), for classroom management it was 3.8 (SD = 0.7), and for pedagogical skills it was 3.9 (SD = 0.7).

Creativity 40 Predictability Class Management 30 Pedagogical Skills

20 Proportion of particiapnts

00 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Likert scales scores

Fig. 1 Proportion of participants choosing a speciﬁc Likert scale score for the four questions on their classroom behaviour Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 133 4.4 Results

Kruskal Wallis tests revealed that Trait EI had a statistically significant effect on teachers’ self-reported creativity, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. It had a marginally significant effect on predictability (see Table 1). The results are visualised in Fig. 2 (based on mean scores). The analyses show that increased Trait EI is linked to more creativity, better classroom management, and stronger pedagogical skills—as well as marginally lower predictability in the classroom. The differences between groups are generally largest between the medium and the high Trait EI groups. The number of years that teachers had been in the profession had a statistically significant effect on their self-reported creativity, classroom management, pedagogical skills, and it had a marginal effect on predictability (Kruskal Wallis tests). More experienced teachers scored higher on creativity, classroom management, pedagogical skills, and marginally lower on predictability (see Table 2; Fig. 3).

Table 1 Effect of Trait EI on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean ranks) Level Trait EI Creativity Predictability Class management Pedagogical skills Low 207 270 235 234 Medium 246 250 241 240 High 315 224 303 310 Chi2 25.9 5.6 14.7 20 df 2 2 2 2 p 0.0001 0.06 0.001 0.0001

Trait EI 4.5

3.5

3 Low Medium 2.5 High 2

1.5

1 Creativity Predictability Class Management Pedagogical Skills

Fig. 2 Effect of Trait EI on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean scores) 134 J.-M. Dewaele et al.

Table 2 Effect of years of teaching experience on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean ranks) Years Creativity Predictability Class management Pedagogical skills Low 177 266 167 234 Medium 264 262 269 240 High 300 229 291 310 Chi2 35.3 5.2 43.5 20 df 2 2 2 2 p 0.0001 0.075 0.0001 0.0001

Years of teaching 4.5

3.5

3 Low Medium 2.5 High 2

1.5

1 Creativity Predictability Class Management Pedagogical Skills

Fig. 3 Effect of Years of teaching experience on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean scores)

Table 3 Effect of proﬁciency level on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean ranks) Proﬁciency level Creativity Predictability Class management Pedagogical skills Low 214 268 240 233 Medium 261 252 260 261 High 305 268 268 270 Chi2 15.6 1.6 2 4 df 2 2 2 2 p 0.0001 ns ns ns

Teachers’ English proficiency was linked significantly to self-reported creativity but had no effect on predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills (see Table 3; Fig. 4). A Mann-Whitney test revealed that no statistically significant gender differences existed for self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills (see Table 4). Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 135

Proficiency 4.5

3.5

3 Low Medium 2.5 High 2

1.5

1 Creativity Predictability Class Management Pedagogical Skills

Fig. 4 Effect of proﬁciency level on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management and pedagogical skills (mean scores)

Table 4 The effect of gender on self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills (mean ranks) Gender Creativity Predictability Class management Pedagogical skills Female 258 251 253 250 Male 245 264 259 267 Mann-Whitney U 23,392 23,472 24,116 23,045 Z −0.96 −0.98 −0.44 −1.28 p ns ns ns ns

4.5 Discussion

The first research question dealt with the potential effect of Trait EI on teachers’ self-reported teaching practices as represented by creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. The statistical analyses show a statistically significant positive effect of Trait EI on creativity, classroom management, and pedagogical skills—and a marginal negative effect on predictability in the classroom. A closer look at the means revealed that the differences were largest between the medium and the high Trait EI groups. In other words, teachers with high levels of Trait EI had higher scores than those with lower levels of Trait EI. This complements the findings in Dewaele and Mercer (2018) with the same participants showing that high levels of Trait EI were linked with more positive attitudes towards students. This reinforces our belief that having skills in the area of EI would be beneficial for teachers in respect to various aspects of classroom behaviours and teaching practices. We would reiterate our belief in the importance for teachers to have a sufficient degree of Trait EI, and/or extra training in skills 136 J.-M. Dewaele et al. linked to EI before entering the profession or early in their careers (Vesely et al. 2014). This is crucial not only for their own emotional wellbeing and ability to cope with the pressures of being a teacher (Brackett et al. 2010; Chan 2006), but also for the classroom atmosphere, learners’ emotional wellbeing, and the teaching outcomes (Jennings and Greenberg 2009). Nevertheless, we need to issue a note of caution at this point. We are aware that self-reported classroom behaviour does not necessarily accurately reflect reality, and observation data by expert raters might be a valuable additional measure worth considering in future studies. The problems with the self-report may be especially pertinent in this study, given that people with high scores on Trait EI tend to be more optimistic (Extremera et al. 2007), so they might perceive their classroom management and pedagogical skills somewhat more positively. That said, evidence from other contexts suggests that there could be links between creativity and EI (Chan 2005) and the emotional dimensions of classroom life (Corcoran and Tormey 2012a), although empirical evidence to clearly support a connection between EI and specific teaching competences remains mixed despite high expectations for such a link (Corcoran and Tormey 2013). In addition, what classifies as classroom practices is much more complex than we were able to capture in this study and further research examining specific areas of classroom practices in more detail might help create a more fine-grained picture of the possible connections between Trait EI and particular aspects of teaching competences. The second research question deals with the effect of years of teaching experience on teachers’ self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. The patterns that emerged were very similar to those of EI. Teachers who had been in the profession for longer were more creative in their classrooms, were better at managing the classroom activities and reported stronger pedagogical skills. They were also marginally more likely to introduce a degree of unpredictability in the classroom, something learners enjoy (Dewaele et al. 2017). These patterns mirror those uncovered for attitudes towards students in Dewaele and Mercer (2018). A positive interpretation of this finding is that teachers become better through a process of trial and error learning from experience and storing up a knowledge of critical experiences to draw upon in their teaching (Gkonou and Mercer 2017). It would also correspond with other studies, which suggest lower levels of EI in pre-service teachers (Corcoran and Tormey 2012b). An alternative, more neutral interpretation is that the proportion of good teachers was higher among our more experienced participants as the weaker teachers might have left the profession. The third research question focused on the effect of ESL/EFL teachers’ levels of English proficiency on their self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. Proficiency was only linked to creativity. In other words, teachers with higher levels of English proficiency reported being more creative in their classroom but proficiency level was unrelated to predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. The increased creativity could be linked to increased linguistic security, meaning teachers might use a wider variety of classroom activities and use more diverse sources for their teaching involving Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 137 potentially different language formats and sociolects—something a teacher with lower levels of proficiency might be more reluctant to explore. The fourth research question looked at the effect of gender on teachers’ self-reported creativity, predictability, classroom management, and pedagogical skills. No difference emerged between the 377 female and the 131 male participants. A gender difference did emerge among the same participants for attitudes towards students, with female participants reporting more positive attitudes (Dewaele and Mercer 2018). Interestingly, Gkonou and Mercer (2017) found a gender difference in reported EI scores among ESL/EFL teachers, which is in line with previous research which also showed that women tend to score higher than men. Further research could explore the extent to which gender differences may exist for various aspects of classroom practices, some of which are more closely linked to emotional dimensions and some less so.

5 Conclusion

The present study attempted to provide a first answer to the crucial question about the effect of various ID factors, in particular Trait EI on ESL/EFL teachers’ self-reported classroom practices. The analysis of data collected from 513 English ESL/EFL teachers from all around the world revealed that Trait EI and teaching experience were positively linked with levels of self-reported creativity, classroom management, and pedagogical skills and negatively linked with predictability. Their level of English proficiency was only positively linked to self-reported creativity. This is encouraging as it suggests that having a slightly lower level of proficiency does not preclude one from being a good teacher. Gender had no effect. It thus seems that teachers’ self-reported practices in their classroom are linked to both psychological traits as well as their experience gathered over the years, which would fit with work by Bar-On (2000), who also suggested that EI can develop as a result of increased life experiences. Given our expectations for the importance of Trait EI in managing the emotional dimensions of language teaching for the teachers themselves as well as for their learners and the classroom climate they create, it is encouraging to reflect that training in EI can improve the performance and the wellbeing of trainee teachers (Vesely et al. 2014) as well as potentially the emotional competences of teachers at any career stage (Brackett and Katulak 2006; Nelis et al. 2009; Zins et al. 2004). Accepting that emotions are such a key part of language education, we need to further delve into teachers’ management of their own emotions and those of their learners. We hope this study can add one piece of the fascinating puzzle about the EI and teaching practices of ESL/EFL language teachers across the globe. 138 J.-M. Dewaele et al.

Recommended Readings – Gkonou, C., & Mercer, S. (2017). Understanding emotional and social intelligence among English language teachers. London: British Council. This research report describes a study conducted by two of the authors to examine levels and correlates of social and emotional intelligences among EFL teachers along with the practices of a small number of case studies. It is one of only a few studies in the field of socio-emotional intelligence in the field of language education. – Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books. A popular science book but the key work that drew attention in the wider world to the concept of emotional intelligence, even though academic work had been done beforehand. It still contains many rich ideas and is worth understanding if you intend to explore the area of emotional intelligence. – Humphrey, N. (2013). Social and emotional learning: A critical appraisal. London: Sage. An excellent, thorough and critical examination of the field of social and emotional learning in education. Although it focuses on the learning aspects, many of the critical debates are relevant to the researching and discussions of socio-emotional competences of teachers. – Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491–525. In our view, one of the key papers in the field examining the social and emotional competences of teachers and proposing a model of Social Emotional Competence (SEC). It concludes with an interesting research agenda for future work in this area.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – What emotional competences do teachers find they draw on frequently? In what way/s do these affect their classroom practices? – How could a longitudinal research design, which would measure Trait EI scores at regular intervals throughout a teacher’s career and would also include narratives for reflection, throw new light on the phenomena under investigation? – How could classroom observations and stimulated-recall interviews be used to track any differences between teachers’ self-reported vs. actual classroom practices and their link to Trait EI? – How could teachers’ emotional competences be boosted through training (pre- and in-service)? What areas in particular should such training focus on? Do ESL/EFL Teachers’ Emotional Intelligence, Teaching … 139

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Author Biographies

Jean-Marc Dewaele is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck, University of London. He has widely published on individual differences in psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, psychological and emotional aspects of Second Language Acquisition and Multilingualism. He is the author of a monograph ‘Emotions in Multiple Languages’ in 2010 (2nd ed in 2013). He is President of the International Association of Multilingualism (2016–2018), Convenor of the AILA Research Network Multilingualism, and former president of the European Second Language Association (2007–2011). He is General Editor of the ‘International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism’. He won the Equality and Diversity Research Award from the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2013) and the Robert C. Gardner Award for Outstanding Research in Bilingualism (2016) from the International Association of Language and Social Psychology.

Christina Gkonou is Lecturer in Teaching English as a Foreign Language and MA TEFL/TESOL Course Director in the Department of Language and Linguistics, University of Essex, UK. She is the co-editor of ‘New Directions in Language Learning Psychology’ (with Sarah Mercer and Dietmar Tatzl) and of ‘New Insights into Language Anxiety: Theory, Research and Educational Implications’ (with Jean-Marc Dewaele and Mark Daubney). Her research interests are in language anxiety, emotions in foreign language learning and teaching, emotion regulation and teacher education.

Sarah Mercer is Professor of Foreign Language Teaching at the University of Graz, Austria, where she is Head of ELT methodology and Deputy Head of the Centre for Teaching and Learning in Arts and Humanities. Her research interests include all aspects of the psychology surrounding the foreign language learning experience, focusing in particular on issues of self and identity. She is the author, co-author and co-editor of several books in this area including ‘Towards an Understanding of Language Learner Self-Concept’, ‘Psychology for Language Learning’, ‘Multiple Perspectives on the Self in SLA’, ‘New Directions in Language Learning Psychology’, ‘Positive Psychology in SLA’, ‘Exploring Psychology for Language Teachers’ (Winner of the Ben Warren Prize), and ‘Teacher Psychology in SLA’. Part IV Emotions in the Context of Second Language Teaching The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms: Felt Sense, Emotionality, and Practical Knowledge Acquisition

Toshinobu Nagamine, Yutaka Fujieda and Atsushi Iida

Abstract There is a global consensus that teachers should be trained and educated with much emphasis on practical knowledge. Acquiring practical knowledge can mean learning how to become a creative professional in a global context. Unlike theoretical knowledge, however, it is hard, if not impossible, to verbalize personal practical knowledge, which often makes it difficult for teachers to efficiently share practical knowledge in their communities of practice. We, therefore, opted to focus on L2 teachers’ emotionality, more specifically, “felt sense” (i.e., a combination of emotion, awareness, intuitiveness, and embodiment) perceived by pre-service teachers during teaching practica, and to investigate the process of verbalization of “felt sense.” We expected to clarify the acquisition and transformation process of L2 teachers’ practical knowledge, as well as the relationships between L2 teacher emotions and reflective teaching. This chapter will address crucial issues of methodological approaches in L2 teacher education research and discuss major research findings of our collaborative qualitative research, focusing on the analyses of three different data sets: interviews, L2 poetry writing, and autobiographical narrative. This research is supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory Research (Project No. 15K12913) awarded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

Keywords Reﬂective teaching Á Teacher beliefs Á Felt sense Á Practical knowledge Verbalization Á Social constructivism Á L2 poetry writing Á Autobiographical narrative Á Qualitative research Á Thinking at the edge (TAE)

T. Nagamine (&) Department of English Language Education, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan e-mail: [email protected] Y. Fujieda (&) Department of International Social Studies, Kyoai Gakuen University, Gunma, Japan e-mail: [email protected] A. Iida (&) University Education Center, Gunma University, Gunma, Japan e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction

Although the notion of reflection is not new to the field of education (cf., Dewey 1910/1997; Schön 1983; Zeichner and Liston 1996), reflective teaching has recently been viewed in the TESOL field as the key to empowering teachers and to helping them grow as professionals (Farrell 2007; Farrell and Baecher 2017). Reflective teaching is a process whereby teachers think over their teaching practices, analyzing how something was taught and how the teaching practice may be changed in such a way that the learners can benefit in classrooms (see Nagamine 2008). Professional development includes multilayered non-linear teacher change in knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, understanding, identities, decision-making procedures, and teaching practices. Among other things, positive change in teacher beliefs is known to be a determining factor in teachers becoming effective practitioners (Richards et al. 2001). Richards et al. (2001: 41) summarize the roles of teacher beliefs as follows: (a) Teachers’ beliefs play a central role in the process of teacher development. (b) Changes in teachers’ practices are the result of changes in teachers’ beliefs. (c) The notion of teacher change is multidimensional and is triggered both by personal factors as well as by the professional contexts in which teachers work. In teacher education programs, therefore, it is crucial for teacher educators to provide sufficient reflection-type exercises and activities in which teachers can thoroughly explore and critically examine their beliefs (Farrell 2015b). When language teacher cognition began to receive much research attention in the fields of TESOL and applied linguistics, Borg (2003)defined the term “teacher cognition” as “the unobservable cognitive dimension of teaching—what teachers know, believe, and think” (81). Considering the use of the term “cognition,” that is certainly understandable, but affective elements such as “what/how teachers feel” were not included in the definition. Given the fact that the overwhelming majority of research into language teacher cognition has been done on teacher beliefs (Basturkmen 2012), it cannot be denied that those previous studies on teacher beliefs might have been influenced more or less by the exclusion of affective aspects of teacher beliefs. This possibility should not be neglected because teacher beliefs are not merely a cognitive entity, but an emotional entity. Their content, as well as their development and transformation processes, can be emotionally colored or intertwined with teachers’ affective factors (cf., Nagamine 2015). Borg (2012) touched on the important roles and functions teacher emotions play, asserting that researchers into language teacher cognition broaden their perspectives to reconceptualize teacher cognition, and tackle research agendas covering both cognitive and emotional aspects of teachers’ professional lives. It is obvious, however, that the term “cognition” has been quite problematic. This term, which may allude to reductionism, may lead researchers to lack awareness of teacher emotionality, its important roles and functions in the profession, and the complex yet crucial interrelationships between cognition and emotions (Nagamine 2014). The Role of Emotions in Reflective Teaching in Second Language … 147

In fact, there has been a dearth of research on teacher emotionality in the TESOL field even though we all know that teachers’ professional lives can be categorized as emotional labor and/or emotional work (see Meyer 2011). In the field of education, the amount of teacher emotion research has been increasing, and recent research findings clearly indicate that there are interrelationships among such factors as teacher emotions, social interactive systems in which teachers work, and the ways teachers act in the systems (Schutz and Zembylas 2011). Barbalet (2012:4) explains the interrelationships as follows:

Emotion is provoked by circumstance and is experienced as transformation of dispositions to act. It is through the subject’s active exchange with others that emotional experience is both stimulated in the actor and orienting of their conduct. Emotion is directly implicated in the actor’s transformation of their circumstances, as well as circumstances’ transformation of the actor’s disposition to act. An individual teacher perceives educational experiences differently due to different moods, feelings, and emotions, which are likely to influence one’s conscious and subconscious sense-making and decision-making processes. Teacher beliefs are not formed as a result or as a byproduct of an individual teacher’s computer-like thinking. Teacher beliefs are generated, and can be transformed, through different emotional experiences in and outside the classroom (social interactive systems). As Nespor (1987) explains, teacher beliefs are affective and evaluative in nature. Therefore, as a teacher, if one reflects on teaching practices to change one’s beliefs, it is necessary to critically examine one’s feelings and emotions associated with the reasons why and the process of how the teacher started to believe what s/he believes. Reflective teaching or teacher reflection is an emotional, as well as cognitive, activity. Hence, it is not always easy as a teacher to look carefully into one’s negative emotions and feelings about teaching experiences, much less to verbalize what one sensed or felt while teaching in a logical manner. Some teachers might end up feeling uncomfortable or upset as a result of critically reflecting on their emotional experiences (Nagamine 2008, 2012). Because of such emotional aspects of reflective teaching, if done by novice or pre-service teachers without any guidance, it may involve some risks. Moreover, it is well documented that teachers’ stated beliefs do not always match their actual teaching practices, and that researchers of language teacher cognition have demonstrated much difficulty in identifying valid reasons or justifications to explain the controversial cases (Basturkmen 2012). One of the reasons why teachers’ stated beliefs often discord with teaching practices could be the influence of affective factors on cognition processes (Nagamine 2014). All such phenomena imply the need to investigate teacher emotions and their interrelationships with teacher cognition. Therefore, we conducted a qualitative research project to shed some light on the interrelationships between reflective teaching and teacher emotionality, focusing on a pre-service teacher’s acquisition processes of tacit practical knowledge during teaching practica. Our research project is supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory Research (Project No. 15K12913) awarded to the first 148 T. Nagamine et al. author of this chapter for the academic years 2015–2018 by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). In this chapter, we will present and discuss the major research findings of a pilot study of our ongoing research project in which one pre-service teacher participated.

2 Teacher Beliefs as Teacher Knowledge: Social Constructivist Perspective

Drawing on social constructivism, Beck and Kosnik (2006) and Schram (2003) state that people’s interpretations of phenomena are basically intersubjective. Such an intersubjective nature of knowledge implies that the constant testing and modifying of previously constructed knowledge (i.e., firm beliefs) is always done “in light of new experience” (Schwandt 2001: 30). Since the early 1990s, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate teacher knowledge and beliefs, particularly in ESL contexts (Borg 2003, 2006; Smith 1996). In the previous studies, as well as in actual teacher education settings, teacher knowledge and beliefs were vaguely defined and separately conceptualized (cf., Borg 2006; Ellis 2006). Britzman (2003: 23) refers to this issue and claims that the distinction between teacher knowledge and beliefs can be viewed as “a problem of interpretation.” This assertion may be quite understandable when we think of the inseparable relationship between knowledge and beliefs and how they influence each other in actual teaching practices. Teacher knowledge was once conceived of as external, quantifiable knowledge that could be transferred to other teachers (see Johnson 1999; Mori 2003). In this view, which stems from the epistemological influence of applied linguistics (e.g., empirical research on L2 acquisition) (Mori 2003), teacher education was conceptualized as a process of transmitting external knowledge and skills and imprinting them on pre-service teachers. Such a conceptualization of teacher knowledge clearly has limitations (Bailey et al. 2001; Freeman 1989; Johnson 1999; Johnson and Golombek 2002; Richards 1989). Thus, in the TESOL field, the conceptualization of teacher knowledge has changed; it is now regarded as an internal, socially constructed experiential entity (Nagamine 2008). From the social constructivist point of view, therefore, the distinction between knowledge and beliefs is a false dichotomy. We can regard knowledge as “essentially a social construct” (Op’t Eynde et al. 2002: 23). Current literature on ESL/EFL teacher development and education shows that teacher knowledge is seen as an entity that is closely connected with one’s “personhood” (Mori 2003: 14) and can be reconstructed throughout one’s professional career. Thus, drawing on the social constructivist perspective to conceive of teacher knowledge, we use the term “practical knowledge” to mean “pedagogical wisdom” that a teacher perceives as effective to teach the students. Unlike formal theoretical knowledge, which is primarily known and produced by researchers or scholars, The Role of Emotions in Reflective Teaching in Second Language … 149 practical knowledge is principally known and produced by teachers themselves (Fenstermacher 1994). We see practical knowledge as personalized beliefs that are formed by the “accumulation of experiences” (Johnson 1999: 30) and are structured by episodic memories of prior learning and/or teaching experiences (Nagamine 2008).

3Reﬂection and Pre-service Teachers

Bailey et al. (2001) contend that constant reflection plays a critical role in empowering teachers to raise their awareness (i.e., transitive consciousness) to the level of metaconsciousness and further to the higher level of critical awareness (see Fig. 1). By being reflective, teachers are expected to gain awareness of their own teaching beliefs and practices, see teaching differently (Fanselow 1988; Gebhard and Oprandy 1999), and ultimately generate some change in action in order to serve learners better (Bailey et al. 2001; Murphy 2001), not to mention, that the more teachers explore, the more they gain the ability to reflect in action and reflect on action (Gebhard 2005). Nevertheless, teaching experience alone may not make teachers truly reflective practitioners (cf., Schön 1983). Novice teachers and pre-service teachers need to be equipped with appropriate analytical skills and to learn basic procedures/processes to make their reflection productive and meaningful (Farrell 2016). There are

Fig. 1 Levels of Level 1: Global Intransitive Consciousness consciousness This level consists of consciousness of being alive and (adapted from Bailey et al. awake when we teach. 2001)

Level 2: Awareness (Transitive Consciousness) This level consists of attention and focusing on teaching.

Level 3: Metaconsciousness This level consists of practical awareness of teaching and discursive awareness of teaching.

Level 4: Critical Awareness At this level, voluntary action, reflective processes, and mindfulness are deliberate and purposeful engagement in actions. 150 T. Nagamine et al. multiple ways teachers can engage themselves in reflection, for instance, keeping teaching journals, conducting action research, and implementing classroom observations. Nonetheless, important questions remain. Can every teacher who does such an exercise/activity change his/her teaching practice and serve learners better? Can every teacher reach the stage of critical awareness and get engaged in critical reflection? It has been reported that pre-service and novice teachers who lack enough teaching experience are likely to have much difficulty in identifying critical events or incidents to reflect on. In addition, teachers in general tend to have difficulty in verbalizing tacit practical knowledge. Some scaffolding strategies should be given to such teachers, and they should be guided so that they can engage in critical reflection (Nagamine 2011, 2014). One of the scaffolding strategies that can be used in a reflection activity is the use of metaphor (see Farrell 2012; Nagamine 2012). Farrell (2012) investigated pre-service English teachers’ beliefs about English learning and teaching through a metaphor analysis. He asked English teachers in Singapore to complete such a statement as “A teacher is ____” in order to elicit metaphors. The analysis of collected metaphors was conducted before, during, and after a six-week practicum. The collected metaphors were classified into three types: Social Order, Cultural Transmission, and Learner-Centered Growth. It was found that the participants tended to accept information or knowledge that fit with their beliefs, and that they tried to avoid information or knowledge that contradicted their beliefs. Such research indicates that the teachers can benefit from using some scaffolding tools to make reflection more effective, because reflection requires the teacher to go through inductive reasoning and reification processes.

4 Tacit Practical Knowledge and Thinking at the Edge (TAE)

The teacher learns and acquires practical knowledge through experience. While experiencing teaching, the teacher perceives and feels a variety of things in the context of teaching. Since the body is always in interaction with the environment, as a teacher, one thinks not only with one’s head, but also with one’s body (cf., Schutz and Zembylas 2011). Gendlin (1962, 1978) argues that our bodies know unver- balized wisdom (i.e., pre-verbal sense of “something” experienced in the body), what Gendlin calls “felt meaning” or “bodily felt sense.” Tacit intuitive practical knowledge is accumulated in the teacher’s body through teaching experiences. It is hard, if not impossible, for the teacher to verbalize this particular type of knowledge. Tokumaru (2011: 13; emphasis in original) states as follows:

According to Gendlin, meaning is formed in the interaction of experiencing and something that functions as a symbol. However, it is virtually impossible for us to create brand new symbols, especially verbal ones, in a modern era over-ﬂooded by language. The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language … 151

There is, however, a method called “Thinking at the Edge (TAE)”. TAE was originally developed by Eugene Gendlin and Mary Hendricks, and is “a structured method of elaborating a bodily felt sense, something vague, hard to describe yet feeling important, by interacting with verbal symbols to create and express new meaning” (Tokumaru 2011: 5). By incorporating TAE into a series of reflection activities, we postulated that we would be able to help pre-service teachers effectively explore emotional, as well as cognitive, aspects of teaching practices, and verbalize practical knowledge through the meaning-construction process of a felt sense. We also expected that, by collecting and analyzing different types of qualitative data while implementing such reflection activities for pre-service teachers, we would be able to investigate the acquisition process of tacit practical knowledge and the roles and functions of emotions in reflective teaching.

5 Research Methodology

5.1 Research Context and Participant

The research was conducted at Kumamoto University, Japan. Kumamoto University is a Japanese national university located in Kumamoto city, Kumamoto prefecture, in the Kyushu region. The university has seven faculties and eight graduate schools with a total of around 10,000 Japanese students and 400 international students from Asia, North America, South America, Europe, Africa, and Oceania. One 21-year-old female pre-service teacher voluntarily took part in the research. At the time of the investigation (i.e., the academic year 2015), the participant Yoshie (pseudonym) was a senior student studying in the Department of English Language Education. She completed her two-week teaching practicum when she was a junior student. We started collecting data before she began the mandatory teaching practica required for senior students. In the teaching practica, she experienced supervised teaching for two weeks in an elementary school and for the other two weeks in a junior high school.

5.2 Data Collection Procedures

In this research, three types of qualitative data were collected through different methods (interviews, L2 poetry writing, and autobiographical narrative). Semi-structured interviews (in Japanese; 90 min Â 2) were conducted with Yoshie before and after her teaching practica (in May and July 2016) to investigate the state of her practical knowledge and her perceptions of teaching experiences. The interviews were audio-recorded with her permission. After Yoshie’s four-week 152 T. Nagamine et al. teaching practica, we carried out TAE-based reflection activities with a group of five pre-service teachers (two senior and three junior students), which included Yoshie. A total of four sessions of activities were done in August 2016, and each session lasted 90 min. During and after the TAE-based reflection activities, we implemented unstructured interviews (in Japanese; 60 min Â 4) with Yoshie and asked her to share her feelings and thoughts regarding the reflection activities. These interviews were also audio-recorded for later data analysis. In addition, Yoshie’s written work done during the reflection activities was collected with her permission. As supplemental data, we collected L2 poetry writing from the participant. As Hanauer (2010) points out, poetry writing is a reflective, as well as linguistic, practice (see Iida 2016). By asking the participant to write L2 poems on her teaching experiences, we thought that the participant, as well as the researchers, would be able to explore her “self-referential use of language” (Hanauer 2004: 10). In fact, since the L2 poetry writing was done using English, the negotiation over the participant’s self-referential use of language necessarily became the in-depth exploration of affective aspects, which, in turn, allowed us to examine her teaching experiences from multiple perspectives. In February 2016, therefore, we held a three-hour workshop on L2 poetry writing with the same group of pre-service teachers. The purpose of this workshop was for the participant to reflect on her teaching practicum experience and express that event in poetic form in English. This workshop consisted of three stages. The first stage of this workshop was for the participant to understand the genre of poetry writing. Since she had very little experience writing poems in English, a poetry-reading activity was incorporated to understand how meaning was constructed and how the poet’s voice was expressed in the text. The second stage involved poetry writing. The participant was assigned to choose and reflect on five unforgettable memories in her teaching practicum experience, free write each memory in Japanese, and create five poems in English. The third stage of this workshop was the revision of poetry. At this stage, she had an opportunity to discuss her poems with one of the researchers. This individual conference was held as soon as she finished drafting her first poem. With feedback from the researcher, she revised the poem. To contextualize the participant’s background, we also collected an autobiographical narrative as a data source. We expected that the participant’s autobiographical narrative would help us understand what and how she learned to teach (Golombek and Johnson 2004). The participant was asked to write a reflection on her English study from her elementary school years to her university years. Her narrative included her events and practices of studying English in and outside school, emotions associated with her study, and experiences that led to her being an English teacher. The Role of Emotions in Reflective Teaching in Second Language … 153

5.3 Data Analysis Procedure

All audio-recorded interviews were transcribed and coded following the procedures of the grounded theory approach (GTA) (see Strauss and Corbin 1994, 1998). The data were first segmented in consideration of every utterance’s meaning and subtle nuance. Then, open coding, axial coding, and selective coding were carried out in a cyclical manner. In the process of selective coding, core categories were selected, identified, and systematically related to other categories. During this stage, we used different types of data (i.e., not only the written work done during the TAE-based reflection activities, but also her lesson plans and teaching journals, etc.) to verify and validate the relationships among targeted phenomena (which included sub-categories and core categories connected by common properties and dimensions) to construct a theory. The researchers’ interpretations of the obtained data were checked for accuracy by consulting the participant throughout the term of the investigation (member checking). As for the participant’s L2 poetry writing, the data were analyzed with methodological guidelines of L2 poetry writing (Hanauer 2010). The analyses entailed the examination of five poems written by the participant and the examination of the writer’s subject position in L2 poetry. The poetic inquiry involved literary, linguistic, and content analyses of each poem while recreating the writer’s subject position expressed in the actual descriptions of the poem. Each poem was carefully examined from the aspect of the writer’s specific perspectives, emotional content, and understanding of the experience. Finally, regarding the participant’s autobiographical narrative, the data were analyzed with a narrative inquiry approach (Clandinin and Connelly 2000). The analysis focused on what activity of language learning she engaged with, what events or who mediated her goal of becoming a teacher, and how her process of language learning prompted her to be an English teacher.

5.4 TAE-Based Reﬂection Activities

To reiterate, TAE is a systematic way to help a person articulate the unclear, pre-verbal sense of “something” (a felt sense) in adequate linguistic forms. In other words, TAE is developed to guide the person to ﬁnd an adequate word, phrase, and sentence to accurately describe tacit practical knowledge. In general, the procedures of TAE consist of 14 steps which can be categorized into three parts (see Fig. 2). Part I (steps 1–5) is a series of steps to entitize a felt sense. The goal is “to lead to a felt meaning by referring directly to words, phrases, and slots in a sentence, to get a felt sense, to call “likeness” forth from this place, and to grasp roughly a domain of meaning” (Tokumaru 2011:38–39). Part II (steps 6–9) is to explore the roughly grasped mass of meaning and to identify relationships between “details of facets” (Tokumaru 2011: 39) in order to see a pattern or patterns in the form of short 154 T. Nagamine et al.

Part I: Steps 1–5 Part II: Steps 6–9 Part III: Steps 10–14

Speaking Finding patterns Building Purpose from the felt from facets theory sense (instances)

Grasp form, Pattern extract Term relating form, Form Deepening form, Intersect Term searching form, etc. form, etc. form, etc.

Result One’s own Multiple Conceptual sentence patterns system

Fig. 2 Overview of TAE steps sentences. Part III (steps 10–14) is to develop a structure of organized concepts so that we can logically explain what we thought with our bodies in our own terms. In the first session of the TAE-based reflection activities, we instructed the pre-service teachers in the TAE procedures and provided them with a textbook, TAE-based Workbook for Written Expressions (Tokumaru 2008). Subsequently, the pre-service teachers used worksheets attached to the textbook (see Fig. 3) and reflected on their teaching experiences under the guidance of the researchers. By using the textbook and worksheets, the pre-service teachers could efficiently familiarize themselves with the TAE procedures and engage themselves in the reflection activities.

6 Research Findings and Discussion

6.1 Motivation to Become an English Teacher

Yoshie had hoped to embark on a career using English as an interpreter or a tour conductor, but her parents were both public school teachers. In addition, she had seen them work as teachers since her childhood. When asked, she justiﬁed her decision to become a teacher with the term “realistic.” Choosing this profession was a “realistic” option because she thought that she had known about the job of teachers through her parents, and that she would be able to consult her parents when she had job-related problems. Yoshie’s autobiographical narrative, as well as her interviews, shows her unique perceptions of English learning. The following is an excerpt from her narrative:

The pleasure and excitement that I felt while I was studying English provided motivation and a sense of advancement. Also, I felt that learning English connected me with the world; The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language … 155

Fig. 3 A sample worksheet of the participant 156 T. Nagamine et al.

I came to be interested in social issues of the world. I now see global issues as “our” issues, not someone else’s. Such sense would be definitely useful for today’s children, which prompted me to be an English teacher. One of the goals of her English learning was “to watch foreign (English) movies without subtitles and speak fluent English so that [she] would be able to travel overseas.” Thus, the influence of her parents and the feelings and emotions attached to the learning of English motivated her to become an English teacher. It should be emphasized, however, that she prioritized “becoming an educator” over “becoming an English teacher.” According to Yoshie, one of the reasons why she wanted to become an educator was the influence of her former teachers’ profundity and richness of thought and their humanity of sentiment. Nonetheless, there was yet another reason. We will discuss this point later.

6.2 Negative Affective Factors and Professional Identity

The overall qualitative data indicate that Yoshie viewed her own vocational aptitude, knowledge, and skills as quite immature. In other words, her self-evaluation was very low. She consistently expressed her anxieties of being assessed by people around her in and outside school (e.g., her parents, friends, and teachers in teaching practicum sites). One of the prime affective factors that emerged in the qualitative data analysis was, therefore, “anxiety.” In the TAE-based reﬂection activities, Yoshie started exploring her felt sense that she gained during her teaching practica, using such key words as “kincho” (tension/nervousness), “manabi” (learning), and “kikubari” (consideration for others). Following the steps of TAE in Part I (see Fig. 2), she tried to clarify her felt sense further and wrote the following sentence in one of the worksheets:

I run away from something that I should have challenged only because the “something” is very difﬁcult and beyond my capabilities. I always place limits on myself and run away. She was anxious about, and even scared of, new tasks that challenged her knowledge and skills. Her sentence above implies that her self-efﬁcacy and her self-esteem were low. In one of her L2 poems titled “Be a Paragon,” her emotions were expressed as follows:

Greet cheerfully Work briskly Behave straightly Because you are a teacher I know, but… Breathe shallowly The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language … 157

Walk weakly Smile awkwardly Because I am still a student The poem clearly indicated that her self-image as a teacher was not yet fully developed. The use of the pronoun “I” signifies that she separated herself as “a student” (i.e., a pre-service student-teacher) from other in-service teachers working at the school (the practicum site). In the process of elaborating her felt sense, she also wrote, “I always try to play a role of a perfect human being.” She wanted to become “a perfect teacher” who had nothing to be ashamed of when people saw and evaluated her and, hence, who could be a role model (or “paragon” in her poem) of school children. The frequent use of the term “play/playing” in her written work and interview utterances implies the existence of another identity she was trying to accommodate. By facing and analyzing her anxiety and associated negative feelings through the TAE-based reflection activities, she gradually became aware of her ideal self as a teacher. An ideal teacher was “an educator whose character is respectable and whose language and manner of behavior are always polite and appropriate when being with school children.” She found such qualities in her former teachers, but, the analysis of her interviews revealed that the image had been created in Yoshie by her father, and this image of an ideal teacher became a cause of various types of negative emotions such as low self-efficacy and self-esteem. Consequently, throughout her teaching practica, she kept comparing herself, quite often consciously, with her father in terms of knowledge and skills; she felt her inferiority and immaturity in almost everything she did.

6.3 Awareness of a Signiﬁcant Other and Overcoming the Negative Inﬂuence

In the TAE-based reflection activities (in the steps of Part II), she explored one of her experiences of failure in the teaching practica. It was an English class she was asked to teach in an elementary school, and her supervising teacher would observe the class. She conducted the class in Japanese through a communicative, dialogical interaction with the students. She had planned beforehand to pick up as many utterances as possible. The class started out great. The students raised their hands and actively presented their opinions and ideas. Nonetheless, she realized that she “did not know how to respond to each student’s utterance, how to connect all presented thoughts of the students together to make the class meaningful and constructive.” In an after-class meeting, Yoshie told her supervising teacher that she could not teach well. She wanted to obtain some practical tips from her supervising teacher, so she asked for some advice. While doing so, she kept asking herself, “What would my father do?” In fact, she kept asking the same question repeatedly 158 T. Nagamine et al. throughout the teaching practica. The supervising teacher told her that “teaching experience” would help improve her teaching skills, and that all she needed was to “familiarize herself with” the dialogical interactions with the students. Yoshie expressed her appreciation to the supervising teacher, but she did not understand the advice at all. In the TAE-based reflection activities (in the steps of Part III), she wrote the following as reification statements by cross-examining the experience of failure: (a) The teacher and/or students can paraphrase or rephrase utterances. In doing so, deeper learning through constructive interactions may occur. (b) The students interpret the content of learning materials differently. By simply sharing their interpretations with others, the students may discover or notice something important and meaningful. (c) Even though students’ interpretations may be individually different, there should be no right or wrong if they are asked in an open-ended manner. The teacher needs to appreciate the students who have something to say. (d) Making mistakes in public may make both the teacher and students feel embarrassed. Making mistakes requires a person to have courage. The teacher and students can learn from mistakes. We must be thankful for mistakes. Summarizing the statements above, she wrote the following sentence as an expression of practical knowledge:

The process of making and sharing mistakes with others, comparing and contrasting different students’ views, and constructing one’s own opinion entails true learning. In the process of analyzing her felt sense, she found her own words to verbalize tacit knowledge that her body had acquired through her experience of failure and gained new insights into the experience. In retrospect, Yoshie stated in an interview, “This is perhaps something I wanted to hear from my supervising teacher. I didn’t know I could learn from that experience this way.” This is the phenomenon called “a felt shift”: a sense of felt movement (cf., Madison 2014). As she proceeded to the higher steps of TAE (particularly in Part III), it became evident that the role of her anxiety gradually changed from debilitative to facilitative in terms of the acquisition of practical knowledge. In an interview, Yoshie stated that without participating in our research, she would not have had an opportunity to critically examine the affective aspects of her teaching experiences.

7 Conclusion

Gebhard and Oprandy (1999) and Johnson (1999) assert that critical reflection is necessary for teachers to identify who they are as persons and professionals and make sense of their professional experiences. Critical reflection is the reflection that “moves the teacher beyond practice and links practice more closely to the broader socio-political as well as affective/moral issues that impact practice” The Role of Emotions in Reflective Teaching in Second Language … 159

(Farrell 2015a: 86). It is difficult, however, particularly for novice and pre-service teachers, to reach the level of critical reflection without any guidance and/or scaffolding tools. When it comes to the reification and verbalization of what was acquired as tacit practical knowledge, TAE might be an optimal option because it can make reflection activities productive and meaningful. Finally, since our research project is still in progress, we hope to contribute to the field by refining some elements of our methodological approaches and by sharing research findings of the main study in the near future. Recommended Readings – Farrell, T. S. C., & Baecher, L. (2017). Reflecting on critical incidents in language education: 40 Dilemmas for novice TESOL professionals. New York: Bloomsbury. Novice teachers often encounter the gap between what they learned in the course of study and the realities of the classroom. Emphasizing the importance of reflection, this book allows the reader to critically analyze “critical incidents,” which, according to the authors, are not adequately dealt with in teacher training. All critical incidents documented in the book are based on actual experiences shared by novice teachers in the TESOL field. The incidents are presented from the teacher’s point of view and are thematically organized. – De Fina, A., & Georgakopoulou, A. (Eds.). (2015). The handbook of narrative analysis. Malden, MA: Wiley. This book consists of a collection of narratives illustrated by scholars in various disciplinary fields. The contributions represented not only include stories examining daily life but also show emergent issues shaped by narrative inquiry and narratological approaches. De Fina and Georgakopoulou support the existing approaches for narrative analysis and enhance state-of-the-art research design to employ a practice-based approach to narrative analysis. – Hanauer, D. I. (2010). Poetry as research: Exploring second language poetry writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. This book discusses the use of poetry writing as a research method by exploring poems written by L2 learners. Hanauer reports on both quantitative and qualitative research to explore three aspects of L2 poetry writing: textual and literary features of poetry, poetic identity, and characteristics of ESL learners’ study-abroad experiences. This book not only discusses the potential of using poetry writing as research but also illustrates how emotionality is addressed in poems written by advanced ESL learners. – Madison, G. (2014). Theory and practice of focusing-oriented psychotherapy: Beyond the talking cure. London: Jessica Kingsley. This book is a comprehensive introduction to Focusing-Oriented Psychotherapy. Thinking at the Edge (TAE) is a simplified set of procedures based on Gendlin’s Focusing-Oriented Psychotherapy. This book has four parts. Part I provides some background and context for Focusing-Oriented Psychotherapy. Part II deals with examples of integration between theories and practices. Part III 160 T. Nagamine et al.

illustrates different modes of therapeutic practices. Part IV discusses contemporary topics of psychotherapy.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Have you ever had any experiences of failure in teaching? If so, explain what happened in detail. Then, answer the following questions: Why do you think it was a failure? How did you feel about the experience(s)? Try to verbalize something your body acquired (tacit practical knowledge) from the experience (s) of failure. – Do you think teachers’ autobiographies or narratives can be used for professional development? If so, how? – Do you think L2 poetry writing can be used for professional development? If so, how? – What do you think about the feasibility of TAE, teachers’ autobiographies, and L2 poetry writing as scaffolding tools for reﬂection and as qualitative data collection methods?

References

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Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflecting on teaching the four skills: 60 Strategies for professional development. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Farrell, T. S. C. (2015a). It’s not who you are! It’s how you teach!: Critical competencies associated with effective teaching. RELC Journal, 46(1), 79–88. Farrell, T. S. C. (2015b). Promoting teacher reflection in second language education: A framework for TESOL professionals. New York: Routledge. Farrell, T. S. C. (2016). TESOL, a profession that eats its young: The importance of reflective practice in teacher education. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 97–107. Farrell, T. S. C., & Baecher, L. (2017). Reflecting on critical incidents in language education: 40 Dilemmas for novice TESOL professionals. New York: Bloomsbury. Fenstermacher, G. D. (1994). The knower and the known: The nature of knowledge in research on teaching. In L. D. Hammond (Ed.), Review of research in education (Vol. 20, pp. 3–56). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Freeman, D. (1989). Teacher training, development, and decision making: A model of teaching and related strategies for language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 27–45. Gebhard, J. G. (2005). Awareness of teaching through action research: Examples, benefits, limitations. JALT Journal, 27(1), 53–69. Gebhard, J. G., & Oprandy, R. (1999). Language teaching awareness: A guide to exploring beliefs and practices. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gendlin, E. T. (1962). Experiencing and the creation of meaning: A philosophical and psychological approach to the subjective. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. Gendlin, E. T. (1978). Befindlichkeit: Heidegger and the philosophy of psychology. Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, 16(1–3), 43–71. Golombek, P. R., & Johnson, K. E. (2004). Narrative inquiry as a mediational space: Examining emotional and cognitive dissonance in second-language teachers’ development. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 10(3), 307–327. Hanauer, D. I. (2004). Poetry and the meaning of life. Santa Barbara, CA: Pippin. Hanauer, D. I. (2010). Poetry as research: Exploring second language poetry writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Iida, A. (2016). Exploring earthquake experiences: A study of second language learners’ ability to express and communicate deeply traumatic events in poetic form. System, 57, 120–133. Johnson, K. E. (1999). Understanding language teaching: Reasoning in action. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Johnson, K. E., & Golombek, P. L. (2002). Teachers’ narrative inquiry as professional development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Madison, G. (2014). Theory and practice of focusing-oriented psychotherapy: Beyond the talking cure. London: Jessica Kingsley. Meyer, D. K. (2011). Entering the emotional practices of teaching. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 73–91). New York: Springer. Mori, R. (2003). Knowledge/personhood dichotomy in TESOL. The Language Teacher, 27(4), 14–15. Murphy, J. M. (2001). Reflective teaching in ELT. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed., pp. 499–514). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Nagamine, T. (2008). Exploring preservice teachers’ beliefs: What does it mean to become an English teacher in Japan. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag. Nagamine, T. (2011). Facilitating reflective learning in an EFL teacher education course: A hybrid/ blended-learning approach. Journal of the Faculty of Letters, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, 17(70), 13–35. Nagamine, T. (2012). A metaphor analysis of preservice EFL teachers’ beliefs regarding professional identity. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly: Special Issue on Teacher Education, Identity and Development, 14(2), 141–171. Nagamine, T. (2014). Gengo kyoushi ninchi kenkyuno saikinno doukou [Recent trends in language teacher cognition research]. In S. Sasajima, T. Nishino, Y. Ehara, & T. Nagamine 162 T. Nagamine et al.

(Eds.), Gengo Kyoushi Ninchino Doukou [Trends in language teacher cognition] (pp. 16–32). Tokyo: Kaitakusha. Nagamine, T. (2015). Why have English education reforms been unsuccessfully implemented in Japan? Paper presented at the 8th Meeting of the JACET SIG Language Teacher Cognition Research, Tokyo, Japan. Nespor, J. (1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Curriculum Studies, 19, 317–328. Op’t Eynde, P., De Corte, E., & Verschaffel, L. (2002). Framing students’ mathematics related beliefs: A quest for conceptual clarity and a comprehensive categorization. In G. Leder, E. Pehkonen, & G. Törner (Eds.), Beliefs: A hidden variable in mathematics education (pp. 13– 38). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishing. Richards, J. C. (1989). Beyond training approaches to teacher education and language teaching. PASAA, 19(2), 76–84. Richards, J. C., Gallo, P. B., & Renandya, W. A. (2001). Exploring teachers’ beliefs and the process of change. The PAC Journal, 1(1), 41–62. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books. Schram, T. H. (2003). Conceptualizing qualitative inquiry: Mindwork for field-work in education and the social science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). (2011). Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives. New York: Springer. Schwandt, T. A. (2001). Dictionary of qualitative inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Smith, D. B. (1996). Teacher decision making in the adult ESL classroom. In D. Freeman & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Teacher learning in language learning (pp. 197–216). New York: Cambridge University Press. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1994). Grounded theory methodology. In Y. S. Lincoln & N. K. Denzin (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 273–285). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Tokumaru, S. (2008). TAE niiyoru Bunsho Hyougen Workbook [TAE-based workbook for written expressions]. Tokyo: Toshobunka. Tokumaru, S. (2011). Qualitative research with TAE steps, thinking at the edge: Theory and applications. Tokyo: Keisuisha. Zeichner, K. M., & Liston, D. P. (1996). Reflective teaching: An introduction. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Author Biographies

Toshinobu Nagamine is Associate Professor of English Teacher Education at Kumamoto University, Japan, where he teaches English phonetics, research methodologies, and EFL teacher education courses. He has also taught in positions in the United States as well as Japan. He received an MA in TESOL from Murray State University, USA, and a Ph.D. in Composition and TESOL from Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA. His research interests include foreign language education policy, teacher cognition and emotion, and EFL teacher education and development. The Role of Emotions in Reﬂective Teaching in Second Language … 163

Yutaka Fujieda is Professor in the English Program at Kyoai Gakuen University, Gunma, Japan. He completed his Ph.D. degree in the Composition and TESOL at Indiana university of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. His research interests include second language writing and literacy, and writing teacher education.

Atsushi Iida is Associate Professor in the University Education Center at Gunma University where he has taught ﬁrst-year and second-year English courses. He was awarded his Ph.D. in English (Composition and TESOL) at Indiana University of Pennsylvania. His research interests include second language poetry writing, literature in second language education, and writing for academic publication. Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials Selection and Adaptation: Implications for Teacher Education

Brian Tomlinson

Abstract The decisions required of teachers in regards to selecting and adapting materials seem to be cognitive decisions involving rationale application of believed in principles and learned procedures. However they are also emotional decisions involving the resolution of dilemmas. For example, when selecting a coursebook teachers are often torn between impressions gained from ﬂicking through books whilst responding to such features as use of colour and attractiveness of illustrations and between conclusions reached from a more rationale critique of the likely effectiveness of the materials. They are also often torn between selecting a book they think they would enjoy teaching and selecting a book because it would be likely to help the learners to pass exams or between selecting a book which corresponds to their beliefs and a book which corresponds to the beliefs of their trainers, colleagues or learners. Similar emotional dilemmas face teachers when making decisions about adapting materials and teachers are often unprepared to resolve them. This chapter will outline dilemmas likely to face teachers and will propose ways of preparing teachers to resolve these dilemmas through the use, for example, of simulations, of teacher prioritizing of principles and of teacher analysis of case studies.

Keywords Materials selection Á Materials adaptation Á Dilemmas Principles Á Simulations Á Case studies

1 Introduction

In my experience of teacher training and teacher development courses in many different countries (e.g. France, Indonesia, Nigeria, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Vanuatu, Zambia) the participants typically receive very little preparation for making and implementing the many different decisions they are going to

B. Tomlinson (&) University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 165 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_10 166 B. Tomlinson have to make in their careers relating to the selection and adaptation of materials. As a result teachers often make emotional decisions which they later regret, which feed negativity and which disadvantage their learners.

2 Selecting Materials

Teachers select materials in their course planning, in their lesson preparation and whilst teaching. Some of these selections result from cognitive decisions based on what the teachers know about language learning and what they know about their learners. Some of these selections result from affective decisions based on personal instincts and preferences. Many of them are reluctant selections inﬂuenced more by what they think is required of them (by administrators, colleagues, students or parents) than by what they think is best for themselves or their learners. There are, for example, a number of reports of teachers ‘confessing’ that they use a coursebook not because they want to but because they know or feel they are required to do so. For example, in a survey I did for a leading British publisher in twelve countries enquiring which coursebook teachers used and why they did so a large majority of teachers reported using the same famous coursebook despite saying, for example, that they felt sorry for their learners because the book was so boring. Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017) refer to a survey of teachers attending conferences in Malaysia, UK and Vietnam (Tomlinson 2010) which “revealed that 92% of the teachers who ﬁlled in a questionnaire used a coursebook regularly (many because they were required by their institutions to do so) but that 78% of them were negative about the coursebooks that they were using.” They also refer to ‘a recent study of teachers’ attitudes and behaviours in schools in Myanmar and the UK (Saw 2016)’ which revealed that only three out of 85 teachers did not use coursebooks, that most teachers used coursebooks, even though they found them uninteresting and not relevant, because they were obliged to do so and that 81 of the teachers supplemented their coursebooks with other materials “to make lessons more suitable (p. 268).” In my experience teachers who make positive, principled selections tend to make relatively effective use of the materials selected. Teachers who make obliged and reluctant selections tend to make less effective use of the materials selected because of their lack of affective and cognitive conviction of their potential value. What teachers need on training or development courses is experience of making selections in a variety of different contexts imposing different constraints. They need to rationalize and possibly rethink their selections and then to make positive decisions about how they can get the best out of any reluctant selections they still feel they are obliged to make. They will still make emotional decisions but there is a better chance that these decisions will be intuitively underpinned by rationale thought about the consequences for their learners rather than just be determined by emotional reactions to contextual circumstances. See Preparing Teachers to Resolve Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 167

Dilemmas below for suggested training/development tasks to help teachers to achieve this. Together with Hitomi Masuhara I have made use of simulations involving contextually constrained materials selection and adaptation on training and development courses in more than twenty countries around the world. Recently I sur- veyed participants on these and similar courses and found that they report a very positive effect of their materials development courses on both their ability to make effective selections and adaptations and their confidence and esteem in doing so— an interesting example of rationale decision making resulting in positive emotions. For example, 22 out of 24 respondents reported a ‘big effect’ on their ability to select materials and 20 reported a ‘big effect’ on their ability to adapt materials. Typical comments included “Now (after the training I received), there are systematic procedures I follow.”; “I am now able to create my own list of criteria which has allowed me to justify my reasons for selecting materials.”; “Big effect. Prior to the training I was making it up as I went along. Post-training, I could articulate why I was adapting as I was.” (Tomlinson 2014: 97). See Tomlinson (2014) for details of the reported effects of materials development courses on teacher growth and see Tomlinson and Masuhara (2013a) for detailed examples of training/development simulation tasks involving making and implementing decisions about materials selection and adaptation. In my experience many teachers select coursebooks impressionistically by reading the map of contents at the front and the blurb on the back cover of available books, by searching the names of authors and publishers for those that are well-known and by flicking through the pages of books to gain an impression of what they contain, what their approach is and how easy, interesting and attractive they are likely to be to teach. In other words, they make uninformed emotive decisions. The publishers know this and tend to make the top right hand half of each double page spread especially colourful and appealing. Try, for example, flicking through a coursebook and noting how many of the illustrations in the book are placed in the top right hand corner of double page spreads. On teacher development courses I often give groups of participants four coursebooks at the same level and then give them ten minutes to rank the coursebooks in quality from 1 to 4. Inevitably they make emotive decisions related to design, colour and illustrations. Then I specify a context of learning and get the groups to use more systematic and principled ways to rank the coursebooks in relation to the specified context. Invariably the ranking changes quite dramatically when the participants make use of more rationale and systematic ways of helping them to select a coursebook. The ways I get the participants to use include: 1. using a sample unit from each book with simulated groups of ‘learners’ resembling those in the specified context and then getting the ‘learners’ to respond to questionnaires about how interesting, engaging and useful each sample unit was; 168 B. Tomlinson

2. specifying a profile of the characteristics and needs of the target learners and then analyzing the coursebooks to see which book matches these characteristics and needs most closely; 3. developing a set of evaluation criteria phrased as questions and then answering these questions for each coursebook in order to predict which is likely to be the most valuable for the learners. All three of the above approaches are more reliable than impressionistic emotive selection, even though I have found that initial emotive reactions do influence subsequent rationale decisions. The first way outlined above is very useful on extended courses but takes up a lot of time and would be impractical in reality. The second one is useful but can risk focusing on obvious needs like passing an examination at the expense of less obvious ones like achieving affective and cognitive engagement and can also risk being satisfied that a book contains and/or does something relevant (e.g. providing examination practice) without questioning the quality of the provision. I have found the third one to be most valuable both in terms of providing an effective developmental activity for the participants and of informing future practice. What I usually do is to: 1. Get the participants to brainstorm their beliefs about how languages are most effectively acquired, first individually and then in groups. 2. Get the participants to convert their list of beliefs into interrogative universal criteria for materials evaluation (i.e. criteria which would be applicable for any learner anywhere). N.B. In stages 1 and 2 above I would give examples from my own experience as a clarification and a stimulus. For example, in 1 I would give the following statements of belief: (i) Learners need to be exposed to the target language in use. (ii) Learners need to achieve affective engagement (i.e. to be emotionally absorbed). (iii) Learners need opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative intents. In 2 I would give the following examples: To what extent are the materials likely to: (i) provide the learners with exposure to the target language in use? (ii) stimulate the learners to achieve affective engagement? (iii) provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative intents? 3. Get the participants in groups to compose a profile of a target learner context (either one they are familiar with or an unfamiliar context specified by the trainer). The profile would include, for example, brief information about the target learners’ age(s), gender(s), level, previous learning experience, needs, Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 169

wants, interests etc., as well as information about the teachers and about such constraints as resources, time available, examination requirements etc. 4. Get the participants in groups to develop a set of interrogative local criteria (i.e. criteria speciﬁc to the target context they have proﬁled). Examples would be: To what extent are the materials likely to: (i) interest twelve year old boys in rural Turkey? (ii) be accessible to elementary level learners in Peru with little previous experience of listening in English? (iii) prepare learners in Singapore to be successful in their end of year examination? 5. Get the participants in groups to select from four coursebooks the one most suitable for their target learners by responding to each of their universal and local criteria with a grade out of 5 and a comment to justify it for an equivalent unit from each book. On a development course I would spend a lot of time on such simulations as the one above so as to give the participants a rich and monitored experience of developing and applying criteria in rationale rather than emotive ways. In actual teaching conditions they might not have time to go through each of these procedures formally but their experience of doing so would help them to make careful, rational and principled decisions (as was attested by the respondents in Tomlinson (2014)) rather than spontaneous emotive decisions. For detailed descriptions and examples of developing and applying evaluation criteria see Tomlinson (2013) and Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017).

2.1 Selecting from Coursebooks

It is highly unlikely that a teacher will want to or even be able to use every text and every activity in a coursebook. So how does a teacher decide which ones to use? In my experience many teachers tend to assume that the sequence of texts and activities is an indication of priority and, unless they are very experienced and/or confident, they tend to work thorough a unit until there is no time left to complete it (thus often omitting the more open-ended activities which many PPP orientated coursebooks place at the end). Other teachers focus on those activities most likely to help their students to prepare for examinations (e.g. Pelly and Allison 2000; Abdel Latif 2016; Thomas and Reinders 2015) or those texts and activities which they consider culturally safe and acceptable (e.g. Gray 2000, 2010), thus often missing opportunities for potentially useful exchanges of experiences and views. Some teachers even focus on the easy activities which their students are likely to perform well (thus pleasing students, parents and administrators). And some teachers just select texts and activities which they think they will enjoy teaching and/or their students will enjoy experiencing or texts and activities which appeal to them 170 B. Tomlinson instinctively. It would seem logical for teachers who are pushed for time to pre-select those texts and activities which are most likely to engage their students cognitively and affectively, to focus on these in class and to allocate some of the other texts and activities for homework. However I know of very few teachers who have done this, partly because they are afraid of having to justify conspicuous omissions and partly because doing so has never been part of their training. What I have done in many different teaching contexts (including in Japan, Nigeria, Oman, Vanuatu and Zambia) is to focus in class on texts and activities from the coursebook which I have pre-selected by predicting their relevance, potential for engagement and potential value for the students I am using the materials with and to set other texts and activities for homework. I have also asked students in the first lesson to select the units and then the texts and activities in them which they want to focus on. When I did this in Japan, for example, the students voted for those texts and activities which intrigued and appealed to them rather than those which looked easy or conformed to the text and activity types they were used to. They were making emotive decisions but interestingly their emotive selections achieved a closer match with SLA principles than many emotive decisions made by teachers. And often I have abandoned texts or activities which were obviously not engaging the students and jumped to those which I hoped would regain their attention and re-motivate them. Not all the decisions I have made before and during coursebook use have been successful and I am sure that I would have benefitted from some preparation for making such decisions in my training, especially in my early days when I think I tried to cover everything, when I made unprincipled and emotive selection decisions and when I persisted with activities which obviously were not engaging my students or abandoned activities because I was finding them difficult or boring. In my view a vital component of any teacher training/education/development course should focus on preparing teachers to make decisions about which components of a coursebook to pre-select for classroom focus and when and how to replace components during a lesson which are not engaging the students. I would recommend activities similar to those proposed for selecting materials above in which the course participants developed principled universal and local criteria and then made use of them to make coursebook component selections in peer teaching, in simulations and on teaching practice.

2.2 Selecting Texts

Many teachers supplement their coursebooks with additional texts either for extensive reading, listening or viewing or to drive additional materials they develop themselves. Often their choice of texts is intuitive and is influenced by making sure the texts are easy to understand by all their students, that they are culturally inof- fensive and that they are related to language points on the syllabus or in the coursebook. As a result these supplementary texts are often as short, simple, bland Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 171 and unengaging as many of the texts in their coursebooks (see Masuhara et al. (2008); Tomlinson and Masuhara (2013a, b) for evaluations of coursebook texts). But they avoid the risk of making the teachers unpopular with their students or their superiors. In my experience getting trainees to develop and utilize sets of criteria can aid the selection of texts with a greater potential for learner engagement. Here are some of the criteria I make use of in selecting texts myself: – Does the text engage me cognitively and affectively? – Is the text likely to engage most of the target learners cognitively and affectively? – Are the target learners likely to be able to connect the text to their lives? – Is the linguistic level of the text likely to present an achievable challenge to the target learners? – Is the text likely to stimulate divergent personal responses from the target learners? [Extracted from a list of twelve criteria in Tomlinson (2013: 101)]. I used the criteria from Tomlinson (2013: 101) to select a library of texts to take with me to Namibia when I was an Advisor on a textbook project there. Some of them were then used by ten groups of writers to select a text each to use in driving a unit of materials for the new national coursebook they were writing (see Tomlinson (1995) for details of the coursebook and Tomlinson (2013) for the framework which was used to develop the text-driven units in the book). A teacher on a development course I was running once divided her secondary school class into groups, then each week invited a group to find a text in English which would interest their classmates and to give her the text on the Friday so she could use it to drive the reading class on the Monday. Each group was highly motivated to find an appealing text and spent a lot of time, for example, looking for English sounding names in the Jakarta telephone directory and then visiting houses to ask if they had “something interesting to read in English”. I would strongly recommend this approach.

3 Adapting Materials

Some teachers, especially those who are inexperienced or untrained or who teach in rigid curriculum/coursebook controlled contexts, treat the coursebook as a script and follow it religiously (see Zacharias 2005; Bacha and Ghosn 2008). They often do so because of an excessive and emotive reverence for the ‘experts’ who wrote the coursebook. Bosompen (2014), for example, reports the reluctance of inexperienced teachers in Ghana to adapt their coursebook and quotes one teacher as saying he “also felt guilty challenging the authority of the book writers and that of the leaders who gave me the books for my lessons” (p. 112). Many inexperienced teachers also follow their coursebook as a script because of a fear of missing out 172 B. Tomlinson something which might be examined at the end of the course, because they are obliged to by their superiors (see, for example, Loh and Renandya 2015) or because they are pressurized to do so by their students or by parents. Such teachers often do not enjoy obeying their coursebook but persist in doing so nevertheless. On the other hand there are teachers, usually experienced and qualiﬁed and teaching in contexts encouraging ﬂexibility, who treat their coursebook as a resource (see Gray 2000, 2010; Bolster 2014, 2015; Wette 2009). They make use of their coursebook but adapt the materials to achieve a greater match with what they think facilitates language acquisition and a better match with the perceived needs and wants of their students.

3.1 Deciding What to Adapt

Often teachers adapt materials because of a general emotive feeling that they will not ‘work’ with their students or because they have taught the materials many times and need a change in order to energise their teaching. Such feelings inform their decisions about what to adapt and often their decisions lead to improvements in the effectiveness of the materials. However this is a rather hit and miss approach and sometimes results in materials which are even less effective. Again I would advise teachers to develop and make use of sets of criteria for deciding what to adapt from the materials they are using. On development courses I get teachers to use an abbreviated version of the set of universal and local criteria which they devised for the selection of materials in order to make decisions about what to adapt in the materials they have selected or have been given to use. If a criterion scores 3 or less out of 5 they decide to adapt the materials in relation to that criterion.

3.2 Deciding How to Adapt

On development courses I get teachers to make use of the set of criteria they have used to decide what to adapt in order to also decide how to adapt it. When using the criteria the teachers are encouraged to make notes justifying any score of 3 or less and then to make use of these notes to decide how to improve the score. For example, if the criterion “To what extent do the materials provide exposure to the target language in use” scores only 1 out of 5 they might decide to revise some of the texts to make them more natural, or to add some extra texts in which the target language is used for communication, or to replace some of the texts with new texts which relate to the same topic but do so in authentic ways. Or, if the criterion “To what extent are the materials likely to engage the learners cognitively?” scores 3 out of 5 and elicits the comment “Some of the texts and activities have the potential for cognitive engagement but too many do not” then the teachers might decide to delete Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 173 some of the texts and texts which are unlikely to stimulate engaged thought and to replace them with texts and tasks which do. I have found that making the time and effort to take the rigorous approach to adaptation recommended above helps teachers to not only to develop very effective adaptations on courses but to be able to do so in their schools both when they have time to be rigorous in formally making use of criteria and when they have to make more spur of the moment decisions. I have found this to be especially so if they work in groups both on their course and in their schools. Not only do the group members inform and inspire each other but, in having to justify suggestions, they ensure that unprincipled emotive views do not prevail. There are times however when teachers have to make decisions on their own, for example when glancing at materials they have just been given to teach on their way to the classroom of a teacher who is sick or in the middle of a lesson in which the students are not paying attention. In such situations there is no time to list and answer criteria but previous experience of doing so can inform the spontaneous decisions which are made. Some of my best lessons have resulted from spontaneous adaptations which seemed instinctive but in fact were influenced by previous experience of making rigorous adaptations. For example, I once had to substitute for a sick teacher and on the stairs on my fortunately long way to the classroom I looked at the materials for the first time. I decided that the text about an old lady robbing a bank had potential for affective engagement but that a readiness activity was needed to activate the students’ minds in relation to the context and that more cognitively challenging activities were needed to replace the true/false and multiple choice questions which followed a silent reading of the text. As soon as I entered the classroom I told the students I was going to show them a film but would like them to first of all think of a film they had seen recently and to see a scene from it in their minds. Then they were asked to tell a partner about the scene in their minds. As they were doing this I was developing further adaptations in my mind. These consisted of me asking students what sort of film they were describing and then adding to a list of film genres on the board as they responded. I told them I was going to show them a film which combined all these genres and then pretended to look in my briefcase for a video. I could not find it so I told the students they were going to act out the film. I narrated the first scene (i.e. the story from the textbook text) and as I did so they had great fun acting out all the parts together (e.g. all playing the old lady, all playing a taxi driver, all playing a cashier, all playing a policeman). They then divided into groups and each group devised and prepared to act out their second scene. As they did so I worked out further activities (for a fuller description of the adaptation see Tomlinson (2007)). I could not have devised this almost spontaneous adaptation without previously having carried out more formal and rigorous criterion driven adaptations. Nor could I have made the adaptation in Oman when I realized that the students were going to be bewildered and bored by me reading out the many unconnected examples of the use of phrasal verbs in the textbook. So I turned the examples into a bizarre and memorable story which involved me climbing up the classroom walls, jumping off the table and flying across the classroom. What seemed like a spontaneous emotive decision was in fact a principled decision. 174 B. Tomlinson

The main point I emphasize to teachers is that decisions about adaptation need to be principled and rational rather than emotive if they are to really beneﬁt the students. For a detailed discussion of how this can be achieved see Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017).

4 Preparing Teachers to Make and Implement Decisions

4.1 Peer Teaching

Peer teaching can provide opportunities for trainees to select and adapt materials prior to and during the lesson they are teaching. What I do is to create a profile for the target students which is given to the ‘teacher’ to inform their prior selection and adaptation of materials and to the ‘students’ to influence how they behave in the lesson. I might also give specific instructions to the ‘students’ to behave in a particular unpredictable way during the lesson so that the ‘teacher’ will have to make changes during the lesson (e.g. the ‘students’ are bored by the text or the ‘students’ are enthusiastically engaged by one of the activities and want to continue with it rather than to move on). After the lesson I conduct a post-mortem which focuses on the decisions made by the ‘teacher’ prior to and during the lesson. The teacher explains the decisions and then they are evaluated by all of us and suggestions for alternatives are made. Initially the teachers tend to react emotionally to unwanted interruptions and unexpected responses but after experiencing constructive feedback often begin to make contingency plans in the teacher’s version of their materials.

4.2 Problem Solving

One of the main objectives of teacher training/education/development is to help teachers to improve their ability to think critically and creatively and to come up with solutions to problems. One of my favourite activities therefore is problem solving in which individuals, pairs or groups are presented with a difﬁcult problem in relation to materials selection and/or adaptation and then use the following framework in Table 1 to help them solve it.

Table 1 A Framework for 1 Statement of problem Solving Problems 2 Causes of the problem 3 Consequences of the problem 4 Constraints when solving the problem 5 Possible solutions 6 Solution to be attempted Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 175

The problems can be actual problems from experience or from the literature and they can be found or devised by the trainer or the participants. Solutions can be justiﬁed and compared in a plenary session and a vote for the best solution can be taken.

4.3 Simulations

Simulations allow teachers to experience a variety of constraints and dilemmas on their courses before they experience them in their classrooms. They enable them to try out various responses to both familiar and unfamiliar situations in non-threatening situations, to monitor their actions and to evaluate their likely effects in discussions with their peers and tutors. If the simulations are conducted in groups they also get the opportunity to pool ideas and resources and to learn from both themselves and others in readiness for future realities. For detailed examples of simulations see Recommendations below and Tomlinson and Masuhara (2013a).

4.4 Case Studies

Another useful way of preparing teachers for future eventualities is to get them to analyse case studies in which teachers have made contextually constrained emotive decisions about materials selection and adaptation. The teachers read the case studies, analyse the constraints, evaluate the teachers’ decisions in relation to their actual and/or likely effects and, where appropriate, come up with alternative decisions which might have been more effective. The case studies can be collected from the literature on classroom research, taken from the trainers’ experiences in schools, made up by the trainers or, perhaps most usefully of all, written by the (trainee) teachers for each other.

4.5 Teaching Practice

If the (trainee) teachers have opportunities to do teaching practice as part of their course it can be very useful if their tutor (or a fellow course participant) focuses their monitoring and feedback exclusively on decisions involving selecting and adapting materials before and during a class being taught. The ‘teacher’ can be asked to explain and justify the decisions and then discussion can take place about the apparent effects of the decisions and about alternative decisions which could have been made. 176 B. Tomlinson

For proposals for how teacher development/education/training can help teachers to make principled and rational decisions see Bouckaert (2015), Loh and Renandya (2015), Mishan and Timmis (2015), Tomlinson and Masuhara (2017) and Yan (2007).

4.6 Recommendations

I would strongly recommend that all teacher training, education and development courses should feature simulations in which the participants have to make decisions about ELT materials selection and adaptation. Some of these simulations should be located outside the participants prior experience so as to challenge them to explore and to analyse the situations they ﬁnd themselves in (see Tomlinson and Masuhara 2013a). Others should then be set in familiar contexts so as to push the participants to consider all the variables rather than jump to the usual conclusions. The framework in Table 2 would help the participants to make and justify principled decisions and to compensate for any negative effects their decisions

Table 2 A Framework for Making Decisions Question Answer Justification 1. What is your instinctive decision? 2. What relevant learning theories should be considered before making a final decision? 3. What relevant local factors need to be considered before making a final decision? 4. What practical considerations need to be made before making a final decision? 5. Are there any obligations which could impact on your final decision? 6. Are there any ways of getting out of any potentially negative obligations? 7. What would be the positive consequences of keeping to your instinctive decision? 8. What would be the negative consequences of keeping to your instinctive decision? 9. What is your final decision? 10. Is this decision likely to have any negative effects on the quality of your teaching? 11. How are you going to make sure you compensate for any potentially negative effects on the quality of your teaching? 12. Is this decision likely to have any negative effects on the effectiveness of your students’ learning? 13. How are you going to make sure you compensate for any potentially negative effects on the effectiveness of your students’ learning? Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 177 might have on the quality of their teaching and the effectiveness of their students’ learning. The framework could be used to make decisions by groups, by pairs or by individuals either on face-to-face courses or on-line. The first question is answered immediately and emotively after becoming familiar with the situation. The other questions are answered after careful consideration of all the variables in the situation. Here is an example of a simulation in which the above framework could be used to facilitate decision making.

1. You have just joined the staff of the English Department of a prestigious Japanese university and one of the classes you have been allocated is a General English class for first year students who are studying engineering courses. They study their academic subjects through the medium of Japanese but they will be expected to read some journal articles in English and eventually to be able to contribute articles to English medium journals, to present papers in English and to be able to communicate in English with English speaking colleagues and collaborators. The students have been studying English for many years. Some have been taught English from kindergarten, some from primary school and all from at least junior high school. Some have also received private tuition in English. They know a lot about English grammar but tend to lack confidence and fluency when speaking and listening, to make many errors when communicating in writing and to read slowly and with little understanding. They also tend to translate into Japanese when reading and from Japanese when speaking or writing. There will be 60 eighteen to nineteen year old students in your class (45 males and 15 females) and you will be teaching them for two hours once a week for twelve weeks. At the end of the semester you will be responsible for setting them an examination. 2. You have been told by your Head of Department that you must select a coursebook from the list given to you and then each student will have to buy that coursebook. The list contains five well-known global coursebooks which claim to be communicative but which actually follow a traditional PPP approach. It also contains five coursebooks written by Japanese academics which follow a traditional grammar-centred approach. Your teacher is acting as your Head of Department and will give you the list of coursebooks. He/she will tell you that you might be allowed to select a coursebook which is not on the list if you can persuade them of its pedagogic value and its ease of availability. 3. Use the framework given to you to help you to decide which materials to use and how to use them when teaching the class outlined above. 178 B. Tomlinson

The trainers’ role in such simulations is to initially set up the situation and then to play a role in it. After the participants have made their decisions the trainer can lead a feedback session in which the participants reveal and justify their decisions. The trainer could also reveal and justify the decisions they would make in the situation and then decisions can be compared and evaluated by the participants.

5 Conclusions

Given the pressure of time, the obligations to satisfy and the constraints they work under it is not surprising that teachers make a lot of emotional decisions about materials selection and adaptation. Sometimes these decisions prove to be justiﬁ- able and sometimes they do not. Sometimes they are justiﬁable but ineffective. Sometimes these decisions being ineffective does not matter very much but sometimes it can have very negative effects on the teacher, the students and their institution (with the worst possible scenario being the choice of a coursebook which bores both teacher and students, fails to prepare the students for life or examinations and leads to student (and maybe parent or sponsor) dissatisfaction. What is needed in teacher development and support is preparation which will help teachers to make principled and rational decisions when they have the time and opportunity to make them and will inform decisions which need to be made on the spur of the moment. It is to be expected that human beings make emotional decisions when confronted by the unwanted and the unexpected. It is hoped that trained professional language teachers can make rationale and principled decisions in relation to materials selection and adaptation even when they have to respond spontaneously. Recommended Readings – McDonough, J., Shaw, C., & Masuhara, H. (2013). Part 1–3 Evaluating EFL materials, 4 Adapting materials. In Materials and methods in ELT: A teacher’s guide. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. These two chapters provide detailed suggestions to help teachers to approach evaluation and adaptation systematically. – McGrath, I. (2013). Teaching materials and the role of EFL/ESL teachers: Theory and practice. London: Bloomsbury. One of the few books on materials development to devote a large section on the history, the theory and the practice of adaptation. – McGrath, I. (2016). Materials evaluation and design for language teaching (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. This book focuses on teacher evaluation and adaptation, provides many actual examples and makes very useful practical suggestions for teachers to try. – Tomlinson, B. (2013). Materials evaluation. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (2nd ed., pp. 15–36). London: Bloomsbury. Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 179

A chapter which puts forward a very different criterion-referenced approach to materials evaluation for teachers, which proposes and exempliﬁes ways of developing universal and local criteria to be used in both the development and the evaluation of materials and which provides many practical examples and suggestions. – Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2017). Chapter 3—Materials evaluation. In The complete guide to the theory and practice of materials development for language learning. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. A comprehensive and critical survey of the literature on materials evaluation plus examples from the authors’ considerable experience and recommendations for teachers to follow. – Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2017). Chapter 4—Materials Adaptation. In The Complete guide to the theory and practice of materials development for language learning. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. A comprehensive and critical survey of the literature on materials adaptation plus examples from the authors’ considerable experience and recommendations for teachers to follow.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Do you think getting teachers in training to develop lists of universal and local evaluation criteria and to use them in selecting materials in real and simulated situations would be useful both for teacher development and in readiness for the realities of classroom teaching? Give reasons for your answer. – Suggest other useful training activities for teachers in relation to materials selection and adaptation in addition to simulations, case studies, peer teaching, teaching practice and problem solving. Give your reasons for thinking your additional activities would be useful. – Do you think it is ethical for teachers to omit activities from their coursebook when adapting it for a particular target group of learners? Why? – What do you think should be the most important ten universal criteria to consider when selecting a coursebook? – What (if anything) do you particularly agree with in this chapter? What (if anything) do you particularly disagree with? Give reasons for your answers.

References

Abdel Latif, M. M. (2016). Teaching grammar using inductive and communicative materials: Exploring Egyptian EFL teachers’ practice and beliefs. In H. Masuhara, B. Tomlinson, & F. Mishan (Eds.), Practice and theory for materials development in L2 language learning (pp. 275–289). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars. Bacha, N., & Ghosn, I. (2008). The textbook, the teacher and the learner. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), English language learning materials—A critical review (pp. 281–299). London: Continuum. 180 B. Tomlinson

Bolster, A. (2014). Materials adaptation of EAP materials by experienced teachers (Part I). Folio, 16(1), 16–22. Bolster, A. (2015). Materials adaptation of EAP materials by experienced teachers (Part II). Folio, 16(2), 16–21. Bosompem, E. G. (2014). Materials adaptation in Ghana. In S. Garton & K. Graves (Eds.), International perspectives on materials in ELT (pp. 104–120). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bouckaert, M. (2015). Perspectives on ELT materials development: Student teachers’ voices. Folio, 16(2), 9–15. Gray, J. (2000). The ELT coursebook as cultural artefact: How teachers censor and adapt. ELT Journal, 54(3), 274–283. Gray, J. (2010). The construction of English: Culture, consumerism and promotion in the ELT Coursebook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Loh, J., & Renandya, W. A. (2015). Exploring adaptations of materials and methods: A case from Singapore. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, 4(2), 93–111. Masuhara, H., Haan, M., Yi, Y., & Tomlinson, B. (2008). Adult EFL courses. ELT Journal, 62(3), 294–312. Mishan, F., & Timmis, I. (2015). Materials development for TESOL. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Pelly, C. P., & Allison, D. (2000). Investigating the views of teachers on assessment of English language learning in the Singapore education system. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5, 81–106. Saw, T. S. (2016). Evaluating the external materials used for cultural elements in ELT course-books through teacher perception of teaching and learning (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis). University of Essex. Thomas, M., & Reinders, H. (Eds.). (2015). Contemporary task-based language teaching in Asia. London: Bloomsbury. Tomlinson, B. (1995). Work in progress. Folio, 2(2), 26–30. Tomlinson, B. (2007). The value of recasts during meaning focused communication - 1. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Language acquisition and development: studies of learners of ﬁrst and other languages (pp. 141–161). London:Continuum. Tomlinson, B. (2010). What do teachers think about EFL coursebooks? Modern English Teacher, 19(4), 5–9. Tomlinson, B. (2013). Materials evaluation. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (pp. 15–36). London: Bloomsbury. Tomlinson, B. (2014). Teacher growth through materials development. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL: TESOL Education and Development, 3(2), 89–106. Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2013a). Using simulations on materials development courses. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (2nd ed., pp. 501–520). London: Continuum. Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2013b). Review of adult ELT textbooks. ELT Journal, 67(2), 233–249. Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2017). The complete guide to the theory and practice of materials development for language learning. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Wette, R. (2009). Making the instructional curriculum as an interactive, contextualized process: Case studies of seven ESOL teachers. Language Teaching Research, 13(4), 337–365. Yan, C. (2007). Investigating English teachers’ materials adaptation. Humanising Language Teaching, 9, 4. Zacharias, N. T. (2005). Teachers’ beliefs about internationally-published materials: A survey of tertiary English teachers in Indonesia. RELC Journal, 36(1), 23–37. Emotional Dilemmas Faced by Teachers in ELT Materials … 181

Author Biography

Brian Tomlinson has worked as a teacher, teacher trainer, curriculum developer, football coach, ﬁlm extra and university academic in China, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Nigeria, Oman, Singapore, UK, Vanuatu and Zambia as well as giving presentations in over seventy countries. He is Founder and President of MATSDA (the Materials Development Association), a Visiting Professor at the University of Liverpool, a Chair Professor at the Shanghai International Studies University and a TESOL Professor at Anaheim University. He has over one hundred publications on materials development, language through literature, language awareness and teacher development, including Developing Materials for Language Teaching, Research for Materials Development in Language Learning (with Hitomi Masuhara), Applied Linguistics and Materials Development, SLA Theory and Materials Development for Language Learning and The Complete Guide to the Theory and Practice of Materials Development for Language Learning (with Hitomi Masuhara). The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT into L2 Teaching: Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers and Implications for Teacher Education

Gabriele Azzaro and Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo

Abstract Although several studies examine students’ emotions with respect to technology in language learning (Attuquayeﬁo and Addo 2014), less is known about teachers’ emotions (Butz et al. 2015). Language teachers generally show positive attitudes toward ICT, with a gap between their use of technology outside and inside school, because of inadequate knowledge, difﬁculties in maintaining class discipline, or lacking preparation time. Emotionally, most seem happy with ICT, although negative emotions like anxiety, dispiritedness, insecurity, anger, helplessness and sadness may surface. The negative emotions often result from unexpected glitches, student performance, or the technological equipment (Mei-jung 2014). This study analyses the factors associated with Italian primary school teachers’ emotions towards the use of technology in foreign language teaching, according to an adaptation of the UTAUT model of technology acceptance (Venkatesh et al. 2003). A questionnaire (based on Mei-jung 2014) and semi-structured interviews show that 32 Italian primary school English teachers have a positive attitude and feel positive emotions towards technology, although their repertoire of applications is rather limited. Implications are discussed for technology acceptance by trainee teachers and suggestions for future research in this area are also outlined.

Keywords ICT Á ELT Á Primary school teachers Á Teachers’ emotions Teacher training Á Italian primary teachers Á Emotion towards technology

G. Azzaro (&) Department of Human Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy e-mail: [email protected] J. de D. Martínez Agudo (&) Department of Didactics of Languages, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 183 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_11 184 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

1 Introduction

Stacking digital gadgets into the classroom, the staff room or teachers’ and students’ homes is not enough to ensure an efficient use of technology which will be beneficial to learners, teachers and institutions (Bullock 2004; Demirli 2013; Tezci 2011). As plain as this may seem, it is still a real risk in many teaching environments. Even if technology is by now ever-present, it is only a conscious knowledge of its affordances, strengths and weaknesses that will allow teachers to tailor their use of ICT to their pedagogical perspectives. Several studies have shown that teachers generally recognize the importance of ICT in education on a theoretical level, but they seem less positive about its pervasive introduction into the classroom, and they are even less convinced of its ability to improve their teaching practice (Cox et al. 1999; Russell et al. 2003; Zhao and Cziko 2001). It is often their emotional response that defines their capability to develop technology-rich practices which are both mature and creative. Given the dearth of studies on primary school teachers the aim of this chapter is threefold: (1) to showcase the practices and use of technology amongst Italian primary school teachers of English; (2) to outline the emotional states generated in them by the use of technology; (3) to tentatively suggest a few training recommendations for foreign language teacher training courses.

2 Literature Review

ICT, at varying levels of complexity, is by now widespread for personal, professional and didactic purposes: personal uses involve gadgets like cell phones, readers, personal computers, tablets, etc.; professional and didactic uses include all of the above plus other more specific tools such as IWs, projectors, language labs, virtual learning environments, etc. Emotions play a crucial role in all the applications of technology to personal, professional and teaching activities. Although several studies address the emotional trajectories of students using ICT, a grey fog still envelops the landscape of teachers’ emotions with technology (Kay and Loverock 2008). We know there exists a strong connection between emotion and cognition: positive emotions can influence the way cognitive material is organized and pro- cessed (Lazarus 1991). Lewis (2005: 194) states convincingly that “a Dynamic System analysis of the neurobiology of emotion […] demonstrates […] that cognition and emotion were never two distinct systems at all”. Obviously the power of emotions is pervasive in learning, as well as in teaching; so emotions play a crucial role in both learning and teaching foreign languages, with or without technology. In fact emotions may help unravel one of the greatest dilemmas of foreign language learning theory which is the inability to explain individual variation in success levels of attained language proficiency. Traditional individual differences The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 185

(language aptitude, motivation, learning styles, learning strategies, anxiety, …) all fail to explain the variation in L2 proficiency attained by individual subjects. Other potentially important elements have to be factored in, like emotion and general knowledge. A similar variation between individuals also applies to general learning and individual levels of proficiency in the use of technology; “cognitive, emotional, motivational factors interact over time in a non-linear fashion, modulating and mediating each other, sometimes attenuating, sometimes amplifying each other in positive feedback relationships […]” (Ellis and Larsen-Freeman 2006: 560–561). Emotions are strange beasts to classify. Even though it is convenient to consider them as discrete entities, it may be more appropriate to view them as dynamic and interrelated to other aspects of personality. Scherer (2000:77–80) states about emotions that “we need to move from thinking in terms of discrete boxes, labels, or even neural programs to a nonlinear dynamic systems perspective of emotion” (op. cit.: 80). Individual differences derive from the conjunct workings of cognitive, emotional and motivational attractors. This applies equally to L2 students and teachers learning to use new technologies. In this context, the influence of emotions on the knowledge and use of ICT in language learning is at least two-fold: they certainly impact on the individual processes leading to language proficiency, but they also impact on the confidence teachers (and students) develop towards applying technology in the classroom. Given that there is a general enthusiasm in both in-service and prospective teachers at all levels towards a competent use of ICT in the classroom, policymakers and curriculum designers should provide training to future teachers with regard to ICT (Wong et al. 2013: 7). Often, an inconsiderate use of ICT in the classroom or in distance learning can hinder rather than favour learning (Oluwalola 2015), engendering a state of technophobia conducive to waste of time (and funds). In order to stipulate recommendations to this end, more research is necessary. In the literature we find substantial agreement that ICT is a good resource for teaching; also, science and technology teachers are quicker at embracing and mastering new technologies than teachers of the humanities and foreign languages (Hubackova and Ruzickova 2011; Muscarà and Messina 2014): it seems that there is a relative lack of confidence in foreign language teachers (caused by a possible lack of specific training) which may generate negative emotions. Lack of confidence and competence are generally seen as key barriers in the use of technology for teaching (Bingimlas 2009; Camacho 2006; Earle 2002). Negative emotions clearly hinder the cognitive development of technological know-how and the will to test new possibilities. Despite this, teachers seem to recognise the centrality of ICT in general. Jimoyiannis and Komis reported that 92% of 1165 primary and secondary education teachers perceive ICT as a necessity in our modern society (2007: 162). They also found that primary teachers constitute a particularly positive community about ICT in education (ibid.: 168). It is widely recognised that foreign language teachers at all levels should not only undergo ICT training, but also experience various forms of e-learning 186 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo themselves (Bender 2003). Teachers tend to reproduce the teaching methodology they have experienced (Hall et al. 2006). So, those who did not pursue a learning route based at least in part on technology will tend to replicate teaching practices which are devoid of ICT. What do we know so far about teachers’ emotional reaction to ICT practices? Although several studies examine students’ emotions with respect to technology in language learning (Butz et al. 2015), not much is known about teachers’ emotions in this regard. Furthermore, a few studies concentrate on higher education teachers while primary school teachers are in the shadows. Several authors have stressed the importance of emotions and emotional awareness in teaching, especially in the use of ICT (De Lera et al. 2009; Hargreaves 2000; Lyons et al. 2005; Mei-jung 2014; Wosnitza and Volet 2005). Emotions have a double-sided power: in any learning environment, both teachers’ and students’ emotions are woven into the fabric of classroom dynamics whereby a polarised emotional state on the student’s part may determine the degree of learning achievable (see above); therefore, teachers should acknowledge and manage both their own and their students’ emotions, so as to maximise motivation and the class learning potential. Students’ emotions are naturally as important as teachers’ emotions, in that the success of a learning strategy is “in the hands of the users of the technologies implemented to achieve its goals” (Kregor et al. 2012). Not all TEFL theories count emotions as explanatory factors for learning success. In fact, one of the most accredited theories on user acceptance of ICT (Venkatesh et al. 2003) seems to rule out the direct influence of emotion in the acceptance and use of new technology.1 The UTAUT model validates as direct determinants of the intention to use new technology (Behavioural Intention) three factors: Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy and Social Influence (gender, age, experience and voluntariness being just moderating factors (Venkatesh et al. 2003: 447)). Performance Expectancy is defined as the belief that the system will be useful, specifically by improving professional performance, referring to concepts in the previous literature such as Perceived Usefulness, Extrinsic Motivation, Relative Advantage and Outcome Expectation. The ideas behind this belief reflect the expected capacity of the technology to allow a user to perform tasks more quickly, improve professional performance, increase productivity, enhance effectiveness and output quality and quantity, in a nutshell make the job easier, faster and better. Social factors (like the desire to appear competent, see below) may mix with Performance Expectancy. In this and previous models, Performance Expectancy is the strongest predictor of behavioural intention to use technology.

1Eight original models and theories of individual acceptance are synthesized in UTAUT: the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Motivational Model (MM), the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), a Model Combining the Technology Acceptance Model and Theory of Planned Behaviour (C-TAM-TPB), the Model of PC Utilization (MPCU), Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT), and Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 187

Effort Expectancy coincides with the assumed degree of ease of the system. Clarity, flexibility, user-friendliness, immediacy, operational smoothness and reliability all concur to the definition of this construct. Teachers’ emotions are determined by the social context, as well as the task, the technology adopted, and their own psychology (Nummenmaa 2007; Wosnitza and Volet 2005). Social Influence conveys the idea that the opinion of important others may also motivate teachers towards the adoption of new technologies. Co-workers, senior management, supervisors, directors may coax a user into feeling that higher social/professional prestige is built on extensive use of ICT. Emotions actually play a secondary, indirect role in the UTAUT model, because two key affective constructs, self-efficacy and anxiety, are subsumed under Effort Expectancy (Venkatesh et al. 2003: 455), and attitude towards technology is likewise interpreted as unrelated to intentional use. Therefore, Performance and Efficacy Expectancy are stronger determinants of intention of use than attitude, anxiety and self-efficacy. Yet no claim is made about the real influence of emotions like anxiety, efficacy or enthusiasm on the actual use of ICT in teaching. It is clear from other studies that negative attitudes indeed seem to play a key role in dampening the adoption of new technology (Bingimlas 2009; Korte and Hüsing 2007; Richards 2005). Many recent studies on user acceptance of new technology have confirmed the UTAUT model, but some authors did not find a validation of the paradigm in the same terms: Attuquayefio and Addo (2014) found out that Effort Expectancy (EE) predicted the intention to use ICT, while Social influence (SI) and Performance Expectancy (PE) were statistically insignificant. Interestingly, Behavioural Intention to use ICT was not a significant determinant of Use Behaviour (UB), whereas Facilitating Conditions significantly influenced Use Behaviour. This means that practice with ICT does not necessarily follow from intentions to use it, and we could argue that the emotional state of a user (student or teacher) may be deeply influential in translating intention into practice. Practice may also vary, and technology may not be applied across the board in the teaching profession. It is often the case that teachers do not integrate ICT into the classroom even if they use it widely on a personal and professional level, for instance to search the Internet for teaching materials, lesson plans, multimedia contents, or to plan, write and print lessons/materials (Muscarà and Messina 2014: 193). Many studies reported how technology is mostly used for low-level tasks such as word processing (lesson plans, worksheets, assessment tests, registration of grades, etc.) or getting information from the Internet (Becker 2000; OFSTED 2004; Russell et al. 2003; Waite 2004; Williams et al. 2000). Sometimes the web as a teaching tool can be overrated, while in fact it has been argued that using the web merely for searches, content and using hyperlinks in a teaching environment is not conducive to learning. In fact, the following three myths have been debunked: (1) the web is a vast library that produces knowledge; (2) searching equals learning; and (3) hyperlinking offers good instruction (Colaric and Jonassen 2001). Indiscriminate use of ICT is not necessarily efficient. 188 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

In a study of teachers’ emotions with ICT, Mei-jung (2014) identifies the contexts and kinds of emotions experienced by teachers. 36 EFL teachers in Taiwan using ICT in language courses were examined through a questionnaire and interviews for literacy and attitudes, practices and emotions; they showed positive attitudes toward integrating ICT in the classroom, and 82% felt well supported by their institution, 65% thought that ICT enriched their teaching, 70% thought that ICT increased students’ motivation. Although their attitude was by and large positive, their actual use of technology was limited to YouTube and PowerPoint, and a gap emerged between the extent to which they enjoyed using technology privately and the degree to which they actually used it in their teaching. Also, individual problems impairing their use of technology were lack of competence, difficulty in maintaining class discipline, and a negative view of the use of technology in language teaching; some institutional problems were also reported, particularly lack of preparation time, software, training, and support from the institution. Regarding the emotions expressed, most teachers were happy with their use of ICT, and the positive connotations related to happiness (satisfaction, excitement, curiosity) were dominant, even though some expressed irritation or anger at the hardware’s uncooperativeness (Mei-jung 2014: 193). So, the study confirms that, even if teachers have positive attitudes towards technology, a gap exists between intention and practice, and teachers are reluctant to use ICT with their students in classroom settings.

3 Issues Addressed

Given the scarcity of information on primary school teachers’ practices with technology in the classroom, and on their relative emotional conditions, the present study attempts to answer the following questions: 1. What practical use of ICT do Italian primary school teachers favour? 2. How positive/negative is their general attitude towards ICT in the classroom? 3. What emotions does technology trigger in them? 4. Is there a relation between emotion and use?

4 Methodology

An online questionnaire was administered to 32 Italian primary school teachers (see Appendix), asking for the following information: personal data (age, gender, years of teaching experience); ICT applications used (with a choice between personal website, school website, Facebook, YouTube, interactive whiteboard, presentations, PREZI, text editing, Forums on the web, personal email); attitudes (whether The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 189 technology is good for teaching, whether it makes teaching more interesting, whether it is fun, it is likeable to work with, it enhances the quality of teaching, class interaction and pupils’ motivation towards foreign languages); emotions (with questions describing several connotations of happiness, sadness, anxiety and anger): the four emotions tested derive from Kay and Loverock’s(2008) computer emotions scale. The questionnaire also contained items to test the teachers’ Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy and the inﬂuence of Social Inﬂuence on their technological behaviour, as well as Facilitating Conditions, but these items are not discussed in the present study because of space considerations. In the questionnaire a four-point Likert scale was preferred to minimise the social desirability bias (Garland 1991), namely to avoid an overdose of mid-scale choices.

4.1 Results

The teachers’ ages varied from 26 to 59 (average 44, s.d. 9.2), and the years in service from 1 to 35 (average 18.7, s.d. 10.5), giving us a wide scope of representation. All the respondents except one declared that they use some form of technology at home to research/prepare lessons; all 32 teachers stated that they use ICT in class as part of their teaching profession. We will describe their practices, attitudes and emotions in the next sections. Practices It emerged that the most common technological tools employed were text editors like Word, the Interactive Whiteboard, personal email, YouTube and presentation programs like PowerPoint; the use of a school website, Facebook and Internet Forums were less common, and PREZI and personal websites were almost irrelevant (see Fig. 1). The within-subject difference was very significant (F = 3.65, d.f. = 31, p < 0.001), pointing to a wide differentiation of preferences and behaviours between the teachers. A few options seem to be preferred (text editing, use of the IW, email, YouTube videos and presentations). This is in line with earlier studies, outlining similar conditions of limited use where teachers at various levels confine their ICT usage to PowerPoint, word processing, e-mails and Web searches (Murray 2008; Ware 2008). The use of IW is encouraging even though it remains to be seen how original this practice actually is. In the “Other” text field, one respondent stated that she uses the e-Twinning platform and another specified that she uses electronic school reports. Attitudes Attitude towards ICT is generally positive, especially because it enhances teaching quality and makes it more interesting, but also because it is enjoyable and fun in itself. To a lesser extent ICT is viewed in a positive light due to the fact that it improves interaction and motivates pupils. 190 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

Score

MS Word 81,00

IW 72,00

Email 64,00

YouTube 56,00

PowerPoint 55,00

Tools School website 32,00

Facebook 28,00

Forums 26,00

PREZI 13,00

Personal website 4,00

Fig. 1 Most common tools used

The seven sentences evaluating attitude were: (1) technology is a good idea for teaching; (2) technology makes teaching more interesting; (3) technology is fun; (4) you like working with technology; (5) technology improves the quality of teaching; (6) technology enhances class interaction; (7) technology increases the children’s motivation to learn languages. Their relative weight can be seen below. Figure 2 testifies to a general faith in ICT, even though we suspect that the low score achieved by fun, interaction and motivation may be a sign of a less innovative outlook on the affordances of technology in the classroom. Did we notice a relation between attitudes and age or experience? Correlation between a positive attitude and age did not yield a clear picture: from the scatterplot in Fig. 3 we cannot gather any apparent relation between age and attitude towards the use of ICT in the classroom, as measured by the sum of all the scores given by each teacher on the 7 questions presented. In fact, the 11 teachers showing the highest attitude grade of all (in the grey box in Fig. 3) span all ages. Kendall’s tau-b correlation was not significant (sb=−0.175, p = 0.18), a confir- mation that a positive attitude is spread across all ages. Given the non-existent relation between a positive (or negative) attitude and the age of the respondents, we wondered if there may be a correlation between attitude and teaching experience, self-reported as years in service. The scatterplot in Fig. 4 shows a slight trend towards a negative correlation. Kendall’s tau-b correlation was in fact significant and negative (sb=−0.27, p = 0.04), pointing to an interesting inversion of confidence in ICT relative to years in service: the less experienced teachers put more faith in technology than the older ones, even though individual variation around the norm is extremely wide. The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 191

Attitude to ICT

is a good idea 73,00

enhances teaching quality 70,00

makes teaching interesting 70,00 ICT is enjoyable 67,00

is fun 65,00

improves class interaction 64,00

improves pupils motivation towards foreign 62,00 languages

Fig. 2 Reported attitudes towards ICT

Fig. 3 Positive attitude and age 192 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

Fig. 4 Positive attitude and teaching experience

Emotions As far as expressing emotions associated with ICT, inter-subject consistency was high (Cronbach’s Alpha 0.93), showing that the group had a rather cohesive outlook on the use of technology. The overwhelming emotion associated with the use of technology was happiness, while the three negative emotions mirrored from Kay and Loverock’s(2008) scale had a minor impact, as we see in Fig. 5.2 A more detailed picture emerges when we analyze the individual items of the questionnaire (Fig. 6): happiness stems mainly from curiosity towards the discovery of new contents, and towards future possible affordances of ICT itself. It also derives, to a lesser extent, from the possibility to motivate pupils. There is an apparent discrepancy between this high score for trusting ICT as a motivator and the Attitude score in Fig. 2 for a similar idea. We would tentatively explain this by noting that the value in Fig. 2 only reﬂected a relative assessment of the teachers’ attitude with respect to other, more general, aspects, like teaching quality, fun, and class interaction. The value in Fig. 6 on the other hand measures motivation against totally different variables, giving us the impression that teachers do feel satisﬁed with ICT as a potential motivating factor for pupils.

2Happiness scored signiﬁcantly higher (Kruskal Wallis p < 0.001), while the other 3 emotions did not qualify for signiﬁcance. The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 193

Score

241

104 71 78

HAPPINESS SADNESS ANXIETY ANGER

Fig. 5 Reported emotions with ICT

Score

happy at ICT-driven new discoveries 66 65 happy at ICT motivating pupils 59 51 gadgets are too unstable and variable 46 38 pupils do not react well to technology 20 29 ICT makes me nervous and apprehensive 23 19 machines are too slow, limited, irritating 31 29 ICT is frustrating 18

Fig. 6 Motivations for teachers’ emotions towards ICT

Emotion and User Behaviour We have a statistically signiﬁcant correlation between User Behaviour and Attitude (sb = 0.45, p = 0.001) and between User Behaviour and Happiness (sb = 0.3, p = 0.021), as would be expected. This does not indicate that there is causal relationship between a positive feeling towards technology and its use or vice versa, but it simply denotes an interesting relationship: teachers who use technology more appear to be happier about it than those who report to use it less. On the other hand, there is no signiﬁcant correlation between User Behaviour and the 3 negative emotions reported in this study (sadness, anxiety and anger), taken both individually or as the sum of all three. 194 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

Interviews In order to add focus and detail to the general picture of primary school teachers’ emotional reactions to ICT, 4 interviews were conducted based on two key points: the practice of technology in the classroom and the major joys and pains deriving from it. The age of the interviewees varied from 28 to 43 years, so that the small sample is more representative of the younger generation of teachers. There is not enough space here to report all the interesting comments which emerged from the discussions, but the following salient points are important for future research and also for a realistic definition of training requirements for future teachers. The strongest impression conveyed by all four teachers was their genuine enthusiasm, curiosity and passion towards the implementation of ever changing teaching practices based on technology as well as other (more traditional) tools. It was strongly felt that in such a fast-changing world as ours, new methods and techniques of teaching are most welcome, especially with an eye to keeping the children’s attention alive, given their fascination with visual and multimedia information. ICT feeds the teachers’ optimism and Performance Expectancy, but it also worries them with its daunting mass of inscrutable and often unmanageable possibilities: “I love using the IW, but sometimes I feel stuck with the same pre-arranged activities, and I feel there may be so much more I could do for which I am not prepared”; “I see what other people do on the Internet and I feel a bit inadequate and boring…” Inadequate training and on-the-job refresher courses are another painful note for these teachers, who voiced the problem of feeling “unprepared to deal with creating multimedia materials, the most useful ones for language teaching, and also dealing with the richness of new apps and websites popping up around us like spring flowers”. In this respect, all four subjects also complained about their lack of time to devote to learning, discussing, experimenting new possibilities with ICT. “What you find in books is useful and OK, but on the Internet you see so many interesting things you can do with children, and you try … but … there’s just not the time”. The seriousness of the time problem crops us time and again in the literature, where it is reported as being “the greatest barrier specified by teachers” together with opportunities for training/workshops/guides and having more support/mentoring/ ICT staff to innovate in teaching (Reed 2014). Tight budgets and lack of reliable machines were also problems mentioned: “In our school we do not have a language lab, and not even a language room, we have very few computers, and only one IW for the whole school”, one teacher complained. The limitation of funds was lamented by all four teachers. The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 195

4.2 Discussion and Conclusion

The upshot of this analysis of teachers’ uses and emotional reactions to ICT in the classroom is that teachers need more specific training (see below for more comments). The tools they use are very limited, their use is often repetitive, and even though their attitude is generally positive, a lack of creativity emerges from their practices and reported knowledge. We have seen before how using the web for searches, content and using hyperlinks in a teaching environment is not conducive to learning (Colaric and Jonassen 2001). Indiscriminate use of ICT is not necessarily efficient. From the questionnaire and interviews with the primary school teachers the following facts emerged. 1. The most common practices involved text editing, working with the IW (in ways that remain to be investigated, and possibly falling back on the passive use of published materials), personal email, presentations and YouTube videos. Web 2.0 features relating to interactivity and creativity seem to be lying still in the closet, so that future training should take this into consideration and help teachers to manage their own websites, forums interactive platforms and more sophisticated software like audio and video editing packages. 2. Attitudes towards technology are positive, a facilitating factor in the introduction of more awareness of technological affordances in the curriculum of in-service and pre-service teachers. Also, in this case, Web 2.0 features suitable for the enhancement of classroom interaction and pupil motivation should be shown and taught. Attitude did not correlate with age but it slightly correlated with experience, in that ICT was appreciated more in the less experienced teachers, a possible sign of a positive trend for the near future. 3. This group of teachers was rather consistent in their emotional make-up towards technology, and happiness fared like the most powerful emotion compared to sadness, anxiety or anger. Again, a very hopeful finding for future generations of technologically minded teachers. 4. In the few interviews, a strong enthusiasm emerged even though it transpires that time is tight and sometimes it is difficult to find help on specific problems. Again this main point to the necessity of team-working with technology, which in turn would mean to train generations of future teachers capable to rely on each other and the establishment to build connected communities of practice where nobody is lost and everybody learns from each other’s shortcomings. 5. An implicit recommendation present in this work is that technology is not a cheaper way to teach languages, but a more interactive, varied and personalized way to create learning communities. Obviously, the financial cost is high, due also to the constant necessity of upgrading machines and software. This should be borne in mind by school directors and policymakers at all times. 6. Teachers who use technology more seem happier about it than those who use it less. Once again, it stands to reason to hope that implementing a heavier reliance on ICT might result in a happier group of professionals. 196 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

4.3 Implications for Teacher Training

First and foremost, it seems appropriate to stress that it is necessary to nurture teachers’ internal rather than external motivation towards the use of technology in their daily teaching practice (Muscarà and Messina 2014). Obviously, this should be done early in their training. Demirli (2013) found that trainee teachers had positive attitudes towards ICT but were not very skilled in its use and knowledge: they were very proficient at a very limited amount of applications which they frequently used to carry out a few simple tasks like browsing the Internet, using emails, editing a simple text document. The level of competence was not effective enough to allow for a full integration of ICT into the classroom (Demirli 2013: 1100). It transpired that this is probably the case also for the Italian primary school teachers. The first step to train future teachers is to know present teachers’ stance with ICT. A thorough analysis of teachers’ beliefs and practices with ICT is of paramount importance, both to improve in-service teachers’ use of ICT and also to contribute positively to future teachers’ successful training. The drive should come from teacher trainers themselves, rather than from course directors or politicians. Van Driel et al. (2001) argued that many educational reforms have been unsuccessful because of their top-down approach, failing to take into account teachers’ actual knowledge, beliefs and attitudes. It is advisable to let trainee teachers experience a wide range of ICT teaching and learning tools during their training period, so that they may test any fruitful pathway of digital learning first hand, with its possible benefits and potential pitfalls. This would also allow them to develop personal likes and dislikes, reducing subsequent waste of time in pursuing technologies which are not suited to each individual’s sensibility. Given the speed of innovation in the field, in-service and trainee teachers should all be supported in the continuous process of lifelong education and practice with the ever-changing palette of new possibilities arising relentlessly. It is also necessary to carry out more research on how to train teachers in the use of Type II applications. Type I applications make traditional teaching faster, easier, or otherwise more convenient, whereas Type II applications offer new and better ways of teaching, creating teaching environments and practices not possible without the use of ICT (Maddux and Johnson 2006:1–5). In order to find a promising paradigm describing the knowledge required to effectively apply ICT to daily teaching practice, we may turn to the model of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge defined by Mishra and Koehler (2006). The main idea would be that ICT integration in the classroom needs to encompass equally technology, content and pedagogy, in three interplaying components, whereby teachers need: – knowledge of the pedagogy that is best suited to nurturing a specific content; – knowledge of how subject content is transformed through technology; – knowledge of how technology can support content didactics. The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 197

Affordance is another parameter which should support prospective teachers in their quest for effective classroom uses of ICT: affordances are a combination of digital technology possibilities and users’ interpretations of these. In this respect, special attention should be paid to developing an awareness of Web 2.0 affordances, that are particularly geared towards participation, active role-taking, social interaction, yielding multimodal content, managing connectivity, collaboration, teamwork, shared expertise, in a global trend towards fostering personal and group creativity. More attention should be given also to the integration of daily gadgets and apps, which might be very familiar to a teacher and to the teaching environment. Teachers should be able to judge creatively and autonomously whether a particular tool from outside the didactic domain could be ported over to the classroom experience to be used as a learning implement. The use of cellphones in m-learning is one possible example, in that practically every teacher uses one in his/her private life, but almost nobody considers whether it may be useful in a teaching environment. And many other non-pedagogical applications could be ported into the teaching arena for specific techniques or projects (see the use of PRAAT for instance in Olson (2014)). It has also been repeatedly stressed in the literature how the technologies used in the classroom are influenced by the kind of ICT teachers’ access at home and in their everyday experience (Tour 2015: 126). For instance, teachers who are regular gamers in their personal lives seem convinced that digital games offer rich opportunities for language learning, whereas those who do not play games have no faith in gaming opportunities for teaching; and teachers who use ICT to organize and control their private lives, also use it in the classroom to gain control of pupils, to capture their attention or to manage routines, with little relevance for teaching new literacies —namely ICT-based literacies associated with networking, collaboration, interaction and creativity beyond print-based competencies (Burnett 2009a, b; Chik 2011; Graham 2008). Enriched home uses and pedagogical awareness should therefore be part of the training syllabus. Aside from teacher training, one essential necessity is backing from the establishment, suitable support from administrators and school directors, as well as adequate resources. Insufficient technical support discourages teachers from using ICT, while increasing satisfactory equipment and technical support in schools encourages them (Mirzajani et al. 2016). Using technology for its own sake, under policy pressures, in order to compete on standardized testing systems or simply following fashions is risky, time-consuming, potentially frustrating and not conducive to quality teaching. ICT would be a shame to waste such a precious opportunity, given primary school teachers’ enthusiastic and positive drive towards the implementation of ICT in the classroom. 198 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

Recommended Readings – Maddux, C. D., & Johnson, D. L. (2006). Type II applications of information technology in education. Computers in the Schools, 23(1–2), 1–5. This article introduces the very interesting notion of technologies which are ingrained into the very format of teaching, so that it would be impossible to teach in a certain way without recurring to them. – Tezci, E. (2011). Factors that influence pre-service teachers’ ICT usage in education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 34(4), 483–499. This paper offers an interesting panorama of the attitudes, knowledge and confidence in ICT by 1898 pre-service teachers. – Kay, R. H., & Loverock, S. (2008). Assessing emotions related to learning new software: The computer emotions scale. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(4), 1605–1623. This study validates a reliable scale to assess emotions in computer assisted learning, concentrating on the four emotions adopted in the present chapter (anger, anxiety, happiness, and sadness). – Graham, L. (2008). Teachers are digikids too: The digital histories and digital lives of young teachers in English primary schools. Literacy, 42(1), 10–18. The author examines the digital literacy history of 23 young teachers and identifies three different routes to learning about digital worlds. – Teo, T. (2011). Factors influencing teachers’ intention to use technology: Model development and test. Computers and Education, 57, 2432–2440. It is developed a model where perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, facilitating conditions, and attitude towards use play a crucial role in explaining what drives teachers to use ICT. – Rogers, P. L. (2000). Barriers to adopting emerging technologies in education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 22(4), 455–472. The author highlights internal and external obstacles to the adoption of emerging technologies, with a view to helping teacher education curriculum designers.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What emotions emerge from the present survey, and what do they imply for future teacher trainers in reference to ICT? – What limitations emerge in primary school teachers’ use of ICT? – What could be done to help primary school teachers keep up with the rapid innovation in the ﬁeld of educational ICT? – How should a school managing board decide on a rationale for ICT funding? – Should every primary school employ an ICT expert or a computer programmer? – What would be a wise governmental policy for a primary school reform aiding all teachers to implement a conscious use of ICT for language teaching? The Emotions Involved in the Integration of ICT … 199

Appendix

Online Questionnaire Age Gender M F Teaching experience (years) ______If you don’t use ICT much, go directly to the end section of the questionnaire. If, on the other hand, you use some form of technology at home or at school, for your own private use or for your profession, carry on here: You use a computer or other technologies at home to prepare your lessons Yes No You use a computer or other technologies in class as well Yes No The following answers are graded as: 0 = no <----> 3 = very much In class, no sometime often very much You use your personal website 0 1 2 3 You use the school website 0 1 2 3 You use Facebook 0 1 2 3 You use YouTube 0 1 2 3 You use an interactive whiteboard or similar 0 1 2 3 You use PowerPoint or similar 0 1 2 3 You use PREZI or similar 0 1 2 3 You use Word or similar 0 1 2 3 You use web forums 0 1 2 3 You use your personal email 0 1 2 3 Other: ______The following sentences have to be graded like this: 0 = no <----> 3 very true no sometime often always Technology is a good idea for your teaching 0 1 2 3 Technology makes your teaching more interesting 0 1 2 3 Technology is fun 0 1 2 3 You like working with technology 0 1 2 3 Technology improves the quality of your teaching 0 1 2 3 Technology enhances class interaction 0 1 2 3 Technology increases the children’s motivation to learn languages 0 1 2 3 The following sentences have to be graded like this: 0 = no <----> 3 always no sometime often always You are happy with new technologies because they drive you towards new discoveries 0 1 2 3 You are happy with new technologies because they motivate your pupils 0 1 2 3

You are happy when a new gadget or model or software comes out 0 1 2 3 You are curious to see how technology is going to develop 0 1 2 3 Pupils react well to technology 0 1 2 3 Technological devices are too unstable and variable 0 1 2 3 Nobody can help you with technical problems 0 1 2 3 Technology makes you nervous and apprehensive 0 1 2 3 You don’t feel up to technology, you are frightened of losing data 0 1 2 3 When something goes wrong, you can’t find help 0 1 2 3 Machines are too slow, or limited or irritating 0 1 2 3 Technology is frustrating 0 1 2 3 You get angry when technology fails or things go wrong 0 1 2 3 The following sentences have to be graded like this, too: 0 = no <----> 3 always no sometime often always You predict that technology will make your work faster, 200 G. Azzaro and J. de D. Martinez Agudo

more productive and easier 0 1 2 3 In your teaching, technology will make your lessons more interesting 0 1 2 3 New technologies will increase your career or promotion prospects 0 1 2 3 In the next few years, your relationship with technology will be clear and straightforward 0 1 2 3 In the next few years, you’ll be able to keep up with technological advances 0 1 2 3 In the next few years, the new systems will be more user-friendly 0 1 2 3 Your superiors think you should use technology 0 1 2 3 Important people for you think you should use technology 0 1 2 3 The establishment you work for helps you in the use of technology 0 1 2 3 You have the necessary skills and resources to use the new systems 0 1 2 3 You have the necessary knowledge to use the new systems 0 1 2 3 You know someone to refer to in case of technical problems 0 1 2 3

The following section is for people who declared they do not use technologies much You use technology for personal use (for example to prepare materials, to keep updated, to carry out searches), but you don’t use it in class Y No, I never use technology You don’t use technology at home or at school because: False sometime often very true You have no time 0 1 2 3 There’s not enough technical help 0 1 2 3 You don’t need them in your kind of teaching 0 1 2 3 You haven’t got the necessary skills 0 1 2 3 You didn’t get sufficient training 0 1 2 3 They’re not useful in class interaction 0 1 2 3 They’re not useful to keep discipline 0 1 2 3 Your school does not have sufficient facilities/funds 0 1 2 3 Other: ______

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Author Biographies

Gabriele Azzaro has taught Italian language, literature and linguistics in the UK, English language and linguistics in various Italian universities, English linguistics and Technology for English Language Learning in the national teacher training programme at Bologna University. He is Professor of English and English Language Teaching Methodology at the University of Bologna, Italy. He has published on English syntax, L1 acquisition of English, digital analysis of spoken English, on taboo language in ﬁlms and TV series, and is at present part of a research group on technology in English language teaching.

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo is Associate Professor of Second Language Teacher Education (TEFL) at the University of Extremadura (Spain). His research interests lie at the interface of SLA research, L2 teaching and L2 teacher education, particularly L2 classroom discourse analysis, teacher learning and thinking, and cognitive and affective aspects of L2 teaching and learning. He has published several books and research articles on these areas in national and international publications. His most recent edited books are Teaching and Learning English through Bilingual Education (Cambridge Scholars Publishing 2012), English as a Foreign Language Teacher Education. Current Perspectives and Challenges (Rodopi/Brill 2014) and Native and Non-Native Teachers in English Language Classrooms: Professional Challenges and Teacher Education (De Gruyter 2017). Assessment as an Emotional Practice: Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers Within Assessment

Gavin T. L. Brown, Atta Gebril, Michalis P. Michaelides and Ana Remesal

Abstract Assessment and evaluation create many complex emotions (e.g., anxiety, concern, pride) for all teachers. High-consequence assessments engender stronger and more negative emotions. Alongside all educators, L2 teachers share the pressures, emotions, and concomitant labour to maintain positive and constructive responses related to assessments. This chapter adds to the small body of literature on L2 teacher emotions in assessment with three case studies of L2 teachers. These cases expose the range of emotions L2 teachers experience and describe the labour they must carry out in order to remain professional and effective. Nonetheless, L2 teachers have to help students acquire competence in a new language in a brief time, exacerbating the emotional labour they work with. Extensive research into teacher emotions in assessment is required.

Keywords Assessment Á Accountability Á Improvement Á Emotional labour Egypt Á Cyprus Á Spain Á Spanish L2 Á English L2 Á Greek L2

G. T. L. Brown (&) Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] A. Gebril (&) English Language Institute, The American University in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] M. P. Michaelides (&) Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus e-mail: [email protected] A. Remesal (&) Department of Cognición, Desarrollo Y Psicología de La Educación, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction

Assessment involves any method by which teachers gain information about student learning (Brown 2018). This includes formal testing and examination and ‘alternative’ practices such as in-class question and answer, observation of classroom behaviour, homework, coursework assignments, portfolios, and student involvement practices such as peer and self-assessment. The purposes of assessment, while many faceted (Newton 2007), reduce ultimately to (a) informing and guiding better teaching and better learning or (b) accountability evaluations of either students or schools and teachers (Barnes et al. 2015; Bonner 2016). These two competing purposes create tensions in how teachers understand, approach, and respond to assessment. Generally, teachers are positive about improvement-oriented goals, normally expressed as formative assessment, assessment for learning, or learning-oriented assessment. They are simultaneously generally negative towards assessments that evaluate students, especially those that rank or label some as ‘failing’ or ‘deficient’. Likewise, teachers are suspicious of assessments that determine the quality of teaching, teachers, or schools based on test scores. These negative evaluations are especially pronounced when significant consequences or stakes are attached to the assessment. Thus, teachers are frequently supportive of low-stakes assessments designed to address the question ‘Who needs to be taught what next?’ and are antagonistic to assessments that do not take into account that learners do not start nor progress equally and that the teacher’s job is to help all learners improve regardless of those conditions. While teachers are negative towards accountability testing, they also generally conform to the policy-based uses authorised within their own jurisdiction (Fulmer et al. 2015). This means that teacher attitudes toward assessment are complex and multi-dimensional. It is possible for teachers to endorse improvement and be less positive (but not negative) toward accountability and for these constructs to be only weakly, but positively, correlated (Brown 2016). These attitudes towards assessment and evaluation practices and affiliated consequences are implicated in the complexity of teachers’ emotions and identity. Before examining the specifics of language teacher emotions in assessment, it is worthwhile to consider the variety of emotional experiences possible within assessment.

2 Emotional Challenges for Teachers in Assessment

An evolving role for teachers within formative assessment is to be both teacher and evaluator. Many systems use teacher-based or classroom-assessment to guide improvement and to contribute to formal certification or qualification. This evaluative role creates a different identity for teachers (Xu and Brown 2016). On the one hand, there is a need for professionalism to judge students’ work against recognised Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 207 standards independent of consequences for either the teacher or the student. On the other hand, there is a long established obligation to care for and assist the student’s success. These two obligations press against each other most visibly around assessment of student learning. Furthermore, in a context of school accountability, there is pressure on teachers to do whatever they can to demonstrate that their work is high-quality and effective. In light of, perhaps unfair, consequences teachers are pressed by their own student-centred values to preserve, protect, and defend the learner from unfair attacks. Hence, the battlefield of student assessment engenders emotional challenge and labour. Research with mainstream teachers in many locations, including L2 teachers, shows that practitioners are positive about assessment only when it actively helps improve student learning or support better teaching (Brown 2016). Assessment for learning, much more than summative recording of total scores, requires teachers to accurately diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of student proficiency and prioritise those needs for feedback or instructional plans. This involves an evaluation of the merit (e.g., satisfactory, excellent, in need of improvement) of sub-components or holistic totality of student work. Moreover, systems often require that teachers assign an indicator of performance quality (i.e., grade or score) using the same data, which is recorded and used to create a summative evaluation. These situations create at least three professional dilemmas with significant emotional energy: (1) How do I tell my student that this part of their work is not very good and needs to be improved? (2) How do I face my students after I have given them negative feedback (e.g., a low or failing score or comments) about their work? (3) Who is responsible for failure—me or my students? In all three cases, the teacher has to manage the emotional labour of facing situations that clash with positive expectations. This is especially problematic for the teacher who takes a learner-centred approach or who is under cultural obligation to develop a deep emotional bond with the students (Xu 2013). Unsurprisingly, satisfaction, pride, and joy are natural emotions when students do as well as or better than expected (Xu 2013), so teacher emotions are not all negative. These emotional tensions are exacerbated if students are suspected of or caught not trying or cheating.

3 L2 Teacher Experiences

Evidence for emotional turmoil induced by assessment policies and practices among L2 teachers is much less evident in the literature than a more general focus on L2 teacher emotional labour (Ferreira 2015;Xu2013). Research has shown that L2 teachers, perhaps more so in East Asia, feel bound to care for and nurture their students. Many L2 teachers, partly when they are new in a system or are non-local language experts, report having to suppress negative feelings towards administrators, systems, and ofﬁcial test systems, while simultaneously having to motivate students to learn (Benesch 2012; King 2016; Loh and Liew 2016;Xu2013). 208 G. T. L. Brown et al.

Evidence of negative emotions around testing and assessment exists. For example, frustration at the possible unfairness of a high-stakes test, self-doubt about professional competence, and obligations to comfort and reassure students who get lower than desired grades have been documented (Benesch 2012). Indeed, focusing on helping students get high grades on a test can engender such frustrating experiences as students only studying those things which will appear on the test (MacIntyre 2002; Motha and Lin 2014). Strong focus on high-scores can create mixed feelings: pleasure that students are motivated to study hard, but indignation that ‘my’ course is reduced to test preparation, satisfaction that students passed, and guilt that students failed (Loh and Liew 2016). Not unnaturally, especially for teachers of written language, there is considerable frustration and exhaustion related to the workload of marking and providing instructive feedback (Loh and Liew 2016). Similarly, for teachers of expressive language arts there can be frustration at having to mark down students who are ﬂuent speakers but whose expression does not match the ofﬁcial standards embedded in marking rubrics and criteria (Song 2016).

4 Case Studies of L2 Teacher Emotions Around Assessment

To add to the research into L2 teacher emotions in assessment this chapter provides three short case studies of Egyptian university teachers of English writing (Gebril), Cypriot L2 high school teachers of Greek and English (Michaelides), and L2 teachers of Spanish (Remesal). These cases enrich our understanding of the emotional labour of L2 teachers in assessment.

4.1 Egypt: Teachers’ Emotional Responses to Written Feedback in a University Context

Teachers frequently provide written feedback in L2 writing classes (Ferris 2014). Giving feedback includes a number of demanding activities meaning it can be “difficult, tense, and time-consuming” (Mahfoodh 2017: 53), sometimes accompanied by frustration and uncertainty (Ferris 2014). Research has examined the effectiveness of teachers’ feedback on students’ writing performance and teachers’ feedback focus and strategies (Goldstein 2005; Liu and Hansen 2002). However, inadequate attention has been paid to “consultations with teachers themselves about what they do with regard to feedback and why they do it that way” (Ferris 2014: 7). More importantly, little research, if any, has investigated emotional responses of teachers when giving written feedback within a classroom setting. The current case looks into the emotional responses of teachers towards giving written feedback in Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 209 an L2 writing context. Specifically of interest are the emotional responses of teachers’ toward written feedback and whether emotional responses vary based on the proficiency level of L2 writers. Interview data were collected from seven teachers working in two ESL programs targeting different proficiency levels in a non-profit private university in the Middle East where English is the language of instruction. The seven participants are female instructors who each have an MA in TESOL and with 4–7 years’ teaching experience. These instructors have taught a wide range of writing courses and are heavily involved in giving feedback to their students. Thematic line-by-line analysis was conducted to identify relationships and emerging patterns in the data. Four factors were detected, indicating extensive emotional labour.

4.1.1 Demand

There was unanimous agreement among the seven teachers that giving feedback is a challenging task in writing classes. While demand by itself is not an emotion, it is clear these demands created stressful emotional labour for the teachers; meeting multiple demands of curriculum, students, administration, and professionalism. Giving feedback is demanding because it requires attending concurrently to different writing features, such as content, organization, grammar, style, and mechanics. It is not only the range of different skills addressed in feedback that makes it demanding, it is also the challenge in providing detailed explanations for their comments. Teachers seek to be sensitive to students’ individual characteristics when designing feedback. In addition, teachers need to keep a balance between positive and negative feedback so as to avoid frustrating students. Another challenge, arising from large class sizes, is the time consuming nature of giving written feedback. Instructor 5 summed up these issues with a sense of frustration:

It’s very difﬁcult. Sometimes, I feel like I don’t even know where to start from. With some students, it becomes more like an impossible task. I write at the end “meet me” so that we start discussing the problems they’re having on a one-on-one. Also, it just takes a lot of time to the point that it feels like an endless task. I always wish like I could just teach and have someone else grade and give feedback. A special focus of the interview was on the way students react to feedback and how this behaviour impacts emotionally on the instructors. In order to encourage students to take feedback seriously, the instructors usually assigned a grade only on the second draft, not on the ﬁrst. Most of the instructors felt frustrated when students constantly focused on the grade instead of qualitative feedback, which was meant to be formative and learning-oriented. Instructor 1 refers to this issue:

It is a bit frustrating for me as a teacher to be spending time and effort to give comments, and all the student cares for is the number (grade). With regard to whether the proﬁciency level of students would trigger different emotional responses, the instructors indicated that each level has relatively unique 210 G. T. L. Brown et al. challenges. As suggested by Instructor 4, crafting feedback for students can create exhausting conditions:

When the students have a higher proficiency level, and they are aware of it, they demand a much more detailed and thorough feedback as they need to be convinced with everything before proceeding into the next draft. Alternatively, students with lower proficiency level …usually follow [feedback] really well. Some instructors also referred to the challenges related to variations in student proficiency within the same class. For example, Instructor 3 indicated that weaker students need more patience and perseverance on the part of the teachers since repetition of the same comments is needed regularly until the students are able to figure out the things that need improvement. Instructor 4 suggested that:

Patience and clear instructions are the keys for successful and effective feedback. While it could be argued that patience and perseverance are behaviours not emotions, it is clear that teachers require robust control of their own emotions so as not to give up or be angry with the learner. Hence, demanding work conditions require extensive emotional labour.

4.1.2 Frustration

Student responses to feedback (e.g., reject or ignore) are not always what teachers expect. This creates emotional labour to handle the human who exhibits a less than ideal response. These teachers claimed that they accepted students’ right to challenge the grades they were given or to react negatively to a specific comment they did not like. The teachers mentioned a number of strategies they used with those students, including having an open discussion or providing a detailed explanation of the rationale behind a specific grade or comment. The instructors generally believed that having a one-on-one meeting with the student helped. It was a much more frustrating experience, when students did not take feedback seriously or when they persisted in making the same mistakes despite having had multiple reviews. Clearly, controlling one’s own potential anger requires significant emotional control.

4.1.3 Exhaustion

An unsurprising consequence of these circumstances is that instructors exhibit symptoms of debilitation, loss of energy, or fatigue. This was more pronounced in the middle of a semester when feedback is urgently required. Instructor 5 indicated that this especially happens when teaching a large class since procrastination becomes very common: Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 211

Procrastination is the worst way to handle work stress as it gets worse through time. Strategies usually used to recover from these symptoms included taking a short break, attempting to stay positive, and following a step-by-step approach to assigning feedback that focuses on dividing up the work into smaller units. As indicated by Instructor 6:

I usually divide the papers into sets of ﬁve to feel like they’re ending step by step. After each set, I get up, do something totally not related to grading, then get back to working. If these strategies did not work and symptoms got worse, the instructors usually sought emotional support either from a close friend or a more experienced colleague. One of the teachers (Instructor 3) indicated that she considered quitting her job during her ﬁrst year because of workload and emotional exhaustion:

This kind of emotional exhaustion was new to me and I couldn’t imagine back then that my everyday life would be either correcting or preparing. But now I got used to this kind of pressure and stress so instead of thinking when and how to quit, I try to look for possibilities to make this stress less and depend more on self-motivation.

4.1.4 Satisfaction

On a more positive note, the instructors indicated that they generally felt a sense of satisfaction or fulﬁlment when observing students’ improvement based on the feedback they provided. Clearly, seeing students succeed engenders positive emotions. Most of the teachers also indicated that their work was appreciated by the department leadership. Having support from above helped create a sense of satisfaction in one’s own work. According to different instructors, their managers understood how much time and effort was spent on giving feedback and provided professional support (e.g., scoring rubrics, training sessions, and instructional materials). One of them (Instructor 4) also referred to campus-wide services provided by the Writing Center:

The Writing Center is a great resource for all students. Sometimes, I send some of the weaker students to the Writing Center for additional feedback.

4.1.5 Summary

This case shows the challenging conditions surrounding L2 teaching and demonstrates the sophisticated emotional labour teachers carry out in making sure they respond appropriately to these demanding, frustrating, and exhausting work conditions. Giving feedback on composition is inherently difﬁcult and the emotions of students create challenging conditions for teachers. A sense of satisfaction is experienced when success arises; something that requires a lot of perseverance and patience since success is incremental and is not realized within a short period of 212 G. T. L. Brown et al. time. Generally, the everyday life of these L2 teachers is coloured darkly by the demands of their work.

4.2 Cyprus: The Affective Dimension in a High-Stakes Assessment Context

Research on teachers’ involvement in educational assessment in Cyprus is limited. Based on a standardized questionnaire administered to primary and secondary school teachers, Michaelides and Theodorou (2014) found that teachers distinctly endorsed assessment for the purpose of improving teaching and learning. In fact, the more they agreed with this purpose, the more they reported utilizing various assessment practices, including traditional methods (e.g., standardized tests) and alternative approaches (e.g., essay-type, group projects, and oral presentations). Cypriot teachers also expressed agreement with the use of assessment as a way to hold students accountable for their progress in school, but were more neutral to the idea (a) of using assessment results for school and teacher accountability purposes and (b) that assessment has negative characteristics or may be irrelevant to the educational process. These results are neither unique to Cyprus (Brown 2016), nor unexpected in a low-stakes context of the Cypriot educational system, where formal term grades and school-based exams begin only at the secondary school level. The high-stakes nationwide high-school exit and university-entrance examination system, the Pancyprian Exams, occurs at the end of 12th grade (Michaelides 2014). Focusing specifically on foreign language teachers, Vogt and Tsagari (2014) examined their training in language testing and assessment and their training needs in seven European countries, including Cyprus. The majority of Cypriot foreign language teachers, who typically graduate from language or linguistics departments rather than education, reported having no or inadequate training in assessment and a need for training even in basic assessment literacy concepts. In a follow-up analysis of interviews, Tsagari and Vogt (2017) concluded that the low levels of assessment literacy were related to difficulties foreign language teachers have, to even specify professional development needs, as well as reduced confidence in their language assessment activities. Unsurprisingly, Cypriot teachers of English as a foreign language were found to be inflexible in testing methods (e.g., relying on paper-and-pencil tests versus informal assessment practices) and reluctant to share their assessment material with colleagues (Tsagari and Pavlou 2009). Three language teachers who were part of a larger study (Michaelides 2010) about teachers of high-school classes preparing for the Pancyprian Exams were interviewed. Two teachers (one male (Participant 1, [P1]), and one female (P2)) taught English to Greek-speaking students, and one male (P3) taught Greek with a specialization in teaching Greek as a second language to non-native Greek speakers. All three were experienced in their profession with at least 14 years of teaching. At the time of data collection, they were working with upper-high school students Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 213

(grades 9–12). The interview protocol included questions about their conceptions of the purposes of assessment and about the Pancyprian Exams system. Only questions that concerned the interplay between the Pancyprian exams and upper high-school education are reported. The questions in this section addressed the impact of exams on the teachers, their professional practice, and their students; hence affective dimensions in L2 assessment were uncovered. It should be acknowledged that this particular high-stakes context was purposely selected and implications do not extend to the primary or lower secondary school levels. The teachers expressed an overarching sense of caring for their students:

A conscientious teacher, if he wants his students to succeed, and build a reputation that he is a good teacher and his students are good students, he has to work more […], may make additional content available […], may decide to dedicate time beyond the class teaching hours (P1). They felt that it was an obligation to serve the students so that they could perform well in the high-stakes examination system:

You adjust the content of the course to facilitate student preparation [for the exams…]. The purpose is to provide the best preparation possible. (P2) They considered it their own responsibility to work for achieving successful examination outcomes:

[Teachers] are inﬂuenced [in how they teach] because the Pancyprian Exams force them – the conscientious teachers – to prepare well for their courses, to master the material well, to answer any student inquiries properly, help students understand their lessons, and therefore help them in performing well in the exams. (P1) The appropriate emphases, the right guidance and preparation determine the results of students’ assessments. (P2) This leads to tensions and anxiety in their work because

Teachers are drawn into this effort that students make to succeed in the exams, (P1) There is additional stress to do the work properly (P2). The teachers remarked on the anticipated impact of high-stakes end-of-high-school exams on everyday teaching where their course devalued to test preparation:

[The exam syllabi] impose conditions, and they tell me that I should teach certain chapters, certain poems, certain prose. They tell me what to teach. (P3) But this realization was not framed as a threat to professional autonomy, but rather as an obligation to help the students succeed in their examination goals:

[Teachers] know that they have to work hard, to be organized and methodically prepared to achieve better results. They decide which points they will emphasize and the content they should teach to help and prepare the students appropriately. (P2) 214 G. T. L. Brown et al.

In another case it was even perceived as an indication of proﬁciency in teaching:

If you are an experienced teacher and you know that e.g. certain essay topics appear in the exams, then you will emphasize those essay topics. (P1) They acknowledged an unintended consequence of the relative importance of subjects according to whether the subject was included in the Pancyprian examinations. This inclusion or not affected their feelings as professionals:

[The teacher] who is not teaching courses tested in the exams, feels undervalued, and disadvantaged because students attend the course without the need to study, [the teacher] has no authority to enforce anything; (P3) [Non-tested courses] are certainly inﬂuenced negatively because teachers, and primarily students, put more effort on tested courses. (P1) As regards classroom and school climate, emotional tensions were expressed. There were opposing views about the relationships formed between teachers and students. Empathy is one positive emotion that may arise as:

A friendlier relationship is developed […] teachers too, are concerned and stressed for the students’ performance in the Pancyprian Exams, and as a result they come closer to them. (P2) However, when the teachers assumed the role of the test-preparer under time pressure or the role of the evaluator:

Communication is lost due to the material that needs to be covered […] and this is tragic. This is a problem for the educational system because it is not encouraging teachers, but it requires from them to carry out assessments. (P3) Finally, the teachers were asked about collaboration with their colleagues, and the relationships among students within a high-stakes assessment setting. Again, they perceived their role as fostering a positive environment that would allow students to prepare adequately for success in the exams:

There is more collaboration [among teachers and with administrators] to achieve the goals and do a better job (P2), [Teachers of tested courses] need to collaborate closely with the head teacher and with the other teachers […] to be able to devote more time to their students. (P1) Similarly, as regards students’ relations, the teachers accepted responsibility to secure a collaborative classroom climate:

There is a lot of competitiveness. Of course we need to be careful so that this is a healthy competition (P1) It is up to the teacher to deal with the teaching process appropriately. (P3) Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 215

4.2.1 Summary

These conversational snippets reveal the highly emotional situation in which these three second language teachers found themselves. There was a need to be caring and supportive and sadness at the pressure to focus on examination preparation, perhaps at the price of being a good teacher. The pressure of the high-stakes examination system generated some negative emotions, but at the same time professional efforts to ensure positive relations among teachers and students.

4.3 Spain. ELE-Teachers’ Emotional Memories of Assessment Experiences

We are always experiencing some sort of emotion. Emotion therefore pervades all of our activities. Given its function as an amplifier, emotion has some impact on everything we do; the stronger the emotion, the greater the impact. (MacIntyre 2002: 63) Several years ago I carried out a study on Spanish as Foreign Language (which is abbreviated ELE in Spanish) teachers’ conceptions of assessment. The research was facilitated by an online community of ELE teachers who invited me to take part in a seminar (Remesal 2013). The first results of that study were published elsewhere (Remesal and Brown 2015). The inquiry began with the general assumption that assessment conceptions not only shape assessment practices but are also born and nourished in early assessment experiences themselves. In other words, where else than in school do prospective teachers plant the seeds of their conceptions of assessment? There exists a spiral loop between conceptions and practices that needs to be understood, especially if we intend to change any of them. The teachers voluntarily gave open-ended responses about assessment which led to unexpected data. The analysis focused on the connection between assessment and emotions, which was then addressed as a separate, qualitative piece of research. The teachers were asked: “Back in your school days as a student, how would you appraise your experiences with assessment? Was it fair or unfair, biased or unbi- ased? Why? Please, tell us a concrete anecdote to illustrate your experience”. Altogether 493 ELE teachers from all over the globe responded to the online questionnaire and provided a description of their habitual assessment experiences. Based on their responses, the teachers reported assessment taking place at the end of a topic or a semester, hence, summative assessment mainly (60%) and by means of written exams (83%). The results were communicated publicly (45%), the students were passive during the process (93%), and the program continued without changes, regardless the results of assessment (73%). Unfortunately, almost half of the teachers (n = 220) did not provide any anecdote to support their response. Hence, the final sample of open responses was just 273, of which 79% were female; 33% were under 35 years old; 52% were between 35–50 years old; and 15% were older than 50 years old. Regarding teaching experience, 11% had less than two years, 216 G. T. L. Brown et al.

20% had between 2–5 years teaching, 25% had between 5–10 years, and 44% had more than 10 years. Based on these ages, we can infer that their school experiences happened between 20 and 35 years ago, so they tell us something about school practices of at least a generation ago. The literature on emotions and assessment is usually linked to test-anxiety, but the emotional world of education is much wider and includes feelings such as happiness, anger, boredom or shame among others (Falchikov and Boud 2007; Pekrun et al. 2002; Schutz and DeCuir 2002). The peculiarity of the stories that we gathered, in contrast with previous research (Pekrun et al. 2002), is that these data described the immense emotional impact of assessment practices years after the events had actually happened. Most research enquires about recent or immediate learning and assessment experiences. The huge majority of the respondents reported bad, negative memories. For example, one of the strongest anecdotes:

I would like to think that no teacher ever behaves like my Latin teacher at high school. When handing out the marked exams he used to order them from worst to best marks. He would throw the bad exams on the ﬂoor, so poor achievers had to pick them up and feel publicly humiliated. Indeed, of the participating teachers, 54% expressed a will to ensure the same negative practices did not occur in their own praxis. In contrast only 1% indicated a desire to repeat or imitate the practices they had experienced, after reporting a positive evaluation of them:

Back then I thought it was quite rigid, especially from the grammar point of view. However, time passing by, I reckon its usefulness and I have to say that… I tend to do the same. The remaining 44% of responses could not be classiﬁed as to emotional valence. Four major areas of emotions arose: (a) assessment activities per se, (b) feedback processes, (c) learning process of foreign languages, and (d) power relations and self-positioning. For the sake of space limits, I present only two excerpt examples for each category. Emotions related to assessment activities were coloured by test anxiety.

It was a miracle to survive those exams of memorizing dialogues or to recite lists of irregular verbs in alphabetic order… it was Chinese torture. I remember standing at the front and ‘reciting’ French verbs. How nervous I was! If you failed just once, you had to go back to your seat and there was no other solution than studying harder the next time. The feedback process itself triggered strong emotions.

Calling out our results in class caused lots of tension on us, and a sense of competition; students were ashamed in front of classmates when we had bad results. We didn’t know for sure what we had done wrong. It was demotivating. When I was a kid I was always told to be null for English, and I believed it for years, I even ‘hated’ English. Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 217

School memories captured emotional effects within assessment practices related to speciﬁc processes associated with learning a foreign language.

Assessment created a phobia in us against languages, and many of us deserted. My school days were “Next, read!” Boring classes lacking any sort of praxis, just following a textbook that never went back to use past vocabulary. Finally, school memories exposed issues to do with the position of students vis a vis the power of the teacher.

Only good students got prizes. The bad ones were damned to silence. I was an A-student. So, I cannot complain… assessment did not hurt me. It was inappropriate because it was not about learning. It was rather a punishment, an abuse of power by the teachers, with no objectivity at all. In my primary and secondary school, assessment was always synonym of ‘punishment’. These stories should warn us of the powerful and frequently negative impact of assessment and support a need for change in how language teachers use assessment. As one teacher put it, the negativity can happen to both weak and strong students:

We had a system that was very inconvenient for most people. The students with bad results wouldn’t get useful feedback or a second chance, so they would accumulate more mistakes the next time. On the other hand, students with good results would continue to see new stuff but the teacher wouldn’t look for more challenging contents or activities for them… so there would be demotivated students who were bored, besides demotivated students who had increasing difﬁculties.

4.3.1 Summary

This brief report draws attention to how assessment practices have a wide and long- lasting emotional impact on the learning process. This impact is wide in the sense that it involves different dimensions of the assessment and learning process; and it is long-lasting, since it continues to be vivid and present in second language teachers’ memories long after the events took place, affecting their current professional decisions. This exploratory analysis has generated a set of categories, which could be the basis for a programmatic research plan, since they clearly open up a new perspective on the long-term relationship between emotions, learning, and assessment in second language teaching.

5 Conclusion

These three case studies reveal the complex nature of L2 teacher emotions in assessment contexts. The cases describe teaching Spanish, English, and Greek as a Foreign Language and used highly qualitative techniques to elicit stories and 218 G. T. L. Brown et al. descriptions of life of a second language teacher around assessment. Various aspects of assessment are highlighted, including the giving of feedback, but the power of a terminal summative high-stakes examination hangs over these teachers. Negative emotions arise when teachers are expected to help students succeed in complex learning and in which testing, examination, or assessments are used to evaluate, often indirectly, the reputation of the teacher. Inherently, learning a language effectively and efficiently is difficult—most young people have at least 15 years of full immersion to master their first language. In contrast, especially in foreign language contexts, students are expected to demonstrate competence in a test situation with much less support or input. This creates emotional challenges for the teacher who is expected to help all students succeed. Professional second language teachers as described in these three diverse settings seem to be keenly aware of the difficult task in front of them. The well-established tension between improvement-orientation and accountability-orientation (Barnes et al. 2015; Bonner 2016)isreflected in teachers’ emotional dilemmas. In light of impending consequences (i.e., student success or failure in a forthcoming assessment), teachers feel strong pressure to do their utmost even in terms of deciding the course content and teaching approach to serve the assessment format, anxiety on behalf of their students to whom they may have become emotionally attached, and frustration when their best efforts to teach fail. It is not surprising, then, that L2 teachers might be tempted to shame or blame learners, if the teacher’s own reputation is at risk. With proper support from management and leadership, the tendency to feel guilty or angry at unsuccessful learning might turn into the negative teaching practices attested to by the Spanish ELE teachers. Compared to teachers of other subjects, which can be taught in the student’s mother tongue, and especially compared to subjects that have more objectively correct answers (e.g., mathematics or science), the L2 teacher is in a difficult position. Helping students acquire competence in a new language is exhausting. It is likely that L2 teachers do not have different emotions to teachers of other subjects, especially in light of the power of examination or qualifications systems to judge all teaching. It is just that their work circumstances press these negative feelings to the surface more readily than in other subjects. Though, research that compares the achievement emotions of teachers across subjects is not easily apparent. The professional work and identity of the L2 teacher is shaped and constrained by assessment processes. Those processes generate emotions and those emotions seem to largely have negative consequences upon teaching, teachers, and possibly students. Mechanisms for coping with the negative emotions rely predominantly within the teacher and his or her community of teachers. Support from leadership and systems is needed to cope with the sense of being judged if students fail to learn and achieve. There is also clearly a need for teacher education to help prospective teachers become aware of the emotional challenges assessment processes create and help them develop coping and management strategies for those feelings. Systematic large-scale research using well-structured tools, as is done with student achievement emotions, would seem to be a logical next step to understanding the range and impact of teacher ‘achievement emotions’ (i.e., emotions in relation to assessment). Such research is needed to know which emotions are Assessment as an Emotional Practice … 219 activating better teaching and learning and which need to be minimised by leadership as well as individual teachers. Nonetheless, L2 teaching is clearly an emotional practice. Recommended Readings – Bonner, S. M. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions about assessment: Competing narratives. In G. T. L. Brown & L. R. Harris (Eds.), Handbook of human and social conditions in assessment (pp. 21–39). New York: Routledge. This chapter outlines the complex pressures on teacher professional practice created by the tensions between improvement and accountability as valid but competing goals in the use of assessment. While emotions are only peripheral to the text, with an understanding of the pressures teachers face in assessment, the emotions of L2 teachers about assessment become understandable. – Loh, C. E., & Liew, W. M. (2016). Voices from the ground: The emotional labour of English teachers’ work. Teaching & Teacher Education, 55, 267–278. This study describes the complex positive and negative emotions of language teachers in a high stakes examination society. It explicitly focuses on the pressure of testing on teachers’ pleasure, indignation, satisfaction,andguilt. – Xu, Y. (2013). Language teacher emotion in relationships: A multiple case study. In X. Zhu & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Preparing Teachers for the 21st Century (pp. 371–393). Berlin: Springer. This chapter documents the emotional challenges of 3 L2 teachers of English in China. It examines emotional experiences in relation to students, colleagues, parents, and administrators, highlighting the importance of context and strategies for coping with the emotional labour of teaching. – Xu, Y., & Brown, G. T. L. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy in practice: A reconceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 149–162. This paper embeds the teacher emotions and identity within the complexity of becoming a professionally capable or literate teacher in assessment.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What is the emotion you feel most difﬁcult to control when assessing your students? – What assessment experiences did you have when learning an L2 that made you feel proud or very bad about yourself? – In what sense do your own assessment practices resemble practices you remember from your student years? – How effective would the strategies used by the Egyptian teachers be to help you cope with the emotional stresses of assessment? – What kinds of positive, negative, or contradictory emotions are L2 teachers likely to experience in the different contexts of and uses for assessment across a teaching program? 220 G. T. L. Brown et al.

References

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Remesal, A. (2013). La evaluación ¿evaluar para ayudar a aprender? I Encuentro de Profesores de Español como Lengua Extranjera. Universität Greifswald-VHS. Remesal, A., & Brown, G. T. L. (2015). Conceptions of assessment when the teaching context and learner population matter: compulsory school versus non-compulsory adult education contexts. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 30(3), 331–347. Schutz, P. A., & DeCuir, J. T. (2002). Inquiry on emotions in education. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 125–134. Song, J. (2016). Emotions and language teacher identity: Conﬂicts, vulnerability, and transformation. TESOL Quarterly, 50(3), 631–654. Tsagari, D., & Pavlou, P. (2009, June). Practices, policies and tensions in classroom-based assessment. Paper presented at the 6th Annual EALTA Conference, Turku, Finland. Tsagari, D., & Vogt, K. (2017). Assessment literacy of foreign language teachers around Europe: Research, challenges and future prospects. Papers in Language Testing and Assessment, 6(1), 41–63. Vogt, K., & Tsagari, D. (2014). Assessment literacy of foreign language teachers: Findings of a European study. Language Assessment Quarterly, 11(4), 374–402. Xu, Y. (2013). Language teacher emotion in relationships: A multiple case study. In X. Zhu & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Preparing teachers for the 21st century (pp. 371–393). Berlin: Springer. Xu, Y., & Brown, G. T. L. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy in practice: A reconceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 149–162.

Author Biographies

Gavin T. L. Brown Professor Brown is the Director of the Quantitative Data Analysis and Research Unit and Associate Dean Postgraduate (Research) in the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. His research into teacher and student conceptions of and responses to assessment grew out of his 9 year work as a psychometrician developing standardised tests for school based formative assessment. He is the lead editor of the Handbook of Human and Social Conditions in Assessment (Routledge, 2016).

Atta Gebril is an Associate Professor at the MATESOL program at the American University in Cairo (AUC), Egypt. He teaches courses in language assessment, research methods in applied linguistics, and thesis writing and he also chairs the AUC Institutional Review Board (IRB). His research interests include writing assessment, reading-writing connections, teacher assessment literacy, and teacher education. He serves on the editorial board of Journal of Language Testing, Assessing Writing, and Language Assessment Quarterly. His book entitled Assessment myths, co-authored with Lia Plakans, was published by the University of Michigan Press in 2015.

Michalis P. Michaelides holds a Ph.D. in Educational Psychology and an M.S. in Statistics (Stanford University), and an M.Phil. in Educational Research (Cambridge University). He is currently a Lecturer in Research Methodology at the Department of Psychology at the University of Cyprus, teaching courses in research methods, statistics, and assessment. In the past he taught at New York University, the Open University of Cyprus and the European University Cyprus. He has also conducted research at the College Board as an Associate Psychometrician. He has presented and published papers on test equating, test validity, conceptions about educational assessment, psychological scale standardizations and adaptations. 222 G. T. L. Brown et al.

Ana Remesal Ph.D., studied Educational Psychology at the University of Barcelona. Her doctoral dissertation led her to visit several foreign institutions in Europe, Australia and the US between 2000 and 2004. She explored Spanish primary and secondary teachers’ conceptions of assessment in the particular ﬁeld of mathematical problem-solving from a qualitative perspective. Since 2007 she has a position as junior lecturer as Teacher Educator at the University of Barcelona. She has extended her interest towards emotional experiences of assessment, from the point of view of the teacher, focusing on the teachers’ early experiences during their own prior school career. Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching and Assessing Students with Learning Disabilities and Difﬁculties

Michael Dunn and Gisela Ernst-Slavit

Abstract Many teachers face the challenge of students who struggle with learning. Second-language issues can add to teachers’ anxiety about how to manage intervention programming and whether to initiate a referral for special education. This chapter focuses on the concepts of learning disability versus difficulty and the perspectives of L2 teachers who must navigate the referral and identification processes of schools when considering a student for possible long-term special education services. The definition for L2 employed here could be representative of a few possible examples: a native French speaker (foreign language; L2 teacher) instructing in an English-speaking school; or a mother-tongue English teacher of a Latino child (L2 student). The second-language (L2) aspect could be on the part of the teacher or the student. In either case, the teacher has to manage the referral to possible identification process and all of its nuances.

Keywords Emotions Á Learning disability Á Learning difﬁculties L2 teachers Á Referral Á Assessment Á English language learners English as a second language Á Special education Á Languaging

1 Introduction

The aspect of language proﬁciency in teaching and learning has long been a central topic in education. The nuances between teachers and students’ language knowledge can have an impact on the perception of what proportion of students in a given classroom are at grade-level ability or not. According to recent test results, 40–75% or more of students function below grade-level ability (National Assessment of Educational Progress 2017). Students with learning disabilities and difﬁculties are

M. Dunn Á G. Ernst-Slavit (&) Teaching & Learning, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Dunn e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 223 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_13 224 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit often part of this group. The statistics can be even higher for students from diverse backgrounds. This chapter focuses on the emotional challenges faced by second language (L2) teachers when teaching and assessing students with learning disabilities and difﬁculties (Klingner and Eppolito 2014). In this chapter we refer primarily to educators within the context of the United States and Canada, which are educational models similar to those in many countries around the world.

2 The Context of L2 teachers

2.1 Curriculum and Assessment

The nature of school requires L2 teachers to provide instruction per the framework of grade-level standards (Vogel 2010). In the United States and Canada, for example, the 1990s was a period of governments creating more reﬁned grade level expectations as well as placing more emphasis high-stakes tests for students to demonstrate benchmark ability (Burke and Milewski 2012). This prompted a renewed focus on teacher practices and curriculum materials employed with students. Traditionally, any given grade of students will have some children operating a year below or above that ability level. It is when a student is two years or more below grade-level ability that the L2 teacher is faced with the choice of having, with parental consultation and consent, the child be referred for a multidisciplinary evaluation about a possible learning disability (Turnbull et al. 2016). This represents one of the most challenging tasks of an L2 teacher because longitudinal reviews of practice indicate that once a referral is made, the likelihood of long-term special education placement is very probable (e.g., Ysseldyke 2005).

2.2 Referral of Students for a Possible Disability

Many children in today’s schools have difficulties with learning (e.g., U. S. Department of Education 2016). An Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD 2015) report concluded that about 33% of students in member countries scored below the OECD average in reading, math, and science (p. 5). One prime example of low ability is learning disability where children struggle with reading, writing, and/or math. More specifically, there are eight subtypes of learning disabilities (LD): oral expression, listening comprehension, math calculation, math problem solving, reading decoding, reading comprehension, reading fluency, and written language. The difference between learning disability and difficulty has been the subject of long debate. Gorman (2017) suggests that emotional functioning may interact with learning disability rendering cause or exacerbation of emotional distress, misbehavior, and/or difficulty with learning; Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 225 consider the compounding affect when the student is L2. Conversely, there can be cases where a child’s mental health can be of benefit to children with learning disabilities. As compared to students without disabilities, students with an LD tend to have higher levels of depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. Fernández-Alcántara et al. (2017) qualitative study with parents of students with LD document how these children experience depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. This low sense of self-concept and the challenges to self-regulate tasks at school often results in children with LD having a sense of loneliness and even being victimized or assaulted by peers for this perceived “difference.” Research (e.g., Sikabofori and Iyer 2012) suggests that the prevalence of depression amongst students with LD could be three to seven times higher than that of mainstream children. These collective issues illustrate that the life experiences of these children, their families, and teachers can be complex and emotionally challenging. The task of educators in defining children as LD (or not) also has real elements of subjectivity. One generally-accepted criterion is that a student with a learning disability does not improve at all or very little after two or more rounds of intervention programming (i.e., a dual discrepancy: low ability and little or no improvement over time; Berkeley et al. 2009). Given the nuances between learning disability and difficulty, developing a clear and reliable referral and assessment system has also been a lingering challenge in education. In 1977, the US Office of Education first specified a five-part definition of learning disability that has continued to represent government policy and been replicated by many other countries. First, students with an LD demonstrate a disorder of psychological processes. These students do not interpret language and learning as other typically-achieving children do. They tend not to experiment with language in early elementary grades (e.g., changing hat to dat and laughing at their new nonsense words) and do not understand idioms and metaphors such as “it is raining cats and dogs” (Klingner and Eppolito 2014). For an English Language Learner (ELL), this is also an issue and challenges an L2 teacher to consider whether the issue is language or cognitive development? In a study about referral processes (Dunn 2006), a teacher described this:

[Students with an apparent learning disability] have an approach to life that is completely different. It is not like the average child (second grade teacher, ﬁeld notes). Interviewer: How do you see and know that? Second grade teacher: Oh, you see it. Their behavior, how they talk, how they understand the world around them, how they socialize. You see it in many things that they do. It is many things that they show in the classroom and even at recess time. It’s part of their personality….I think you’ll have [students needing referral for special education services] no matter what. A fourth-grade teacher mentioned that, ‘one would like to think there are some areas [in which] a student struggling with academics has average intelligence but just can’t get the work down on paper. We can’t mark potential. We have to mark what we see. An L2 teacher needs to demystify a number of factors (e.g., academic ability, emotional factors involved in peer and family relationships, social skills, attitudes and behavior) in determining if a referral is warranted. 226 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit

For the second LD definition component, students with an LD have distinct difficulties with language. Spelling, reading decoding, comprehension, and writing are prime examples. A traditional practical definition of LD is “unexpected underachievement:” the students express themselves well in conversations and have world knowledge, but when later asked to write a text, their spelling and pen- manship are poor. L2 teachers experience ELLs facing similar challenges. Third, students with an LD will demonstrate in standardized test results a discrepancy between academic ability and intellectual potential (psychoeducational testing). Parental permission is required for these tests to be administered outside of the classroom. Students and parents inevitably will question what the other students will be thinking when they see the child leave the classroom for the assessment. Why is the student leaving? The testing can take three to six hours—a long period of time. What is the student doing for that length of time? Is there a problem? Will the student need to be placed in another classroom or school? How will that impact the student’s perception by peers and possibility of graduating later form high school and going to college or university? Is this the beginning of school with low expectations and limitation of future possibilities? These and similar questions can fester in the child and parents’ minds. Even some teachers hesitate or refuse to refer students for assessments with the school psychologist knowing that this could initiate a new phase of stress and difficulty for the student and the family. When a teacher asks the parent about psychoeducational testing, this may deteriorate the teacher/parent relationship rendering the school with a resentful and revengeful set of parents and others in the school community who support their opinion. The extent of IQ providing reliable and meaningful data is likely the most controversial aspect of the LD definition. Fourth, the inclusion clause provided for children classified previous to 1977 (US Office of Education) to continue to have access to special education. Fifth, students with academic challenges attributed to something other than the concept of LD (e.g., hearing or vision loss, socioeconomic status, ELL) are not to have a comorbid LD classification. Some educators of children with hearing or vision loss, for example, may find this emotionally distressing as they feel learning disability (LD) can coexist with these disability types. Educational laws and policies allow LD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder to be formally documented in a student’s IEP, yet vision or hearing with LD are not. The long-practiced instruction and assessment practice for LD in public schools in many countries is “wait to fail” (Brown-Chidsey 2017). Students have the opportunity to learn and do reading, writing, and math activities in kindergarten to the end-of-third grade. Many teachers experience the emotional struggle of how to know a student is demonstrating low-enough levels of (in)ability to warrant referral and if so, how will the student and parents react? If a student is still demonstrating two or more grade levels below in skills at the end of that timeline, academic achievement and intelligence test results would determine if a discrepancy (e.g., 15 points or more) between ability versus potential (IQ) would be present? This discrepancy system has long been fraught with false negatives as the assessments typically used [e.g., Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (Schrank et al. 2017), Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (2003)] do not have a sufficient Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 227

floor to adequately determine early-elementary aged children’s ability levels (Geva and Wiener 2015). This results in false negative students lingering into later grades, even high school, before being classified into special education. The ramifications of an L2 teacher’s choice of acting now to refer or wait until later so as to help ELLs develop their language skills often represents a real dilemma.

2.3 A Case Study Example

The following case offers an example of what an L2 teacher can face in considering referral of an ESL student.

Vignette A third-fourth grade bilingual teacher grappled with the issue as to how to distinguish between academic difficulties caused by language or academic difficulty caused by lack of proficiency in the second language. Ana, originally from Puerto Rico, had one year of ESL in another district and had attended a rural school in her home town. She could speak fluently English and Spanish although her English had a Spanish accent and her speech reflected basic grammatical structures and a small vocabulary. Although Ana was virtually a nonreader in both languages her teacher, Ms. Wicks, did not find this unusual given her schooling history and decided that intensive reading instruction in both languages would help. By the end of the year, Ana had progressed in reading in English but not so much in Spanish (adapted from Irujo 2004). The following year, Ms. Wicks focused on English reading exclusively. Although there was progress, it was slow. Ana’s teacher began to think that there might be a learning disability. Her colleagues urged her to refer Ana to special education. They explained that regardless of the problem, Ana would receive specialized reading instruction there. However, Ana’s teacher was not sure that the kind of language support Ana would receive for a reading disability may be the kind of support that a second language learner needs. Furthermore, she was concerned that if Ana was assessed using English assessments, she could be mislabeled and misplaced–for the rest of her education. Ms. Wicks asked an experienced special education colleague to observe Ana. After a 30-min observation the specialist concluded that Ana was very low functioning and probably had a low IQ. Ms. Wicks was baffled and somewhat angry by this diagnosis. How can someone, based on a short observation and without any assessment or interaction, make such a blanket and somewhat hopeless statement? Although Ms. Wicks struggled in the next weeks finding a way to support Ana, she knew that a referral to special education was out of the question. As a result, Ana moved on to middle school, unlabeled (Irujo 2004). Just like Ms. Wicks, we both struggled earlier in our careers as K-12 teachers to differentiate learning disability versus difficulties caused by lack of proficiency in the target language (Ernst-Slavit and Mason 2011). We often wrestled with the question of when to refer a L2 student who was not progressing at the speed as other L2 learners. We had witnessed how often ELLs were assessed using tools and 228 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit protocols in a language they did not yet understand and were often mislabeled and misplaced. The above case and our experiences corroborate Trigwell’s overarching conclusion that “there are systematic relations between the ways teachers emotionally experience the context of teaching and the ways they approach their teaching” (p. 617). In his study there were examples of college teachers adjusting their teaching by exerting more control when they experienced anxiety or nervousness or using more teacher-focused methods when they felt embarrassment. While Tridwell’s study focused on teaching approaches, his findings resonate with Ms. Wick’s decision and our experiences. That is, searching for ways to support ELLs hoping that there is no need to make a referral. Conversely, while many L2 teachers choose to delay referrals to special education, general education teachers without knowledge of the cultural and linguistic needs of L2 learners, may refer these students for the wrong reasons. For example, because they were too quiet (student was experiencing a lengthy “silent period”), did not seem to follow written directions from overheard projector (student needed eyeglasses), had trouble following directions (student needed hearing aid) or were unable to write basic words (student knew Chinese characters and wasn’t familiar with Latin alphabet).

2.4 Insights into the Nuances L2 Teachers Can Face in Considering a Referral of a Second Language Learner

Accurate identification of L2 students who might need special education has long been a problem in schools. This is partly due to the similarities between the error profiles of L2 learners and children with learning disabilities. English language learning is not a disability. Yet, because L2 learners may manifest similar academic, linguistic and emotional difficulties as students with a LD, L2 learners are often misdiagnosed. Grounded in the work by Hamayan et al. (2013), Table 1 presents a list of behaviors exhibited by L2 learners that can either be interpreted as a result of the challenges faced by students who are learning a second language while adapting to a new culture and educational system and students who might need special education support. The examples in Table 1 are not conclusive explanations for each of the above challenges. In reality, these are potential explanations for observed behaviors. Different explanations require different educational interventions. Prolonged observations and analysis of different factors by a team of educators is needed to understand what is the cause of academic challenges for L2 learners. This often can involve anxiety and confusion in trying to attribute the two to the student’s case. Teachers have the professional responsibility to make academically appropriate and ethical choices. There is no standardized assessment system to manage this for them. Teachers are challenged with the perplexities of language, culture, race, aptitude, academic ability, and the systems educators use to assess students’ Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 229

Table 1 Student difficulties explained through an L2 and special education lens Observable behavior Possible L2 learning explanation Possible special education explanation Difficulty in reading Lack of exposure to English word Memory/oral language processing and spelling words reading and spelling; unfamiliarity difficulties; difficulties reading at with English words the word- level (i.e., dyslexia) Difficulty in Unfamiliar with English language Language processing problems; comprehending text skills (sentence structure, sequencing problems; memory vocabulary, grammar, problems; difficulty drawing morphology, pragmatics); lack of inferences relevant background knowledge Poor writing skills Difficult language domain for Organization or processing beginning L2 learners; student is problems; fine motor skills; afraid to making mistakes frustration from overcorrection Easily distracted Doesn’t understand; requires more Auditory processing difficulty; visual/concrete support; attention problems, including overwhelmed & saturated by ADD and ADHD language learning process Trouble following Doesn’t know the vocabulary Sequencing or memory problems; directions used; needs time to comprehend attention problems; language an utterance in one language and processing problems translate into another Can’t remember Overwhelmed with multiple Memory problem; language information taught demands of language learning; processing problems may do better in their native language Adds, deletes or May not yet have learned the Memory or oral language replaces words; word, lacks the grammar to use processing difficulties; word paraphrases when the word correctly finding difficulties speaking Trouble retelling a Unfamiliar with the vocabulary or Organization or processing story content of the story problems; long-term memory problems Difficulty with math Lacks the vocabulary and/or Language processing or abstract/ word problems cultural context to understand the fluid reasoning problems; working problem memory difficulties Aggressive or Lack of educational experience; Self- regulation issues; social withdrawn behavior figuring out how to function in communication concerns; new culture; withdrawn behavior language processing issues; may be due to a ‘silent period’ anxiety or depression Social and emotional Stress due to moving to a new Self- regulation issues; mental problems country and culture may lead to health concerns; learning social and emotional issues difficulties Source Adapted from Hamayan et al. (2013) progress over time. A solid school-based team can bring multiple perspectives to the task of interpreting information about L2 learners. Only by including different viewpoints can educators sort through possible explanations of observable 230 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit behaviors and begin to tailor interventions (Hamayan et al. 2013). When trying to understand the struggles of L2 learners it is important to include in the team, at a minimum, L2 or bilingual specialists, special education specialists, and classroom teachers (Hamayan et al. 2013). The team can be greatly enhanced if other professionals such as school administrators, occupational therapists, cultural or community liaisons, literacy specialists, school psychologists, special educators, and guidance counselors can provide a multiplicity of perspectives. This kind of collective approach is diametrically opposed to earlier and isolated approaches where teachers would talk about a student as “yours” or “mine.” In addition, a diverse and multidisciplinary team can gather and analyze information about a student taking into account diverse factors that may influence students’ academic achievement.

2.5 What Factors Impact L2 Learners’ Academic Progress and Linguistic Development?

The quotes below reﬂect the confusion that teachers often hear in conversations about L2 learners who are experiencing academic and language difﬁculties.

He has been here over two years, so isn’t his lack of academic achievement a sign of a possible disability? Is this communication problem a language difference or is it a language disability? She was born here, so can’t we rule out culture shock and language development issues? (Collier 2010) Second language learners are a very heterogeneous group. Among the variables to consider for this diversity are place of birth, developmental differences, language exposure, parental education, community attitudes, socioeconomic status, time in the U.S. or Canada, experience with formal schooling, immigration status, and ethnic heritage (Walqui and Heritage 2012). Because learners have different needs and strengths, it is very difficult to identify what are “typical” behaviors for L2 learners. To gain a sense of the struggles and strengths of each individual student, a considerable amount of information needs to be collected. According to Hamayan and colleagues (2013), seven integral, complex and multilayered factors need consideration when searching for solutions to best address the needs of L2 learners experiencing academic struggles in school. Table 2 lists and briefly explains how each of these seven extrinsic factors that cover the student’s environment and personal characteristics. Several school districts and educational organizations have developed protocols to collect student information related to these factors (e.g., Barrio 2017). Since many L2 learners experience academic difficulties as they are learning academic Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 231

Table 2 Factors that may influence L2 learners’ linguistic and academic development Factors Explanation 1. Learning environment Within the learning context the following aspects, unique to L2 need to be considered: a. Teachers–teacher experience and expertise, particularly in relation to L2 learners and learning; b. Services & resources–the human, physical and material resources offered to L2 learners should be comparable with those provided for all students; c. Service delivery models—L2 learners benefit from services that provide instruction in the L1 and L2, including sheltered and high–quality, sustained academic language instruction d. Role of home language—the students’’ home languages support the acquisition of English or the L2. Important to value the L1 e. Role of home culture– School teams must assess how culturally responsive they are to their diverse students f. Role of instruction & assessment—Students should be able to practice and show what they know using all their linguistic resources, including different languages 2. Personal and family factors Knowing your student is a basic principle. Understanding L2 learners’ communities, home life, SES, family dynamics, expectations and aspirations, experiential background, and interests can help schools tailor instruction for all students 3. Physical & psychological The physical and psychological well-being of L2 learners factors play a significant role in their academic achievement and school success 4. Previous schooling/ Many of the academic challenges encountered by L2 learners performance factors in school can be explained by learning about previous schooling experiences that have been less desirable, interrupted, or with conflicting philosophies or implementation 5. Oral language and literacy Important to understand is the wide array of experiences in L1 in the L1 and L2 and L2, including oral language and literacy practices. Collecting information about whether a student’s language development is progressing typically before they entered the school will help educators understand whether an issue is developmental or related to language acquisition. Reading skills in the L1 may transfer to the L2 6. Academic achievement & When developing instructional units of study, teachers and instruction other personnel can collaboratively plan how they will integrate academic language and content instruction, including clearly stated language and content objectives 7. Cross-cultural factors Important to consider is that L2 learners are engaged in an intense process of learning about and adapting to the new culture and context. This process of acculturation can be lengthy and exhausting for most students Source Adapted from Hamayan et al. (2013) 232 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit content in a language that they have not yet mastered (Gottlieb and Ernst-Slavit 2014), it makes sense to focus on these extrinsic factors. By understanding each of these factors, we can more likely understand if the issues affecting L2 learners have an extrinsic or an intrinsic origin. Providing intervention programming with strategy instruction can help L2 teachers learn how students manage (e.g., interpret) and demonstrate (e.g., change in assessment scores over time) with the opportunity to improve their learning.

3 A Proposed Solution: Response to Intervention

Response to intervention (RTI; Gersten and Newman-Gonchar 2011; Gresham 2002; Mellard and Johnson 2008) offers schools a paradigm of early-intervention programming and curriculum based measurement (CBM; Deno 2003) assessments as a means to progress monitor over time to determine which students should be considered and placed in special education. RTI removes the practice of wait-to-fail and standardized tests such as IQ to determine eligibility. Researchers (e.g., Siegel 1989, 1988) have documented how standardized tests have a bias against diverse populations, which is emotionally distressing to many educators as they feel schools should not be employing these types of practices. IQ tests have students read a text and then answer comprehension questions; yet, reading decoding may be an underlying difficulty. These tests also ask culturally-normed questions such as “what does a US Senator do?” as though every child has the opportunity to hear political discussions and terminology. Teachers can implement RTI practices as early as kindergarten. RTI is not a publisher-created program; rather, RTI is a paradigm based on Caplan’s(1964) tiered prevention/medical model. If teachers are provided the opportunity to have input on the design of their school’s RTI model components, teachers can feel emotionally more secure that their practices are ethical for children. Three tiers typically comprise a school or district’s RTI model. In Tier 1, teachers are to provide research/evidence-based instruction and routines so that students’ practices are representative of classrooms generally in other states or countries. The curricula and materials are to be current and based on best practices (e.g., What Works Clearinghouse 2017). Teachers and administrators can review the professional literature for research/evidence-based instruction. For an L2 teacher, attaining research to review may be difficult to find and apply to one’s own practice. Not all research studies include ELLs as participants. L2 teachers may lack familiarity with the terminology, methodology, or analysis. Organizational websites (e.g., www.rti4- success.org) can help orient L2 teachers to applying RTI practices in their school. Tier 1’s assessment practice focuses on universal screening (Gersten et al. 2009). Teachers are to assess students’ core skills (reading, writing, and math) three times per year (e.g., September, January, and April) using curriculum based measurement (CBM; Deno 2003) tools. The aim is to use classroom-typical activities (e.g., reading a short text) and then score how many words each student can read orally Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 233 within one minute, how many number of words spelled correctly they can manage in a five-minute free write, or the number of math phrases (e.g., 3 + 5 =) they can answer in two minutes. Teachers and administrators can make up their own CBM tools such as these or choose to use publisher-created types (e.g., Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills [DIBELS]; AimsWEB, which includes CBMs for reading, writing, and math). If a student is not meeting grade-level benchmark scores and an L2 general education teacher’s accommodations are not helping (e.g., additional examples and feedback to student), then alternate programming would be warranted. Within RTI, a secondary intervention (Tier 2) typically is in the format of a small group of four or even one student per teacher, for 30–60 min per session, 3–4 times per week (Fuchs et al. 2015; NCRTI 2017). There are various formats from which to choose: standard protocol, the problem-solving model approach, or a hybrid of the two. Standard protocol employs the use of publisher-created curricula [e.g., ReadWell (Sprick et al. 1998)]. The problem-solving approach focuses on each student’s learning and assessment profile as a basis for the school-team to design a set of intervention components. If the student is demonstrating challenges with writing texts, a writing intervention could include reviewing a published writer’s text as a model and warm-up, then reviewing some spelling of words, combining a few simple sentences into compound and sentences, and then learning and applying a mnemonic strategy such as Plan, Organize, and Write (POW; Saddler et al. 2004). Teachers can feel emotionally challenged as to who and when these interventions will be offered children? A typical school day has about six hours with a lot of curriculum to complete. Schools typically do not have designated small-group intervention periods. Another challenge is that RTI advocates prefer to have the classroom teacher offer or have at least some involvement with the intervention’s instruction and assessment. As students progress with the Tier 2 intervention activities, the L2 teacher completes CBM progress-monitoring assessments about every fourth session. These scores are then charted (see Fig. 1) over time to determine trends in skill levels. It is best practice to offer a student a second Tier 2 intervention cycle (e.g., 5–6 weeks, four days/week) if the CBM scores did not indicate a trend of improvement after learning (training in) a new strategy. In Dunn’s(2012) study, two fourth-grade

Baseline- vs IntervenƟon-Phase CBM Scores 7 6 5 4 3 Training/Teaching 2 a New Strategy 1 0 123456 789 10111213141516 Session Numbers

Fig. 1 Example CBM data chart 234 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit male students of Hispanic descent and in the bottom 25% of their class for writing ability participated in a 25-session writing intervention. Their baseline- and intervention-phase data demonstrate the expected range per phase yet variable nature of CBM writing assessments and ability. In these two students’ cases, they both improved after training to be above baseline levels. This indicated that the intervention programming provided a positive change in skill levels for story content and quality, and, therefore, the school team would not pursue referral processes, at least that school year. Future universal screenings could render the need for a follow-up intervention(s). If the student then made no progress (i.e., being dually discrepant in low ability and no progress over time), Tier 3 would apply and offer a series of choices. RTI advocates (e.g., Fuchs et al. in press) have offered a series of choices for what Tier 3 can entail, but there is no general agreement on which option may be better than another. The Tier 3 options include: (1) a period for offering the student a cognitive-skills intervention such as improving memory or attentional skills; (2) a period when the student completes diagnostic (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement; Schrank et al. 2017) and cognitive assessments [e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (2003)] to examine more in depth the student’s strengths and weaknesses; (3) a period to conference with parents and then hold an ofﬁcial Individual Education Plan meeting with school and district personnel; or (4) the beginning of long-term placement in special education.

3.1 Parental Rights and Due Process

In the US, Canada, and other countries, public laws (e.g., Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004) provide a framework for student and parental consent for assessments and change of placement (e.g., a student being in special education for part of the day) in the wait-to-fail model. The school must obtain signed parental consent for IQ assessment. After the school psychologist or speech and language pathologist, to name two examples, complete an assessment, they are to meet with the parents and debrief about the results. If a disability is apparent from the results and school team’s view, then they are to meet with the parents to draft an Individual Education Plan’s (IEP) contents. Informing parents that disability clas- siﬁcation and special education placement is warranted can be an emotionally tense meeting. Many people view special education as a place if low ability and no real chance of improving that perception. Acceptance of having a disability can be painful for students and parents. The response to intervention paradigm as framed to date by educators does not provide for parental consent and due process components (Fuchs et al. 2015) about referral and assessment. Tiers 1 and 2 (possibly 3 as well if not yet placing a student in special education) could be completed as part of “good academic programming,” which traditionally does not require parental consent. Parent groups such as the Learning Disabilities Association of America (2017) have serious concerns about Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 235

RTI such as inadequate professional development for teachers, infeasibility of implementation in middle and secondary schools, and impractical nature of RTI interventions’ fidelity of implementation; a school may say they are doing intervention programming, but is it really happening? Who in a school has the time to observe and document fidelity for every student’s intervention session? With each school designing their own model and no legal framework, how long will a school continue intervention programming before offering parents a conclusion about disability classification and placement? Hopefully, (ideally) there is school to parent consultation about students’ change in skills over time. What constitutes sufficient RTI improvement for an L1 versus an L2 child? One suggestion could be +150% above baseline levels, which may mean very little improvement if baseline scores were 1.1, for example. The school team can decide but may choose not to share with the parent since the intervention’s outcome was deemed positive; but what if the student does not do as well the following year with another teacher? Where does parental consultation begin? If the results had been just below sufficient and the parents were informed of the intervention’s outcome(s) and need for an IEP and placement in special education, is the student deemed with a learning disability over the long term? Next year’s teacher could have different CBM tools and results. Maybe maturation was the issue even in the case of an ELL student.

4 Issues and Concerns in Referral of ELLs

Why are so many ESL students inappropriately referred to special education? This is widely documented and has been the subject of many court cases (Welner et al. 2017). When students have apparent disabilities such as blindness, a referral to special education is not in doubt. However, when the suspected disability is, for example, speech/language impairment, learning disability or mild mental retarda- tion, the appropriateness of the referral may be questionable. Those making the referral often confuse the characteristics of typical second language acquisition with characteristics of language impairment or learning disability. The disability must be intrinsic to the child and not primarily as a result of environmental factors. The following are some questions teachers need to ask before deciding whether it is appropriate to refer (or not) a L2 learner for special education: – Has the student had time to adjust to the new environment (language, community, classroom, etc.)? – What are the student’s prior experiences with school? – as the student received instruction in the second language or in bilingual instruction? – Does the student display the same lack of adaptive behavior and/or cognitive difﬁculties in the home/school community as he/she does in the classroom? – How can we be sure that the student really needs to be referred? 236 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit

Critical questions that must be explored by teachers and school-based teams before referring an ESL student to special education: – Would this student have trouble learning in any case? (e.g., Would the student have trouble learning if taught in his/her native language or, in the native country?) – Has the school made every attempt to provide appropriate instruction? (e.g., L2 and native language instructional support) – Have the school’s efforts to assist this student with the educational program been similar in quality and quantity to those programs and services provided to students who are proficient in the language who have also experienced academic difficulty? (e.g., compensatory math, reading, or writing) – Is the suspected disability intrinsic (i.e., belongs naturally) to this student? – Have the pre-referral efforts been complete, honest and appropriate? (e.g., allowing the student time to adjust to the new school, language and culture) Reflective practice, collegial dialogue, and ongoing professional development will help L2 teachers in addressing these questions.

4.1 How to Avoid Inappropriate Referrals of L2 Learners

Because documentation of pre-referral interventions is a required part of the special education evaluation process, many schools have developed problem-solving/ school teams (e.g., a school administrator, L2 teacher, special educator, a teacher of ELLs, school psychologist, speech and language pathologist, and a behavior specialist). When interventions suggested by such teams are successful, a referral to special education may no longer be necessary. It is important that L2 teachers are part of these teams in order to bring their knowledge and skills to the problem-solving process. This knowledge includes: – Awareness of the second language acquisition process – Appropriate instructional strategies for L2 students – Sensitivity to cultural diversity – Sensitivity to child-rearing practices in immigrant families that may be different from local practices – The importance of native language support. An L2 teacher brings a lot of expertise to the school team’s deliberations and should not feel nervous, afraid or intimidated by school psychologists, for example, whose opinions may be considered as more informed. Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 237

5 Conclusion

The issues surrounding learning disability versus difficulty are complex and even more so when involving the aspects of ELLs. We, as authors, suggest the following as good practices to consider when an L2 teacher is called to assess the learning needs of a student: 1. Be reflective about your teaching and who the students are in your classroom. The first step with response to intervention is to do a self-inventory of a teacher’s practices and resources. Is everything available and being offered so as to be comparable to other high-quality classroom instruction amongst educators? If not, the teacher and school need to attain the professional development or curriculum materials to promote addressing the needs of all students in their classroom. 2. Practice the assessment-drives-instruction paradigm. As an L2 teacher, be in a recursive mindset of reviewing student work, inquiring with students when their demonstration of learning is off base, reviewing children’s CBM assessments about every fourth day of school; these CBMs can be a writing or reading task, for example, that you have them do as part of regular programming. CBM does not have to be a stand-alone activity. 3. Advocate for a central data record keeping system in your school. There needs to be a place and system for where students’ state assessment, and CBM/ progress-monitoring data, to name a few examples, is kept. Teacher and administrators can change schools from year to year; they may not always be in the school in the future to ask. Longitudinal data can be very informative. 4. If your school employs the wait-to-fail model, use your CBM data to highlight a student with learning difficulties’ strengths and weaknesses. Assessment data can be very powerful in conversations with administrators, L2 lead teachers, and support personnel such as school psychologists or speech and language pathologists. Always offer an explanation of the context: the student’s profile (e.g., ELL, low-income family), data from a topic the class has been reviewing for months yet the student still struggles. 5. Be aware of the nuanced reality of learning disability versus difficulty versus ELLs’ needing up to eight years to develop academic language. The L2/referral topic is not a definitive science. There is no one student test or set of observations that will clarify all lingering questions. The willingness to keep trying new types of activities, seeking collegial dialogue from school staff, ongoing family dialogue and interaction, and students’ feedback about classroom learning experiences can all help promote clarity as to how best to promote students’ improvement. Public education has many aims in helping students’ improve their skills. Academic ability can be challenging to define. An L2 teacher’s choice in making a referral can be one of the most difficult decisions to make. Through being reflective, collaborating with colleagues and parents, and participating in ongoing professional 238 M. Dunn and G. Ernst-Slavit development, an L2 teacher can attain more clarity about how to manage referrals and possible identification. Recommended Readings – Geva, E., & Wiener, J. (2015). Psychological assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse children and adolescents: A practitioner’s guide. New York: Springer Publishing Company. In their book, Esther Geva and Judith Wiener provide a guide for assessing culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) children. The intended audience is school and clinical psychologists or graduate students in advanced courses of such programs. The authors discuss a number of important aspects in assessing CLD children such as intelligence, academic achievement, behavior/social/ emotional skills, and families, to name a few examples. RTI and CBM are also mentioned. – Klingner, J., & Eppolito, A. M. (2014). English language learners: Differentiating between language acquisition and learning disabilities. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. The authors Klingner and Eppolito discuss the contentious issue of when and whether to consider classifying ELLs as having a disability. The intended audience is public educators who experience this issue. The authors discuss how ELLs’ language acquisition can mirror characteristics of a student’s possibly having a learning disability as well as common misconceptions of the language acquisition process. – Hamayan, E., Marler, B., Sánchez-López, C., & Damico, J. (2013). Special education considerations for English language learners. Delivering a continuum of services (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Caslon. In lieu of trying to define whether a learning disability is present at the outset of working with a child, the authors advocate teachers employ an intervention and assessment process (e.g., RTI) providing support that uses the benefits of knowledge and experience from both second-language acquisition and special education. The aim is to promote a continuum of services over time to determine a student’s strengths/weaknesses and what the appropriate next steps would be for programming. – Artiles, A. J. (2015) Beyond responsiveness to identity badges: Future research on culture in disability and implications for Response to Intervention, Educational Review, 67, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2014.934322. The author offers a critique of the construct of culture given its centrality in per the concept of difference, which researchers have commonly applied in their studies about education including students from diverse backgrounds. Artiles’ aim is to rely on a view of culture that honors its dynamic, historical, and dialectical nature. Emotional Challenges Faced by L2 Teachers When Teaching … 239

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – What are the aspects of learning that you feel should guide a teacher to consider an “act now” versus “act later” approach to referral? – Some languages are more phonetically regular than others (e.g., English has many exceptions, Turkish few if any). How much of an impact does your first-language have on learning as compared to others spoken in your school? – Standardized assessments’ consistent format and content are favored by some educators. Other educators favor CBM for its classroom-activities focus; yet the CBM format varies depending on the teacher’s choice of design. Which assessment method do you prefer? Why? – A key question in L2 teachers’ considering referral for students is their proficiency in reading, writing, and math in their first language when it is other than the school’s language of instruction. An example is a native English-speaking teacher of a Latino student in an English-instruction school. In such a case at your school, what community or online/virtual resource personnel could help you and your school team assess the student’s proficiency in their first language? Who in your school or community could help you in this research task? – Table 1 mentions the aspect of behavior and its interaction with learning and language issues. How much should (mis)behavior be considered in referral? Does low academic ability provoke (mis)behavior or vice versa?

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Author Biographies

Michael Dunn is an Associate Professor of special education and literacy at Washington State University, Vancouver. He teaches courses applicable to K-12 educators in the Special Education Endorsement and Ph.D. in Special Education Programs. His research focuses on intervention design for writing such as within a multi-tiered system of supports framework, and the use of technology tools for writing. The Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy (part of the International Literacy Association) awarded Dr. Dunn their 2012 Outstanding Article Award for his 2011 article about teachers’ suggested best practices for writing-skills instruction.

Gisela Ernst-Slavit a Professor at Washington State University, investigates language teacher education in culturally and linguistically diverse settings using ethnographic and sociolinguistic perspectives. Dr. Ernst-Slavit has published extensively and has given numerous presentations in the Americas, Europe and Asia. Her latest books include: Views from the Inside: Languages, Cultures and Schooling for K-12 Educators (w/ J. Egbert, in press), Academic Language in Diverse Classrooms: Deﬁnitions and Contexts (with M. Gottlieb, 2014); a 6-book series on academic language published by Corwin (w/ M. Gottlieb); and Access to Academics: Planning Instruction for K-12 Classrooms with ELLs (with J. Egbert, 2010). She is a ﬂuent speaker of Spanish and English. ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges in Professional Relationships with the School Community: Implications for Teacher Education

Minh Hue Nguyen

Abstract This chapter begins by arguing that English as a second language (ESL) teachers’ emotional experiences constitute “what teachers feel” and should be an essential part of their teacher cognition. It then argues that ESL teachers’ interactions with the school community, such including students, colleagues and administrators, play a fundamental role in their emotional experiences and in shaping the way ESL teachers do their work. Current research on ESL teacher education is reviewed to demonstrate these links. Moreover, with the support of empirical ﬁndings from the literature, the chapter discusses ways in which ESL teachers respond to their emotional experiences and the challenges they face within their professional relationships with the school community. Based on the discussion, the chapter generates implications for ESL teacher education in fostering productive emotional experiences and supporting teachers in dealing with their emotional experiences and the subsequent challenges.

Keywords ESL Á Teacher emotions Á Emotional experiences Á Teacher cognition Professional relationships Á School community Á Teacher education Sociocultural theory

1 Introduction

The ﬁeld of second language teacher education (SLTE) has seen a paradigm shift to a sociocultural perspective on language teacher cognition (Johnson 2009), which is grounded in the work of Vygotsky and other sociocultural scholars (Vygotsky 1978, 1987; Wertsch 1985). Emotion has been associated with cognition in a sociocultural research tradition since Vygotsky’s work. Vygotsky argues that the

M. H. Nguyen (&) Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 243 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_14 244 M. H. Nguyen cognitive–emotive divide is “one of the most basic defects of traditional approaches” to research on psychological processes and proposes that “there exists a dynamic meaningful system that constitutes a unity of affective and intellectual processes” (Vygotsky 1987: 50, original emphasis). He insists that the study of intellectual processes must not be separated from affect. In the last years of his life, Vygotsky developed the concept of ‘perezhivanie’ (Mahn and John-Steiner 2002), which is broadly translated as ‘emotional experience’ (Vygotsky 1994). Building on Vygotsky’s work, Holzman (2008) advocates classroom relationships that are organised in ways in which emotions are recognised and respected as existing in unity with cognition. In SLTE, teacher cognition is defined as “what teachers think, know, and believe, and how these relate to what teachers do” (Borg 2011:218).Thisdefinition is drawn from a large body of empirical research (Borg 2006, 2011). However, emotion, despite its influential role in teacher cognition, is often overlooked in the existing literature on SLTE (Dang 2013), hence the absence of emotion from the definition above. With the emergence of a Vygotskian perspective on SLTE, there is now an emphasis on the need to understand teachers as learners of teaching (Johnson 2009). From this perspective, the way language teachers feel, together with what they “think, know, and believe” (Borg 2011: 218), is part of their whole persons, and understanding their emotion is essential in understanding their cognition. The focus on ESL teachers as learners of teaching and their emotion is gaining increased support. Golombek and Johnson (2004) provide evidence to suggest that there is an intertwined relationship between cognition and emotion of second language teachers, in which emotion is a driving factor in teachers’ professional development. Similarly, drawing on sociocultural theory, findings of Golombek and Doran (2014) demonstrate that emotion is a motivated and functional component of teachers’ cognitive development. It indicates dissonance between the ideal and the experienced, which in turn offers teachers potential points for growth. The researchers further note, “By recognizing the professional self as both a thinking and feeling actor engaged in the goal-oriented activity of teaching, the field of LTE [Language Teacher Education] can more thoughtfully support the professional growth of novice teachers” (p. 110). The view that understanding teacher emotions is important in improving the quality of teacher education is supported by other researchers (e.g., Poulou 2007; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Timoštšuk and Ugaste 2012). Therefore, teachers’ emotion is a worthwhile avenue for development in SLTE research, theory and practice. A sociocultural perspective on SLTE also holds that teacher learning is a sociocultural process originating in teachers’ participation in sociocultural practices and contexts of teaching and learning (Johnson 2009). As such, second language teachers’ emotion as part of teacher cognition is socioculturally constructed. Teaching occurs in the midst of relationships in multidimensional sociocultural settings and can be a highly emotional process (Poulou 2007). The critical approaches to the study of emotions in English language teaching and learning (Benesch 2016) hold that emotions are cultural practices mediated by power relationships within specific historical contexts. The school community is central in these systems of relationships because interaction with the school community ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 245 constitutes the major part of teachers’ daily work (Cowie 2011). An influential reconceptualised knowledge base of SLTE (Freeman and Johnson 1998) also supports the view that schools constitute one of the key dimensions of the contexts of second language teaching. Groups forming the school community that can be identified in the literature include school management, learners, parents and colleagues. This chapter ties together the above-mentioned themes. Recognising that ESL teachers’ emotional experiences constitute an integral part of teacher cognition, it argues that ESL teachers’ interaction with the school community, such including management, learners, and colleagues, plays a fundamental role in their emotional experiences. The chapter then examines ways in which ESL teachers respond to their emotional experiences and the challenges they face within their professional relationships with the school community. Based on the discussion, the chapter generates implications for ESL teacher education in fostering productive emotional experiences and supporting teachers in dealing with their emotional experiences and the subsequent challenges.

2 ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences in Interaction with the School Community

With increased attention to teacher emotion, the ﬁeld has a growing interest in ESL teachers’ emotional experiences in interaction with the school community. Such experiences are complex and the school community ESL teachers interact with plays an inﬂuential role in shaping their emotions.

2.1 Interaction with Colleagues

Interaction with ESL colleagues is widely cited as a source of positive emotions for ESL teachers. For example, Gkonou and Mercer (2017) found that the professional relationships that ESL teachers have with colleagues “represent an important source of strength and positivity for their own professional well-being” (p. 19). Such positive emotions are associated with the colleagues’ collegial support in terms of materials, exchange of ideas via email or through discussion, and mutual help. The teachers also appreciated their colleagues’ emotional support simply through sharing fun during breaks, having a drink after work, or chatting on social media. In other studies, preservice ESL teachers express satisfaction with the great amount of learning resulting from their cooperating teachers’ guidance, feedback and support. Urzúa and Vásquez (2008) report on how meetings between preservice ESL teachers and cooperating teachers created discursive spaces for the former to verbalise their plans, anticipate outcomes and possibilities, reflect on their practice, justify their decisions, consider whether they needed to alter their action plans, 246 M. H. Nguyen express self-awareness and self-control, and engage in self-evaluation. The pre- service teachers reportedly felt satisfied and happy with the amount of learning opportunity offered through these meetings. Similarly, Nguyen HTM (2010) found that about half of the Vietnamese preservice EFL teachers in her study were satisfied with their cooperating teachers’ feedback as a positive contribution to their professional development during the practicum. In this study, the cooperating teachers’ pleasant personalities were found to contribute to a supportive professional learning environment for many of the preservice teachers. In the same line, exploring preservice ESL teachers’ experience with ‘unruly pupils’ in Hong Kong schools, Gao and Benson (2012) found that cooperating teachers were regarded by the preservice teachers as a crucial source of assistance in managing ‘unruly pupils’, which represented an important source of positive emotions for the preservice teachers. Peer preservice teachers are identified in a number of studies as positively influencing preservice teachers’ emotions during the ESL practicum experience. For example, Nguyen and Hudson (2012) demonstrate that preservice teachers considered peer observations and post-lesson peer meetings valuable for them in developing their teaching methods, reporting, reflecting on and identifying teaching issues and concerns, developing a sharing culture as part of their professional practice, engaging in a wider professional circle at schools, and sharing emotional support (see also Nguyen HTM 2013). Although not placed in a peer mentoring practicum model, the preservice teachers in Gao and Benson (2012) also reported valuable support from their peers who were placed in the same and different schools in dealing with pupils with discipline issues. Support in affective and emotional aspects of the preservice teaching experience through experience sharing among peers helped them realise that they were not alone and subsequently develop better resilience and pedagogical solutions in coping with challenges. On the other hand, professional relationships with the ESL teacher community has also been found to be a source of negative emotions for ESL teachers. According to Cowie (2011), ESL teachers experienced frustration when they felt isolated from their colleagues. They felt strong disappointment, anger and frustration particularly when faced with differences in viewpoints in relation to educational values such as care and responsibility towards students’ needs, interests and abilities. Another cause of the participants’ negative emotions was the lack of collaborative spirit due to their colleagues’ selfishness and inability to collaborate. The ESL teachers also described the negative emotions resulting from professional relationships with their colleagues as “deep-seated and longer lasting resentments and frustration” (Cowie 2011: 240) because students come and go but relationships with colleagues are likely to last longer. Intense negative emotions associated with professional interactions with ESL colleagues are reported more frequently in the preservice context. First, some studies found that preservice teachers feel negatively as they are immersed with the ESL teaching context and realise the differences between what they expect and the realities. For example, Yuan and Lee (2014) found that as a preservice teacher transitioned to the teaching context and observed other ESL teachers’ work, she felt ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 247 overwhelmed and anxious about the challenges and complexities faced by ESL teachers and disbelieved in her ability to cope with the challenges. Similarly, in a study on the EFL practicum in Turkey, Atay (2007) reports that preservice teachers indicated a high level of disappointment with their cooperating teachers’ teaching practices, such as using very traditional written exams, using traditional grammar translation method, controlling everything in class, and lacking competence to deal with classroom management issues. In the same vein, Nguyen HTM (2010) also reports that a number of the preservice ESL teachers expressed dissatisfaction with the cooperating teachers’ poor and infrequent feedback. This is in line with the findings of Farrell (2008) where most preservice teachers rated their cooperating teachers as unhelpful due to the lack of support and feedback. Second, tensions caused by the power relationships with cooperating teachers are another cause of severe negative emotions experienced by preservice ESL teachers. For instance, the preservice teachers in Nguyen HTM (2010) felt dissatisfied with their cooperating teachers’ exploitative requirements such as marking the cooperating teachers’ papers for their private classes or doing jobs not related to their practicum. Focusing on support within the ESL practicum context in Singapore, Farrell (2008) found that the pressure from authoritative cooperating teachers made some preservice teachers feel abandoned and uncomfortable. Similarly, Trent (2013) found that preservice ESL teachers in Hong Kong experienced some negative emotions because the way they positioned themselves as a teacher was in conflict with how they were positioned by their cooperating teachers. This is similar to the findings of Nguyen MH (2014), where a preservice teacher felt disappointment, intimidation, frustration and anxiety when working with a controlling and unsupportive cooperating teacher, who also insisted on the use of a traditional teacher-centred teaching approach. Interactions with teachers of other subjects in the larger school community have also been found to play an influential role in ESL teachers’ emotional experiences. For example, the findings of Farrell (2001) show that the preservice teacher’s isolation and lack of support from the school community as well as the weak communication and unfriendly relationships between the principal and regular school teachers made him feel “left out of the process completely” (p. 54) as soon as he walked into the school. The preservice teacher developed intense emotions to the point that he was unenthusiastic about his prospective teaching career. Similarly, preservice teachers in another study in Hong Kong (Gao and Benson 2012) went through an uneasy transition in assuming their new role as teachers because they were physically isolated from the mainstream staff and lacked collegial interaction with regular teachers in the practicum school.

2.2 Interaction with ESL Learners

ESL teachers also enjoy many positive emotions from relationships with their students. They gain such positivity from their capacity and efforts to make a 248 M. H. Nguyen difference and “seeing them grow, make progress and succeed” (Gkonou and Mercer 2017: 18). The teachers participating in Gkonou and Mercer (2017) also pointed to the importance of the dynamics of the learner group, such as their positive mood and interaction among themselves, in shaping their positive emotional state. Similarly, ESL teachers in Cowie (2011) expressed emotional warmth when seeing their students making progress in their learning. Such positive emotions also came from their affection and care for the students as well as their rapport developed through teacher–students talk in and outside of the classroom and sharing of personal stories and jokes. ESL students in an Australian study (Nguyen MH 2014) also provided a source of positive emotions for a preservice teacher, which helped her to counter-balance the negative feelings she had in the professional relationship with her cooperating teacher. She had joy in seeing her students engaged and learn something new in her lessons. Although the research literature above shows that interaction with ESL students can bring teachers positive feelings, a greater number of studies report the negative influence of ESL learners on ESL teachers’ emotional state. Firstly, negative student behaviours have been found to cause negative emotions for teachers. For example, the findings of Benson (2012) show that issues associated with ESL students in the Hong Kong TESOL practicum context caused emotional crises among the preservice teachers to the point that they considered the practicum a failure. Similarly, Le (2014) indicates that preservice EFL teachers in Vietnam felt shocked by their students’ unfriendliness, poor participation, and low English language proficiency, all adding to the unfavourable classroom realities that the preservice teachers struggled to survive. In an Indonesia-based study, Riesky (2013) found that most of the challenges that preservice teachers had during their EFL practicum were related to the students they taught. The difficulties include students’ low basic competence, passiveness, noisiness, uncooperative attitude, impoliteness, lack of motivation, tiredness, and varied other characteristics. In addition, the preservice teachers also found it challenging to teach a large number of students in one class. These challenges resulted in the preservice teachers’ need for emotional support. Cowie (2011) reports ESL teachers’ anger concerning student behaviours such as lateness, absence and disruption to the class. Yuan and Lee (2014) use the term ‘moral concerns’ to describe the emotional state of preservice teachers who felt they were responsible for the students’ lack of engagement and progress under her teaching. A preservice teacher even became emotional to the point that she burst into tears when talking about such concerns. Secondly, ESL also experience negative emotions as a result of their low self-efficacy when interacting with their students. For instance, negative emotions including anxiety, frustration and guilt was reported in Yuan and Lee (2014)to result from a preservice teacher’s interaction with her students. The preservice teacher initially felt anxious about unexpected situations such as being asked questions by students that she could not answer or making mistakes in front of students. The anxiety led her to become a controlling teacher, which in turn caused frustration and guilt because she felt “awful and helpless” (Yuan and Lee 2014: 12) when some students lost interest and fell asleep in her class. In addition, some ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 249 teachers felt shame, anxiety and pressure over students’ higher level of English proficiency in comparison with their own and discomfort about students’ lack of participation as a result of this (Song 2016). According to Song, such negative emotions coupled with the teachers’ keeping the feeling private made them vulnerable.

2.3 Interaction with Management

Although there is a limited body of research on ESL teachers’ emotions in relationships with the institutional management, the findings seem to suggest that such relationships usually result in ESL teachers’ negative feelings (Cowie 2011; Gkonou and Mercer 2017; Said 2014). According to Cowie (2011), teachers’ negative emotional state was due to a number of factors emerging from their interaction with management, such as conflicting ideals, lack of trust by administration, hierarchical ranks within the system, and divisive ranks between ongoing and short-term staff. According to the ESL teacher participants, the way the system was set up by management made the environment competitive and people selfish and difficult to collaborate with. Gkonou and Mercer (2017) seem to support the findings of Cowie (2011) in reporting that ESL teachers in their study experienced negative emotions due to the lack of support and positive reinforcement from their head teacher. The teachers’ negative emotional state was also caused by the inability of their boss to manage their own stress and be nice to employees. In the same vein, Said (2014) found that the stress resulting from the large amount of work that management wanted the ESL teacher participants to do and the limited time offered was an important cause of their negative emotions. This led to the teachers’ burnout and frustration, which according to Said, is an important predictor of whether teachers stay in or leave the profession.

3 ESL Teachers’ Responses to Emotional Experiences and Challenges in Their Interaction with the School Community

ESL teachers react to their positive and negative emotions in diverse ways. Some learn to suppress their raw and negative emotions while others search for support from the community and find ways to solve the issues causing their emotions. On the other hand, some teachers respond negatively by giving into circumstances and conforming to power relationships. While positive responses often result in opportunities that foster professional learning and personal development, negative responses may cause an increased career attrition rate or compromise between productive and negative professional identities. This section discusses these 250 M. H. Nguyen responses to emotional experiences and the subsequent challenges faced by ESL teachers. Firstly, one of the ways ESL teachers respond to their emotions is learning to deal with their emotions. For example, change of attitude towards negative emotions is reported by Cowie (2011) as a result of ESL teachers becoming more experienced and knowing how to respond to their emotion of anger toward students. Instead of showing the emotion, the teacher responded in a “cool and collected way” (Cowie 2011: 239) to protect student pride because he felt that anger did not fit well with the educational values he held. This response resonates with the teacher in Gkonou and Mercer (2017), who also experienced anger with his student. The teacher deliberately suppressed his anger and presented himself in a calm and professional way because he considered showing anger as showing his weakness. Such efforts in dealing with emotions are theorised as emotion labour (Benesch 2013; Song 2016). However, Benesch (2013) and Song (2016) argue that such a way to respond to emotions poses further challenges and might not be the most productive way to deal with the emotions. This is because such emotion labour may make it more difficult to build trust and explore new learning together and prevent opportunities for enhancing teaching practice and personal growth for both teacher and students. Song (2016) further argues that suppressing raw and negative emotions might make the teacher vulnerable, which can lead to further negative emotions. In support of the argument by Benesch (2013) and Song (2016) above, positive emotions have been found to enhance teacher learning by stimulating better coping and problem solving skills, and negative emotions are powerful in attracting attention and focus (Sutton and Wheatley 2003) and helping preservice teachers to become more alert and prepared for similar situations in the future (Pillen et al. 2013). Golombek and Doran (2014) demonstrated that a preservice teacher’s emotions, when validated as normal by her teacher educator, indexed cognitive growth points, which were then mediated by the teacher educator and motivated cognitive development in the preservice teacher. Similarly, preservice ESL teachers’ emotions resulting from conflicts within the practicum were manifestation of learning opportunities which triggered collaborative efforts among peer preservice teachers to resolve the conflicts and develop professional identities (Dang 2013). Cowie (2011) further supports the argument for validating ESL teachers’ emotions by providing an example of a teacher using her anger productively to make her students see that “she should be taken seriously” (p. 239). The teacher’s strategy worked, and the students followed her instructions and avoided making the same mistakes again. Secondly, rather than exercising emotion labour, some ESL teachers respond to their emotions by seeking support and finding ways to solve the problems that cause such emotions. This has been found to be a productive response since it results in pedagogical reform and alleviation of negative emotions. For instance, Gao and Benson (2012) found that the issues of ‘unruly pupils’ emerged as a prominent concern among preservice teachers during the practicum. Issues such as pupils withdrawing from learning, ignoring instructions, and being harsh on preservice ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 251 teachers’ inadequacies in English language competence were among the most frequently cited sources of negative emotions. To overcome the emotional state, the preservice teachers were found to make various efforts to be recognised and accepted by pupils, such as projecting professional images, forging a close relationship with pupils by trying to remember their names, offering assistance in their extracurricular activities, and seeking a better understanding of their expectations. These efforts were found to alleviate the issues associated with ‘unruly pupils,’ and therefore, the preservice teachers realised the need to reinforce these skills in their future practices. Similar responses were reported by Riesky (2013) where anxious ESL preservice teachers consulted their cooperating teachers and employed a number of strategies to deal with the issues of students’ low basic competence, passiveness, noisiness, uncooperative attitude, impoliteness, lack of motivation, and tiredness. For example, they reportedly used games to engage students, made efforts to establish interpersonal relationships, adapted to the situation, and gave rewards to students. Similarly, Yuan and Lee (2014) found that feeling anxious and overwhelmed by the complexities of ESL teacher work, the preservice teacher engaged in observation of her cooperating teacher’s professional practice in different aspects of their work and learned how to deal with the challenges. She also actively engaged in professional activities beyond her teaching, such as participating in a book club within the school and a teaching reform with other teachers to learn how to give corrective feedback on students’ writing. Experiencing shame, anxiety and pressure due to their lower English speaking skills than their students’, the ESL teacher in Song (2016) repeatedly and carefully contemplated the lesson to make it better in hopes of gaining the students’ acknowledgement. She succeeded and felt happy with the outcome. Yuan and Lee (2014) also report productive responses by a teacher who experienced anxiety, frustration and guilt in her interaction with her students. The teacher tried to take responsibility for the students’ lack of interest and engagement in her lessons. She sought support from her cooperating teacher and learned to turn unexpected classroom situations that made her anxious into learning opportunity for the students. She also learned to feel more comfortable with the thought that teachers are also learners and they are not all-knowing. Thirdly, some teachers choose to respond to their emotions by giving into circumstances. Most existing studies on ESL teachers’ emotions indicate that negative emotions have severe consequences for teachers’ teaching and learning. Farrell (2007) found that a preservice teacher failed the practicum because of her anxiety caused when observed by her supervisor and cooperating teacher. Similarly, emotional crises made the preservice teachers in Benson (2012) feel that the practicum was a failure, and they were convinced that school teaching would not be a suitable career for them. According to Said (2014) some stress-related emotional experiences and disillusionment with teaching are indicators of teachers leaving the profession. Furthermore, some other researchers found that negative emotions associated with power relationships with the school community prevents preservice ESL teachers applying the theoretical knowledge they have learned from university in 252 M. H. Nguyen their preservice teaching (Atay 2007; Brandt 2006; Farrell 2008; Nguyen HTM 2010; Nguyen MH 2014, 2017; Pillen et al. 2013; Trent 2013). For example, Atay (2007) reports that some preservice teachers had to use their cooperating teachers’ preferred teaching techniques without agreeing with them or understanding the rationale. Similarly, in response to their negative emotions in interaction with their cooperating ESL teachers, what the preservice teachers in Farrell (2008) chose to do in the classroom was to conform to the cooperating teachers’ way of teaching even though they thought it was not effective so that they could satisfy the cooperating teachers’ assessment requirements. Trent (2013) found that in response to their negative emotions, preservice ESL teachers in Hong Kong had to teach in ways inconsistent with their preferred ways because their cooperating teachers were extremely critical and would not approve of what they were doing. The preservice teachers ended up teaching in traditional ways which they described as resulting in poor student engagement, rote learning, exam-driven, and spoon-feeding. Similar findings were also reported in Nguyen MH (2014, 2017) where a preservice ESL teacher had to fight against her identity of a communicative language teacher and followed her cooperating teachers’ teacher-centred approach in the midst of her disappointment, anxiety, frustration and intimidation. Some of the literature on second language teacher emotions has identified a strong relationship between teachers’ response to emotional feelings and their professional identity. Teachers’ emotions can shape the development of identity, while on the other hand, teacher identity can inform and influence their emotional responses (Yuan and Lee 2014). Such a link has been demonstrated in a number of empirical studies (Dang 2013; Golombek and Klager 2015; Nguyen MH 2017; Song 2016; Yuan and Lee 2014). The literature also points to emotional responses that foster productive professional identity development and those that impede this process, which is in line with the findings on the links between emotional responses and professional learning discussed earlier in this section.

4 Conclusions, Implications for ESL Teacher Education and Future Research

With the support of theoretical and empirical evidence, this chapter has argued that ESL teacher emotions play an integral part in their professional learning. Theoretically, from a sociocultural perspective, Vygotsky argues that “there exists a dynamic meaningful system that constitutes a unity of affective and intellectual processes” (Vygotsky 1987: 50, original emphasis). More specifically, human thinking involves an affective-volitional tendency, which helps to explain the human thought, and it is only possible to fully understand human thinking when its affective-volitional aspect is understood (Vygotsky 1986). Empirically, there is an intertwined relationship between ESL teachers’ emotions and cognitive development, as the chapter has shown that ESL teachers respond to their emotions ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 253 differently. Some responses are inductive to professional learning and identify formation (Cowie 2011; Dang 2013; Gao and Benson 2012; Pillen et al. 2013; Riesky 2013; Song 2016; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Yuan and Lee 2014) while others are counter-productive (Cowie 2011; Farrell 2007; Gao and Benson 2012; Gkonou and Mercer 2017; Said 2014). The chapter has also demonstrated that ESL teacher emotions emerge from and within professional relationships they have with the school communities including ESL colleagues, ESL learners and school management, and such emotional processes are situated in sociocultural contexts. A growing number of studies have pointed to the sources of ESL teachers’ emotions in professional interactions with the school community. First, several researchers report that ESL teachers’ negative emotions are a result of their self-perceived low efficacy when interacting with the school community. Examples of areas where ESL teachers have low self-efficacy include English language competence (Gao and Benson 2012; Nguyen MH 2014, 2017; Song 2016), confidence in dealing with unexpected questions from students and ability to cope with the challenges and complexity of the job (Yuan and Lee 2014). Second, conflicts with ESL colleagues have been found to be a major source of teachers’ emotions (Atay 2007; Brandt 2006; Farrell 2001, 2008; Nguyen HTM 2010; Nguyen MH 2014). Third, ESL student factors such as progress and growth, language proficiency level, needs, and discipline issues have also been identified as a contribution to ESL teachers’ emotions (Benson 2012; Cowie 2011; Gkonou and Mercer 2017;Le2014; Riesky 2013). The main implications for ESL teacher education arising from the discussion above include validating teacher emotions as part of professional learning and identity development, preparing teachers for effectively dealing with their emotions in professional relationships, and understanding teacher emotion in its sociocultural practices and contexts. Firstly, rather than encouraging ESL teachers to suppress their emotions, it is important for relevant parties such as teacher educators, mentors, administrators and ESL teachers themselves to recognise emotions as an influential dimension of professional learning. This understanding should be translated into opportunities for ESL teachers to legitimately talk with the professional community about their emotions and share effective ways to deal with the feelings and resolve issues that lead to the emotions. Secondly, teacher education courses should incorporate discussion on how to deal with emotions effectively and professionally, and “not focusing solely on the skills” (Mahn and John-Steiner 2002: 58), so that teachers are better prepared when they transition to the profession and engage with the professional community. Further, the discussion so far suggests that teacher emotions must be seen as situated in social relationships and practices within the teaching context rather than a personal and private entity. Discourse around legitimacy of emotions in professional relationships and strategies for dealing with emotions should therefore take into account the social sources of such emotional experiences and the social impact they may entail. The three implications discussed above can contribute to developing teachers’ emotional intelligence, which has been found to lead to higher self-efficacy, more effective management of 254 M. H. Nguyen emotions, better social intelligence and enhanced pedagogical skills (Gkonou and Mercer 2017). In terms of identifying directions for future research, the chapter argues that the ESL teacher education field needs to enrich its data base on teacher emotions to move forward. Although research interest in ESL teacher emotion is growing as can be seen from the discussion so far, the literature is periodic and lacks an extensive research base (Nguyen MH 2014). Areas such as emotions management education and emotional support for ESL teachers by the community have not received as much attention as emotional experiences and the sources of such feelings. Cowie (2011) argues that “the kind of emotional support that they receive from their colleagues and institution can be a major factor in their personal development as a teacher” (p. 236), and therefore it should receive due attention. Moreover, students’ parents are an important part of the school community (Chen et al. 2008; Vera et al. 2012) and their role in shaping teachers’ emotions should receive more attention. In the general education field, parents, together with school staff and students, constitute the three main components of the teacher emotion model developed based on research published between 2003–2013 (Fried et al. 2015). In ESL, research has shown that interactions with parents pose overwhelming challenges for ESL teachers due to increasingly diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds of parents (Chen et al. 2008; Guo 2010). However, there is a limited body of research on how ESL teachers respond to emotions and challenges when dealing with their students’ parents, and it is important for the field of ESL to understand more about such relationships and the emotional experiences teachers encounter within these relationships. Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2013). Considering emotions in critical English language teaching: Theories and praxis. Florence: Taylor and Francis. Considered a ground-breaking book, it connects emotion, critical theory, and pedagogy in English language teaching in innovative ways using both theory and practical examples. – Benesch, S. (2017). Emotions and English language teaching: Exploring teachers’ emotion labor. New York: Routledge. Considering the role of power, and resistance to power, in teachers’ emotional experiences, the author uses rich interview data to examine ways in which postsecondary ESL teachers exercise emotion labour through negotiation of tension in the teaching context. – Gkonou, C., & Mercer, S. (2017). Understanding emotional and social intelligence among English language teachers. Retrieved from: https://englishagenda. britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/g211_eltra_gkonou_and_mercer_ paper_final_web.pdf. The researchers examine emotional and social intelligence among ESL teachers, the characteristics underlying quality relationships in ESL teaching, and strategies for quality interpersonal relationships. ESL Teachers’ Emotional Experiences, Responses and Challenges … 255

– Zembylas, M. (2007). Theory and methodology in researching emotions in education. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 30(1), 57–72. The author reviews theoretical approaches to the study of emotions in education and implications these have for methodology in researching emotions.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What argument in this chapter do you agree with? What do you disagree with? Why? – What training does the ESL teacher education program(s) you know offer for ESL teachers to manage their emotions in professional relationships? – What support have you received as a teacher in dealing with your emotional experiences in teaching? – What has contributed to developing your ability to deal with emotional experiences in ESL teaching? – In what ways do interactions with ESL students’ parents shape your emotional experiences as an ESL teacher? What challenges have you experienced in this relationship?

References

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Author Biography

Minh Hue Nguyen is a Lecturer in TESOL Education at Monash University, Australia. Minh Hue is interested in creating productive learning experiences for language teacher-learners to transition effectively into the teaching profession. Passionate about ﬁnding ways for institutions to support both preservice teachers and mentor teachers in this transition, her research has focused on understanding preservice teachers’ personal histories, the contexts of teaching and learning, the activity of learning to teach, and how these dimensions interact in shaping language teacher learning. Minh Hue is also interested in understanding and supporting researcher development, especially teachers’ development into/as researchers. L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing Frustration and Demotivation Toward One’s Profession in a Japanese EFL Context

Toshinobu Nagamine

Abstract Until quite recently, teaching and learning have been regarded as cognitive activities in which teachers merely transmit knowledge to students in a unidirectional manner, causing emotional aspects to be undervalued. The 2013 OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey revealed that teachers in Japan work the longest hours (53.9 h per week; 10.8 h daily during weekdays) among 34 participating regions and countries. It was also found that they lacked self-esteem and self-confidence and that they believed their profession to be not valued in society. The Ministry of Education in Japan recently started releasing a report on the problems affecting the mental well-being of teachers to draw attention to their critical work conditions. The teachers’ low self-esteem and self-confidence can be attributed not only to their work conditions but also to a lack of understanding about their emotionality by policymakers and school administrators. This chapter reports on qualitative research that the author conducted in a Japanese EFL context to investigate English teachers’ emotions as they relate to context-specific socioedu- cational and sociopolitical factors. The research revealed that top-down imposed foreign language education policies weakened the teachers’ sense of individual and collective self-efficacy and that their emotional well-being was at stake.

Keywords English education reforms in Japan Á Foreign langauge education policies Á Policy enforcement systems Á Teacher anxiety Á Enthusiasm Self-esteem Á Self-conﬁdence Á Self-efﬁcacy Á Emotional well-being Grounded theory approach (GTA)

T. Nagamine (&) Department of English Language Education, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction

1.1 Teachers’ Working Conditions in Japan

Approximately 1000 teachers voluntarily resign every year before their compulsory retirement at the age of 60 in Tokyo, Japan (Kawamura 2006). There is another statistic indicating that about 300 teachers newly employed all over Japan in the academic year 2010 chose to leave the profession within a year. According to The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, the number of newly employed teachers in the academic year 2010 was 25,743, out of which 288 newly employed teachers resigned within a year (MEXT 2012). The previous statistical surveys released by MEXT clearly show that the number of such teachers’ resignations increased until the academic year 2008 and that it reached a plateau between the academic years 2008 and 2010. Nevertheless, the ratio of teachers who voluntarily left the profession because of sickness/disease constantly increased. Furthermore, it is clearly indicated that the major type of sickness/disease reported by those teachers was “mental illness.” What should be emphasized here is that the development of mental illness started after they were employed as full-time school teachers. MEXT has recently started releasing a report on the problems affecting the mental well-being of teachers to draw attention to their critical work conditions (see MEXT 2014). Nevertheless, the number of teachers who develop mental illness after their employment is increasing. It should be noted that the academic year 2015 was the third consecutive year that the number of school teachers who chose a leave of absence owing to mental illness was over 5000; this is approximately 0.54% of the overall number of employed teachers (elementary school teachers = 0.55%; junior high school teachers = 0.64%; senior high school teachers = 0.37%). In other words, one out of 184 teachers chose a leave of absence for that particular reason. Relevant to the leave of absence due to mental illness, there is another statistic worth mentioning. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has been implementing the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS). The results are representative of over 5 million teachers in 34 countries and regions. The 2013 TALIS (OECD 2014) indicated that the average hours spent by teachers in Japan working and teaching at school were the longest (53.9 h per week; 10.8 h daily during weekdays), and out of these, teachers spent only 17.7 h per week for class preparation and teaching. Junior high school teachers in particular had the longest working hours. Although MEXT has been asking all prefectural as well as municipal boards of education to reduce teachers’ working hours and workload, working conditions have not improved at all for the last ﬁve years (MEXT 2017). According to MEXT (2017), the ratio of teachers who work over 60 h per week is 33.5% in elementary school and 57.7% in junior high school, although the working hours ofﬁcially required for public school teachers is 38 h and 45 min. L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 261

Moreover, it was also reported by MEXT (2017) that junior high school teachers work over 80 h per month, which is beyond the borderline of karoshi (stress-death from overwork/stress-death related to feelings of helplessness) (Tubbs 1993). An analysis of TALIS (OECD 2014) revealed a unique tendency of Japanese teachers: the longer they stay and work in school, the lower their self-efficacy and job-satisfaction becomes. MEXT (2014) adds that these teachers possess very low self-esteem and self-confidence, which signifies the interdependency of such psychological states.

1.2 English Education Reforms

MEXT in Japan has recently been implementing a series of English education reforms—as if there is an urgent need for all Japanese citizens to react to rapidly prevailing globalization (Hashimoto 2013)—and stressing the importance of English, a global language, as a tool for international communication. For instance, English education was ofﬁcially introduced as a nonsubject activity-based class [called foreign language activities1 (FLA)] into elementary school curricula in 2011 under the broader rubric of promoting international understanding. The starting point of FLA will be advanced to Grade 3, and English education for Grades 5 and 6 will be a compulsory subject from the academic year 2020. Furthermore, a policy to mandate English teachers to teach all English classes in English (i.e., pseudo-medium-of-instruction; Hashimoto 2013) was enforced for senior high schools in 2013. Enforcing this policy at the junior high school level will begin in the academic year 2020. Despite the efforts and expectations of policymakers, however, the aforementioned policies have not been successfully implemented (Glasgow 2014; Nagamine 2014, 2015). As for the use of English to teach all English classes in senior high schools, Aeon (2016) released the results of a survey in which 363 English teachers (162 junior high teachers and 201 senior high school teachers) participated. It was found that the teachers who were using English to teach all English classes were less than 20% and that over 40% of the senior high school teachers did not conduct in-class communicative activities. Only 13% of the senior high school teachers and 17% of the junior high school teachers reported that they sometimes conducted in-class communicative activities, even though 77% of the teachers were aware of the students’ need for communicative activities and of the use of English as an

1English is the only foreign language taught by means of FLA. English education is the de facto foreign language education in Japan (Floris 2013; Nagamine 2017). 262 T. Nagamine instructional language. This gap between the teachers’ teaching practice and awareness/perceptions clearly illustrates either that the teachers have been struggling to change their teaching practices or that they have been resistant to expected change. In either case, there must be reasons that the teachers chose to do what they do; the emotional aspects of such teachers’ decisions have been virtually neglected by policymakers, school administrators, and scholars/researchers alike (Nagamine 2015). The emphasis on English education, particularly teaching the functional aspects of English at the macro level, has engendered conﬂicting ideological issues at the micro level, which are likely to cause teachers’ emotional reactions to the implementation of policies (Nagamine 2014). According to Butler and Iino (2005), such issues can be summarized as follows: (a) whether Japan should pursue a policy of multilingualism or a policy favoring the advancement of English; (b) whether Japan should emphasize international understanding or simply English education; and (c) promoting an egalitarian view of education versus an individualized needs-based education. The conﬂicting egalitarian view of education and an individualized needs-based education are especially relevant to the latest widespread national debate on whether or not English education at the elementary-school level should be implemented as a compulsory subject.

1.3 English Education in Elementary Schools

English education started in Grade 5 of elementary school in 2008, and it became a mandatory field of study in the school curriculum in 2011. This is not a subject (hence, it is called “a field of study” in which no formal assessment is administered to grade students). The prime objective of English education as a field of study is to familiarize students with the target culture and language and to develop their willingness to communicate (WTC) in English. These activities are officially called FLA. The qualifications of elementary school teachers have been known to be a major problem regarding FLA. Since FLA is not a school subject, and there are no formal teacher education programs to train teachers. This means that almost all teachers who are currently conducting FLA do not have sufficient professional knowledge or skills to teach English. Regardless of the lack of teachers’ readiness, teachers need L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 263 to teach English when they are assigned to be homeroom teachers of Grades 5 and 6. Despite this, however, MEXT has recently enacted new policies without any formal assessments of the effects of FLA to make English education a school subject for Grades 5 and 6 and to advance the starting point of FLA to Grade 3. One crucial question can be addressed: Is the motive to start implementing compulsory English education truly educational? The 2010 report published by OECD recognizes the importance of foreign language education as follows: As world economies become increasingly interconnected, the international skills needed to operate on a global scale have become increasingly important. Globally oriented firms seek internationally-competent workers who speak foreign languages and have the intercultural skills needed to successfully interact with international partners (OECD 2010: 310). Policymakers in Japan appear to have used those trends as rationales for pushing forward an English-centered approach in elementary schools. The social environment surrounding English education has changed in the last 30 years as the trends of not only “globalization” but also “multilingualism” and “multiculturalism” have emerged. In the name of English education reforms, however, policymakers in Japan interpret “multilingualism” as “Japanese-English bilingualism” (Butler 2007) and think of such bilingualism as the solution for communication problems in an increasingly multicultural Japanese society (Kubota 2002). Thus, the fundamental questions raised here pertain to whether teachers in the actual classrooms believe that English should be the only foreign language offered in school and whether they see globalization as a reason for strongly emphasizing a study of English, in the same way as these policymakers do. Without hearing teachers’ voices, a series of English education reforms has been implemented in a top-down manner (cf., Nagamine 2014). Therefore, qualitative research was designed and conducted to investigate elementary school teachers’ emotions and cognition regarding English education in Japan. As we will discuss in later sections, major research findings indicate the existence of context-specific anxieties, emotional stress, and frustrations of teachers, which are linked with their demotivation toward the profession.

2 Research Methodology

2.1 Participants

The participants were eight in-service elementary school teachers (public schools) working in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. One of them was a Board of Education official at the time of the investigation. This official’s identity was intentionally not mentioned in this chapter for reasons of confidentiality. The collection of qualitative data started in October 2013 and ended in March 2015. Brief profiles of the participants are given in Table 1. 264 T. Nagamine

Table 1 Proﬁles of participating teachers ID A B C D E F G H Age 28 31 33 40 42 42 47 51 Sex Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Overall teaching 35 81415182328 experience (years)a English teaching 13 2 1165 127 experience (years) Length of studying 00010000 English abroad (years) aOverall teaching experience refers to total years teaching all subjects, not just English

2.2 Data Collection

To obtain qualitative data, the participants were individually interviewed for approximately one hour in a semi-structured format. Three questions were prepared prior to the interview sessions to obtain “some standardized information” (Merriam 2001: 75): (a) What do you usually do when you teach English? (b) How do you feel about your teaching practice? and (c) What do you think about English education at the elementary school level? All interview sessions were conducted in Japanese and were audio-recorded with the participants’ permission. The recorded data were then transcribed for later data analysis. The data analysis was conducted following the procedures of the grounded theory approach (GTA) (see Strauss and Corbin 1994, 1998)soas“to make knowledge claims about how individuals [social actors] interpret reality” (Suddaby 2006: 634). Therefore, the researcher focused on the interpretive process of the collected data by analyzing “the actual production of meanings and concepts used by social actors in real settings” (Gephart 2004: 457). This data analysis was carried out simultaneously with the data collection.

2.3 Data Analysis

As for the qualitative data analysis, all transcribed interview data were segmented in consideration of every utterance’s meaning and subtle nuance (translation from Japanese to English was carried out at this stage). Open coding was then performed. Open coding is the part of data analysis concerned with identifying, naming, cat- egorizing, and describing phenomena found in the transcribed interview data. Open coding is usually done based on the identiﬁed features of the phenomena under investigation (the properties and dimensions of all segmented data) (see Table 2). Referring to the identiﬁed properties and dimensions of the data, axial coding was conducted to verify the relationships or connections among the categorized data (i.e., sub-categories and core categories). After the axial coding, selective L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 265

Table 2 Coding sample Segmented data Property Dimension Label I started to hear students having Time Past (to present) Students’ use of a conversation such as “Where Statement Report of teaching interlanguage in go?”“Tokyo,” etc., in the type experience class classroom Content Interlanguage (in reported students’ English conversation) Location Classroom The reason may be that my Confidence Low (“may be”) Uncertainty about teaching has been conversation level the effectiveness of oriented Statement Speculation over one’s teaching type teaching experience Content Reason stated Speculated One’s own cause conversation-oriented teaching Don’t know what to do about it. Confidence Zero (“don’t know”) Uncertainty about Is it OK if I don’t do anything level students’ use of special? Statement Assertive interlanguage in type class Content What to do (about it: unknown the use of students’ interlanguage) Statement Question type Content Conditional (“if I expressed don’t do anything”) coding was carried out. In the process of selective coding, core categories were selected, identified, and systematically related to other categories. During this stage, the relationships among targeted phenomena (which included sub-categories and core categories connected by common properties and dimensions) were verified and validated to construct a theory. During the data coding, a concept map (category diagram) was developed. The concept map underwent several revisions mainly because of some modifications of labels and categories. The researcher’s interpretations of the obtained data were checked for accuracy by consulting the participants throughout the term of the investigation (member checking). Finally, story lines were developed taking into consideration the three aspects of the analyzed data, namely condition, action/interaction, and consequence. According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), these three aspects collectively constitute a “paradigm” (the paradigm model). 266 T. Nagamine

3 Research Findings and Discussion

The qualitative data analysis using GTA indicated four overarching categories as they related to the participants’ perceptions of English education in elementary schools: Teacher Anxiety, Confronting Dilemmas, Criticizing, and Hesitating (see Fig. 1). These categories were compiled with other relevant categories (i.e., Policy Enforcement/Implementation, Giving Up, and Hoping) and the relation between them was speculated about based on the data analysis, also taking into account the relevance of the context. In what follows, the major research ﬁndings will be described and documented. Double quotation marks are used to refer to

CONDITION CONDITION Teacher Anxiety Policy Enforcement/Implementation Studentsí parents judging teachersí English Raison d'etre of FLA, Coercive attitude of proficiency, Collaborating with ALTs with MEXT, Reduced curriculum of the low English proficiency, Difficulty Japanese language, Studentsí use of communicating with ALTs, Lack of nterlanguage in class, etc. confidence in English pronunciation, Lack of confidence in English teaching skills, etc.

ACTION/INTERACTION Criticizing ACTION/INTERACTION Structure of criticism in teachersí Confronting Dilemmas technical culture, Junior-high and senior- Dilemmas of teacher qualifications, high school teachersí criticism regarding Dilemmas of teacher dependency on ALTs, the quality of FLA in elementary schools, Consideration for pupils having high English Criticizing colleaguesí attitudes, proficiency, Dilemmas regarding evaluation Criticizing ALTs, Criticizing obscure and assessment, etc. teacher roles and responsibilities, Growing demand for reducing teachersí burden, etc.

CONSEQUENCE Hesitating MEXTís ambiguous objectives of FLA, Great CONSEQUENCE Giving Up discrepancy among studentsí interest in the Collaborating with capable ALTs, Trying to English writing system, Uncertainty about the improve English proficiency, Hoping for effectiveness of oneís teaching, Uncertainty the improvement of the current situation, about studentsí use of interlanguage in class, Improving teaching skills and knowledge, etc. Dealing with studentsí interlanguage in class, etc.

Core category CONSEQUENCE Hoping Sub-category Studentsí positive response to FLA, Italics Label Studentsí positive voices regarding the Relation speculated interaction with ALTs, etc. based on data analysis

Fig. 1 Sample concept map (subset) L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 267 participants’ utterances, square brackets are used to signify information added by the researcher, and three dots are used to denote places where part of the interview data was omitted.

3.1 Teacher Emotions and Policy Enforcement Systems

Teachers’ emotions appeared to be the most influential factor determining the participants’ actions/interactions and consequences in the studied phenomenon (see Fig. 1). More specifically, the participants expressed much anxiety about their qualifications, and for English teachers, their level of English proficiency in particular. Their meaning of “qualifications for English teachers” consisted of having “native-like English proficiency” and being able “to teach English effectively.” They showed a tendency to compare their current English proficiency with native English speakers’ proficiency, resulting in underestimation of their English proficiency. Participant H mentioned, “In my view, very few elementary school teachers can teach English. Are we supposed to teach English even if we have extremely low English proficiency? … I’m very concerned about being judged [in terms of English proficiency] by my students’ parents when they observe my teaching.” Participant F also reported, “I can’t even pronounce a word [of English] properly. So, I always ask myself if it’s all right to teach [English] and grade them [my students]. It’s a great dilemma.” Because of mainly the aforementioned negative emotions and feelings, the participants considered teaching English a large burden. Because of the encum- brance they felt toward teaching English, a few (Participants F and G) mentioned that they had started to go to English conversation schools, hoping that their burden would reduce if their English improved. Participant G stated, “Because I don’t have any confidence in my classroom English, I started to go to an English conversation school. But, I’m not making any substantial progress. I guess I should not expect too much.” The more they tried to improve their English, the more stress they felt because they had so far failed to obtain a tangible result. Other participants, instead of taking actions to improve their English as Participants F and G did, developed a critical attitude toward MEXT, toward the enforcement of the policy, and even toward the colleagues at their schools. Participant A mentioned, “Only homeroom teachers of 5th or 6th graders are usually asked to take part in teacher training or workshops [and learn classroom English and English-teaching skills/techniques]. I don’t think it’s fair. I think all teachers must [feel the responsibility to] take part in teacher training [and improve the quality of English education at the school level].” Participant B also said, “I have noticed that there are many teachers who avoid becoming homeroom teachers of 5th and 6th graders just because they don’t want to teach English. And, there are teachers who do not study at all how and what to teach [in English classes] unless they become homeroom teachers of 5th and 6th graders.” 268 T. Nagamine

All participants expressed more or less the same type of frustration regarding the inequality of the burden imposed on teachers by the enforcement of the policy; the lack of a supportive environment in almost all schools; and the existence of indifferent, apathetic colleagues who showed very little or no collaborative/ cooperative attitude toward homeroom teachers being in charge of English teaching. Furthermore, Participant H alluded to the fact that not all homeroom teachers taught English classes; he added that his school had recently asked a local private English-conversation school to dispatch an English instructor to instruct English classes. Thus, it can be said that the teachers’ sense of collective, as well as individual self-efﬁcacy, was weakened by the enactment of the policy.

3.2 Criticizing Assistant Language Teachers

Teachers’ anxiety and frustration regarding their qualifications for teaching English are apparently related to the tendency where they rely exclusively on assistant language teachers2 (ALT; a native teacher employed by the government-sponsored Japan Exchange and Teaching program). The participants mentioned that they wanted to interact more with ALTs, to collaborate with ALTs in lesson planning, class preparation, and team teaching, and to reflect on teaching so as to serve students better. They also reported that they often had something to say about ALTs’ teaching, but because of their low English proficiency, they often refrained from telling ALTs what they wanted to share. “There were some times that I thought I shouldn’t have said what I wanted to say to my ALT,” confessed Participant D, “I have attempted in the past to discuss teaching procedures and what not, and I always ended up finding myself conversing in an extremely clumsy, uncomfortable fashion with my ALT. I don’t know how to describe it, but my ALT must have felt the restlessness in the air due to my bad English.” The participant concluded, “After all, that’s what high-proficiency teachers should do. Not me.” Therefore, teachers possibly have many unexpressed thoughts and repressed feelings regarding ALTs and their teaching practices, which in turn emerge in the form of complaints against the way ALTs are being employed. Participant E, for instance, criticized ALTs with whom he had worked in the past rather acidly for their lack of the Japanese language proficiency needed to communicate smoothly with Japanese teachers and lack of sufficient teaching experience, particularly the use of Japanese to provide explicit guidance to students. Moreover, he pointed out the deficiencies of the current government’s employment system of ALTs in terms of qualification assessment.

2More than 90% of ALTs recruited by the government-sponsored JET program are from Inner Circle countries (English-speaking countries, e.g., the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada) (Council of Local Authorities for International Relations 2016) (cf., Aoki 2014; Nagamine 2017). L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 269

3.3 Criticizing Other Japanese Teachers

The existence of a unique structure and mechanism of criticism against other Japanese teachers was identified in the participants’ data, which could be specificto teachers’ technical culture in Japan (cf., Sato and Kleinsasser 2004). More specifically, it was perceived by the participants that senior high school English teachers tend to blame and criticize junior high school English teachers’ teaching for producing troubled, often demotivated, learners of English; likewise, junior high school English teachers tend to blame and criticize elementary school teachers’ English teaching. “I heard from one junior high school English teacher,” said Participant H, “that they [junior high school English teachers] are now having a hard time motivating newly enrolled students to study English and that many junior high school English teachers were suffering from low-quality English education provided by elementary school teachers.” This was not only perceived by the participants but also experienced by a few of them. The following remarks of Participant C exemplify this point: “I think it’s important for students to learn English in elementary schools. But, I have heard [from my colleagues] that a few students who had graduated from our school were actually told in an English class conducted by a junior high school English teacher that the usage of grammar [observed in spoken English] became much worse [comparing it to the grammar of those students who did not receive elementary school English education before the enactment of the policy] because of the influence of excessively conversation-oriented English classes [of the elementary school].” Thus, Participant C expressed mixed feelings: on the one hand, she believed it was necessary to follow The Course of Study (national curriculum standards) and not to teach grammar as it relates to the development of literacy skills. However, on the other hand, she felt much pressure to teach grammar so as to live up to the expectations of junior high school English teachers.

3.4 Hesitating to Take Responsibility and Provide Instruction in English

Even though strong resistance to the enforcement of the policy was not found in the participants’ data (cf., Nagamine 2014), the participants apparently demonstrated a hesitant attitude toward taking responsibility and continuing to teach English. The participants stated that because the status quo of elementary school English education has personnel limitations, it was urgent for local educational administrations to employ sufﬁcient full-time Japanese teachers specializing in English education and to allocate them to every elementary school. Participant B’s remarks are pivotal:

I started to hear students having a conversation such as “Where go?”“Tokyo,” etc. in the classroom. The reason may be that my teaching has been conversation oriented. I don’t 270 T. Nagamine

know what to do about it. Is it OK if I don’t do anything special? Maybe because I speak broken English, our students’ [spoken] English becomes broken. Such utterances of students as “Where go?” can be categorized as interlanguage, a type of speech or writing that emerges in the process of learning a new language. This particular type of language is engendered by learners’ mother-tongue inter- ference and/or transfer, and it provides the evidence that learning is ongoing in class. In general, when interlanguage is detected in learners’ utterances, it is suggested that the teacher provide feedback to draw learners’ attention to what is wrong and guide them to correct the utterances. Participant B, as well as the other participants, did not have such specialized knowledge and showed uncertainties and anxieties about the treatment of students’ errors and mistakes in general and the treatment of interlanguage in particular. Without sufficient English proficiency and specialized knowledge and skills, elementary school teachers have been confronting dilemmas and struggling to find the raison d’etre of English education.

4 Conclusion

Teachers’ emotionality has been totally neglected in the enactment, as well as the development, process of policies in Japan. As we can see in the following remark by Leithwood and Beatty (2008: 84), teachers’ emotions play a crucial role in the implementation of policies:

The motivation for teachers to act in a particular way is influenced by their emotions and feelings … Some of these emotions are prompted by teachers’ judgements about the desirability of the outcomes associated with new policies or other reform initiatives they are asked to implement (as well as capacity and context beliefs). Some of these emotions are prompted by the sense that they are cared for by their leaders… These emotions influence the accuracy of teachers’ understandings, as well as serving to maintain or discontinue such patterns of teacher action as policy implementation. The elementary school teachers investigated in the present research were experiencing great degrees of emotional stress and frustration. Some signs of demotivation toward the profession were also observed. Additionally, it was evident that their sense of enthusiasm, self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-efficacy (both individual and collective self-efficacy) were weakened. Although there is no concrete evidence for us to claim that the teachers were suffering burnout (in the sense that the term is generally defined in the field of psychology as a chronic state of physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion), would-be causes can be identified from the data presented in this chapter: namely, lack of control, lack of a supportive community, absence of fairness, and conflict in values. Based on the research findings, the following implications can be proposed: L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 271

(a) Policymakers should carefully examine local teachers’ cultures (technical cultures) and help teachers create and maintain a more supportive environment. (b) Local boards of education or local educational administration agencies should provide concrete programs to support teachers, paying particular attention to teachers’ emotional well-being. (c) Teachers’ voices, particularly their neglected feelings and unexpressed thoughts, should receive policymakers’ attention, as well as researchers’ attention. (d) Policy assessments should be done in such a way that teachers’ hidden voices and perceptions regarding their working conditions will be taken into account. Freudenberger (1974) is known to be one of the first researchers to use the term “burnout” in academia. He defined the term as a state of fatigue or frustration caused by professional relationships that do not lead to expected rewards. Maslach (1982) adds that burnout degrades the capacities of human service professionals (e.g., police officers, lawyers, nurses, teachers) to exercise professionalism and that burnout is likely to occur in “challenging situations.” Well-known characteristics of burnout include emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, lowered sense of personal accomplishment, and cognitive impairment. It is not merely how long the teacher works (working hours) or how much the teacher works (workloads) that results in burnout, but the combination of how and what the teacher perceives and feels and how the teacher emotionally reacts to the working conditions that can lead to burnout. This point cannot be overemphasized; MEXT, for instance, in collaboration with every prefectural/municipal board of education, has been investigating teachers’ working hours and workload only. Teacher emotionality, as it relates to the recent enactment of education policies, has been totally neglected as though teachers are viewed as machines. A sense of collective, as well as individual, self-efficacy is unlikely to occur when teachers’ emotional well-being is not maintained. Leiter et al. (2014: 1) state the following:

People do not simply shrug off frustrations at work, but react in ways that are reflected in their energy (exhaustion), involvement (cynicism), and efficacy. That quality of people was not specific to late twentieth-century America, but was a pervasive, widespread phenomenon. Burnout is indeed an epidemic all around the world. Japan is also affected by it. It is a well-known fact that karoshi (stress-death from overwork/stress-death related to feelings of helplessness) has been listed in The Oxford English Dictionary since 2002. For that reason alone, it was quite disappointing to see a dearth of research on the influence of rapid educational reforms and top-down imposed education policies on teachers’ emotions in Japanese EFL contexts. Therefore, further research is called for to comprehensively investigate teacher emotionality, the interrelationships between cognition and emotions, and the process of teachers’ implementation of education policies in the classroom. Moreover, since it appears that elementary school teachers’ emotional well-being is at stake because of the current education reforms, appropriate measures should be taken to mitigate emotional stress and 272 T. Nagamine prevent teacher burnout. Teachers’ emotional well-being affects their performance in the classroom. The success or failure of policy implementation hinges on the teachers. Policymakers and school administrators must not forget that every teacher is the agent of policy implementation. Recommended Readings – Day, C., & Lee, J. C. K. (Eds.). (2011). New understandings of teacher’s work: Emotions and educational change. New York: Springer. This book discusses teacher emotions as they relate to various issues of teaching, teacher education, educational change, and school leaderships. The book is divided into four parts: (a) teachers and teaching, (b) educational change, (c) teacher education, and (d) emotions in leadership. It is noteworthy that the authors share a commonality: they view teachers’ emotions, cognition, and competency as inseparable and discuss the crucial role(s) of emotions in teachers’ capacities to exercise professionalism. – Kirkpatrick, R. (Ed.). (2012). English language education policy in Asia. New York: Springer. This book offers comprehensive overviews of educational policies concerning the teaching of English in many Asian countries. A variety of topics is covered in the book: the balance between the acquisition of English and the national language and political, cultural, economic, and technical factors that strengthen or weaken the learning of English. This book illustrates the status quo of English education policies and how they are being implemented in the education system, in schools, in the curriculum, and in teaching practices. – Leithwood, K., & Beatty, B. (2008). Leading with teacher emotions in mind. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Traditional leadership practices often fail to take the affective needs of teachers into consideration. Drawing on theory and empirical evidence, this book discusses how teachers’ emotional well-being can affect their performance in the classroom. It is suggested that educational leaders improve teachers’ working conditions with five key areas in mind: (a) job satisfaction and morale; (b) stress, anxiety, and burnout; (c) sense of individual and collective self-efficacy; (d) organizational commitment and engagement; and (e) willingness and motivation to improve their practices. – Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). (2011). Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives. New York: Springer. This book discusses teacher emotion research, in which multiple methodological and theoretical approaches are employed, as it relates to educational reform, teacher identity, student involvement, race/class/gender issues teacher burnout and several other relevant issues. In other words, this book is the accumulation of different epistemological and theoretical positions related to inquiry on teachers’ emotions. Teacher emotionality is viewed as a crucial factor determining the quality of teachers’ professional lives. L2 Teachers’ Professional Burnout and Emotional Stress: Facing … 273

– Yamada, M. (2015). The role of English teaching in modern Japan: Diversity and multiculturalism through English language education in a globalized era. New York: Routledge. This book critically examines the nature of Japan’s promotion of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and EFL teaching in consideration of such issues as minority groups (e.g., Ainu and Korean Japanese) and diversiﬁed linguistic and cultural interactions generated by multiculturalism and multilingualism. Through the discussion of English uses and users in Japan, the author argues that the myth of Japan’s racial and ethnic homogeneity may hinder the realization of realities, and that multicultural perspectives should be considered.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – Psychological states such as self-concept, self-confidence, and self-efficacy are often categorized as capacity beliefs. Why do you think they can be considered beliefs? – It is argued that the teacher is the agent of change. How can each teacher become aware of the agency and become proactive to implement education policies in the classroom? What would be the necessary conditions for the teacher to become an effective agent? – What can school administrators and policymakers do to successfully implement education policies? Consider the crucial roles and functions of teachers’ emotions as well as cognition. – Previous studies indicate that students who are taught by a teacher who has high self-efficacy are likely to develop high self-efficacy. The same holds true for intrinsic motivation. Why do you think such phenomena can occur in the teaching profession? – What measures do you think would be effective to help the teachers mitigate emotional stress and prevent burnout? What can school administrators/board of education officials/policymakers do?

References

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Author Biography

Toshinobu Nagamine is Associate Professor of English Teacher Education at Kumamoto University, Japan, where he teaches English phonetics, research methodologies, and EFL teacher education courses. He has also taught in positions in the United States as well as Japan. He received an MA in TESOL from Murray State University, USA, and a Ph.D. in Composition and TESOL from Indiana University of Pennsylvania, USA. His research interests include foreign language education policy, teacher cognition and emotion, and EFL teacher education and development. Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement for Personal Growth and Deeper Learning

Oliver Meyer, Do Coyle, Margarete Imhof and Theresa Connolly

Abstract In its first iteration, Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning’s primary focus rests on the relationship between the cognitive and the linguistic dimension of learning. The model emphasizes the need for learners to actively make connections between those two dimensions and identifies the processes of knowledge construction and knowledge sharing as the main drivers of deeper learning. It demonstrates how progression for deeper learning can be conceptualized to promote the development of subject specific literacies. Following recent research which clearly indicates that deeper learning processes depend on and are affected by learner variables such as well-being, self-efficacy, engagement, mastery and reflection, we will now introduce a revised model of Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning that addresses the holistic and integrated nature of learning ecologies and captures the dynamic interactions between learners and mentors.

Keywords Pluriliteracies Á CLIL Á Learner engagement Á Deeper learning Constructive competence development Á Teaching and learning ecologies Instructional science Á Mentoring for learning

O. Meyer (&) Á M. Imhof (&) Á T. Connolly (&) University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany e-mail: [email protected] M. Imhof e-mail: [email protected] T. Connolly e-mail: [email protected] D. Coyle (&) University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK e-mail: [email protected]

1 Introduction: Pluriliteracies—Ecologies for Deeper Learning

Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning (PTL) constitutes a relatively recent approach to learning which has been developed by a group of international experts (The Graz Group) in order to address a number of conceptual and methodological shortcomings that have been revealed by CLIL researchers and practitioners in recent years (Meyer et al. 2015a, b; Meyer and Coyle 2017). PTL focuses on the development of subject speciﬁc literacies in more than one language and aims at modelling and providing pathways for deeper learning across languages, disciplines and cultures. The rationale is that helping learners to become pluriliterate (=acquiring subject literacy in more than one language) will empower them to construct and communicate knowledge purposefully and successfully across languages and cultures and prepare them for living and working in the Knowledge Age (Fig. 1). PTL models pluriliteracies development by illustrating how learners can be mentored into the subjects of schooling. The model rests on several premises: – Learning is primarily about building meaning making potential. Knowledge is viewed as meaning and as a resource for understanding and acting in the world. All knowledge is constituted in semiotic systems with language as the most central. (Mohan et al. 2010). – Languaging, the process of “making meaning and shaping knowledge and experience through language” (Swain 2006) is key to successful internalization of conceptual knowledge which in turn is a prerequisite of transferable knowledge. (Lantolf and Poehner 2014).

Fig. 1 The Graz Group Pluriliteracies Model of Deeper Learning (Meyer et al. 2015a, b) Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 279

Fig. 2 Scientiﬁc processes, genres and modes (based on Polias 2016, adapted)

– Genres, the ways in which we “construct spoken and written texts in response to recurrent communicative purposes or goals” (Cofﬁn and Donohue 2014: 43) can be used as guiding principle along the knowledge path into a discipline because they correspond to the four major activity domains of school subjects (i.e. doing, organising, explaining and arguing) which students need to master a subject (see Fig. 2). – Genres can be broken down into smaller parts (macro-, and micro-genres or cognitive discourse functions) and ‘scaled’ up or down in complexity in terms of breadth of obligatory and optional genre moves, depth of the content 280 O. Meyer et al.

Fig. 3 Mapping pluriliteracies development (Graz Group 2015) information provided in each of these moves and the quality of language use at the discourse, sentence and lexico-grammatical level (Byrnes 2002, for more detail see Meyer and Coyle 2017, see Fig. 3). – Learners of all age groups can successfully participate in all those four major activity domains or processes of knowledge construction at an age appropriate level. – Subject-specific literacy results in the growing ability to express or verbalize subject specific concepts or conceptual knowledge in an appropriate style using the appropriate genre and genre moves for the specific purpose of communication of modes. – Since we live in an image-based and increasingly digital world where semiotics are multimodal and hybrid in nature, the term pluriliteracies accommodates not only that learners operate in more than one language, it also encompasses the need for education to consider plurimodal semiotics. – Subject specific skills can be automatized through meaningful practice activities and complex and challenging tasks embedded in complex scaffolding and feedback (Lyster 2007; DeKeyser 2007; Hallet 2016). – Deeper learning, “the process through which an individual becomes capable of taking what was learned in one situation and applying it to new situation (i.e. transfer)” (National Research Council (2012): SUM-4) is dependent on “the way in which the individual and the community structures and organizes the intertwined knowledge and skills.” (ibid. SUM-5). We have argued before that deeper learning is driven by two key mechanisms: internalization of conceptual knowledge and automatization of relevant skills both of which are governed by learner strategies. Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 281

Our model serves several purposes: First, it focuses on the mutually dependent processes of knowledge construction and knowledge sharing as the main drivers of subject literacies. To build knowledge, learners need to use strategies and skills to transform facts and observations into conceptual knowledge following subject speciﬁc procedures. To communicate their knowledge, learners must successfully identify the purpose and their audience and make corresponding choices regarding mode, genre and style of their message. Second, our model stresses the need for learners to actively explore the connections between the two continua when engaging in the prototypical activities of knowledge building within a subject (i.e. doing science, organizing science, explaining science and arguing science). As has already been stated (Meyer and Coyle 2017), in our model, deeper learning occurs when learners actively create links between the conceptual and the communicative continuum in increasingly sophisticated ways. In other words, progress becomes evident as novices increase their meaning-making potential by moving outwards along the continuum alongside an ability to verbalize their increasingly complex conceptual understanding adequately in the appropriate language. This articulation demonstrates improved command of subject speciﬁc skills and strategies.

2 A Revised Framework for Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning

Planning for literacies development and providing the right kind of materials, tasks and activities to help learners make progress along the knowledge pathway into a discipline—as challenging as that may be—only addresses the cognitive and linguistic dimension of learning. Education, however, is deeply social in nature (Walqui 2006). Accordingly, learning is not only a matter of cognitive development but also of shared social practices. Ning and Downing (2010) emphasize the effect of the learning environment on learner achievement via behavioural, emotional and cognitive engagement. Pietarinen et al. (2014) provide an excellent overview on current research that suggest that emotional engagement which becomes manifest in the quality of the relationships with teachers and peers contributes to cognitive engagement which in turn further increases behavioural engagement and may therefore lead to improved task performance. They argue that emotional and cognitive engagement are both socially embedded and highly dependent on the quality of interaction manifested in the daily pedagogical practices adopted by teachers. This would imply that emotional or cognitive engagement are not individual attributes but, rather, that they are socially constructed and re-constructed in everyday school interactions. The authors conclude that school-related well-being of students can be understood as the key mediator that simultaneously enhances emotional and cognitive engagement in school. 282 O. Meyer et al.

In a similar vein, Morcom (2015) argues that caring relationships are a pre- requisite for working effectively within the ZPD and that the teacher’s role is to create shared affective spaces where such relationships can grow. Renshaw (2013) speaks of the affective dimension as an “enabling condition” for scaffolding to be effective. He holds that learning with and from others is as much about building relationships as it is about mastering a speciﬁc skill. The fundamental importance of student well-being, emotional engagement and its relationship to deeper learning has not received much attention within the CLIL community. Consequently, methodology has primarily focused on knowledge construction and on developing cognitive, metacognitive and linguistic skills in learners. In this chapter, we introduce a revised model of our pluriliteracies framework which will incorporate aspects such learner engagement and its impact on task performance, academic self-efﬁcacy as well as personal beliefs and values. Further, we will argue that an added personal growth dimension needs to be counterbalanced by a mentoring dimension to arrive at a truly integrated model of pluriliteracies teaching for learning that allows for the design of deeper learning ecologies where mentors and mentees are engaged in the processes of constructing and communicating of knowledge “that go beyond the information given and shape unique episodes of knowledge productive interaction” (Tillema et al. 2015: 16). Finally, we would like to demonstrate how principles of current state of the art pedagogical frameworks and tools like the Universal Design for Learning Guidelines can be applied to Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning in order to help learners in the process of knowledge construction and meaning making by simultaneously offering emotional scaffolding and multiple means of emotional engagement, i.e. by minimizing threats and distractions, providing options for sustaining effort and persistence, and self-regulation.

2.1 Generating and Sustaining Commitment and Achievement

Teaching and learning in formal settings are accountable for pertaining outcomes. We propose to define learning in a comprehensive manner as long-term change in behaviour, both in terms of achievement and engagement, and in mental representations, including attitudes resulting from experience (Ormrod 2011). The flip-side of change by learning is teaching, at least as far as formal settings are concerned. Teaching has been defined as “… an intentional intervention designed to result in a cognitive, affective, or behavioural change in another person” (Forsyth 2016: 3). It is vital for teachers as experts for stimulating personal growth of their students to understand the goals and principles of creating appropriate learning environments. In the remainder of this section, the scope of intended learning outcomes (ILO) (Biggs and Tang 2011) will be captured in terms of four equally relevant aspects: Affect, Engagement, Mastery, and Reflection. Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 283 a. Affect Learning and teaching objectives at the classroom level often focus on defined learning outcomes i.e. knowledge, skills and understanding, without necessarily making transparent affective goals such as learner attitudes, self-efficacy, motivation and well-being. Yet, as is emphasized by Pellegrino and Hilton (2012: 4), affective outcomes are increasingly pertinent for 21st century learning since “intellectual openness, work ethic and conscientiousness, and positive core self- evaluation” impact on individual learning. It is well documented across decades (Bloom et al. 1971) that individual differences in terms of attitudes, learning styles and ways of thinking are a significant contributor to the quality of learning (Kuhn 1991). In addition, the specific characteristics of any learning environment will influence learners’ willingness and capacity to develop rational arguments, balanced reasoning and conflicting information (Hefter et al. 2014, 2015). Willingness to invest in their own learning is driven by learner motivation and the degree to which individual needs are met (Deci and Ryan 2000). Deeper learning requires learners to actively engage in learning which offers a sense of choice and decision-making about what is studied and how, which focuses on and acknowledges individual progression and skills development. Moreover, learning in a ‘safe’ environment determines the extent to which social belonging is reinforced. Alongside the importance of a sense of belonging is also a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is directly related to learning environments which offer appropriate challenges and opportunities for success. In other words when learners believe they can solve problems and complete tasks this impacts on their willingness to persevere when faced with difficulties (Bandura 1997). Self-efficacy is fostered through teachers enabling behaviours so that individual learners develop a “key personal resource in self-development, successful adaptation, and change” (Bandura 2006: 4). That is, learners make short and long-term choices, engage in tasks which demand effort and perseverance, and which crucially lead to self-evaluation on completion. Self-efficacy encourages positive self-evaluation and is precursor to sustained student engagement. There is also evidence (Blazar and Kraft 2017; Woolfolk and Davis 2006) which indicates that learner achievement can be substantially predicted according to the teacher’s own self-efficacy. The significance of emotional well-being and its contribution to the personal growth of learners and impact on learning outcomes has received increasing attention in the last decade, acknowledged by high profile inclusion in the transnational PISA study since 2015. “Schools are not just places where students acquire academic skills; they also help students become more resilient in the face of adversity, feel more connected with the people around them, and aim higher in their aspirations for their future” (PISA 2015, vol III, p. 3). Research has shown (Konu and Lintonen 2006; Suhrcke and de Paz Nieves 2011) that well-being has considerable impact on student development, motivation and achievement, and is closely related to health. According to Weintraub and Erez (2009) indicators of student well-being involve the degree to which individuals like going school, have positive social relationships with peers and teachers, express greater positive than 284 O. Meyer et al. negative feelings about schools and feel physically safe. The PISA 2015 results draw on psychological, cognitive, social and physical functioning determined by a multitude of factors including educational policy, cultural values, and global issues and trends. The 2015 PISA study reports that there are successful learners who are not necessarily satisfied with their schooling. These data underline the complexities and tensions between anxiety and an individual’s willingness and investment in learning. Other research studies (Graham et al. 2016;León and Liew 2017) have identified specific school and classroom factors and conditions, which nurture well-being for both teachers and students. Engagement Learner engagement is a complex construct consisting of multiple dimensions which together contribute to successful learning. Wang et al. (2016) emphasize behavioural, social, affective and cognitive dimensions which are dynamically interrelated, and which lead to the development of specific habits and attitudes towards learning. Cognitive engagement refers to the amount and types of cognitive strategies that learners employ. The strategies they choose directly impact the quality of the learning process (Lam et al. 2012; Sani and Hashim 2016): deeper learning rests on deep engagement which results from the use of strategies for deep processing which is associated with cognitive elaboration of content, whereas shallow processing involves “rote memorization, basic rehearsal, and other types of superficial engagement with the new material.” (Lam et al. 2012: 405). Engagement involves student investment in their own learning, demonstrating perseverance and using positive approaches towards successful task completion, classrooms and schooling as well as relationships with peers and teachers (Ulmanen et al. 2016). The extent to which individuals are engaged in their learning depends on instructional strategies (Shernoff et al. 2016; Ulmanen et al. 2016). Engagement is demonstrated by classroom behaviours and beyond-school educational or academic activities, such as following personal goals or making career choices (Wang and Degol 2014a, b; Wang et al. 2016). Mastery Mastery of knowledge and skills lies at the heart of all teaching and learning. Mastery involves processes which depend on an individual’s ability to activate (mental) operations in order to solve problems (Anderson and Krathwohl 2013; Dalton-Puffer 2013). The categorization of knowledge and skills and the increasing complexity of mental operations to access these, demonstrates progression. To develop mastery, it is critical that learners experience tasks that enable them not only to document their own progress but also to understand the processes involved for successful completion. The construction of subsequent learning goals through constructive teacher and peer feedback are part of a drive towards deeper learning. Reflection Self-reflection is a core construct of self-regulation and as such constitutes both a means of learning as well as a goal (Boekaerts 1999; Zimmerman 2000). According to Heemsoth and Heinze (2016), self-regulated learners can set appropriate learning Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 285 goals and plan their own learning episodes. They select strategies which enable them to monitor their own progress and guide them when they meet difficulties so that they can adapt their own learning behaviours accordingly. Educational policies and curriculum guidelines have for some time promoted the use of self-reflection as a means of encouraging and growing positive attitudes and support towards learning beyond schooling i.e. lifelong learning (European Commission 2001). Whilst there is a paucity of research in the relationship between school experiences and a willingness to engage in life-long learning, self-reflection—according to Lüftenegger et al. (2017)—is a predicator for continued interest and motivation for learning. This has the potential to impact on progression in learning and mastering new challenges as well as growing confidence in an increasing repertoire of metacognitive strategies and skills that monitor individual learning. b. Interdependence of Growth Areas This far, we had described aspects of personal growth in learning and teaching in a linear manner, which is certainly misleading. Two aspects need to be taken into account: Firstly, personal growth in all aspects occurs both in the student and in the teacher. To develop affect, engagement, mastery, and reflection are ongoing challenges for all who are involved in the process of teaching and learning. Second, the aspects of personal growth are mutually interdependent and interact in a complex pattern. In search of sources and effects of teacher self-efficacy, Zee and Koomen (2016: 7) present a systems model in which teacher self-efficacy has an impact on the quality of classroom processes which are critical for student achievement, which in turn supports teacher self-efficacy. The complexity of the relationships between well-being, motivation, achievement, and (teacher) self-efficacy requires all aspects to be considered carefully. Two assumptions can be made: If one aspect is neglected, it is likely to negatively affect the entire system, e.g., when there is a lack of emotional support in the classroom, teacher and student well-being suffer, entailing poor academic achievement and resulting in low self-efficacy in both the teacher and the student. Against the same model, the positive prediction can be made that if one aspect is supported and fostered, e.g., teacher self-efficacy, results will be visible in more distal areas also, such as student motivation and academic achievement. Research has yet to investigate the pathways and the networks which entail these changes.

2.2 Mentoring Learning and Personal Growth

Every student deserves a great teacher, not by chance but by design. (J. Hattie) The previous section has outlined the need to bring student affect and growth required for deeper learning into the frame. At the same time, the role of the teacher in terms of facilitating growth through creating optimum conditions for learning and progression is embedded in ecological processes which stimulate and refine effective meaning-making and knowledge construction. Supporting learners to ‘own’ learning goals and engage in subject development through a commitment to 286 O. Meyer et al. the successful achievement of goals, however, is dependent on complementary actions and ways of being by the teacher. This complementarity predicated on using and developing an understanding of pedagogic principles conducive to growth mindsets, requires the teacher to orchestrate the three dimensions of the PTL model: generating and sustaining achievement and commitment, constructing knowledge and refining skills and demonstrating and communicating understanding. This bringing together and facilitation for deeper learning constitutes the fourth dimension which defines the teacher as instrumental in mentoring learning progression and personal growth. The nurturing of growth mindsets is based on key principles for designing and evaluating learning, scaffolding and supporting learners, and feedback. This section will explore these further. a. Designing and Evaluating Learning For some time, the UNESCO’s four pillars of learning (Delors 1996) have been used extensively to capture dynamic processes which interconnect in learning-rich classrooms. The ways in which teacher enact their knowing, doing, being and enabling is fundamental to developing shared classroom practices which promote deeper learning. There is significant research into teacher knowledge and understanding (e.g. Shulman and Shulman 2004; Verloop et al. 2001; Bernstein 2000; Banks et al. 1999). However, the case for teachers themselves ‘owning’ and understanding their own distinctive pedagogic principles as in Shulman’s(2005) ‘signature pedagogies,’ is promoted by the work of Van Lier (1996). He argues that it is only when teachers articulate their own pedagogic principles or Theory of Practice that significant shifts happen in designing different ‘patterns of actions, activities and interactions’ (Schatzki et al. 2001) for different classes and different learners. The principles of PTL require both a holistic and dynamic sense of understanding ways in which cognitive and metacognitive development connects with self-efficacy affect and teacher guidance. Thus, it is that a steer for designing and evaluating classroom learning comes to the fore. Fullan and Langworthy (2014: 8) usefully summarize this position as leading to “sophisticated pedagogic capacities, which require expertise across a repertoire of different teaching strategies and continuous evaluation of where students are in their learning progressions.” There has been a significant shift in rhetoric over the past few decades towards student-led approaches to learning, where the teacher’s role is often defined as ‘guide on the side’ and a facilitator of learning. We propose however that the teacher’s role encapsulates ways of doing, knowing, enabling and being through integrated inclusive processes of mentoring learning. This differs from mentoring the learner. It involves a highly pro-active role based on interacting with learners to enable thinking and learning to be more visible and where dialogic learning conversations are the norm. Hattie (2014) suggest the teacher’s role is both facilitator and activator of learning, prioritizing the latter as more powerful in terms of enabling learners to achieve their goals. Yet within an ecological paradigm, the emphasis has to be on growing ways in which learners and teachers work together to stimulate growth and achieve shared goals. This is mentoring learning a term Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 287 coined by Tillema et al. (2015), which draws on a wide range of teaching approaches and uses a repertoire of strategies from teacher-led input to project and inquiry-based learning. According to Fullan and Langworthy (2014),

Teachers who play dynamic, interactive roles with students – pushing students to clearly define their own learning goals, helping them gain the learning muscle to effectively pursue those goals, and supporting them in monitoring how they are doing in achieving those goals – have extremely strong impacts on their students’ learning. Such teachers do not ‘let the students learn on their own’ but instead help them master the difficult and demanding process of learning. (Fullan and Langworthy 2014: 20) Building on the ‘dynamic, interactive roles with students’ is fundamental to mentoring learning which nurtures partnerships between teachers and learners. These partnerships are based on mutually negotiated learning pathways and the design of challenging tasks which enable learners ‘to learn about themselves as learners and continuously assess and reflect upon their own progress’ (Fullan and Langworthy 2014: ii). This connectedness emphasized by Stoll and Louis (2007) also promotes teacher reflexivity on their own practices in transparently enacting ‘everyone a teacher, everyone a learner’ (NFER 2014) Mentoring (deeper) learning shapes unique ‘episodes of knowledge productive interaction’, which require the teacher to design and evaluate dynamic processes inherent in meaning-making. The centrality of meaning-making in mentoring learning emphasizes informed participation and scaffold learning through appropriate feedback, assessment and personal growth. b. Pathways for Scaffolding and Supporting Learning One of the greatest challenges facing teachers is finding ways of ensuring that dynamic learning pathways are appropriate for individual as well as groups of learners. The need for a repertoire of strategies to be built up over a period of time involves experimenting and to an extent some risk-taking since finding the ‘best’ way to provide the ‘best’ learning opportunities is dependent on how the dimensions interact not on ready-made formulae and quick-fix solutions. This position resonates with Marzano’s(2017) ‘high yield’ strategies which emphasize the need to adapt lesson design, teaching routines and interaction patterns according to the overall purpose and learning goals of the lesson and its role/function within a larger unit (presenting new content, practicing and deepening lessons, knowledge application lessons, reflecting learning). The pathways that emerge from the interconnectedness of learner growth and mentoring learning also draw together the dimension for demonstrating and communicating understanding with that of constructing knowledge and refining skills (see Fig. 4). In order to navigate these pathways appropriately, learners need to develop confidence and experience a sense of achievement through feedback and assessments affirming conceptual and linguistic progression. Learners require support through scaffolded learning to define and redefine goals and the teachers needs to be prepared to design and redesign tasks and sequencing so that learning is increasingly visible to an individual learner, other learners and the teacher. The challenge of experiencing successful problem solving and knowing how to transfer 288 O. Meyer et al.

Fig. 4 Revised model of pluriliteracies teaching for learning learning impacts on learner aspirations. Marton and Saljo (1976) emphasize the importance of transfer from surface learning to deeper learning. Such transfer is facilitated by ‘collaborative enterprise’ (Stoll and Louis 2007) between learners and teachers and the co-development of physical and virtual tools. In other words, whilst much more is expected and demanded of learners (e.g. to build their confidence through personal feedback and encouragement, with the overall aim to unleash, indeed create, their awareness of their own potential) the teachers have to retain an active role in defining with students their learning goals with ongoing dialogue towards a shared understanding of what successful learning looks like in terms of outcomes. (Fullan and Langworthy 2014). The Lego model (Fig. 3) demonstrates how as learners progress through different levels they require different strategies to support their learning. Teacher understanding of these levels is critical for learner growth which is built on connecting all four dimensions. Marzano (2017) details a range of fundamental teacher strategies which focus on engaging learners, building positive learning relationships and crucially communicating high teacher expectations for all learners including ‘reluctant’ individuals. Similarly, Universal Design for Learning (2011) principles Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 289 define teacher strategies to provide ‘multiple means of engagement’ which offer options for recruiting interest, learner choice for sustaining effort and persistence, clear guidance for developing skills and confidence-building for self-regulation. The PTL position is clear: When all four dimensions together form a transparent base for designing and mapping learning pathways operationalized through a wide range of teacher strategies, the resulting tasks and sequences have the potential to promote learner confidence and learner agency. The goal for PTL is ‘growing’ a learning environment which is flexible and responsive to learners so as to foster commitment and resilience, nurture progression and growth and encourage choice and confidence in navigating learning pathways. This we propose will provide learners with the tools and experiences needed for personal growth and lifelong learning. c. Feedback for Assessing Learning Much has been written about the role of feedback for learning over the last few decades which consistently foregrounds the importance of formative processes such as those promoted by Assessment For Learning (The Assessment Reform Group 2002). In a pluriliteracies approach the nature of feedback and the mutual understanding adopted by teachers and learners towards its integration into the learning process is not only fundamental to growth and progression but is positioned as being at the ‘critical nexus’ between learning goals, tasks and learning outcomes for deeper learning. Feedback must actively engage learners in defining and redefining their learning goals through evaluating their own work guided by the teacher. In particular, we would emphasize as key the co-construction of rubrics which make transparent defined goals and task outcomes by involving learners in processes which define, refine and advance new knowledge and lead to successful task completion. Given the emphasis on ecological growth, the active involvement of peers to support both collaborative and iterative self-assessment lies at the core of formative feedback and is critical for raising learner awareness and confidence in a ‘how to do it better’ mindset. These are the drivers for progression within the PTL continua built on carefully designed and transparently agreed principles. In essence, the PTL conceptualization of feedback encapsulates mentoring learning for personal growth.

3 Conclusions

Earlier iterations of the Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning model emerged from educators and academics needing to address some fundamental conceptual shortcomings inherent in current CLIL methodologies (Meyer et al. 2015a, b; Coyle et al. 2017). The innovative structure and processes inherent in our project for the European Centre for Modern Languages (Pluriliteracies Teaching for Learning: www.pluriliteracies.ecml.at) have enabled us to adopt an ecological, inclusive growth cycle connecting researchers, curriculum planners and practitioners from different fields, subjects and cultures. This dynamic cycle consisting of five interrelated processes—problematizing, theorizing, growing by diffusion, practicing and 290 O. Meyer et al. realizing—is detailed in Coyle et al. (2017). This cycle continues to support the evolution of the model far beyond its original purpose and intent. In moving away from visualizations which are two dimensional and fit onto the page, we began to conceptualize how the dynamics of learning which are continually interacting and in flux could be represented: The dimensions outlined in this model form the basis for learning partnerships. As teachers and learners interact within and across these dimensions, they extend the space and create a dynamic momentum which fosters growth, thus evolving the basis into a three-dimensional space. This space must be designed to maximize interactivity between the dimensions in order to grow deeper learning ecologies. In other words, all dimensions must be activated and integrated for deeper learning to occur. Since deeper learning is dependent on disciplinary cultures, adopting a pluriliteracies approach provides learning pathways into the subjects of schooling. The four dimensions also provide teachers with feedback and understanding which guide learning trajectories by mentoring individual learning through those different domains whilst (co)constructing tasks and activities with increasing sophistication and abstraction—as illustrated in the Lego images (Fig. 3). This is learner progression. It reveals that deeper learning is not only a matter of constructing and communicating or demonstrating knowledge. Indeed, for deeper learning to occur, the affective conditions which impact on learners need to be factored into the equation, activated and supported by teacher mentoring for learning. Conducive conditions for learning depend on teachers’ mindsets and teacher self-efficacy, affective classroom processes and carry through to learner achievement and well-being (Zee and Koomen 2016). In turn, research suggests that the creation of positive growth conditions for learners impacts on the teacher’s own sense of well-being and self-efficacy (Lomas et al. 2017). Teacher emotions, such as enjoyment during teaching, have also been shown to correlate with clarity and variety of instruction, and caring and support for students (Frenzel et al. 2016). Frenzel concludes that teacher awareness of their own role in constructing conditions which foster student learning and adjustment is likely to reinforce teacher enjoyment. Our revised model of pluriliteracies teaching for learning attempts to capture the intricate relationships and complexities between: learner commitment and achievement; mentored learning for personal growth; demonstrating and communicating meaning-making; and constructing new knowledge and deepening understanding. We have moved away from a linear analysis of teaching as a unidirectional, intentional act by teachers to learners. The empirical evidence which we reviewed can be summarized along two lines: 1. Teaching efficiency is a result of addressing individual learning needs, e.g., by using appropriate communication, scaffolding, and feedback strategies based on the teachers’ diagnostic expertise and teaching repertoire. 2. The factors involved in teaching and learning determine mutually reinforced ‘lived through’ processes defined by teacher-learner relationships. Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 291

We started with a realization that focusing on content and language was not enough. We knew that integrated learning was about much more than constructing subject knowledge and languaging learning effectively. Increasingly, complex research identifying different aspects, features or roles of the learning variables which are unique to each learning space, acknowledge the need to bring together four different yet complementary dimensions into a space which is dynamic, mentored and designed by teachers so that the sum of the parts is greater than the whole. The more we know about how teachers acquire those skills and competences which allow them to initiate, monitor, and reflect on the cycles of personal growth and deeper learning, the better teacher education can address these areas for future development. In the CfBT Report (2014) on Inspiring teachers: perspectives and practices, learners identified those teachers as inspirational who had high expectations of them, created a positive and reassuring classroom climate, had clear goals, formative feedback, were approachable and fair, transmitted their enjoyment of learning and promoted positive learning experiences, attitudes and engagement. Whilst it could be argued that this is nothing new, what we propose through the model is a means of how to grow those learner-teacher partnerships through knowledge construction and demonstrating learning, thereby conceptualizing all four dimensions as being part of a holistic endeavour where no one dimension stands in isolation. Moreover, at this stage, we are also confident that the PTL model provides not only a way of enacting the OECD learning goals—doing, knowing, being and working together—in the bilingual classroom but also in monolingual spaces. In other words, PTL attempts to conceptualize deeper learning at any level, in any language in any space. There is an urgent need to populate those spaces suggested by the model with evidence and exemplars drawn from classroom practices in a wide variety of contexts to guide future directions and validate not only what teachers and learners can do and know but what they can become through shared learning partnerships and professional enquiry. Recommended Readings – Graz Group. (2015). The Graz Group model: Mapping pluriliteracies development. A pluriliteracies approach to teaching for learning. European Centre for Modern Languages. http://pluriliteracies.ecml.at/en-us/. This website contains instructive videos, background articles and teaching materials that have been specifically designed to show how pluriliteracies progressions can be designed for various subjects and age groups. – Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2008). Genre relations: Mapping culture. London: Equinox. This book is an excellent guide to the ‘Sydney School’ of functional linguistics and to genre analysis. 292 O. Meyer et al.

– NASBE Study Group on Student Engagement. (2015). A state of engagement. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Boards of Education. http:// www.nasbe.org/wpcontent/uploads/StudentEngagementStudyGroupReport_ March-2015_FINAL1.pdf. This very accessible report explores the behavioral, emotional, and cognitive dimension of student engagement and the role that teachers, parents, peers play in activating learners. – National Research Council. (2012). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. Committee on deﬁning deeper learning and 21st century skills. In J. W. Pellegrino & M. L. Hilton (Eds.), Board on testing and assessment and board on science education, division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. This report offers a comprehensive review on ‘deeper learning’ and shows how this concept relates to “21st century skills” and key disciplines like reading, mathematics and science. – Polias, J. (2016). Apprenticing students into science: Doing, talking, and writing scientiﬁcally. Melbourne: Lexis Education. In this very hands-on book that contains sample science texts with analyses of their structure, visuals and language, the author aims to show how the teaching of science can be improved through an understanding of the patterns in its knowledge and its language.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What is the relationship between deeper learning and the pluriliteracies model? – Describe and explain how each dimension of the revised pluriliteracies model impacts on learning. – Develop one guiding question for each dimension of the new model that will help practitioners put it into practice. – Describe how each of the components of the “affective dimension” affect each other. – What is the difference between teaching and mentoring? What is required of future pluriliteracies teachers? Which competences do teachers need to implement the model? – Which of the dimensions of the model do you think should become a research priority? Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 293

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Author Biographies

Oliver Meyer is Professor of English-Didactics at the Johannes Gutenberg-University/Mainz, Germany. As a CLIL-expert, he was co-responsible for the in-service training of the 150 + middle school teachers involved in a CLIL pilot program in Bavaria. Oliver Meyer has authored several CLIL and ESL textbooks and is currently working on a conceptual framework for the next generation of digital textbooks (Learnscaping: Beyond the digital textbook). He is a member of the CLIL Cascade Network and has been invited to teach CLIL courses in many European countries. In 2010, he was awarded ﬁrst prize at a prestigious competition for innovation in teacher training (Pädagogik Innovativ 2010). He is currently coordinating “CLIL 2.0: Literacies through Content and Language Integrated Learning: effective learning across subjects and languages”, a project (2012–2015) for the European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML).

Do Coyle has been Professor of Learning Innovation at the University of Aberdeen since summer 2008. She came to Aberdeen from the University of Nottingham, where she was Associate Professor of Education, Co-Director of the university’s CETL-Visual Learning Lab and member of the Learning Sciences Research Institute. Professor Coyle is an international expert in CLIL and has played a major role in the European movement associated with bilingual and modern languages education. Working towards the ‘borderless classroom’, she has created innovative approaches to video conferencing using the Teaching and Learning Observatory concept. She is a member of the international research group on learning strategies (IPOLLS), the European research group for CLIL (CLILCOM) and is guest editor of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Beyond CLIL: Fostering Student and Teacher Engagement … 297

Margarete Imhof is Full Professor of psychology in education at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany. Her research interests are in teaching and teacher education with a focus on the development of professional teacher competences.

Theresa Connolly is an interdisciplinary Ph.D. student in the fields of English Didactics and Psychology. Her current field of study is based on bilingual chemistry education and she is particularly interested in the effects of subject specific literacies on content knowledge development. In 2015, she graduated from the University of Mainz and obtained a Master’s Degree in Secondary Education. Part V Emotions in Second Language Teacher Discourse Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher Education and Future Research Directions

Danuta Gabryś-Barker

Abstract As research in teacher emotions demonstrates, the affectivity of teacher behaviour in an L2/FL classroom context is one of the most signiﬁcant factors contributing to appropriate interaction, classroom dynamics and, as a consequence, student language achievement and well-being (Gabryś-Barker Studies in Second Lang Learn Teach 4(2):301–325, 2016). Teacher affect—be it subconscious or controlled through emotional management and emotional labour (Benesch in Considering emotions in critical English teaching, Routledge, New York/London 2012)—is manifested in all the procedures and actions employed in the classroom. This paper presents a discussion of FL teacher discourse understood both in its verbal aspect (teacher talk) and also in teacher’s non-verbal behaviours towards students (teacher immediacy, eye contact) from the perspective of its affectivity. The article points to the need for more ample research. Insofar as research in this area is not very extensive, FL teacher training programmes also hardly ever instruct pre-service teachers in, or raise their awareness of, the signiﬁcance of emotionality in a FL teacher’s discourse. Some ideas for improvement of the latter are put forward in this article.

Keywords Teacher discourse Á Teacher talk Á Verbal behaviour Non-verbal behaviour Á Emotion management Á Emotion labour

1 Introduction

As has been stated in different articles in this volume, affectivity in the FL classroom should always be a primary focus of teachers both in relation to learners’ affectivity, their well-being and achievement, and in relation to their own emotions and their impact on creating an effective FL learning environment. Any behaviour or action is emotionally-driven due to the innate interaction between cognitive and

D. Gabryś-Barker (&) Institute of English, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 301 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_17 302 D. Gabryś-Barker affective processing, and the primacy of the latter (Schumann 1999). Teacher affectivity can be observed in all the actions undertaken in a classroom, but mostly in ways of communicating and interacting with learners by means of appropriate discourse. FL teacher discourse constitutes a signiﬁcant aspect of facilitation of FL learning as:

Cognitively, teachers need to structure their discourse so that it is comprehensible and organized in ways that make the language easier to assimilate. This is important, but we would afﬁrm that it is quite possibly even more important that affective factors of discourse are taken into account and that teachers both verbally and non-verbally create a true learning classroom where learners believe in the value of learning a language, where they think they can face that challenge and where they understand the beneﬁt they can get from attaining it. (Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora 2007: 10)

2 Teacher Talk as Classroom Discourse

2.1 Classroom Discourse and FL Classroom Interaction

Modern approaches to foreign language instruction emphasize that its major objective is developing the communication skills of learners. These communication skills are built in the non-authentic context of a FL classroom through teacher discourse (teacher talk) and interactive activities. A FL classroom discourse is understood as “all forms of discourse that take place in the classroom” (Tsui 2008: par. 1), observed on the level of linguistic expression of the teacher and learners and non-verbal realization in the form of gestures, eye contact, proximity and silence:

Studies of classroom discourse have explored factors which play a critical role in shaping classroom discourse. These factors pertain to the socio-cultural contexts in which the discourse is generated, including the physical environment, the socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds of participants, as well as the psychological dimensions such as their perceptions, emotions, beliefs and orientations (Tsui 2008: par. 1) Signiﬁcantly, classroom discourse is planned by the teacher and expresses his/ her approach to teaching. It also embraces spontaneous talk, which comes close to more authentic communication and interaction. To make it more genuine, teacher talk needs to come closer to authentic discourse by being affectively marked at each of the above stages of a lesson to create a semi-authentic context of communication, which is more effective in FL learning. So FL teacher discourse can be deﬁned as teacher talk (TT) expressed verbally and by non-verbal markers of communication. Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 303

2.2 Teacher Talk and Its Functions

Generally, the functions of teacher talk (TT) express all the roles a FL teacher performs in the classroom. The extent to which different roles are performed depends on one’s approach to teaching, where a teacher-centered one will emphasize different roles compared with a learner-centered approach. Thus, TT will also have different emphases and even different characteristics in the former and latter approaches. Nevertheless, certain functions of TT are always observed in FL classroom discursive procedures. Inevitably, they relate to knowledge giving (or sharing) at the presentation stage of a lesson, questioning habits, giving feedback and evaluating, praising/rewarding and punishing, interacting when monitoring work or communicating in off-task interactions with learners. Watkinson (2006) classiﬁes classroom talk into cognitive talk (about a subject, managerial talk (organizing the session, dealing with behaviour), counseling talk (responding to pupils’ needs or feelings) and expressive talk (voicing your feelings about a subject or situation (p. 109). These types of talk are described in more detail in the Foreign Language Teacher Talk Survey used by Warford (2011) (Table 1). Each of the below categories represents a speciﬁc example of teacher discursive practices, which can be analyzed in its cognitive but also, importantly, emotional characteristics, which have impact on learners and the teacher himself/herself.

Table 1 Foreign language teacher talk survey (partly based on Warford 2011) Main aspects/categories of TT Speciﬁc categories Role Procedural Taking attendance, announcements, Organizer giving directions to an activity, introducing a topic, goals, giving agenda for a lesson, etc. Instructional (discourse related to Introducing new language, Knowledge lesson content) reviewing, modeling, drills, giver/source of activities and exercises, etc. input Offering and soliciting feedback Explicit and implicit corrections, Assessor/ (discourse related to progress, praising, comprehension check, corrector/ repair sequences/corrections) giving feedback, etc. evaluator Spontaneous L2/FL talk Eliciting student talk, facilitating Facilitator/ (interaction on and off task) communication, expressing humour/ communicator/ empathy/sympathy, etc. Interlocutor Classroom management/ Reminding the rules of behaviour, Manager/ maintaining discipline encouraging engagement in tasks, facilitator discouraging misbehaviour, etc. 304 D. Gabryś-Barker

2.3 Characteristics of L2 Teacher Talk

Teacher talk as the main source of language input is an important pre-requisite for learning to take place in a FL class, provided it is comprehensible. This compre- hensibility of input, be it finely-tuned or roughly-tuned input (Krashen 1977), is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for learning to occur. Hatch (1981) strongly believes that language development occurs by participating in interaction. The linguistic input constitutes the core of classroom communication and interaction, but not all of it. As in authentic communication, non-verbal signals add to the message and to the expression of the intentionality of the message. These are often affectively-grounded. The construct of teacher talk (TT) derives from foreigner talk research. In general, TT is defined as a modified version of language, the purpose of which is assurance of understanding on the part of FL learners (Table 2). Some of these modifications require more affective expression on the part of the teacher to have a greater impact on learners, for example phonological modifications, among others.

Table 2 Language modifications in TT (based on Osborne 1999) Language modifications Examples Phonological Exaggerated articulation Extended pauses Slower rate of speech Less reduction of vowels and consonants clusters Louder delivery More standard “literary” pronunciation Lexis More basic vocabulary Fewer colloquial expressions Fewer indefinite pronouns Stylistically neutral Syntactic Fewer subordinate clauses Fewer words by clause Shorter length of utterances Higher proportion of simple present tense Higher proportion of well-formed sentences Discourse More first person reference Fewer functions per time unit More teacher-initiated moves More conversational frames More self-repetitions More verbalization per function Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 305

3 Teacher Talk as an Example of Affective Discourse

3.1 Verbal Affectivity in Teacher Talk

3.1.1 Language Choice as a Demonstration of Teacher Emotionality

The emotionality (affectivity) of teacher discourse has its verbal dimension expressed in teacher talk (TT) in a variety of classroom contexts and stages of a FL lesson, performed for different purposes and to fulfill different functions. According to the affect-as-information approach to emotions, “the critical information sometimes comes from feelings rather than facts. Often judgements and decisions are based on actual and anticipated approach” (Clore 2014: 11). What is more, “When affect is experienced as spontaneous, it can be very persuasive” (ibid.: 11). It is also assumed that the language one uses reveals who he/she is “because our language comes from, and reveals, both our conscious and unconscious selves (…). Although we are usually unaware of how we speak, our patterns of speech reveal important information about us. We all reveal ourselves through language” (Metzger 2007: 189). Metzger illustrates this belief with the following instances of idiosyncratic language choices: – the use of qualifiers (e.g. perhaps, maybe, I think, probably) may express one’s lack of confidence at the moment of speaking – the use of subordination may mean the ability to make connections – (over)use of descriptive adjectives and phrases may signify one’s attention to detail – the use of clichés shows predictability of one’s speech/argumentation – energy use in speech may demonstrate generally our levels of energy and engagement in life – a choice of vocabulary used may show either pompousness or being relaxed. This list is by no means exhaustive as we can look at the characteristics of one’s spoken discourse in different contexts and in different states of mind and emotional arousal. Teachers’ choice of language expresses not only the content but also teacher personality, attitude to the subject matter (here, a foreign language), attitude to learners and possibly, momentarily, burst of various emotions. As Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora (2007) put it “Your choice of words and your language selections are critical to the self-esteem, the academic success, and the healthy mental and emotional development of your students” (p. 1).

3.1.2 Different Instances of Verbal Affectivity in Teacher Talk

As mentioned earlier, the functions of teacher talk embrace all teacher classroom responsibilities, that is lecturing (knowledge giving or sharing), questioning learners, giving feedback and assessing learners, praising and rewarding their 306 D. Gabryś-Barker efforts or when reprimanding is due, punishing the learners, interacting with the learners when monitoring their work or communicating with them on a more informal level in off-task communications. The teacher has to motivate and create positive attitudes in learners; both functions are affective in nature. Motivational behaviour should be demonstrated at every stage of a lesson and one of the tools for achieving it is teacher discourse in its verbal and non-verbal dimensions. On the basis of the already presented Foreign Language Teacher Talk Survey (adapted from Warford 2011, Table 1), selected instances of teacher discourse in which emotionality plays a distinctive role are discussed next. Procedural teacher talk embraces instances of teacher talk which are routinely present in a FL class, such as taking attendance, announcements, giving directions for an activity, introducing a topic, goals or giving an agenda for the lesson. Each of them gives information that the teacher shares with learners and which is necessary for the successful conduct of a class, but is also crucial in creating a classroom climate conducive to learners’ engagement in a lesson, in other words, it has motivational and rapport-building functions. Forms of direct address and the use of personal pronouns such as us or we should be deployed as they mark belonging and a shared experience by the teacher and the group (Taylor 2005, in Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora 2007). The verbal characteristics of the language used by the teacher also need to express his/her own engagement in the lesson, which can be best shown by using affective language expressing one’s feelings by saying. How interesting!, You will find it quite exciting or I am glad to be able to share this with you, etc. It is also at this stage of a lesson when teachers can interact with learners more informally by introducing off-tasks communication, directly related to their and their learners’ emotionality. The latter is often realized as spontaneous L2/FL talk. Spontaneous L2/FL talk also means eliciting student talk, facilitating communication and expressing humour/empathy/sympathy. Off-task communication demonstrates teacher’s interest in learners, for example when a teacher asks (in a FL!): How was your weekend? or How are you doing today? It is an effective warm-up activity establishing rapport during the lesson. Also, here as in many other contexts, a teacher addressing a learner by his/her first name (and not his/her surname!) will mark interest, an individual approach and affective communication, as it creates learner visibility in class (Dörnyei and Murphey 2003). Offering and soliciting feedback (discourse related to progress, repair sequences/ corrections) is exhibited as explicit and implicit corrections, praising, comprehension check or giving feedback. Giving feedback is one of the most sensitive areas and a very difficult role for a teacher to perform. When corrected, learners respond first with their emotions. Thus, it is necessary for a teacher to express sensitivity in the way he/she corrects verbally, what words are used and what possible responses they will generate. Stevick (1999) discusses ways of giving feedback as a combination of its cognitive, affective, external and internal characteristics, and claims that it is not verbal criticism expressed in teacher correction of a learner but its Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 307 affective dimension that has the biggest impact. For example, the teacher may say You really don’t get it or You’re are totally wrong (not to mention such demeaning forms as You are stupid or You will never learn it). Such affectively negative assessments may cause irreparable damage to a learner. On the other hand, positive feedback should be used wisely and should perhaps not be too readily delivered as it will lose its power over time. It should always be more elaborate than just a pure Good, Very good or even Excellent. When a teacher expresses precisely what was good in a learner’s response, it will have a more lasting impact (Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora 2007). Classroom management/maintaining discipline consists in implementing a code of conduct, encouraging engagement in tasks and discouraging misbehaviour. In these contexts, the affectivity of teacher discourse is best expressed by non-verbal signals (such as tone of voice - discussed later); however the choice of language also has an impact on how learners perform and whether they behave according to the set rules. Rogers (2015) presents key principles in managing discipline. Among others, he suggests to:

(…) Avoid unnecessary confrontation. This includes embarrassment, any sarcasm, any sense of intentional hostility or threatening communication (…) Keep the corrective language itself positive where possible: – “when – then” is more invitational than “no, you can’t, because …” – avoid overuse of “shouldn’t, “mustn’t”, “can’t”, “won’t” and interrogatives such as “why?” or “are you?” (…) – be brief, where possible (avoid long directions or reminders about behaviour) (Rogers 2015: 95, emphasis mine) In a study conducted by Ellis (1998), the participants were to comment on teacher classroom behaviour. Out of the sixty different behaviour patterns of teachers, four major categories were identified as those which can be marked affectively. They were classified as confirming (positive) versus disconfirming (negative) behaviours (Table 3). As can be seen, the most elaborate category of affect-related discourse is expressed by aberrant, that is negative behaviour patterns as perceived (and perhaps experienced) by the subjects of the study, learners themselves. It expresses a traditional teacher-centered approach, in which the teacher becomes a sole authority for learners as a knowledge giver, controller and in general, the main agent in the teaching process. What is more, he/she demonstrates negative emotionality and as a result, de-motivates and inhibits the learners. Each of the above examples in aberrant disconfirmation expressing negative emotions presents teacher behaviour, which may result in teacher ineffectiveness, especially in a foreign language class, in which communication and interaction are the main objectives. Gregersen (2010) emphasizes the role of positivity of teacher discourse behaviour by introducing the concept of immediacy, which denotes closeness between teacher and learners resulting in positive attitudes. Immediacy has its verbal and 308 D. Gabryś-Barker

Table 3 Affective aspects of teacher discourse—categories (based on Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora 2007) Category Examples Teacher questioning behaviour, especially Listening to students attentively, appreciating teachers’ response to students’ questions/ their responses, flexibility in a lesson plan, comments availability beyond the class Teacher demonstrates interest in students and Giving a constructive feedback to students in their learning work/performance, being familiar with learners as individuals (e.g. knowing their names), making an effort to know students better, providing praise and encouragement, expressing genuine interest in learners’ progress Teaching style Implementing comprehension checks, introducing interaction during classes, listening to students, accepting their views, making connections between material and its value for learners in their lives Aberrant disconfirmation Using put-down statements, ignoring student responses and comments, embarrassing students in front of class, playing favourites and ignoring others, interrupting students, focusing more on teaching and fulfilling the syllabus than monitoring learning non-verbal dimension. To develop positive attitudes and relations in a FL class, verbal immediacy includes for example: – using personal examples, soliciting viewpoints, and discussing issues unrelated to class thus encouraging students to talk, discussing student topics, – using humour, – addressing students by name, – praising student work, – having conversations outside of class (based on Gregersen 2010: 68). Non-verbal immediacy and other non-verbal signals of teacher discourse are discussed next.

3.2 Non-verbal Discourse Affectivity

3.2.1 The Impact of Non-verbal Affective Signals

As much as verbal expression and choice of language are important, it is also the non-linguistic/non-verbal aspect of teacher discourse that should be consciously used by a FL teacher. Research in communication demonstrates variable Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 309 relationships between verbal and non-verbal elements in human discourse, which change depending on circumstances and types of interaction (Richmond and McCroskey 2004). Nonetheless, it is always the non-verbal dimension that contributes (more) significantly to understanding messages. What is emphasized, however, is that both verbal and non-verbal modes need to interact to produce comprehensible messages in the act of communication and interaction (ibid.). The non-verbal dimension not only has an impact on learners on the level of message comprehension, but also creates (positive or negative) learner attitudes and motivation to get engaged in the process of learning. It can be argued that because an affective response is primary in human behaviour and filters cognition (Schumann 1999), this non-verbal affectivity of teacher discourse will have a more significant role in generating a successful learner response and in consequence in learning itself. Kellerman (1992) believes that “kinesic behaviour can reduce ambiguity in spoken language, facilitate communication by increasing redundancy within the message, and reduce the fatigue experienced by listeners who do not have the benefit of using all sensory channels” (in Gregersen 2007: 61). Undoubtedly, it is the non-verbal dimension that expresses the affective states of the interlocutors: “While verbal messages play mainly a content or cognitive role, non-verbals serve principally an affective, relational, or emotional function” (Richmond and McCroskey 2004 in Gregersen et al. 2009: 67). How does teacher non-verbal behaviour affect learners? Gregson and Hillier (2015), when relating a skillful teacher’s non-verbal behaviour, state “It is thus, possible, without saying a word, to convey confidence or anxiety, calmness or tension, satisfaction or displeasure through the ways in which we present ourselves” (p. 139). They observe that:

A skillful teacher can silence a whole lecture theatre by establishing ﬁrm eye contact with one or two individuals in the room. The lecture hall becomes quiet. A less skillful teacher may struggle even in a smaller class to achieve this, especially if they scan the room constantly, moving their eyes from side to side, front to beck and – crucially – restlessly avoiding connection. The way we stand conveys information to our students if we are standing tall and ﬁrm, we send out a signal that we are in charge. If we look apologetic, or hunch our shoulders, we convey a message that we are insecure or unsure. (ibid.: 139) The non-verbal dimension of communication and interaction in a FL classroom is very strongly expressed by non-verbal messages which “can be delivered through a plethora of forms” (Gregersen 2005: 18), which embrace bodily movements, gestures and

posture, touching behaviour, facial expressions, and eye behaviour. Proxemics, how personal and social space are used and perceived, and paralinguistics, how something is said rather than what is said (including tone, pitch rhythm, timbre, loudness and inﬂection), are also elements of non-verbal behaviour that will greatly affect our classroom communication (Knapp and Hall 1992, in Gregersen 2005. 18) Voice and vocal aspect, eye contact, facial expression and proximity are discussed next. 310 D. Gabryś-Barker

3.2.2 Affectivity of Teacher Voice

The use of voice by a teacher not only has an instructional role in modeling language (pronunciation, intonation) and constructing a comprehensible message, but it also creates affective responses. Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-More (2007) believe that a teacher’s voice is the major tool at his/her disposal, which allows a teacher to gain a desired result in learners. Fonseca-Mora (2002) observed that, for example, exaggerated pronunciation, mostly in relation to intonation and melodic contours, has multiple functions: – To get students’ attention: teachers control the class with their voices. This means they have to change volume and pitch direction in order to get students’ attention and to sustain it – To act as linguistic models for their students: teachers in any discipline transform information, but as language teachers, they act as linguistic models as well (…) – To give clear instructions: teachers use prosodic modifications to help them give clear instructions (…) – To encourage students’ active participation in an interaction. Teacher talk is full of questions to elicit information from the learners (…) – To organize teachers’ own discourse: they signal the different parts of a lesson (Fonseca-Mora 2002 in Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-More 2007:8) The use of voice is also claimed to be the best indicator of so-called teacher presence in the classroom, understood as a teacher’s approach to classroom engagement, genuine interest, if not enthusiasm for teaching and for language taught, authentic interest in learners, not only as a class but individual human beings. The inappropriate use of voice volume may have a detrimental effect on learners, as speaking too loudly may be too overwhelming for learners, whereas too low volume and soft speech may result in incomprehensibility. This is not to say that the teachers should not use an exaggerated volume levels for specific purposes. Some teachers, being aware of the impact of voice level, use it strategically in different contexts. For example, a teacher who usually speaks quite loudly, may lower his/her volume to catch learners’ attention by behaving differently. In contrast, some teachers who never speak loudly may use raised volume to reprimand learners, usually only on rare occasions to have the greater impact. Teachers who always shout lose the impact their voice use may have. So, first of all, it is most important for the teachers to become aware how they use their voices to develop their own effective vocal strategies. It is critical for example in the context of: – establishing a rapport with learners by ways of addressing them, for example formal or less formal (e.g. using diminutive forms of address) to cut the distance and demonstrate more genuine interest in a learner; the vocal characteristics of voice use denoting positive feelings and energy though appropriate intonation choice and volume; Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 311

– assessing learners by addressing their mistakes and not them personally and using voice in a gentle way, avoiding critical and harsh tone; – praising and punishing by respectively appropriate tone of voice showing appreciation or a (gentle) reprimand; – giving effective feedback, which demonstrates genuine interest and not the need to criticize but to assist learners in their language performance.

3.2.3 The Affectivity of Teacher Gestures

Communication studies on non-verbal signals distinguish four types of gestures (Ekman and Friesen 1969): illustrators, regulators, emblems and affect display ones. (Table 4). Teacher gestures in a FL classroom perform speciﬁc functions and they can be either illustrators in presenting new language or task instruction, regulators in interaction activities and communication in a classroom or giving feedback. Sometimes they function as emblems in regulating management issues during the lesson or, importantly, they express the affectivity of a teacher in various lesson contexts. So teacher gestures relating to teacher emotionality are used to express group identity or to be accepted by a group (e.g. by sharing common gestures), to make an interjection (for emphasis) or to ease tension. Gestures are symbolic and encoded, thus for teachers to be effective in their gesture use and to make them intelligible to learners both in comprehending their meaning and affect they may express, teachers need to make a code of individual gestures and their functions known to learners. Affect display gestures discussed here embrace facial expression, smiling, laughing, crying and body posture, and constitute a signiﬁcant part of teacher discourse in the FL classroom.

Table 4 Types of gestures (based on Gregersen 2007) Gesture Description Examples type Illustrators Accompany verbal speech to Gesturing, smiling, frowning, complement it, message, to emphasize pointing to something some element of content, to make the message clearer Regulators To regulate interaction, for example Termination of a gesture, change in turn-taking in a conversation eye gaze direction, looking away from the speaker Emblems To transmit information/message, to Good luck, time is over, nodding substitute words symbolically, and turning head, etc. grounded in a given culture Affect To express emotion, grounded in a Facial expression, smiling, display given culture (e.g. their frequency and laughing, crying, body posture appropriacy of use in a given context) 312 D. Gabryś-Barker

Eye Contact or Gaze Behaviour of a Teacher

Eye contact in any context of face-to-face communication is crucial not only for establishing rapport between interlocutors. Knapp and Hall (2006) see eye contact as a cognitive behaviour in monitoring the flow of communicating messages, a way of monitoring responses, but primarily expressing the affectivity of interlocutors. The same refers to classroom interaction but importantly becomes even more crucial as a tool in establishing the position of the teacher and learners in a FL class. Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora (2007) believe that a teacher making eye contact with learners demonstrates his/her control of the classroom as well as monitoring comprehension and the degree of engagement and interest learners exhibit. Frequent eye contact with learners may demonstrate a positive attitude to learners, as a form of acknowledgement of their individuality and acceptance. Gregersen (2007) discusses the nature of gaze behaviour and its main functions in more detail. She points out that eye contact performs the following functions in a FL class: – regulation of the flow of conversation: visual contact demonstrates openness to communication and readiness to engage in an interaction; avoiding eye contact signals unwillingness. This strategy is often used by learners, but it is also a tool in teacher’s hands, by means of which he/she expresses his/her presence in the classroom and attitude to learners; – regulation of turn-taking in which the interlocutor passively listening watches out for signals of being able to continue. In a FL class, the teacher needs to monitor student talking time, for example to allow all learners an equal opportunity to speak, but also to make it possible to terminate unwanted speech or redirect it to the main focus to avoid off-task talk. Turn-taking can be very loaded affectively as it may encourage or discourage learner involvement; – monitoring feedback - first of all as responses to what the teacher says to check comprehension or straightforwardly whether learners are listening at all or not. Also, a non-verbal expression of praise or dissatisfaction with learner performance may be more effective as feedback than a verbal response; – expressing emotion directly as the eyes are “a primary communicator of emotion and are considered as the most genuine expression of feelings” (Gregersen 2007 60); – expressing the relationship between interlocutors, in a classroom between a teacher and learners, the length of eye contact and its frequency may be an expression of sympathy towards a given learner too, thus the teacher needs to monitor how he/she uses his/her gaze behaviour.

Facial Expression

As Knapp and Hall (2006: 260) put it “The face is rich in communicative potential. It is the primary site for communication of emotional states”. Facial expressions Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 313 employed by teachers as part of their non-verbal repertoire demonstrate their attitude to learners and teaching itself. They can be used as a form of corrective feedback, when for example a smiling face will express satisfaction and conﬁrm the correctness of learner’s response. At the same time, a frowning face may indicate the occurrence of an error or the dissatisfaction of a teacher with learner behaviour. Error correction by means of facial expression may be seen by learners as less inhibiting, as it, among other things, does not interrupt their language performance. (Chenoweth et al. 1983, Arnold-Morgan & Fonseca-Mora 2007).

Proximity as Teacher Non-verbal Immediacy

Another important aspect of teacher non-verbal discourse expressing affect is demonstrated in his/her non-verbal immediacy, defined as “communicative behaviours that reduce the physical or psychological distance between individuals and foster affiliation” (Gregersen 2010: 13). Non-verbal immediacy embraces the already discussed gestures, face expression and eye contact. It also includes physical distance (proximics) and body posture (rigid versus relaxed). Each of these elements “signals approachability and availability for communication, increases sensory simulation, and communicates interpersonal warmth and closeness” (Andersen 1985 in Gregersen 2010: 68). Various studies demonstrate the effectiveness of teacher immediacy in creating positive attitudes in learners, greater engagement and motivation to learn (Christophel 1990). As teacher immediacy has such a significant influence on the affectivity of learner functioning in a classroom context in different areas of instruction, it was investigated whether it is possible to train teachers to develop effective non-verbal immediacy (Plax et al 1986; Gregersen 2010). These studies showed that “trained teachers were perceived as more immediate by their students and their students reported more positive affect toward instruction when taught by those teachers” (Plax et al. 1986 in Gregersen 2010: 61). Importantly, as Gregersen (ibid.) emphasizes, teacher immediacy has to be used with caution so that it does not cross the boundaries of learners’ personal space, which is a highly individual phenomenon. She also points out that immediacy is culturally-grounded, as physical closeness is differently viewed and accepted in different cultures. In her study of teacher immediacy, Gregersen used a nonverbal teacher immediacy scale (adapted from MacCroskey et al. 1996). It embraces, among other factors, teacher position in class and body posture (sitting at the desk or moving across the classroom, having a tense versus a relaxed body position when talking to learners) as aspects of teacher affectivity, expressed by his/her immediacy in the use of space in the classroom. Rigidity and sitting at the desk, or always standing in front of the class can be understood as demonstrating teacher power, whereas moving between desks in a relaxed posture may be seen as being approachable and trying to overcome distance and become a part of the group. 314 D. Gabryś-Barker

One of the important features of professional FL teachers is their ability to exude confidence, which is often expressed by teacher body language. Elliott (2004: 99) offers the following guidelines to teachers: – Stand or sit confidently—shoulders back, spine straight and so on; – Stand still! Shifting feet distracts pupils and are a sure sign of nerves; – Control your hands! However nervous you are feeling inside, try to avoid fidgeting with them; – Try to be positive and expressive with your face: smile and nod regularly when pupils say and do anything positive; – Have the confidence to approach pupils for an intimate discussion of their work, but avoid invading their personal space. Elliot (ibid.) sums this up by saying “(…) The way you use your body will not only influence the way you are perceived, but also the way that you feel. If you can act confidently, even when feeling nervous, you are likely to end up feeling more confident” (p. 99).

4 Emotionality of Teacher Discourse in Training Programmes

4.1 Emotion Management and Emotion Labour

It can be seen from the above discussion that both verbal and non-verbal aspects of teacher discourse visibly demonstrate teacher affectivity. First of all, it is important for teachers to be able to recognize their emotionality as expressed by the language choices they make and non-verbal behaviour they present. This recognition is the ﬁrst step to being able to control and use affectivity to both the teachers’ own and their learners’ advantage in creating effective classroom discourse, in which affectivity will be a facilitative and not an inhibiting factor. The importance of emotionality in our evaluation of a given situation, for example in a classroom, leads us to the realization that knowing our emotions and their impact on our actions is primary to making them work for us as “Emotional knowledge, and even labelling the emotions, usually increase our ability to regulate them. (…) This knowledge enables us to reduce the frequency and intensity of negative emotions and intensify positive emotions” (Ben-Ze’ev 2000: 533). It was Hochschild (1979) who proposed the concepts of emotion management and emotion labour/work. She believes that emotions can be consciously used and managed and as such they can bring about the most desirable effects in personal but also in professional life. The concept of emotion management/emotion labour is expressed by Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 315

– cognitive strategies seen as “the attempt to change images, ideas, or thoughts in the service of changing the feelings associated with them” (ibid.: 562) – bodily strategies consisting in changing physical and somatic symptoms of emotions, such as controlling one’s breathing and thus, heart beat – expressive strategies of changing non-verbal, gestural indication of a feeling/ emotion, for example smiling to become more positive (Gabryś-Barker 2015: 115). Hochschild (1979) sees emotion management as directly determined by the way one comprehends and responds to a given situation. This affective response is brought about by the need to defend oneself in a given situation. One’s self-efﬁcacy beliefs, if positive, help us overcome existing anxieties caused by situational factors. Thus, the development of defence mechanisms becomes the core of emotion management, also in teacher training programmes (Gabryś-Barker 2015). The concepts of emotion labour and emotion management in FL instruction were developed more recently by Benesch (2012) (see Recommended Readings, in this article).

4.2 Teacher Talk Management and Its Affective Dimension: Ideas for Teacher Training

As mentioned above, the initial stage in developing the emotion labour and emotion management of a FL teacher is the recognition of his/her emotions at the moment of their occurrence in the teacher’s daily classroom practice - and beyond, in any other activity with learners a teacher gets involved in. This also presupposes the development of awareness of learner emotions, since teachers and learners interact emotionally, and which constitutes a dynamic continuum depending on the context and persons involved. Next, the focus on positive emotions, and the ability to transfer effective strategies used in the past to present contexts and situations, will allow one to take conscious control over one’s feelings. However, it seems that negative affectivity is more commonly observed than positive emotions (Gabrys-Barker 2012). Thus,

the implementation of a variety of coping strategies has to be of primary importance in teacher training programmes. So as teacher trainers, we need to rethink our emphases in training future teachers to give future teachers the tools to cope on their own in their future classrooms, not only in terms of the cognitive aspects of teaching (methods and techniques) but also (and equally importantly) to perform the emotion labour and emotion management indispensable to both professional and personal fulﬁllment. (Gabryś-Barker 2015: 130) 316 D. Gabryś-Barker

Apart from teachers’ awareness-raising of their emotionality, I propose we focus in FL teacher training programmes on developing explicit instruction in the use of verbal and non-verbal indicators of this emotionality. They can improve teacher performance in the FL classroom and in language learning. In my earlier discussion on creating a positive learning environment, some of these indicators were pointed out: – verbal indicators demonstrating a teacher’s acceptance of ideas and feelings (which are both spontaneous and animated); – ways of praising, clarifying and giving feedback in an unthreatening manner; – ways of using proxemics and making the trainees aware of the role of position in space, demonstrating closeness, interest and involvement as opposed to power and domination, and how to change position (movement in space, entering learners’ spatial zone to demonstrate closeness); – expression of teacher’s physical animation (co-verbal behaviour) as demonstrated by eye contact, facial expressions, gestures (for different functions) and changes of posture (expressing attitude, interest, involvement); – vocal animation (paralanguage) demonstrated in a teacher’s intonation, variation in vocal tones (volume, pitch, quality); – strategic use of voice (emphasis, attention getting, signalling important points), which can become the focus of training (Gabryś-Barker 2014: 321). Each of these indicators refers directly to FL teacher discourse and its emotionality, and as such it should become an obligatory part of teacher training modules.

5 Conclusions and Way Forward

We all have emotions; we all act upon them, both in social contexts and in professional ones. We communicate our emotions by the choice of language we use. We also communicate them by non-verbal signals such as gestures, body language or eye contact. In this article, I have tried to demonstrate instances of emotions in teacher discourse in communicating and interacting with learners. Although we as teachers are aware of our emotionality, we are often not able to control or monitor it. It is high time we focused more explicitly on our emotionality, since as Ben-Ze’ev (2000: 533) writes: “Emotional knowledge, and even labelling the emotions, usually increase our ability to regulate them. (…) This knowledge enables us to reduce the frequency and intensity of negative emotions and intensify positive emotions”. To develop this awareness of our emotionality as teachers and Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 317 our trainees’ emotionality is the first step in emotion labour and emotion management. As is argued earlier, there is an urgent need to implement it in FL teacher training courses as major modules responsible for developing new professionals, not only in terms of their cognitive knowledge and abilities, but also on the level of their affective functioning as successful communicators with their learners. This will also contribute to teachers’ sense of well-being and satisfaction. Although research on emotions in the context of foreign language instruction is no longer scarce, studies are often fragmented and lacking in reliability as to generalisability of their findings. What is needed is more replication studies, as well as more longitudinal research on teacher emotionality in relation to FL classroom discourse.. Additionally, the research methodology and instruments used call for more sophisticated techniques to be developed apart from ubiquitous questionnaires, interviews and (much too rarely) narrative studies. On the more applied level, FL teacher training programmes, though they have already recognised affect as a significant dimension in prospective teachers’ professional development, hardly ever introduce the topic of emotion labour and emotion management. Although trainee teachers often express insecurity about their affective functioning in schools and in interaction with their learners (Gabryś- Barker 2012), they are often left to themselves to cope with their emotions and the emotions of their learners, when entering their classrooms for the first time and for the years that lie ahead. Focusing in teacher training on teacher discourse, as realised in the various contexts of teacher talk and interaction in the FL classroom, needs to emphasize the role of its affective dimension expressed by verbal and importantly in non-verbal signals. The length of discussion of verbal versus non-verbal signals of teacher discourse affectivity in this paper clearly demonstrates the primacy of the latter, more complex and more implicit, thus requiring more attention and effort in its implementation. Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2012). Considering emotions in critical English language teaching. New York, NY: Routledge. This inspiring volume presents a solid and thorough overview of the concepts related to investigating emotions and feelings in the foreign/second language classroom. It also constitutes a fairly extensive, but also critical survey of the literature in the field of the affective dimension in FL pedagogy. The book demonstrates a fairly innovative approach, which is best exemplified in the practical part of the book, in which Benesch presents empirical projects and assignments used to discuss emotions in the EFL classroom, both from teachers’ and students’ perspectives. The practical ideas offered by the author can be easily modified and adapted by other FL teachers in their own classrooms as a means of developing their critical language teaching allowing them to focus on the emotional dimension of FL communication and interaction. 318 D. Gabryś-Barker

– Killick, S. (2006). Emotional literacy at the heart of the school ethos. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. In his ground-breaking book, Killick presents a programme for developing awareness of emotional literacy at school. The book focuses on the development of emotional literacy of children, however the activities offered in the book can easily be extrapolated to the context of teacher training and especially foreign language teaching. The book is a good source of ideas and their practical implementation, demonstrating ways of coping with a teacher’s own and learners’ feelings such as anger, sadness, loss or depression and pointing to the role of positive self-talk. Apart from the text itself and suggested points for discussion, the author offers a set of worksheets ready to use with trainees or learners, depending on the context of a course application. – Zembylas, M. (2005). Teaching with emotion: A postmodern enactment. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. The book is one of the ﬁrst attempts at turning the attention of researchers to issues concerning affectivity in teaching and learning contexts. It is one of very few longitudinal studies, which covers three years of teaching of a primary school teacher, thus it is an interesting case study of the evolving emotionality of a teacher with all its ups and downs and ways of coping with challenges the teacher faced during that period. Extensive analyses presented by Zembylas are based on an emotion diary kept by the teacher. The book offers a thorough discussion of possible research methodology that can be used in investigating teacher emotions. – Gregersen, T., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2017). Optimizing learners’ non-verbal behaviour. From tenet to technique, Bristol: Multilingual Matters. The authors, both well-known scholars researching affectivity in FL teaching and learning, wrote a book which is an excellent source for teachers, learners and scholars alike. It emphasizes the signiﬁcance of nonverbal aspects of communication, affect and cognition in instructional contexts. It is not only an excellent overview of theory and research in the area, but it also offers a set of activities and videos illustrating non-verbal behaviours in a FL class.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – MacIntyre (2013) believes that “We are emotional creatures who can be rational”. Interpret his statement in relation to FL teacher classroom behaviour on the basis of the discussion in the article. – How can a teacher’s language choices affect learners? Think of Arnold-Morgan and Fonseca-Mora’s words: (language choices) “are critical to the self-esteem, the academic success, and the healthy mental and emotional development of your students” (2007: 1). Emotionality in L2 Teacher Discourse: Implications for Teacher … 319

– What can teacher non-verbal behaviour communicate to learners? Think of speciﬁc examples. – Can you think of ways in which a FL teacher can get involved in emotion labour as an important aspect of his/her professional development?

References

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Author Biography

Danuta Gabryś-Barker is Professor of English at the University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland. Her main areas of interest are multilingualism, applied psycholinguistics, affectivity and EFL teacher development. She has published numerous articles nationally as well as internationally and the books Aspects of multilingual storage, processing and retrieval (2005) and Reﬂectivity in Pre-Service Teachers. A Survey of Theory and Practice (2012). She has edited eleven volumes, among others for Multilingual Matters, Springer and the University of Silesia Press. Prof. Gabryś- Barker is the editor-in-chief (together with Eva Vetter) of the International Journal of Multilingualism (Taylor & Francis/Routledge) and Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition (University of Silesia Press) (together with Adam Wojtaszek). Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom: The Emotional Challenges for L2 Teachers

Lesley Smith and Jim King

Abstract While learner silence in the classroom has recently become a topic of interest for teachers and researchers alike, the emotional effect of silence on classroom participants themselves remains largely understudied. Moreover, most studies of student silence in the classroom have primarily focused on its interplay in second language acquisition and L2 development (King in Silence in the second language classroom. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstroke, 2013; Nakane in Silence in Intercultural Communication. John Benjamins, Amsterdam, 2007). Of equal importance, however, is silence’s effect on the emotions and development of teachers themselves. An individual learner’s silence can have numerous emotional charges, and, because emotions are contextually and socially constructed, they can shift the emotional mood within the classroom more generally and affect the emotions of the teacher. When learner silence is not appropriately managed, the subsequent classroom environment can add to the emotional labour of teaching (King in New Directions in Language Learning Psychology. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 97–112, 2016), and, in turn, affect teacher performance by disrupting teacher identity. This chapter will discuss three forms of this affective silence and examine how each form’s role enters into an ecological relationship between student and teacher emotions. After a brief review of recent literature on learner silence and the problems it poses for teacher identity, we apply the concept of emotional regulation to the negative effects of learner silence and offer productive emotional regulation strategies for educators.

Keywords Silence Á Classroom interaction Á Emotional labour Dynamic systems theory Á Emotional regulation Á Identity

L. Smith (&) Linguistics Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. King (&) Applied Linguistics Section, Department of English, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK e-mail: [email protected]

1 Literature Review of L2 Silence

Educators and researchers who acknowledge the role of dialogic talk in learning tend to regard student silence as a largely negative phenomenon. This is particularly the case in language learning contexts, where a large body of research demonstrates that both verbal interaction and oral production of the target language are key to language acquisition and L2 development (Long 1996; Swain 2005). While understudied in comparison to verbal communication, the literature on L2 learner silence has grown in recent years, encompassing numerous theoretical perspectives and research designs. Some ethnographic research examining silence, although not focused exclusively on language education, has provided useful data regarding the inextricable connection between silence and culture (e.g. Agyekum 2002; Basso 1990; Philips 1976). Educational research has also examined differences in cultural perceptions of silence and their impact on silent classroom behaviour, ﬁnding a proclivity of certain cultures toward nonverbal and indirect communication (King 2013; Nakane 2007). While cultural differences certainly impact classroom interaction, it is important to recognize that they are just one of many variables cooperating to produce certain behaviours, such as silence. Empirical research on learner silence has illustrated this complexity (King 2013; Nakane 2007; Yashima et al. 2015), showing variation in silence across individuals, classrooms, and cultures. Chief among these theoretical perspectives is Dynamic Systems Theory (DST), which has proved a useful lens for examining how silence interacts in the classroom to affect individual students and teacher/student interactions. DST-informed approaches maintain that the behaviour of organic systems is not a result of causal relationships between static components, but rather an evolving interaction between agents in the system, i.e. students and teachers (Larsen-Freeman 1997). This approach accounts for the constant ﬂux found in classroom environments and lends itself well to analyses of silence due to the number of cognitive, social, and emotional factors associated with silent behaviour. These factors, called attractors in DST terminology, can guide classroom discourse toward an attractor state, i.e. a period of relative stability, in which silence is the norm, thereby discouraging student speech (Larsen-Freeman 2007; King 2013; Smith and King 2017). Negative feelings regarding a learner’s silence are particularly powerful attractors, which can manifest externally to maintain a non-participatory state.

2 Silence and Emotion

The affective dimension of teaching has long garnered serious scholarly attention. Teaching is, after all, “irretrievably emotional,” (Hargreaves 2000: 812) especially for novice teachers and those who cope with the social and emotional challenges of living in a foreign country. Similarly, interest in the emotional aspects of language learning has recently exploded as researchers acknowledge the crucial role of Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 325 emotion in classroom behaviours and attempt to understand their roles in second language acquisition. An important goal of classroom emotions research has been understanding the relationship between student and teacher emotions. As emotions are both culturally and socially constructed (Denzin 1984), it seems obvious that students’ emotions would strongly affect teacher emotions, and vice versa. Students’ emotions can thus impact not only pedagogical methods, but teacher satisfaction, motivation, and identity construction (Sutton 2004; Zembylas 2007). Correctly interpreting the emotions of individuals can be difficult, and teachers are faced with the nearly impossible task of perceiving, interpreting, and tending to the emotions of many students. While there are various preemptive and reactive means of tending to student emotions, in real time teachers must rely on communicative acts to do so. One aspect of classroom interaction carrying heavy emotional charge and which is notoriously difficult to interpret is learner silence. Across theoretical perspectives, silence is inexorably tied with emotion, as nonverbal communication tends to be more innate than verbal interaction, which is cognitive and content-heavy (Gregersen 2007). While certain functions of silence are consciously performed, for example, the use of wait time after teacher elicita- tions (Rowe 1974; Smith and King 2017), most silence is performed unconsciously. Additionally, nonverbal communication is thought to more accurately reflect the interlocutors’ emotions than explicit verbal communication (Denzin 1984; Gregersen 2007). There exists an ecological and, importantly, reciprocal relationship between the causes, effects, and maintenance of classroom silence, particularly regarding emotions. While some studies purport constructive uses for silence in the classroom, such as giving time for cognitive processing and using silence as a politeness strategy (e.g. Jaworski and Sachdev 1998; Reda 2009), classroom silence in the form of non-participation tends to be viewed negatively, often resulting in adverse emotions among classroom participants. The silence and resultant negative classroom environment often impact the emotional and pedagogical behaviours of the students and teacher. In order to examine this link between teacher and student emotions through silence, we first discuss three types of affective silence stemming from negative learner emotions. While this list is not exhaustive, it highlights three important forms of affective silence and how each distinctly adds to the complex network of emotional relationships within classrooms.

3 Silence of Embarrassment, Fear, and Anxiety

Feelings of embarrassment, fear, and anxiety afflict many language learners and may significantly contribute to silent behaviour. In the language classroom, where miscommunications abound, it is common to see students who would rather be silent than misunderstood. These three emotional factors have a particularly strong effect on student behaviour, creating situations in which students are overly sensitive to the judgment and perceptions of others. In situations with more self-focused attention, such as the language classroom, learners often use silence as 326 L. Smith and J. King a defensive strategy to save face and to limit negative judgment from their peers or the instructor (King 2013, 2014; King and Smith 2017; Nakane 2007). King’s (2013, 2014) empirical study of L2 Japanese classrooms shows several cases in which students choose silence when faced their peers’ negative perceptions. These students described in rich detail the excruciating feelings of embarrassment they endured when asked to speak the target language in the very public realms of their language classrooms. King further notes embarrassment’s cultural significance and its wholly negative effect on L2 oral production (2013). The frequently embarrassed students in the study had concerns on a wide range of issues, from lack of proficiency to misrepresentations of their thoughts, or ideas of being perceived as too proficient or overly confident by their peers. Two students, Satoshi and Shizuko, describe feeling embarrassed in class when they perceive other students to understand when they do not. Satoshi says “‘I don’t have confidence in my answer, then I really don’t like what people around me might be thinking of me (…) and that’s really embarrassing’” (King 2013: 114). Nakane (2007) notes that L2 students’ perceptions of disadvantage can lead students to choose pragmatic actions which native speakers perceive as inappropriate, causing miscommunications and negative opinions of non-native speakers. These negative views, whether justified or simply perceived, can threaten learner identity and adversely impact classroom performance. However, due to the inter- relatedness of embarrassment with personal factors, (being introverted and shy) and various situational factors (task familiarity and interest, peer dynamics) it is difficult to find remediation that accounts for this complexity. Some scholars have looked at how cultural notions about silence contribute to the proclivity to use avoidance of talk to save face, particularly for students from East-Asian or Confucian-heritage countries. These students would seem to have a culturally ingrained notion of hypersensitivity to the other, leading to excessive self-monitoring (Lebra 1976; McVeigh 2002; Tsui 2001). While the way a culture treats and uses silence remains an important aspect of how learners from that culture perceive silence, L2 embarrassment and anxiety is a phenomenon which spans cultures, developing in ecological relationships between other internal and social factors. Additionally, sociopolitical climate can have a strong effect on learners’ silent choices, particularly if the learners are a part of a negatively perceived minority group. Immigrant students often have difficulty overcoming the overwhelmingly negative views of those in the majority ethnic group, and this often impacts their silent behaviour. Losey’s(1997) study of Mexican-American adult college students showed how minority students in a multicultural classroom participated less frequently than their Anglo-American counterparts, with Mexican-American females communicating the least. Among many other factors, Losey (1997) cites cultural differences and negative self-perceptions about being powerless as reinforcing the fear of Mexican-Americans students to speak out. Nakane (2007) notes similar sentiments felt by a Japanese learner of English in Australia who faced racism during secondary school, which ultimately resulted in a friendship group made exclusively of Asian students. Outside of the obvious emotional and psychological Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 327 struggles faced by students who experience prejudice, the problems they face in acquiring a language with little authentic output is troubling (Swain 2005). Moreover, when feelings of anxiety and embarrassment facilitate silent behavior in students, it can affect a teacher’s emotional state and subsequent pedagogical decisions. In studies on pauses and wait time, i.e. the silence between a teacher elicitation and a subsequent teacher or student response, teachers admitted to feeling anxious when students did not immediately respond to a question (Rowe 1974; Shrum 1985). The teachers reasoned that students were bored or frustrated with the lesson. Consequently, these feelings of anxiety led them to talk more to fill the silence, which not only gave students less time to process information, but helped create a more teacher-centered environment, with fewer opportunities for meaningful student output. Another negative consequence of classroom silence is that it can often encourage silence in other students. In Brown and Levinson’s(1987) seminal work on politeness, they note that silence can be a means of avoiding what they call face-threatening acts, i.e. events that could potentially cause conflict or embarrassment, especially in situations with social distance between interlocutors. Anxious students frequently use this as an individual strategy, or can engage in the “solidarity of silence” with peers to avoid embarrassment, which can sometimes cause learners to form cliques (King 2013). The formation of cliques often has negative effects on classroom speech because they discourage in-group/out-group communication. Because dominant cliques often set the tone of the classroom, they can spur a non-responsive environment, even among those who are outside of the clique, but fear embarrassment if they speak out. Sifianou (1997) and Nakane (2007) rightly point out that even when solidarity silence is positively viewed by students, it can also put more communicative demands on the dominant speaker. What students deem as face-saving for themselves may have the opposite effect on the teacher, who may either feel apprehension from the collective silence or misinterpret it as defiant or angry.

3.1 Silence of Annoyance, Anger, and Resistance

The complexity of silence can similarly be seen in the silence of annoyance, anger, and resistance. Just as silence can be a means of avoiding conflict, it can likewise create and maintain it. The silence of anger and annoyance has been less studied in the field of learner silence than other areas, but is of equal importance to the discussion of negative affective silence. Sifianou (1997) notes that silence can be used to draw distinctions between groups of speakers, creating solidarity between in-group members, while distancing them from another speaker or group. This phenomenon typically occurs where an explicit difference in power exists between interlocutors, often in the form of social, socioeconomic, and/or racial status. While teachers have a higher institutional status, i.e. they are related to an institution of which all interlocutors are members (Watts 1997), students can gain higher 328 L. Smith and J. King discourse status by means of certain verbal and non-verbal acts. Silence of frustration and anger, for example, can manifest as a form of passive resistance in order to negotiate power structure. If the non-dominant group feels like something can be gained from a shift in power, they may become inclined to confront the dominant person and attempt to gain power status (Li 2001). One such example comes from Gilmore’s(1985) study of African American inner-city students’ use of silence as a means of passive resistance by “turning the loss of face back to the teacher” (55). The loss of face there came from intentionally shifting the communicative onus from the students back to the teacher. The students asserted their resistance using “stylized sulking,” characterized by silence paired with other nonverbal communication, such as eye-rolling, slouching down, or casting sideways glances (55). In this way, students were able to simultaneously express their negative emotions, create a sense of solidarity with their peers, and isolate the teacher. As in L1 classrooms, teachers in the second language classroom traditionally have a higher power status, which places students in a relatively submissive role. This idea is supported and maintained by several factors, including the preference of many instructors for teacher-centered discourse patterns, such as Initiation-Response- Feedback (see Sinclair and Coulthard 1975), sociocultural ideas about traditional teacher roles, and the power disparity that can exist between native and non-native speakers. While silence is often interpreted in the language classroom as lack of understanding, confusion, or embarrassment, it is important to note that, like their native-speaker counterparts, L2 students can intentionally use silence to express noncompliance. Intentional silence is “a genuine choice made by the addressee and may be verbalized through a speech act… e.g. ‘I will not talk’” (Kurzon 1998: 36). It may be the case that high proficiency students are more comfortable using silence in this form because they feel that the discrepancy between themselves and the teacher is smaller, allowing them to justify their immediate negative feelings. King (2013) provides an example in which students in an advanced English class refuse to orally participate following the arrival of a new instructor. The students noticed a drop in the level of the class and interpreted this as an insult to their abilities, even going so far as to talk to the instructor after class about their concerns. One student named Etsuko noted that “…other students were just angry and didn’t say anything about it although they had the ability to talk ((in English))… all they did was to keep silent and say we don’t understand this teacher’s class” (2013: 110). The students’ passive resistance in this context echoes the silence expressed by Gilmore’s students who used silence as a means of managing their emotions in a more socially acceptable way.

3.2 Silence of Disengagement

Learner silence manifesting from boredom or disengagement has traditionally been found in classrooms which employ teacher-centered and lecture-style pedagogical methods. Teachers’ beliefs about language learning play an important role in their Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 329 pedagogical methods and are often intertwined with cultural ideas about learning and teacher roles. In some East-Asian contexts, teachers rely heavily on grammar-translation methods, such as yakudoku, a teacher-centered approach entrenched in the Japanese education system (Gorsuch 1998;Hino1988). These approaches are characterized by a heavy emphasis on lexical and grammatical accuracy, which does little to encourage authentic student speech and are often informed by the nations’ educational systems. A number of Confucian-heritage countries, for example, have curricula based on high-stakes testing, which discourage communicative learning strategies and encourage result-oriented learning (King 2013; McVeigh 2002). These external variables can greatly influence classroom discourse toward a non-participatory state as they tend to rely heavily on IRF discourse structure (Sinclair and Coulthard 1975), which requires minimal student responses to teacher prompts (King 2015a; Yashima et al. 2015). In King’s (2015b) stimulated recall study of silence in a Japanese tertiary English classroom, most of the students’ self-reported silence was due to boredom or disengagement with the class. Even in less student-focused situations, such as whole-class choral drills, many of the students remained silent, suggesting that anxiety was not the most pertinent reason for their reticence. He recalls a particular student, Nao, who admits that during the choral drills, not only was she not listening, she was thinking “‘now is the chance to sleep’, kind of thing… while the teacher was talking, well… it’ll probably be alright” (King 2015b: 136). While physically present, cognitively the student was elsewhere and her speech was “without communicative meaning” (King 2015b: 135). External factors linked to student disengagement, like teacher-centric methods, can also interact with learner-internal traits, further encouraging silent states. Nao relied on silence not only in English, but also in her native language of Japanese. King makes the argument that “inarticulateness in her L1 transfers to her L2 performance,” as she is accepting of silent behaviour and does not see it as deviating from her normal interaction (2015b: 139). While teacher-centered methods are unavoidably linked to disengagement, silences of disengagement can also occur in student-centered environments. In Yashima et al.’s(2015) complexity-informed study of silence in whole group discussions, topic was the primary reason for non-participation, with students commenting that their lack of interest in the topic explicitly helped enable their silence. Correspondingly, students said that when they were more interested in the speech topic they felt more confident responding to peer questions. Yashima and her colleagues note that “the naturally occurring social phenomenon of passing the questions around” was related to topic relevance and interest, which worked together to increase student communication (2015: 120). Another example of social and internal factors working to promote silence is again found in King (2013) in a student named Jiro. On the surface, Jiro’s silence derived mainly from boredom, as he notes that the lesson is always the same, so he prioritizes work in other classes over participating in the English class. However, his silence also manifested from other peer-related external factors, like wanting to show solidarity between his sports club classmates. There, he used a positive politeness strategy to stay silent with other silent members, wishing to maintain 330 L. Smith and J. King membership in this classroom subgroup. This politeness strategy is so called because, in Jiro’s case, he does not know why the other members are silent, but to not cause anxiety or to help them maintain face, he too remains silent. Thus, two seemingly unrelated classroom variables, Jiro’s internal identity as an in-group member and the external teacher-centered pedagogical methods, work to maintain his silent behaviour in the attractor state of silent classroom discourse. Regardless of emotional charge, silent student behaviour emerges due to many interrelated, contextually-bound classroom variables enabling and maintaining silence from moment to moment. Factors in the studies outlined here include learner-internal proclivities for silence, L2 proficiency, processing, and affect, as well as multivariate external factors such as pedagogical methods, socio-political environment, culture, and peer influence. When student silence emerges, it reciprocally affects the factors which led to its emergence in the classroom. In other words, emotions and silence have complex functions within the broader relational network of shared classroom emotions.

4 Student and Teacher Emotions

Emotions that play out in the classroom necessarily impact students’ behavior. As shown above where students use silence as a means of resistance and protest, the emotional behaviour of a few students can affect the whole class. But, how does the emotional behavior of students affect that of the teacher and vice versa? The idea that emotions are socially constructed is key to our understanding of the complex relational networks that exist between teachers and learners. Simply put, emotions are “temporally and relationally rooted in the social situation,” (Denzin 1984: 52) meaning that emotions are learned, felt, and interpreted through social situations. Prior (2015) further exemplifies this conception of emotion when noting that emotions are a “constitutive part of our communicative repertoire and socially shared experiences,” meaning that relationships are largely built on the communication and negotiation of emotional behaviour through these shared experiences (2015: 31). Emotions are certainly not solely social constructions, as a broad body of educational emotion research suggests deeply complex interactions between cognitive, cultural, neurological, and connotative forces at work (Op’t Eynde and Turner 2006; Pavlenko 2005). These emotional forces, however, do not occur within a vacuum and affect observable social interactions from which we can gather empirical data. Social conceptions of emotions are also helpful in illuminating the relational aspects of emotion, particularly in the classroom, where relationships are often distinctly hierarchical and unwavering. Rather than static states, emotions may be viewed as processes (Denzin 1984), which have internal dimensions (i.e. how individuals process emotions) and external dimensions (i.e. how these emotions travel between individuals). If we apply these dimensions to the classroom, we can conceive of the internal dimension as the range of learner or teacher-internal emotions and how these emotions Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 331 manifest within the individual. The external dimension, on the other hand, is how these emotions affect the emotional climate and behavior of the classroom (King and Ng 2018). A classroom’s emotional environment is unavoidably tied to the way teacher and student emotions are perceived. Teachers frequently misinterpret students’ emotional behavior (Hargreaves 2000; Chang and Davis 2009), especially nonverbal communication, as there are no acoustic cues to interpret and teachers rely on accurately recognizing non-verbal emotional cues. Because teachers must depend on interpretative acts to read students’ emotions, it is precisely the teacher’s perceptions of these acts which affect their emotions, whether in line with the actual emotions of the students or not. This idea is related to emotional models which incorporate appraisal and attribution theories of emotions, defining appraisals as broad judgments about the positive/negative nature of situations and attributions as specific judgments about the causes for such events (Frenzel et al. 2009). Frenzel et al.’s(2009) reciprocal model of teacher emotions outlines these ideas as they pertain to the classroom, highlighting the mutual relationships between external behaviours and emotions. Socio-emotional components of student behaviour, such as affective silence, can spur teachers into agitated, anxious, and even angry states, especially because teachers’ appraisals of non-responsive silence tend to be negative, even if there is truly no negative emotion behind the silence. Different cultural backgrounds can at times predicate variations in interpretation, such as in Harumi’s (2011) study of Japanese and English teachers’ perceptions while watching a video of a socially anxious Japanese student who was often silent during class. Whereas Japanese participants perceived the subject as not wanting to stand out, saving face, or waiting for help, the English respondents deemed her bored, rude, and even lazy (Harumi 2011). Here, student silence, or rather the teacher’s interpretation of silence, causes the teacher to have negative emotional responses, which adversely affects the classroom’s emotional environment. Gregersen (2007) studied teachers’ accuracy at recognizing nonverbal behavior resulting from Foreign Language Anxiety and found that, while most of the teachers could identify anxious behavior for high and low anxiety students, recognizing those behaviors for students in the middle of the spectrum was exceedingly more difficult and often overlooked. In short, if a teacher interprets a student’s behaviour as a negative phenomenon it will colour the ways in which they view that student and their future interactions with them. With numerous possible inter-related causes of learner silence, correct interpretation and mitigation of silence by the teacher can become extremely difficult and add greatly to the high emotional burden of teaching.

5 The Emotional Labour of Teaching

Teaching is indeed an emotional profession (Hargreaves 2000; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Zembylas 2007), and good teaching is often associated with “caring,” i.e. the idea that the more a teacher emotionally invests in students, the more successful their teaching and the more fulﬁlled the teacher will feel 332 L. Smith and J. King

(Isenbarger and Zembylas 2006). The constant personal engagement of teachers with students entails high emotional demands in the classroom, as teachers experience a gamut of positive and negative emotions. Emotional labour, or the forced management of emotions to comply with the social norms associated with a profession, has traditionally been studied in service professions, such as airline attendants, cashiers, and restaurant servers, where the display rules (emotional norms) are strict and highly regulated (Hochschild 1983; Zammuner and Galli 2005). Recently, however, the emotional labour of teaching has come into research focus as teachers must similarly manage and present their emotions in appropriate ways in front of students, parents, and administrators (see e.g. King 2016; King and Ng 2018; Acheson et al. 2016). Appropriate is a somewhat ambiguous term, but for many teachers, “getting it just right” (Sutton 2004) or having a temperate classroom environment that is neither too emotional nor too stripped of emotion, can be a professional and personal goal. As previously discussed, however, the shifting emotional states of many individuals create a precarious environment where one learner’s silence can interact with other variables to derail this harmonious, albeit idealistic, classroom. Additionally, a teacher’s emotional knowledge necessarily impacts the pedagogical choices they make, which has quite explicit consequences for the students (Zembylas 2007). So, what happens when emotional management fails, or the emotional demands become too high for the teacher? Stress is the ﬁrst phenomenon which comes to mind when discussing emotional labour, as teaching is widely acknowledged as a high-stress profession (Kyriacou 2001). Teachers often suffer from high stress when they feel negative emotions about an aspect of their job and when they feel that their well-being is threatened. Teachers who are not able to effectively manage these negative emotions often experience great feelings of self-estrangement, leading to emotional dissonance between what is felt and what is performed. The result is often an emotionally detached view of their professional lives, leaving them completely isolated from their personal identities (Hargreaves 2000; Kyriacou 2001; Tsang 2011). Where negative feelings are not mitigated and continue to negatively impact well-being, teachers experience burnout, a phenomenon whereby they cannot continue to manage their emotions in a way which meets institutional expectations (King 2016; Näring et al. 2006;Näring et al. 2012). The implications of teacher burnout and emotional exhaustion (see Acheson et al. 2016) are equally serious for students, potentially leading to decreased student engagement and increased negative student emotion, harkening back to Frenzel et al.’s model (2009), highlighting the reciprocity of classroom emotions and behaviours. It would be misleading to associate emotional labour with only negative emotions. Research has also suggested positive impacts on teacher identity construction if the teacher believes that through their emotional labour students can achieve educational goals (Isenbarger and Zembylas 2006). It can also help students and teachers achieve good interpersonal relationships, especially in socializing young children (Chang and Davis 2009). However, these positive feelings do not always prevail, as abstract goals are difﬁcult to keep in mind when regularly faced with very present and real negative emotions. Positive emotions only overcome the Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 333 negative if teachers are willing to experience negative emotion in order to achieve professional goals, which many teachers, like people in general, are not willing or able to do.

5.1 Mediation for Teachers to Mitigate Affective Silence

Finding emotional regulation strategies for teachers has become a prerogative for educational researchers as the emotional labour of teaching has come into focus. Most strategies focus on teachers’ influence over their own emotions, traditionally with the goal of increasing positive emotions or decreasing negative emotions (Gross 1998). The two most common strategies to achieve these ends are preventative (antecedent-focused) and responsive (response-focused) methods of emotional regulation. As the name suggests, preventative methods try to modify internal feelings (cognitive change, attention deployment) or external situations (selecting/ modifying situations) prior to emotional onset (Sutton 2004). Common preventative strategies include preparing for lessons, thinking about the positive aspects of teaching, and talking to oneself (Sutton 2004; Jiang et al. 2016). Responsive strategies are performed after emotional onset to “intensify, diminish, prolong, or curtail the ongoing emotional experiences, expression or physiological responding” (Gross 1998: 225). Self-talk and deep breathing are common responsive methods, as are exercising or talking to peers after class. These strategies are often used together to cope with the experiential, cognitive, and physiological dimensions of emotional labour. For example, deep breathing may relieve physiological symptoms, while self-talk may provide cognitive relief from emotionally stressing situations. In Jiang et al.’s(2016) study of emotional regulation, they found that preventative strategies were more successful than responsive methods, as students perceived the teachers who used preventative strategies to regularly display positive feelings, like inspiration and happiness, and rarely display negative emotions. Similarly, teachers in King’s(2016) study of emotional labour in L2 Japanese classrooms found that improving knowledge of Japanese socio-cultural norms helped them mitigate negativity about student silence and prepare for silent behaviour. Socio-cultural awareness could be useful in regulating negative emotions by giving a more nuanced view of student conduct and help them mitigate misinter- pretations of that behaviour due to cultural differences (see Harumi 2011). Jiang et al. (2016) also suggest that emotional reappraisal working to up-regulate positive emotions is more effective than suppressing negative emotions, with regard to psychological health. These findings are consistent with Gross’s(1998) research, which notes that while suppression somewhat reduced negative emotions, it did not fully relieve those feelings. Gross (1998) also found that in many cases suppression equally stifled positive emotions. Emotional reappraisal can also tie into other educational goals, such as gaining inspiration from increasing student confidence (Jiang et al. 2016), while suppression often only has one immediate goal: to isolate and dispose of negative emotions. 334 L. Smith and J. King

Related to reappraisal and suppression are the concepts of deep acting and surface acting (Grandey 2000; Hochschild 1983, 1990). In deep acting, teachers actually try to feel institutionally desired emotions, which can be accomplished through use of mental imagery or engaging in self-talk. Conversely, surface acting requires that teachers essentially fake emotions, as they physically display emotions which they do not feel. This phenomenon can add greatly to emotional labour, often encouraging teachers to emotionally distance themselves from their professional identities. In King’s(2016) study of emotional labour of L2 teachers in Japan, he interviews teachers who, in surface acting, distance themselves from their roles as teachers in order to suppress any negative emotions related to teaching. Two teachers likened preparing for teaching to preparing for a performance, while in a more extreme case one instructor admitted to frequently lying to her students about her life. To highlight her disconnection from what occurred in class, she noted that she often “ma[de] up stories about her family to suit the situation” (King 2016: 107). This prolonged depersonalisation and subsequent dissonance can lead to serious psychological consequences, including emotional strain, exhaustion, and burnout (Näring et al. 2006;Näring et al. 2012). Situation modiﬁcation is a common preventative and responsive regulation method in the classroom because it entails teacher control over external factors, such as moving students around. Certain pedagogical methods which help teachers modify situations may also be helpful in mitigating emotional labour. Teachers in Sutton (2004) noted that if they felt unprepared to engage in a difﬁcult lesson, they would adapt the lesson plan to make it easier on the instructor. The methods varied by teacher, from having students do collaborative work to sitting silently at their desks. In King (2016), one teacher applied knowledge of teacher wait time to control negative feelings about student silence. While past literature focuses on the effects of increased wait time on student achievement (e.g. Rowe 1974; Ingram and Elliott 2014), there it provided the teacher with valuable time and cognitive space for reappraisal when faced with student silence himself. It is important to recognise, however, that regulation strategies are a type of emotional behaviour by the teacher and, as such, can interact complexly with student emotional behaviour. Students often pick up on teacher emotions and situationally regulate their own behaviour. If students perceive negativity, they may improve their behaviour to mitigate the teacher’s emotions or, conversely, may try to further provoke the teacher if they sense negative emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003).

6 Conclusion

Student silences and emotion have complex manifestations in the classroom which cannot be easily predicted or mitigated by even the best pedagogical methods. Silences stemming from negative emotional states affect not only those experiencing the emotion, but other classroom participants, both students and teachers alike. The causes of each type of affective silence are difficult to pinpoint because Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 335 silence tends to stem from various co-occurring factors, which neither the teacher nor students have any hope of wholly controlling. However, acknowledging the ecological nature of classroom emotions may help teachers in choosing which methods of emotional regulation work best for their own classrooms. The research reviewed herein emphasizes preventive regulation, but it is equally important for teachers to be familiar with responsive methods, particularly regarding student silence. Even teachers who regularly face silence often have difficulty in adequately preparing for what can be an anxiety-inducing phenomenon, particularly novice teachers. They may also find it difficult not to internalise the silence as a reflection of their pedagogy. Thus, emotional regulation methods should aim to positively influence teacher well-being rather than suppress negative emotions, which risks the deflation of all emotions and subsequent detachment from the teaching profession. This chapter also highlights the subjectivity of a classroom’s emotional state and finds that part of regulation involves awareness of this subjectivity and bias from the outset. We would like to emphasise here the need for further research on emotional regulation in language classrooms, as the factors (cognitive, social, cultural) which contribute to the emotional climate of the L2 classroom can be quite different from those in L1 classrooms. The emotion regulation methods outlined herein are simply a starting point from which teachers can mediate their feelings in response not only to negative affective silences, but to all student emotions encountered in the emotional cauldron of the language classroom. Recommended Readings – Gregersen, T. (2007). Breaking the code of silence: A study of teachers’ non- verbal decoding accuracy of foreign language anxiety. Language Teaching Research, 11(2), 209–221. An intriguing study on a little-researched topic, Gregersen investigates how accurate the trainee L2 teachers in her sample were at spotting whether learners were anxious or not during a speaking test based purely on the students’ body language. – Humphries, S., Burns, A., & Tanaka, T. (2015). “My head became blank and I couldn’t speak”: Classrooms factors that influence English speaking. The Asian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(3), 164–175. In response to difficulties implementing a communicative language teaching approach within EFL classes at Japanese universities, Humphries and his colleagues report on a questionnaire-based study which aimed to explore learners’ perceptions of their capacity to speak during L2 lessons. Based on the findings, a series of classroom-based strategies are provided that teachers can implement to help improve oral participation levels. – King, J. (2013). Silence in the second language classroom. Basingstroke: Palgrave Macmillan. 336 L. Smith and J. King

This book provides a comprehensive overview of L2 classroom silence, exploring the multiple forms, causes and meanings of different silences that can occur during the complex process of learning a foreign language. Linking the psychological to the social, King paints a picture of language learners in Japan for whom in-class emotions and silence are indelibly linked. – King, J. (2016). “It’s time, put on the smile, it’s time!”: The emotional labour of second language teaching within a Japanese university. In C. Gkonou, D. Tatzl, & S. Mercer (Eds.), New Directions in Language Learning Psychology (pp. 97– 112). Dordrecht: Springer. In one of the ﬁrst empirical studies to investigate L2 teacher’s emotions from an emotional labour perspective, King provides an account of the ways in which a group of expatriate English teachers working at a private university in Japan managed their emotions in order to conform to what they deemed were ‘appropriate’ emotional displays for the classroom contexts in which they taught. The chapter also discusses the links between emotional labour, teacher stress and eventual burnout. – King, J., & Smith, L. (2017). Social anxiety and silence in Japan’s tertiary foreign language classrooms. In C. Gkonou, M. Daubney, & J.-M. Dewaele (Eds.), New insights into language anxiety: Theory, research and educational implications (pp. 92–110). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Building upon King’s(2014) study, King and Smith discuss the ways in which psychological and emotional factors interact with both micro and macro-level contextual issues to support the silent behaviour of socially inhibited learners. The chapter includes a cognitive-behavioural model of a silent L2 learner’s social anxiety which illustrates the links between an anxious learner’s thoughts, behaviours and environment, and offers practical suggestions aimed at helping educators reduce social anxiety within classrooms and better understand silence incidents when they occur.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What are some likely factors that contribute to silence among language learners in your own classroom? – Do you normally interpret student silence as a negative phenomenon, and if so, how does that affect your teaching/learning? – When faced with silence, should teachers place more agency on themselves or on their students, and for what reason? – Which (if any) of the emotional management strategies mentioned here do you use or would you likely use in your future teaching? Silence in the Foreign Language Classroom … 337

References

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Author Biographies

Lesley Smith is a Ph.D. candidate in the Linguistics Program at the University of South Carolina. She previously worked as an English language instructor at the University of Notre Dame and for Richland County, South Carolina. She is particularly interested in social anxiety in adult English language learners and in group dynamics in second and foreign language contexts.

Jim King is Lecturer in Applied Linguistics at the Department of English, University of Leicester, UK. Programme Director of MA Applied Linguistics and TESOL courses at the University of Leicester. Before gaining his Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics from the University of Nottingham, Jim taught in various Higher Education, EFL and EAP contexts around the world, including spells in Japan, Australia, Poland, Hungary and Italy. His research interests focus on the issue of silence in education and on psychological aspects of second language learning and teaching. His publications include the 2013 monograph Silence in the second language classroom and the 2015 edited volume The dynamic interplay between context and the language learner, both published by Palgrave Macmillan. Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language Competence and Their Feelings About Collaborative Experiences and Relationships

Arthur McNeill

Abstract There is a general expectation that language teachers need to possess a ﬂuent command of the language they teach in addition to extensive knowledge about the language so that they can teach it as a subject and use it as a medium of instruction. Faced with such high expectations, it is hardly surprising that some L2 teachers may feel anxious and emotional when they reﬂect on their ability to teach their subject, including doubts about their own L2 competence, particularly when working alongside native speaker colleagues. This chapter reports the results of a study of non-native speaker (NNS) and native speaker (NS) university teachers of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). The study tested the teachers’ (n = 50) metalinguistic awareness, then looked in depth at the self-perceived English competence of ten NNS and ten NS teachers and asked them to report on their experience of working together in the same teaching team. While the results showed enormous variation in the metalinguistic knowledge of both groups, there was surprisingly little difference between NNS and NS teachers in their self-perceived competence to teach academic English. Some cultural differences were found to affect collaboration adversely, such as different NNS/NS attitudes towards assessment, communication with senior management and tolerance of ambiguity.

Keywords Teacher language awareness Á Metalinguistic awareness English for academic purposes Á NNST/NST collaboration

1 Introduction

Nowadays, language teachers are encouraged to engage in regular reflection on their teaching. Their students may also be required to reflect on their learning. The culture of reflection in the professions, inspired by the work of Schön(1983, 1987) has undoubtedly heightened language teachers’ awareness of their performance in

A. McNeill (&) The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 341 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_19 342 A. McNeill the classroom. For non-native teachers, this reflection is bound to include some critical self-appraisal of their language competence. It is widely assumed by the relevant stakeholders that language teachers should possess a fluent command of the language they teach in addition to extensive knowledge about the language so that they can teach it as a subject and use it as a medium of instruction. Ideally, language teachers should also possess pedagogical content knowledge, i.e. the ability to teach language content effectively (Andrews 2003;Tsui2003). Faced with such high expectations, it is hardly surprising that some L2 teachers experience anxiety when they reflect on their ability to teach their subject, including doubts about their own L2 competence. In fact, some scholars have argued that non-native teachers may feel linguistically inferior to their native speaker counterparts on account of underdeveloped communicative competence in L2 (Medgyes 1994; Martínez and Robinson 2014). It is important to recognize that English language teaching (ELT) as a discipline has undergone some major changes in recent years, largely in response to the expansion of English-medium education and the growing popularity of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). These two global phenomena have direct implications for the work of L2 teachers and their career preparation and planning. The spread of English-medium education has created a demand for teachers who specialize in academic literacy and the teaching of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). CLIL requires English and content teachers to work together under the umbrella of English-across-the-curriculum. In addition, both EAP and CLIL require English teachers to be sensitive to students’ need for discipline-related language. Apart from the growth of EAP and CLIL, other changes in ELT trends also have implications for teacher education and the competencies of English L2 teachers. These include the expansion of English for young learners, including children attending kindergarten, increasing interest in English in vocational training and changes in modes of delivery, with growing adoption of on-line and blended learning. The above new directions in ELT need to be reflected and anticipated in initial teacher education programs so that trainees are made aware of the new options available to the next generation of English L2 teachers. At least, trainees should be encouraged to think carefully about the type of English teaching career they wish to pursue. A critical self-assessment of their interests, teaching skills and language competence might help teachers to select a career path where they are likely to be successful. To return to the vexed topic of feelings of inferiority on the part of NNS teachers, familiarity with the new career options and their associated skills and competences should allow aspiring teachers to make informed and realistic decisions. This chapter reports the results of a study of NNST/NST collaboration in an EAP context. English language centres and departments at universities around the world typically employ both native and non-native speaker teachers to work in the same team and deliver the same courses. In fact, some Asian countries, notably Japan, Taiwan, Mainland China and Hong Kong SAR, have recently accelerated their recruitment of English native speakers as part of a government strategy to improve language standards in primary and secondary schools. A combination of native and Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 343 non-native teachers within the same team would appear to offer some advantages. For example, non-native teachers might expect to benefit from access to native speaker colleagues’ large mental lexicons and intuitions about accuracy and natu- ralness, while the native speakers might seek local colleagues’ assistance with questions about students’ L1, their learning styles and even formal aspects of the language they teach. However, in spite of the obvious potential for collaboration, working relationships between native and non-native speakers can be strained through misunderstanding, mutual suspicion and lack of clarity about respective roles (e.g. Griffin et al. 2007; Cowie 2011).

2 Models of Collaboration

Variation in collaborative NST/NNST practices is reflected in three models of native speaker English teachers (McNeill and Berry 2005) which are reproduced and discussed briefly here. The types of teacher assumed by the models range from untrained fresh graduates to highly qualified and experienced language professionals. Each model consists of three components: (a) language competence, (b) background, and (c) skills. “Language competence” refers to the type and depth of knowledge of English which the teacher is assumed to possess. “Background” refers to the teacher’s qualifications for being an English teacher, while “skills” refers to personal and professional skills. Model A (Fig. 1) identifies the basic qualities of a native speaker teacher whose main function is to serve as a source of language input and develop students’ socio-cultural knowledge.

Fig. 1 NST as language and culture informant (Model A) Language Competence Implicit knowledge of English

Language and culture informant Skills Background Can modify output Recent experience of Good English-speaking communicaƟon culture skills 344 A. McNeill

As far as language competence is concerned, an implicit knowledge of English may well be sufﬁcient for providing exposure to and information about the language and its culture. However, the teacher is expected to be able to modify his/her language in such a way that learners can understand it. If the teacher is not expected to teach formal aspects of English, such as rules of grammar, lexis and phonology, an explicit knowledge of English may not be required. The teacher in Model A is also expected to have recent experience of living in an English-speaking country so that he/she can provide learners with cultural and socio-cultural knowledge. It is also important that teachers in this category should have good communication skills so that they can engage in effective interaction with students. A higher level of competence is expected of the teacher described in Model B (Fig. 2). In situations where NSTs are employed with a view to bringing about change in a local teaching scene, the pre-requisites are more complex, since the teacher’s role is more demanding. If a NST is expected to introduce change, for example by providing models of good teaching for adoption by local teachers or introducing new teaching approaches, they need to demonstrate their teaching expertise to their hosts. At the level of language competence, they will only command the respect of employers and NNST colleagues if they have explicit as well as implicit knowledge of English. They obviously need to be able to engage in exchange about language learning using appropriate metalanguage and with some awareness of the aspects of English which present challenges to local language learners. They also need to possess professional language teaching qualiﬁcations which are internationally recognised as appropriate for teachers in senior posts. If NSTs are to bring about change, they need to be able to present and discuss their approaches to teaching in an informed way, rather than simply demonstrating their teaching skills. Approaches to teaching which are suitable in one cultural context may not be

Fig. 2 NST as an agent for change (Model B) Language Competence Implicit and explicit knowledge of English

Agent for change

Background Skills Comparative High level of education professional training perspective Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 345

Fig. 3 No NST/NSST Language Distinction (Model C) Competence High levels of English proficiency and metalinguistic awareness

No NST/NNST distinction Background Skills High level of Good teaching skills professional training Knowledge of Ss' L1 Experience relevant to (preferable) the teaching situation.

appropriate in others. NSTs are often employed by institutions in Asia in the hope that they will introduce “western style” approaches to teaching and learning. If NSTs are to be successful in introducing methods and approaches from one educational system into another, they need to be aware of the characteristics of both systems. In other words, they need to have a comparative educational perspective. The two models discussed so far assume that NSTs are a minority group within departments/schools, where the bulk of the teaching is undertaken by local teachers. The third NST model (Fig. 3) is intended to represent teaching contexts where a teacher’s status as a native or non-native speaker is not considered to be important because all the teaching staff possess a very high level of English, together with excellent teaching skills and a developed awareness of second language learning. This type of situation exists, for example, in university language centres, where high professional and linguistic expectations are assumed of all teachers, whether they are English native speakers or not. However, regardless of their native/ non-native status, all the teachers are expected to have a high level of metalinguistic awareness, as well as professional training and experience which prepares them to understand their present teaching situation. Such teachers are also expected to have excellent teaching skills plus, ideally, an understanding of their students’ L1 or, at least, an awareness of the main differences between the learners’ L1 and English.

3 The Study

The study examines perceptions and competencies of NNSTs and NSTs who teach (or were shortlisted for teaching positions) in the same university language centre in Hong Kong, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST). 346 A. McNeill

The proﬁles of all the teachers correspond to Model C (“No NST/NNST Distinction”). In terms of their language competence, the teachers were all expected to possess high levels of English proﬁciency and metalinguistic awareness, irrespective of native speaker status. The study has two parts: (1) The metalinguistic awareness of 50 EAP teachers, and (2) Self-perceptions of ten full-time NNS teachers about their language competence and feelings about collaboration with NS colleagues.

3.1 Research Questions

There are three research questions: 1. What are the main similarities and differences in the metalinguistic awareness of NNS and NS teachers of EAP? 2. How conﬁdent do NNST and NST university English (L2) teachers feel about their English competence for teaching English for academic purposes? 3. What types of NNST-NST collaboration are preferred by university English (L2) teachers?

Part 1: Metalinguistic Awareness of 50 EAP Teachers The subjects are 50 (30 NNST and 20 NST) teachers, all of whom had completed a master’s degree in TESOL or applied linguistics and taught English to advanced learners for at least ﬁve years. About 20% of the sample had also completed a Ph.D. in a language-related discipline. All the teachers were interviewed for teaching positions during the period 2010–2015. When the teachers attended for interview, they were required to take a written Teacher Language Awareness (TLA) test. The TLA Test has the following sections: (a) grammar awareness (including knowledge of grammar terms), (b) grammar error correction and explanation, (c) vocabulary awareness (including knowledge of lexical relations) and (d) vocabulary error correction and explanation. For details of the TLA Test, see Andrews and McNeill (2005). Results The overall scores (and range) are shown in Table 1, while the scores of the four sub-tests are shown in Table 2. Figure 4 is a bar chart representation of the data of Table 2. Table 3 shows the ANOVA results with the scores for Vocabulary Error Correction as dependent variable (DV).

Table 1 TLA test overall Group n M (max = 113) SD Range scores NS 20 85.1 19.0 50–108 NNS 30 74.2 16.5 32–99 Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 347

Table 2 TLA mean scores by sub-test Group n Grammer Vocabulary Awareness Correct errors Awareness Correct errors (max = 30) (max = 30) (max = 23) (max = 30) NS 20 23.6 (4.5) 24.7 (6.0) 16.0 (6.5) 20.8 (7.7) NNS 30 24.3 (4.1) 22.3 (5.1) 13.8 (6.0) 14.4 (5.3)

30 NS NNS 25

0 Grammar Awareness Gr Error Correction Vocabulary Awareness Vocab Error Correction

Fig. 4 TLA mean scores by sub-test

Table 3 ANOVA table Sum of squares DF Mean squares F Sig. Between groups 494.938 1 494.938 12.182 0.0001 Within groups 1990.784 49 40.628 Total 2485.686 50 DV: Scores for Vocabulary Error Identiﬁcation

Discussion Overall, NSTs performed significantly better than NNSTs on the test (t = 2.15, p = 0.034). However, the most striking result is the enormous range of scores within each group, as confirmed by the very large standard deviations (NS = 19, NNS = 16.5). While the scores of a few teachers, both NNS and NS, suggest they have low levels of metalinguistic awareness, other NNS and NS teachers managed to perform well on the test. In fact, the high scores obtained by some NSTs suggest that well qualified and experienced native speaker teachers can possess very high levels of metalinguistic awareness in addition to their implicit knowledge of English. Results of the sub-tests show that the mean scores of NSTs are slightly (but not significantly) higher than those of NNSTs in the two Grammar and the Vocabulary Awareness sections of the test. However, a significant difference was found in the Vocabulary Error Identification subtest [F (1, 49) = 12.182, p < 0.0001]. 348 A. McNeill

Vocabulary size is recognized as one of the main differences between NS and NNS competence in English (e.g. Goulden et al. 1990; Izawa 1993). Using the same methodology to measure the vocabulary size of their respective adult subjects, Goulden et al. concluded that native speakers know about 17,000 words, while Ozawa’s study of Japanese (NNS) university teachers’ English vocabulary concluded that they knew about 7000 words. It is, therefore, not surprising that NSTs can recognize and explain L2 vocabulary errors more accurately than their NNST counterparts. While the finite rules of English grammar can be learned through formal education and are accessible to serious NNS learners, acquiring the 17,000 words of a NST’s lexicon represents a far greater challenge. However, it is worth noting that TLA Vocabulary sub-tests do not specifically measure candidates’ knowledge of low-frequency words, but address lexical awareness in broad terms. Three examples of test items (vocabulary errors) which many NNSTs failed to correct are: a. “All of the information are correct.” (testing point: word grammar) Correct version: All of the information is correct. b. “A stethoscope is a tool used by a doctor.” (testing point: superordinate terms) Correct version: A stethoscope is an instrument used by a doctor. c. “Teachers in our state schools are paid low wages.” (testing point: register). Correct version: Teachers in our state schools are paid low salaries. As the above items suggest, differences between experienced and well qualified NNSTs’ and NSTs’ lexical competence may not be restricted to vocabulary size. They may include knowledge of word grammar, lexical relations such as superordinate terms, and register. Part 2: Self-perceptions of Language Competence and Feelings about NNST-NST Collaboration In this part of the study, the participants (10 NNSTs and 10 NSTs) were asked to reflect on their language competence for teaching English for academic purposes (EAP) and on their preferences concerning NNST-NST collaboration, including any emotional aspects. Since they were all employed as university EAP teachers, it seemed appropriate to base the comparison of perceived language competence on the kind of English knowledge that is required of EAP teachers. Both groups had been successful in the employment interview and TLA test described above. All the teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire about their self-perceived language knowledge and participated in separate (NNST, NST) focus groups to talk about NNST-NST collaboration. Self-perceptions of Language Competence Since the profile of the teachers in the study match Model C above (i.e. no NST/ NNST distinction) and their native speaker status was not relevant to their appointment at the university, it was decided to draw on the British Association of Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes (BALEAP) Competency Framework for Teachers of English for Academic Purposes (BALEAP 2008) in creating the Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 349 self-reflection questionnaire. The framework has long been influential in the quality assurance of EAP courses at universities in UK (Alexander 2013) and is now gaining popularity elsewhere as more and more countries in Europe and Asia introduce English-medium tertiary education. The framework provides a single overall competency statement of an EAP teacher together with statements about individual competencies. The overall statement is reproduced below. An EAP teacher will be able to facilitate students’ acquisition of the language, skills and strategies required for studying in a further or higher education context and to support students’ understanding of approaches to interpreting and responding to the requirements of academic tasks and their related processes. (p. 3) In describing the nature of the EAP teacher’s language competence, the framework highlights academic discourse, which requires teachers to “have a high level of systemic language knowledge including knowledge of discourse analysis”. The descriptors of the ‘academic discourse’ competency were therefore selected for the self-report instrument used in the present study of teachers’ self-perceived language competence (Table 4). This competency is described as requiring knowledge and understanding of the following: “…discourse features and sub-technical vocabulary which would allow teachers to read and make sense of texts without being subject specialists: – grammar and syntax at the level of phrase, clause and sentence – discourse features beyond the sentence – cohesion and coherence – semantics and pragmatics – approaches to text classification, e.g. theories of genre and text type.” (p. 5)

Table 4 Questionnaire for self-perceived language competence for teaching EAP How confident do you feel about your knowledge and understanding of the following features of academic discourse? 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Not very Somewhat Mostly Very confident confident confident confident confident 1: Sub-technical (academic) vocabulary 2: Grammar and syntax at the level of phrase, clause and sentence 3: Discourse features beyond the sentence 4: Cohesion and coherence 5: Semantics and pragmatics 6: Approaches to text classification 350 A. McNeill

It is worth noting that the BALEAP framework addresses a number of competencies in addition to knowledge of academic discourse, such as familiarity with academic contexts and disciplinary differences, and teachers’ personal learning. It also includes understanding of aspects of EAP students’ experience, EAP curriculum development and programme implementation. A more comprehensive study of EAP teachers should ideally take all of these into account. However, since this chapter compares NNSTs’ and NSTs’ self-perceived language competence, only the academic discourse part of the BALEAP framework is included. Results and Discussion The questionnaire results for self-perceived language competence for teaching EAP are shown in Fig. 5. As the results show, there is little difference between the scores of the two groups on most of the questions. Only the responses to Question 5, (“How confident do you feel about your knowledge and understanding of semantics and pragmatics for teaching EAP?”) showed a significant difference between the groups [F (1,19) = 4.245, p <0.05]. It is perhaps not surprising that both NNS and NS teachers felt particularly confident about sentence-level grammar (x̅ = 4.8 for both groups), which is regarded as a pre-requisite for teachers working at all levels. However, both groups also expressed high levels of confidence in their knowledge of sub-technical vocabulary (x̅ = 4.5 for both groups). It was noted above that NNSTs tend to know fewer English words than their NST counterparts (Izawa 1993). However, EAP teachers are particularly concerned with sub-technical or academic vocabulary, since these words occur frequently across different academic disciplines. Sub-technical vocabulary is finite and freely available to teachers and learners in various academic wordlists. For example, Coxhead’s(2000) list contains 570 words, while the more recent academic wordlist compiled by Browne et al. (2013) consists of 960 words. Since EAP teachers tend to pay attention to sub-technical words in their teaching, it is not surprising that the teachers in the study reported high levels of confidence about them. It is worth noting that sub-technical words can be readily understood by educated individuals regardless of their specialisms. However, the extent to which EAP teachers need to be familiar

6 NS NNS 5

0 Subtech Voc Sent Gr Text Gr Cohesion Sem/Prag Classify Text

Fig. 5 NST and NNST self-perceived language competence for teaching EAP Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 351 with the technical vocabulary of their students’ disciplines is still unresolved (McNeill 2018) and not addressed in the present study. In their self-evaluations, both groups of teachers expressed lower levels of confidence in the questions about discourse knowledge, with the possible exception of the question about cohesion and coherence (NS = 4.5, NNS = 4.7). To some extent, this result may be explained by the popularity of cohesive devices in many EAP curricula and teachers’ familiarity with teaching this topic. However, it may indeed be the case that the teachers in the study possess high levels of awareness of how coherence is created in text—beyond the mere use of cohesive devices. The questions about discourse-level grammar and knowledge of semantics and pragmatics received lower scores (discourse-level grammar: 3.8 [NS], 3.4 [NNS]; semantics and pragmatics: 3.9 [NS], 3.4 [NNS]). Since both of these areas are rather abstract, with fewer established ‘rules’ compared with sentence-level analysis, it is to be expected that most teachers would admit to lower levels of confidence about them. A more interesting observation is that both groups of teachers responded in similar ways to these two questions, which may suggest that native speakers do not have any natural advantages in these abstract areas of language analysis and formal study of these areas is required of all language teachers. On the last question about knowledge of text classification, both groups gave almost identical responses (NS = 4.0, NNS = 4.1), which may add support to the above conclusion that native speaker status may not be a factor which determines language competence to teach EAP. The relatively high level of confidence expressed by the teachers may also reflect the popularity of genre-based approaches to teaching English at all levels nowadays. Although the teachers may not be familiar with all the principles of text classification, they probably feel confident about their ability to recognise different genres and state their characteristics. NNST/NST Collaborative Relationships and Experiences In this part of the study, the same ten NSTs and NNSTs took part in separate focus group discussions which explored their feelings about collaborative experiences and relationships with teachers from the other group. In their work context, they were members of various teaching teams, all of which consisted of NS and NNS teachers. When they were appointed to their teaching positions and assigned to a rank (e.g. Lecturer, Senior Lecturer), their native speaker status had not been a factor. In fact, unlike in some other parts of Asia, university language departments and language centres in Hong Kong make no distinction between NS and NNS teachers regarding rank, job title and function. Both can hold appointments at all levels, ranging from Assistant Lecturer to Director/Professor/Department Head. The English teachers in a department or centre are generally a mixture of native and non-native speakers. There is no policy about giving preference to NSTs or NNSTs during recruitment and there are no NST/NNST quotas. However, the various departments and centres assume that their teams will consist of both types of teacher, without official guidelines on how they might best be deployed. In order to gain insights into the feelings of NSTs and NNSTs about collaboration, the focus group discussions were guided by three main questions: 352 A. McNeill

Table 5 Summary of responses to Q1 (list of collaborative activities) Routine (required) activities Participation in: course coordination meetings (curriculum-related) grade standardisation meetings all-staff meetings staff-development events Activities based on individual choice Working in materials-writing task force Collaborating on funded teaching development and research projects Writing academic papers for presentation and publication Mutual classroom observation as ‘critical friend’

1. What collaborative activities do you have with NS/NNS colleagues? 2. What do you most appreciate about working with NS/NNS colleagues? 3. What do you least appreciate about working with NS/NNS colleagues? Probing follow-up questions were asked, as appropriate, to facilitate the discussion and gain a deeper understanding of the participants’ comments, including any emotions associated with working with the other language group. The discussions were tape recorded and analysed in terms of ‘idea units’ with a view to identifying robust underlying themes. Results and Discussion The main collaborative activities are listed in Table 5. The teachers’ likes and dislikes about collaboration with members of the other group are summarized in Tables 6 and 7 respectively. Only likes and dislikes supported by the majority of

Table 6 Summary of NNST comments about NST responses to Q2 (What do you They are more likely to speak up in meetings and challenge most appreciate about senior colleagues working with NS/NNS They provide opportunities to clarify language issues colleagues?) Collaboration is generally effective in small materials-writing teams Working together on teacher development and research projects really brings out the best in all of us We can beneﬁt from their teaching experience in other contexts NST comments about NNST They provide valuable insights into the local education context When we work together in small materials-writing teams, the results are great Collaboration on the same teacher development/research project can be really satisfying Most of them appear to be good at writing test items Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 353

Table 7 Summary of NNST comments about NST responses to Q7 (What do you They waste a lot of time arguing in course coordination least appreciate about meetings working with NS/NNS Some have big egos. They like to boast about their experiences colleagues?) elsewhere NST comments about NNST Some are obsessed with grades and standardisation They assume there is a correct way to do everything; not happy with ambiguity They are too obedient, at least in public the members of a focus group are included. These are listed in descending order of priority. As the details in Table 5 suggest, required collaboration is minimal and largely restricted to formal meetings. Individual teachers have closer relationships with members of the other language group through activities they have opted for such as joint materials writing, collaboration on teaching development and research projects, and peer-reviewing of classroom teaching. An obvious omission from the collaborative activities is team teaching, which has received some support in the NNST/NST literature (e.g. Carless 2006; Carless and Walker 2006). However, some of the complementary roles which have been proposed for NNST and NST colleagues in primary and secondary education may not be appropriate at university level, where all teachers are expected to teach independently. Team teaching may be a more suitable activity for situations represented by Model A (NST as language and culture informant), where NST/NNST working relationships may be more complementary in nature. Before discussing the likes, dislikes and emotions expressed, it is worth remembering that both groups of teachers work in parallel rather than complementary roles. They enjoy the same status within the institution. Their criticism and praise of NS/NNS colleagues tend to be restricted to working styles and educational philosophy. Understandably, therefore, factors such as status, institutional and government policy which have provoked strong negative emotions on the part of language teachers (e.g. McNeill et al. 2004; Cowie 2011; Tran et al. 2017) were not found. The two most frequent observations (i.e. the most positive and the most negative) made by NNSTs about NSTs would appear to be related in meaning: – “They are more likely to speak up in management meetings and challenge senior colleagues.” (positive) – “They waste a lot of time arguing in course coordination meetings.” (negative). Both remarks refer to a perceived cultural feature of NSTs, particularly common in the S.E. Asian context, where westerners are regarded as outspoken. While the outspokenness of NSTs was greeted with feelings of irritation by local colleagues in course coordination meetings because it made the meetings longer, the same 354 A. McNeill outspokenness was welcomed with gratitude in meetings involving the senior management because the NSTs were more likely to address sensitive issues that local colleagues were reluctant to raise in public. A similar mixed message was found in the NST focus group, where an item of praise and item of criticism appeared to be related to the same idea: – “Most of them appear to be good at writing test items.” (positive) – “Some are obsessed with grades and standardisation.” (negative) Assessment of all types (e.g. coursework, examinations, in-class tests) is taken very seriously by teachers, students and parents in Chinese society, so it may not be surprising that NNSTs and NSTs do not always share the same values as far as assessment in language education is concerned. Some NSTs expressed their feelings about the NNSTs’“obsession” with assessment in emotional terms, ranging from mild disappointment to extreme irritation: – “It’s a pity they don’t spend longer making their lessons interesting. Simply threatening students with tests won’t make them interested in learning English.” – “Can’t they see that giving tests all the time doesn’t improve learning?” – “It really pisses me off that they use tests as a means of motivating students.” Another feature which provoked irritation among NSTs was NNSTs’ perceived low level of tolerance of ambiguity. According to Hofstede (2011), the Chinese culture has a high level of “uncertainty avoidance”, which means that ambiguity and uncertain situations can be unbearable. “Uncertainty avoidance’ is one of the six dimensions of Hofstede’s model of national cultures. Western culture, by contrast, is regarded as having a low level of uncertainty avoidance, which means people do not feel as threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situations. Within language education research, Chinese learners’ tolerance of ambiguity has been investigated in relation to its possible negative impact upon L2 acquisition. For example, Wen and Johnson (1997), in their study of Chinese university students’ English learning habits, found that tolerating ambiguity had a positive effect on English achievement. Dewaele and Ip (2013) reported a negative correlation between toleration of ambiguity and levels of anxiety among secondary school students in Hong Kong. Their study concluded that EFL learners who were more tolerant of ambiguity were less anxious during English classes. Dewaele and Wei (2013) even suggest that multilinguals tend to have a higher tolerance of ambiguity compared with mono- or bilinguals. However, the NS teachers in the present study mentioned NNS colleagues’ low tolerance of ambiguity as a factor they least appreciate about collaborating with them. When asked in the focus group discussion for more details of what they meant by “not happy with ambiguity”, they explained that NNS colleagues often sought clariﬁcation of points that NSTs did not believe required it, including questions about English usage. For example, some NSTs admitted feeling irritated when NNS colleagues asked which of two syn- onyms was “better”, when both were perfectly acceptable in the context. They reported that some NNSTs appeared to be excessively concerned about accuracy Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 355 and reluctant to accept that different ways of expressing an idea could be equally valid. It would be interesting to establish whether this observation about ambiguity and Chinese NNSTs also applies to NNSTs from other cultural backgrounds. As Hargreaves (2000) points out, an individual’s emotional experiences develop within their culture:

How people are emotionally is shaped by the emotional experiences they have developed within their culture, through their upbringing and in their relationships with those around them. Organizations and workplaces are prime sites in which adults experience and learn to express their emotions in particular ways. (p. 815) Turning to positive feelings about collaboration identiﬁed in the present study, it was reported that teachers who worked in small mixed (NNST/NST) project groups experienced the most positive emotional experiences. These include collaboration on research projects. Yet research can be a divisive issue for language teachers and institutions. The teachers in the present study were employed as “teaching faculty”, whose contracts do not require them to undertake research. However, they are encouraged by the institution to engage in teaching-related research and may receive funding to present their work at international conferences. It has been reported in the literature that changing language teachers’ terms of employment to require them to undertake research can create negative emotions towards their institutions (Bai and Hudson 2011; Borg and Liu 2013; Tran et al. 2017). Negative emotions, including anger, have also been reported in situations where language teachers resent the low priority they believe some “regular faculty” colleagues attach to teaching since they prefer to spend more time on research (Cowie 2011). Fortunately, the language teachers who engaged in collaborative (NST/NNST) research in the present study did so voluntarily and enthusiastically. They regarded research as an important part of their work which would also help with their career development. It seems obvious from the research experiences mentioned above that institutions need to take special care when addressing the research involvement of language teachers.

4 Implications for Teacher Education

As pointed out in the introduction, ELT has changed considerably during recent years and English teachers now have a wider choice of career paths, including more opportunities to specialize. The study reported in this chapter is based on teachers who teach EAP, which is one of ELT’s areas of expansion in direct response to the world-wide spread of English-medium education and the related demand for language courses that focus on academic literacy. Other major trends that impact upon teacher employment include the integration of language and content subjects (CLIL), English in vocational training, on-line language learning and MOOCs, etc. Globalisation has also affected the teaching of English in primary and secondary schools due to increased student mobility. According to Song (2016), local teachers 356 A. McNeill in Korea have experienced emotional challenges when teaching Korean students returning from study abroad programs with a confident command of English and western-style attitudes. It is important for teacher education programs to provide teachers with the best possible career preparation. Realistically, however, no single program can provide a thorough preparation for a career in all areas of ELT. Nevertheless, more programs need to address the teaching of advanced learners so that teachers are better prepared to teach students of high proficiency, academic literacy and discipline-related English. The more aware trainees are of the different types of English teaching available to them, the easier it should be for them to find their own niche within ELT and start to develop their teacher identity. It is likely that much of the anxiety experienced by both NNSTs and NSTs relates to a lack of understanding of the demands of different types of teaching position. Language teacher education programs need to assume a dynamic rather than static workplace for their graduates. Creating active alumni networks can allow institutions to monitor the career paths of their graduates in the rapidly changing ELT scene and, if necessary, adjustment their curricula. Familiarity with the challenges and compensations of different teaching jobs is likely to allow trainees to match their own strengths and interests against individual job specifications and thus reduce the anxiety caused by misplacement. A practical way for institutions to provide exposure to different areas of language teaching is to include these as elective subjects. Offering practicum and internship opportunities in different education sectors can also be valuable in allowing trainees to experience different language teaching cultures at first hand. There have been recent calls for teacher education programs to address the establishment and reconstruction of professional teacher identity, particularly in relation to NNSTs (Wolff 2015; Lee 2016). Lee’s(2016) study of professional identity formation during a L2 teacher education program found a strong relationship between trainee teachers’ native speaker status and their professional identity formation. Wolff’s(2015) study of a similar group of MA TESOL students also recommends that teacher identity, and identity goals in particular, should be included in L2 teacher education programs. Formal training in professional identity building is to be encouraged in teacher education generally. However, identity building directly related to international careers in language education would also be a welcome addition to undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications in language teaching. As for NNS teachers’ competence in English, most teacher education programs, with the exception of undergraduate degrees, are too short and their curricula too crowded to allow them to make a serious impact upon English proficiency standards. It is probably more realistic to set appropriate minimum English entrance requirements. However, programs can and should address metalinguistic awareness, so that teachers learn how to talk about and analyse language in an authoritative manner. It goes without saying that workplace communication between NNSTs and NSTs will be improved if both parties are competent users of metalanguage. Ideally, NNSTs should also be proficient users of the language they Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 357 teach. However, there does not appear to be conclusive evidence that supports the placing of NNSTs under pressure to demonstrate a minimum L2 proficiency level upon exit from a teacher education program. Coniam and Falvey (2013) reviewed the first ten years following the introduction of the controversial Hong Kong Language Proficiency Assessment for Teachers of English (LPATE), which requires English teachers working in primary and secondary schools to meet its Level 3, which equates with IELTS 6.5, and reached the following cautious conclusion:

Although there is no hard evidence yet that English language teachers’ standards have risen (Drave 2006), it is likely that LPATE has had some effect in part, because of the necessity for non-English majors to establish their competency, in part because of the requirement for all teachers of English to be degree holders and reach required minimum standards (which has had a substantial, positive effect on the primary sector in particular), and also in part through the loss to the profession (through attrition, retirement, personal decision, etc.) of teachers whose English may have been less than optimal. (p. 153)

5 Conclusion

This chapter has examined aspects of teachers’ L2 competence and NNST/NST collaborations within the context of EAP teaching at a university. The data reported in the study confirmed that large individual differences are to be found within NNSTs and NSTs in terms of their metalinguistic awareness, with some teachers of both groups demonstrating outstanding levels of knowledge about language, while other members of both groups performed poorly. Yet, in terms of self-perceived language competence for teaching EAP, only small differences were found between NNSTs and NSTs. So, in the EAP context at least, there is no justification for favouring either native speaker or non-native speaker teachers in employment decisions, provided all match the teacher profile of Model C. The study also gathered generally positive reports by both NNSTs and NSTs about their experience of mutual collaboration in the workplace, particularly in small-scale projects with voluntary participation. However, NNSTs reacted ambivalently to NSTs’ perceived outspokenness, expressing irritation when it caused routine meetings to over-run and gratitude when it challenged the senior management on sensitive issues. NSTs also reacted with negative emotions to two perceived cultural characteristics of their Chinese colleagues: the low level of tolerance of ambiguity and the high priority attached to assessment in education. Studies of NNSTs and NSTs working together in other settings are urgently required so that we can identify context-specific factors that can enhance and undermine collaboration. Research is also required into the ways in which emotions are communicated in different workplaces involving NNSTs and NSTs. 358 A. McNeill

Recommended Readings – Gkonov, C., Daubrey, M., & Dewaele, J.-M. (Eds.). (2017). New insights into language anxiety: theory, research and educational implications. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. This recent edited volume provides an updated perspective on the role of anxiety in L2 learning. Anxious NNSTs may find the third section of the book of special interest, since it deals with the coping strategies of learners who experience language anxiety. – Hyland, K., & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002). EAP: Issues and directions. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1(1), 1–12. This article appeared in the inaugural edition of the Journal of English for Academic Purposes. It identifies the key issues that concerned EAP at the time and sets directions for the subsequent development of the discipline. – Morgan, B., & Clarke, M. (2011). Identity in second language teaching and learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 817–836). New York: Routledge. The above chapter provides a broad discussion of identity in language learning and teaching. The authors attach special attention to context and the ways in which socio-economic and socio-political changes impact upon the ways in which teachers’ identities are constructed in professional settings. – Svalberg, A. (2012). Language Awareness and language learning and teaching: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 45(3), 376–388. This article follows on from Svalberg’s (2007) state-of-the-art paper on Language Awareness (LA) and language learning and proposes directions for LA research. Her overall argument is that research is needed into how LA is constructed by language learners and teachers through engagement with language. The need for research which recognizes the complexity of the language classroom is also highlighted. – Wong, L. T., & Wong, W. L. (Eds.). (2018). Teaching and learning English for academic purposes: Current research and practices. New York: Nova Science Publishers. The above volume provides an up-to-date, global perspective on current practices in EAP in different parts of the world. The chapters consist of theory-based and research-based papers that reflect issues which concern EAP teachers in various countries.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – Imagine you are asked to prepare briefing materials for a new native speaker teacher who is to join your department. What information would you provide to help the new teacher to assimilate successfully and collaborate well with the other teachers in the team? Assume the new teacher is experienced and well qualified, but has not worked in your country before. Native and Non-native Teachers’ Self-perceived Language … 359

– How does your own experience of NSST/NST collaboration compare with the activities reported in Table 5? Are there other collaborative activities you would recommend? – What steps would you take to improve the working relationship between NSTs and NNSTs in a department/school you are familiar with? Give reasons for your decisions. – How satisfied are you with your own competence in the language you teach? Are there any areas you would like to improve? To what extent do the areas you identified affect the quality of your teaching? – What would you do if students told you they were dissatisfied with the language competence of one of your colleagues? – In your opinion, what is the ideal balance between native and non-native speaker teachers in a department/school. Give reasons.

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Author Biography

Arthur McNeill is Director of the Center for Language Education and Associate Dean of Humanities and Social Science at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. He was formerly Head of the Education Department at Asian University, Thailand and Head of TESOL at Edinburgh University’s School of Education. His academic interests include vocabulary acquisition, teacher language awareness and English for academic study. He recently co-edited Working Memory in Second Language Acquisition and Processing (Multilingual Matters) and co-authored the on-line course, English for Academic Study (Epigeum/OUP). He holds a Ph.D. in applied linguistics from the University of Wales, UK. Part VI Emotionality in Second Language Teacher Education Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL in the Practicum Setting: Facing the Emotional Dilemmas and Challenges Associated with Professional Practice

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo and Gabriele Azzaro

Abstract Since L2 teaching, like all teaching, is an emotionally intense practice and the fact that emotions in the learning-to-teach experience have often been ignored by teacher educators (Golombek and Doran in Teaching and Teacher Education 39, 102–111, 2014), the present study explores various aspects of the emotional life of student teachers during the practicum experience relating to their emotional responses, tensions, dilemmas and challenges associated with professional practice. Although research into teachers’ emotionality has been conducted mostly in the field of teacher education, surprisingly little is known about the role of emotions in learning to teach and about how student teachers’ emotional experiences relate to their teaching practices, how they regulate their emotions and their relationships with students (Sutton and Wheatley in Educational Psychology Review, 15(4), 327–358, 2003). A quantitative as well as qualitative research design was employed to better identify and understand EFL student teachers’ observations, reflections and interpretations of their own emotional responses and/ or experiences. Findings reveal that the informants experience a wide variety of pleasant and unpleasant emotions ranging from passion, enthusiasm, enjoyment, satisfaction and happiness to uncertainty, insecurity, anxiety, disappointment, anger, frustration, boredom and burnout. The factors influencing such emotional responses and/or experiences are also discussed in this study. Finally, the chapter concludes with implications for teacher education and future research directions.

Keywords EFL student teachers Á Learning to teach Á Emotional dilemmas and challenges Á Practicum setting

J. de D. Martínez Agudo (&) Department of Didactics of Languages, Faculty of Education, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain e-mail: [email protected] G. Azzaro (&) Department of Human Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 365 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_20 366 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro

1 Literature Review

Despite the fact that emotion1 is a mysterious human phenomenon that has puzzled us for centuries (Chen 2016), it is a fact that educational researchers mainly focused on the cognitive dimension and thus neglected the area of emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Certainly, emotions have been ignored or scarcely mentioned in research literature, in part because they have been seen as subjective, irrational and hard to capture (Benesch 2012), as being out of control (Postareff and Lindblom-Ylänne 2011) or also as inexplicable for not being directly observable (Fried 2011). Additionally, since emotions are individual and unique as well as context-dependent, they cannot be measured objectively either (Zembylas 2003;Xu 2013; Fried et al. 2015). Needless to say, such overemphasis on the mind, cognition and rationality has left aside the consideration of human emotions for a long time (Uitto et al. 2015). However, it appears that as important as the so-called rational aspects are, emotions which are at the heart of the teaching-learning process serve as a powerful influence for enhancing or inhibiting learning and teaching (Hargreaves 1998, 2001; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Zembylas 2003;O’Connor 2008; Fried et al. 2015; Chen 2016). Emotions have been recently explored from the emotional intelligence perspective where human cognition and emotion are inseparably linked and interact with one another (Goleman 1995). Since emotions and cognitions are all intertwined in the complex reality of teaching (Nias 1996), Golombek and Doran (2014: 105) made it clear that “Emotion, cognition, and activity continuously interact and influence each other, on both conscious and unconscious levels, as teachers plan, enact, and reflect on their teaching”. While teacher cognition is mainly concerned with understanding “what language teachers think, know, believe, and do” (Borg 2003: 81), Golombek and Doran (2014), however, rightly pointed out in this sense that what teachers feel about what they think, know, believe, and do is noticeably absent from the definition of cognition. Certainly, teachers’ feelings and their relationships with what they do have not in fact received much attention in the literature so far (Nguyen 2014), although it is widely believed that teachers’

1Although affect and emotion are usually used synonymously in the research literature, the term affect is generally employed as an umbrella term which includes other affective states besides emotions. Overall, emotions have been viewed as complex and difficult to understand and, thus, define (Fried et al. 2015). Beyond traditional cognitive conceptualizations of emotions (Benesch 2012) and since there is an ongoing debate on the multifaceted nature of emotions, we see that defining what exactly is meant by emotion is still challenging and not straightforward. While emotion has been defined as “socially constructed, personally enacted ways of being that emerge from conscious and/or unconscious judgments regarding perceived successes at attaining goals or maintaining standards or beliefs during transactions as part of social-historical contexts” (Schutz et al. 2006: 344), Salovey et al. (2008: 535) described emotional intelligence as “the ability to perceive and express emotions, to understand and use them, and to manage emotions so as to foster personal growth”. Aside the aforementioned complexities involved in the conceptualization of emotions, the measurement of such emotions is also equally challenging (Zembylas and Schutz 2016). Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 367 cognitions and emotions strongly influence how they teach (Golombek and Doran 2014). Overall, research in language teacher education unconsciously seems to reinforce the Cartesian dualism that privileges cognition and marginalizes emotion, as suggested by Golombek and Doran (2014). In relation to this, Schutz and Zembylas (2009: 19) concluded that “there is often an underestimation of the complexity of teaching: teaching is often perceived as a rational activity, but the emotional complexity of teaching is neglected”. Rationalist intellectual tradition has been challenged by a great deal of research which, as Golombek and Doran (2014) stated, has emerged in the past two decades addressing the centrality of emotions in teachers’ lives (Nias 1996; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Schutz and Zembylas 2009), approaching this research area from a wide range of perspectives (philosophical, physiological, psychological and sociological) which have provided helpful insights into the multifaceted nature of human emotions in general. Since the late 1990s, educational science has been experiencing an affective turn (Hargreaves 1998; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014), attracting increased attention in recent years due, among other factors, to an emotional revolution in psychology (Sutton and Wheatley 2003), thereby exploring the marginal role of emotions as well as those unknown areas of teacher emotionality (Schultz and Zembylas 2009). Perhaps such increasingly emerging interest in teacher emotions in educational research in the last few years may be motivated or attributed to the widely-held assumptions that teaching in general is described as ‘an emotional practice’ (Hargreaves 1998; Keller et al. 2014) and that the classroom in particular is ‘an emotional place’ (Corcoran and Tormey 2012; Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014). Certainly, the last decades have witnessed an emerging interest in teacher emotion in general education, emphasizing the value and role of such emotions in teachers’ professional work and lives (Hargreaves 2001; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Keller et al. 2014; Pekrun and Linnenbrink-García 2014; Uitto et al. 2015; Fried et al. 2015; Chen 2016). Overall, research conducted to date has explored the relationship between teacher emotions and a wide variety of aspects of classroom life (Fried et al. 2015). Teachers’ emotions are viewed as one of the essential aspects in professional learning as well as professional identity development (O’Connor 2008; Timoštšuk and Ugaste 2012; Schutz and Lee 2014; Reis 2015; Yazan and Peercy 2016). Generally, most studies of teacher emotion mainly converge on the following four issues (Xu 2013): broad ideas of teacher emotion such as burnout and stress; teacher emotion and professional identity construction in educational reforms; teacher emotion and social relationships; and teacher emotional competence and regulation. No doubt, emotions constitute a key dimension in teachers’ professional work and lives (Schutz and Zembylas 2009). Since emotions abound in classrooms (Frenzel et al. 2016) and are inherent to the nature of the teaching profession, teaching is thus described as a highly emotional profession (Hargreaves 2001; Keller et al. 2014). Given the uncertain and unpredictable nature of teaching, which is also viewed as a complex and multidimensional process, teachers as emotional beings do experience a variety of pleasant and unpleasant emotions associated with 368 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro teaching ranging from passion, enthusiasm, enjoyment, happiness and satisfaction to uncertainty, insecurity, disappointment, frustration, anxiety, anger, boredom and burnout, all of which may somehow affect classroom climate and, thus, the quality of education (Nias 1996; Hargreaves 1998). In fact, emotions such as stress, frustration, anxiety and burnout have been the focus of numerous research studies (Horwitz 1996; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Mousavi 2007; Keller et al. 2014). Certainly, teachers respond to emotional processes and situations in many different ways in the classroom and such emotional responses, as Šarić (2015) claimed, can be impulsive and intuitive (and, as such, unconscious and automatic and thereby not necessarily adequate) but can also be emphatic and thoughtful and thus lead to a better quality of teaching. Regarding the multi-componential, multi-faceted, dynamic and contextualized nature of teachers’ emotions, Frenzel et al. (2015) concluded that teacher emotions, like other human experiences and behavior, are determined by both personality and situational factors. Although emotions are generally seen as something solely private or internal, it emerges that emotions should also be explored from a sociocultural perspective as they are socially constructed (Zembylas 2003) and/or context-dependent (Chen 2016). In other words, emotions are influenced not only by teachers’ individual reality but also by their social interactions with others and the surrounding culture (see Nias 1996; Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Overall, Fried et al. (2015) identified the following complexities of teacher emotion: – emotions evolve over time (e.g. Zembylas 2003; Meyer and Turner 2006), – are individual or unique (e.g. Hargreaves 1998; Zembylas 2003), – context specific (e.g. Meyer and Turner 2006) and – multi-componential (e.g. Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Since the advent of the critical turn in Applied Linguistics and TESOL, as Benesch (2012) claimed, researchers have addressed previously ignored issues from a critical theoretical perspective such as the multidimensional role of emotions in language teaching and learning which has been left largely unexplored in the research literature to date (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Certainly, as Benesch (2016: 1) recognized, “an affective turn may be underway in applied linguistics (Pavlenko 2012)”. Due to the ever-changing nature of education, L2 teaching, like all teaching, involves an emotionally intense practice or experience, an emotional effort, or rather a complex process charged or saturated with a wide variety of emotions which can be positive or negative and also expected or unexpected (Schutz and Zembylas 2009). The importance of understanding the complex relationship between teachers’ emotions and their instructional practices is highlighted in some recent publications of TESOL (Cowie 2011;Xu2013; Golombek and Doran 2014; Reis 2015; Yazan and Peercy 2016; Benesch 2012, 2017). Specifically, research into teacher emotion in TESOL is mostly concerned with the anxieties that non-native English teachers experience due to their possible language deficiencies (Horwitz 1996) as well as stress or burnout of language teachers Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 369

(Mousavi 2007). As a matter of fact, teacher emotionality still remains a relatively unexplored and unrecognized research area in TESOL (Benesch 2012, 2017). Emotions in the learning-to-teach experience have been until recently almost entirely ignored in teacher education (Bullough 2009; Golombek and Doran 2014). In their review of the then limited research on teachers’ emotions, Sutton and Wheatley (2003) argued that researchers know surprisingly little about the role of emotions in learning to teach and about how student teachers’ emotional experiences affect their instructional practices, among other issues. Over the past few years attention has been directed toward the role of emotions in learning to teach (Nias 1996; Hargreaves 2001; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Bullough 2009; Uitto et al. 2015; Yazan and Peercy 2016). Certainly, the spectrum of academic emotions reported in the literature is so varied that it allows us to get a clear idea of the emotional landscape of student teachers. In relation to this, Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012) made it clear that the context of learning to teach may evoke different emotions among student teachers, while positive emotions (enjoyment and happiness) involve pleasure and personal satisfaction, negative emotions (disappointment and anxiety), in contrast, lead to powerlessness, frustration and insecurity. Johnson (1996) and Numrich (1996) found that student teachers experienced frustration during the language teaching practicum when facing all teaching requirements. Similarly, Nguyen (2014) reported that student teachers experienced negative emotions such as disappointment, frustration, anxiety and intimidation as a result of the multiple contradictions within the practicum setting. In the same vein, Keller et al. (2014: 72) also reported that candidate teachers seem to experience higher levels of anxiety, “especially when they feel unprepared for teaching and are overwhelmed by the demands of their job”. In this regard, Abou-Assali (2015) made it clear that such emotions can substantially vary depending on how student teachers actually perceive the dilemmas and challenges they often face when teaching. In short, learning to teach and becoming a teacher is an emotionally intense experience but also complex and uncertain due to the unpredictable nature of classroom situations (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). In fact, Anttila et al. (2016) recognized that many candidate teachers may experience an ‘emotionally loaded reality shock’ when they enter the profession. Needless to say, most student teachers enter the teaching profession with great enthusiasm, passion and commitment to give their best to facilitate the learning of their students (Zembylas and Schutz 2009). During the practicum teaching experience student teachers perform a duality of roles (teaching in schools as prospective teachers but also learning as students) which will create a situation of uncertainty and stress, as stated by Abou-Assali (2015), because prospective teachers are also expected to learn the art of teaching in real teaching environments, thus learning to assume the new challenges and responsibilities required by each role. Overall, student teachers’ main concerns and challenges focus on areas such as matching theory with practice and teaching ability and performance (Poulou 2007). Specifically, one of the central practicum issues is the discrepancy or mismatch between the formal training received at the university and the classroom reality in schools (Nguyen 2014) as student teachers often 370 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro experience contradictions between what is actually expected—what they want to happen in the classroom—and what actually happens and, accordingly, such challenges and contradictions may generate some emotional dissonance (Golombek and Doran 2014). In this respect, Farrell (2007, 2008) advocated the need for aiding student teachers to transfer knowledge of theory into practice. In short, while student teachers’ practicum-related concerns and challenges are a thoroughly explored research area in the teacher education research literature (Farrell 2003, 2007, 2008; Poulou 2007; Nguyen 2014; Martínez 2016), it is a fact that further exploration must be devoted to student teachers’ emotional experiences in the practicum setting, which is a relatively unexplored research terrain (Abou-Assali 2015). Perhaps the greatest failure or weakness in teacher education programmes has been that of not preparing student teachers sufficiently for the emotional demands, dilemmas and challenges of the teaching profession. Hence, researchers like Sutton and Wheatley (2003), Poulou (2007), Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012), Uitto et al. (2015) and Fried et al. (2015) advocated the need for understanding the complexity of teacher emotions as well as emotional processes that arise in the classroom so as to improve the quality of teacher education and, thus, prevent teacher dropout and burnout. Overall, research concludes that teachers as rational professionals need to understand the emotional dimension of their job, recognizing and managing their own emotions as well as becoming more aware of their students’ emotions in order to be able to provide a suitable emotional climate in the classroom (Hargreaves 1998; Madalinska-Michalak 2015; Chen 2016). Hargreaves (1998) in fact reminds us that teachers need to understand how their own emotions affect the quality not only of their teaching experiences but also of their own students’ learning experiences. This is perhaps the crux of the matter. As is evident, all this poses a great challenge for teacher education and professional development. For this reason, researchers like Madalinska-Michalak (2015) and Chen (2016) acknowledged the need to integrate emotional education and/or emotional competencies in the context of teacher education and professional development programmes so as to be able to face and manage the emotional pressures and challenges associated with professional practice in emotionally demanding working environments. In order to do so, student teachers need to be trained with adequate emotion regulation strategies (Keller et al. 2014). In relation to this, Fried (2011) suggests the need to train teachers to face the emotional demands of the classroom itself but also in relation to students, colleagues and parents. From the perspective of teacher education, Golombek and Doran (2014) concluded that teacher educators need to respond to the intense and often conflicting emotions student teachers face in their initial teaching experiences in the classroom because they are in a vulnerable position, facing the reality of teaching for the first time, attempting to overcome the emotional demands of classroom teaching experiences and situations. Needless to say, emotional education needs to be integrated into the discussions on teacher education because of its relevance and influence. Lastly, since teaching involves much Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 371 more than technical competence or pedagogy (Hargreaves 1998), further attention must centre on human interaction in general and emotional understanding in particular (Hargreaves 1998, 2001; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Chen 2016).

2 Research Aims

Given our limited understanding of the intricacies and complexities of teachers’ emotional lives and the emotional processes that arise in the classroom (Keller et al. 2014; Frenzel et al. 2015) as well as the practically inexistent research into L2 teachers’ emotions in educational contexts (Benesch 2012, 2016, 2017; Schutz and Lee 2014), our intention here is to gain a better understanding of the spectrum of emotions experienced by EFL student teachers in learning to teach in the practicum setting as well as the triggers for such emotions. Certainly, the role of emotions during ﬁrst experiences of classroom teaching still remains unclear. Additionally, little or no research has been conducted into the causes and consequences of teacher emotions in educational settings. Accordingly, we aimed to address the following research questions: RQ1 What emotions associated with professional practice do EFL student teachers generally experience when learning to teach during practicum experience? RQ2 What factors may trigger EFL student teachers’ varied emotional responses and experiences in the practicum setting?

3 Method

Considering the multidimensionality and context-specificity of teacher emotions as well as their subsequent dynamic and fluctuating nature (Frenzel et al. 2015), this paper adopts a quantitative and qualitative research design so as to gain a better understanding of the impact of student teachers’ emotionality in the practicum setting. Overall, research into teachers’ emotions has been predominantly qualitative (in-depth case studies, teacher diary studies, retrospective self-reports, video recording, stimulated recall interviews) (see Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Corcoran and Tormey 2012; Keller et al. 2014). Based on the current lack of empirical evidence regarding more ecologically valid assessments of teacher emotions, we employed, like Becker et al.’s(2015) and Frenzel et al.’s(2015) studies, a diary approach as data collection instrument to capture and assess student teachers’ emotional experiences and challenges during their teaching practices as well as examining the factors influencing such emotions. Through their subjective descriptions in a reflection diary (Frenzel et al. 2015) we were able to access and explore their emotional minds and histories. Overall, qualitative self-reports provide highly helpful sources of information with regard to how people perceive and interpret situations (Frenzel et al. 2015). 372 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro

In addition to the questionnaire employed, insightful data were also collected from responses to open-ended questions and from semi-structured interviews so as to deepen our understanding of student teachers’ lived emotional processes and experiences in the practicum setting.

3.1 Research Context and Participants

The English language teacher education programme conducted at the University of Extremadura in Spain offers two 14-week teaching practicum placements. This research study was carried out during the second practicum placement in the last semester of the Degree studies from February to May 2016. Diverse Spanish primary schools (both private and public) were the site of the practicum under research. Participants in this study were 30 EFL student teachers from the ﬁnal year of a four-year undergraduate programme in a Spanish university. The majority of the research participants (70%) were female. Their age ranged from 20 to 37 with a mean age M = 22.86% and with an average of 3.5 months of teaching experience as student teachers during their ﬁrst practicum placement in the third semester of the degree. Finally, it should be made clear that all the participants consented to contributing to the research voluntarily and anonymously.

3.2 Data Collection Instrument and Procedure

Since there exist very few quantitative studies focusing on student teachers’ emotional experiences, the Teacher Emotion Scale (TES) by Frenzel et al. (2016) was employed in this study to measure those emotions considered most relevant and frequent in the context of teaching such as enjoyment, anger and anxiety. Overall, this self-report instrument is aimed at retrospectively assessing student teachers’ traits or habitual emotions related to teaching. In support of the empirical ﬁndings from the questionnaire, the last part of the survey also included several open-ended questions to gather additional qualitative data on the spectrum of academic emotions experienced and reported by the participating student teachers as well as the triggers for such emotions so as to give a deeper understanding of student teachers’ emotions in the practicum setting. It needs to be made clear that such open-ended questions were not originally included in the TES by Frenzel et al. (2016) and consisted of: 1. How do you generally feel during your practicum experience? 2. Which of the following emotions from the list do you experience more frequently during your practicum experience? Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 373

3. What classroom aspects and/or situations generate positive emotions in the practicum setting? What makes you feel good in the classroom and in the school, and why? 4. What classroom aspects and/or situations generate negative emotions in the practicum setting? What makes you feel bad in the classroom and in the school, and why? In this research, data were gathered from the participants’ self-reporting observations. As they embarked on their initial teaching experience in TEFL, the participating student teachers were asked to describe and reflect on those emotional aspects associated with their learning-to-teach experience in the practicum setting as well as their impressions and reactions to their teaching. Data were also collected through several semi-structured interviews which elicited their reflections on the emotional experiences in the practicum setting as well as on the triggers for such emotional processes. In this research, data from stimulated recall interviews and the observations and/ or comments written in their reflection diaries as well as the responses from open-ended questions were transcribed and analyzed by means of content analysis which involved a close analysis of transcripts with attention to the content of the data and, thus, allowed open-coding, construction of categories, identification of general themes and interpretation of the most frequently mentioned responses.

3.3 Results and Discussion

The findings are discussed in relation to the research questions raised above. Overall, the main focus of the analysis was exclusively on the spectrum of academic emotions experienced and reported by the student teachers as well as on the triggers for such emotions in the practicum setting. Descriptive statistics is displayed in Table 1. Perhaps the results are better illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows the student teachers’ degree of agreement or disagreement concerning those aforementioned emotions considered most relevant in the context of teaching. Quantitative Results Our first research question asked what emotions associated with professional practice EFL student teachers generally experience when learning to teach during their practicum experience. In order to be able to address such question, the Teacher Emotion Scale (TES) by Frenzel et al. (2016) was employed as well as a list of potential emotions considered most relevant in an educational context. By way of clarification, Frenzel et al. (2016) pointed out that the semantic field for enjoyment contains joy, fun, happiness and enthusiasm; in contrast, angry, annoyed, mad and frustrated make reference to anger and lastly, anxiety involves being nervous, tense, worried and uneasy. 374 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro

Table 1 Descriptive statistics concerning EFL student teachers’ enjoyment, anger and anxiety Strongly disagree Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly agree Total (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Statement 1. I generally enjoy teaching 0.00 0.00 0.00 53.33 46.67 100.00 Statement 2. I generally have so much fun teaching that I gladly prepare and teach my lessons 0.00 0.00 6.67 33.33 60.00 100.00 Statement 3. I often have reasons to be happy while I teach 0.00 0.00 0.00 60.00 40.00 100.00 Statement 4. I generally teach with enthusiasm 0.00 0.00 0.00 53.33 46.67 100.00 Statement 5. I often have reasons to be angry while I teach 23.33 53.33 16.67 6.67 0.00 100.00 Statement 6. I often feel annoyed while teaching 63.33 30.00 6.67 0.00 0.00 100.00 Statement 7. Sometimes I get really mad while I teach 33.33 26.67 30.00 10.00 0.00 100.00 Statement 8. Teaching generally frustrates me 63.33 30.00 6.67 0.00 0.00 100.00 Statement 9. I generally feel tense and nervous while teaching 20.00 46.67 30.00 3.33 0.00 100.00 Statement 10. I am often worried that my teaching isn’t going so well 0.00 6.67 33.33 53.33 6.67 100.00 Statement 11. Preparing to teach often causes me to worry 6.67 33.33 33.33 26.67 0.00 100.00 Statement 12. I feel uneasy when I think about teaching 40.00 53.33 3.33 3.33 0.00 100.00

Based on the criteria of relevance and frequency of these three emotions considered most relevant in the context of teaching as suggested by Frenzel et al. (2016), the results of this study revealed that enjoyment (or happiness) is certainly considered the most salient positive emotion among student teachers, as reported by the research literature (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). All the respondents recognized that they generally enjoyed teaching, feeling happiness and enthusiasm and, thus, having fun when teaching in classes. Unlike what is documented in qualitative and narrative research on teachers’ emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003) in which anger proves to be the most prominent negative emotion for teachers, in this study, in contrast, the participating student teachers reported not experiencing any emotion related to anger such as feeling angry, annoyed or frustrated. One possible convincing explanation for this is their lack of teaching experience. Anxiety (namely, worries) becomes, as Poulou (2007) recognized, the most prevalent negative emotion for student teachers who usually experience such Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 375

Fig. 1 Student teachers’ emotions about EFL teaching negative emotion mainly because of the complexity of teaching and the uncertain or unpredictable nature of classroom situations (Sutton and Wheatley 2003), which suggests that anxiety is somehow related to the lack of teaching experience. Such uncertainty may also lead to insecurity in their teaching ability. In this study, we can see how 60% of the participating student teachers expressed worries about their teaching performance in the class. Besides the original three emotions (enjoyment, anger and anxiety) investigated by Frenzel et al. (2016) in their survey, student teachers experience many other emotions as well. Thus, they were also presented a list of potential emotions we consider most relevant in an academic context and they were asked which of these emotions (both positive and negative) they have experienced more frequently during their practicum experience (at least 5 of each category). Table 2 displays the percentages of participants reporting such emotions ordered according to the frequency of occurrence. As can be seen in Table 2, the most-often reported positive emotions were satisfaction, enjoyment (or happiness) as well as love and affection for the pupils. Concerning negative emotions, insecurity, anxiety and fear were most reported. Student teachers reported, surprisingly, experiencing more insecurity than anxiety, followed by fear in third place. One possible convincing explanation for this lies in their lack of teaching experience. However, while other discrete positive emotions such as enthusiasm, pride, conﬁdence and empathy were reported, in contrast, negative emotions including shame, powerlessness, frustration, stress/burnout and loneliness were also mentioned with less frequency. In short, the results revealed that student teachers experienced a variety of emotions during their practicum experience, ranging from satisfaction and enjoyment to insecurity and anxiety. 376 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro

Table 2 Proportional frequencies of occurrence of emotions Positive emotions % Negative emotions % participants participants 1st Satisfaction 89.28 1st Insecurity 75.00 2nd Enjoyment (happiness and 82.14 2nd Anxiety (nervousness 53.57 enthusiasm) and worry) 3rd Love and affection 67.85 3rd Fear 42.85 4th Pride 42.85 4th Shame 35.71 5th Conﬁdence 25.00 5th Powerlessness 35.71 6th Empathy 25.00 6th Frustration 35.71 7th Comfort 17.85 7th Stress and burnout 28.57 8th Intimacy 17.85 8th Loneliness and isolation 21.42 9th Surprise 10.71 9th Boredom 17.85 10th Admiration 10.71 10th Sadness 17.85 11th Gratitude 10.71 11th Disgust 10.71 12th Relief 3.57 12th Disappointment 10.71 13th Surprise 10.71 14th Guilt 7.14 15th Anger (being angry 3.57 and annoyed) 16th Envy and jealousy 0.00

Qualitative Results Drawing on the analysis of student teachers’ subjective interpretations of their classroom teaching experiences in the practicum setting, our second research question sought to understand what factors may trigger their varied emotional responses and experiences. In response to the open-ended question relating to what classroom aspects and/or situations generate positive emotions in the practicum setting, numerous responses were provided in this regard. Since the positive emotions most often discussed in the literature are joy, satisfaction and pleasure associated with teaching (Sutton and Wheatley 2003), the participating student teachers reported feeling joy, happiness and passion for teaching, particularly when observing their pupils’ positive attitude and willingness to learn and when perceiving their amazing learning progress as well. In the same vein, Timoštšuk and Ugaste (2012) reported that such positive emotions are related to their interaction and relationship with pupils in teaching practices. Several illustrative comments that expressed this idea were as follows:

When I see my pupils feeling motivated, showing interest and being receptive to my explanations (…) when pupils respond well to the new activities and do them without any help and thus make progress (…) when they learn English while having fun (…) when asking us lots of questions, which shows that they are really interested and are willing to learn (…) when showing love and affection to me and come to class happy. Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 377

Satisfaction, which is often accompanied by a feeling of pride (Šarić 2015), is also reported by respondents who recognized feeling satisﬁed with their work, particularly when observing their pupils’ interest and learning progress, as evidenced in comments such as:

When observing my pupils’ academic progress and thus I feel myself helpful (…) when my pupils easily understand and thus do not stop asking me questions, which makes me feel satisﬁed with my work and that all the effort was worthwhile (…) when motivating the unmotivated students (…) when pupils appreciate our effort and work (…) when parents also recognize our work. The fact that their effort and work are recognized by both pupils and parents also receives special emphasis. These ﬁndings are in line with previous research studies showing that teachers perceive their teaching as a generally rewarding and satisfying activity charged with positive emotions (Hargreaves 1998; Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Keller et al. 2014). Another theme which emerged from their responses was the emphasis on earning their pupils’ respect and trust which is highly encouraging and rewarding to the respondents, through comments such as:

That students respect me in the same way as their school teacher is a rewarding experience to me (…) when there is a good classroom atmosphere among my students, respecting one another (…) when I feel that they are comfortable with me in the class and thus I see that I was able to earn their trust and empathize with them. Discussions on the importance of parents’ understanding and cooperation, which is also rewarding as well as encouraging, were evident in comments like:

When parents ask me for help, which means that they trust me (…) parents’ understanding, support and cooperation ease teachers’ work a lot (…) I am happy to see when parents collaborate with teachers and are actively involved in their children’s education. Gratitude is also reported by some respondents who expressed their appreciation for school mentor teachers’ ongoing guidance and support. Like Nguyen’s(2014) and Martínez’s(2016) studies, the respondents’ comments also acknowledged that the freedom given was a valuable source of personal satisfaction, fun and relaxation for them:

When I feel constantly supported by my mentor teacher while trying to do something new or different in the class, helping and guiding me at all times (…) when I am given the opportunity and freedom to teach in classes. Exceptionally, professional admiration (Anttila et al. 2016) was also reported by one student teacher who made the following comment:

I feel great admiration for those teachers who really strive to achieve good results with their students by employing different ways of teaching. In response to the question about what classroom aspects and/or situations generate negative emotions in the practicum setting countless responses were also given in this respect. Previous studies have shown that disappointment, frustration and anxiety were seen as the most commonly negative emotions experienced by 378 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro student teachers (Poulou 2007; Timoštšuk and Ugaste 2012). In the same vein as Keller et al. (2014), respondents in this study felt disappointed and frustrated, to a greater or lesser extent, in their interactions and relationships with pupils mainly due, among other reasons, to their pupils’ lack of motivation, effort and misbehavior as well as their perceived teaching inability (namely when they get the impression that they are misunderstood by their pupils and/or are unable to explain particular grammar aspects), as is evident in comments as follows:

I feel disappointed and frustrated when some pupils show unwillingness to learn because they neither pay attention nor participate in class (…) when you feel that no matter how much you do for them that all the efforts made are worthless (…) when I am unable or do not know how to explain or teach something and thus my students cannot understand my explanations (…) when an activity that I had spent much time preparing does not go as I really expected. Such results are in line with Johnson’s(1996) and Numrich’s(1996) ﬁndings on the frustrations experienced by student teachers in the practicum setting. In the same vein as Sutton and Wheatley (2003), anxiety-related emotions are also experienced and reported by the respondents in this study when recalling their practicum experiences. In fact, there were comments which referred speciﬁcally to the anxious nature of certain classroom situations:

This job may become very stressful because you have to prepare lessons everyday (…) when you have to face certain classroom situations for which you are not well enough prepared and thus I am unable to maintain the control of the class (…) when I do not meet the targets set out for inability or inexperience reasons (…) pupils’ lack of respect and misbehavior makes things more difﬁcult too. Student teachers’ self-perceived L2 communicative competence also generates certain anxious feelings, as evidenced in comments such as:

I think my English proﬁciency is not good enough to be able to effectively teach (…) when I feel unable and unconﬁdent to communicate in English and that does frustrate me (…)I am afraid of making mistakes in front of the students and the school mentor teacher. During the practicum process candidate teachers are constantly under pressure, attempting to hide or mask their emerging emotions as a result of the unpredictable nature of classroom teaching situations (Šarić 2015). One convincing explanation of this might be related to the fear of being constantly assessed not only by their pupils but also by their mentor teachers, as shown in the following comment: I feel I am being constantly observed and assessed by my mentor teacher, which is a highly stressful situation to me. The relationship with school mentor teachers also received special emphasis because the respondents also recognized sometimes feeling really upset about their mentor teachers’ attitude of superiority and/or indifference, which undoubtedly leads to an unfavourable working environment, providing the following comments in this respect:

When my mentor does not treat me like one more teacher with due respect, taking away my authority in front of the class (…) when he/she does not support me and constantly Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 379

criticizes my work and effort, disregarding all my teaching initiatives and/or proposals (…) when we are not allowed to teach as we really wanted (…) when I am not given the freedom or chance to try out something new or carry out a different activity, just limiting to observe what he/she does in the class. Such negative attitude and lack of guidance and support from the mentor teachers during the practicum, which generates some frustration and insatisfaction among student teachers, is also explored in Farrell (2008), Nguyen (2014) and Martínez (2016). In this respect, Nguyen (2014: 80) argued that “Tensions between desired and provided support have been reported in the literature as an important factor causing negative experiences during the practicum (Farrell 2008; Premier and Miller 2010)”. Like Keller et al. (2014) who concluded that teachers’ negative emotional experiences outside the classroom mainly arise because of uncooperative colleagues or inappropriately behaving parents, respondents’ comments, in this study, point in the same direction since some parents’ lack of understanding and support for teachers’ work also triggers some discomfort among candidate teachers, as evidenced in comments such as:

When some parents get excessively involved in our work, disregarding our recommendations and even criticizing our work (…) when parents do not recognize us as teachers for being just student teachers (…) when they are unable to appreciate our efforts and, thus, do not collaborate with us (…) when they neither support nor understand us, overprotecting their children and even supporting their misbehavior. Lastly, unlike the aforementioned admiration, some respondents also felt upset on observing some experienced teachers’ indifferent attitude and teaching performance, as shown in the following comment:

When I see how some teachers accommodate to their work with apathy so teaching seems to be the last thing that matters to them. In short, student teachers’ teaching-related emotions during the practicum experience are caused by a wide variety of both internal and external inﬂuences. However, as Keller et al. (2014) reminded us, we cannot draw any conclusions as to what causes teachers’ emotional reactions in class because emotional processes occur in a given teaching situation.

4 Conclusions and Future Research Directions

Considering the emotional dimension or nature of the teaching profession, the main goal of the present study was to deepen our understanding of the wide spectrum of emotions that student teachers perceive and experience in learning to teach EFL during their practicum experience as well as the personal and contextual factors influencing such emotions. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence that student teachers experience a wide range of emotions in their daily classroom 380 J. d. D. Martínez Agudo and G. Azzaro experiences and transactions during their teaching practices. On the basis of the results obtained, the most commonly experienced positive emotions reported by the participating student teachers were enjoyment (or happiness), satisfaction and love and affection for the pupils, while disappointment and frustration, together with insecurity and anxiety, were the most commonly described negative emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003; Nguyen 2014; Anttila et al. 2016; Frenzel et al. 2016). However, other emotions (both positive and negative) were also reported, but far less frequently (Šarić 2015). Overall, the findings of this research study seem to support and extend the scant literature on student teachers’ emotions during the second language teaching practicum experience (Farrell 2003, 2007, 2008; Johnson 1996; Numrich 1996; Nguyen 2014; Martínez 2016). Certainly, a wide variety of personal factors (such as their self-perceived L2 limited communicative competence and teaching inability—for fear of being misunderstood by pupils—as well as their need to feel respected by pupils and understood and supported by their mentor teachers and parents) as well as external influences (as for example, their pupils’ indifference and misbehaviour, tensions and disagreements with their mentor teachers and the non-cooperation of colleagues and parents) seem to influence, to a greater o lesser extent, student teachers’ emotions in the practicum setting. Since most current research, which has been merely descriptive, is focused on the most salient emotions experienced and reported by teachers, researchers like Frenzel et al. (2016) and Benesch (2016) recommend further attention to those less acknowledged emotions. Additionally, future studies should move beyond the search for specific emotions and their frequency of occurrence, thus focusing on the analysis of the triggers for such emotions (Šarić 2015). Given that emotions change and evolve over time because of their transitional nature, Fried et al. (2015) and Abou-Assali (2015) suggested the need for further research based on longitudinal studies. Future research studies might in fact focus on how student teachers’ emotions emerge and evolve during the practicum process as well as during their professional development. Additionally, as Uitto et al. (2015) and Zembylas and Schutz (2016) rightly stated, what is actually missing in the current research literature is an in-depth discussion on the appropriate methodologies of investigating emotions in educational contexts given the methodological complexities involved in conducting such research. Lastly, this often neglected research area certainly requires much further analysis and discussion in TESOL and teacher education. Recommended Readings – Benesch, S. (2012). Considering emotions in critical english language teaching: Theories and Praxis. New York: Routledge. This thought-provoking and invaluable book provides a useful framework for understanding emotions in English language teaching and learning from a critical perspective. Emotions in Learning to Teach EFL … 381

– Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). (2009). Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives. New York: Springer. Presenting current research from diverse perspectives, the contributors in this volume provide important research ﬁndings that enrich our understanding of the role and impact of emotions on teachers’ professional lives and work. – Pekrun, R., & Linnenbrink-García, L. (2014). International handbook of emotions in education. New York & London: Routledge. This handbook outlines the present state of research into emotions in education as well as future research directions. – Madalinska-Michalak, J. (2015). Developing emotional competence for teaching. Croatian Journal of Education, 17(2), 71–97. Overall, this paper highlights the importance of emotional education for teachers and its challenges in the context of teacher education in Europe. – Corcoran, R. P., & Tormey, R. (2012). Developing emotionally competent teachers. Emotional intelligence and pre-service teacher education. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. This book mainly focuses on how to develop emotional competence in the context of pre-service teacher education, speciﬁcally examining the skills employed by student teachers in perceiving and regulating emotions.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – To what extent do you agree with the view that teachers’ emotions are rooted in cognitions or beliefs? Explain why (or why not). – Do you think that attention to teacher emotions may lead to deeper understanding of classroom interactions, as suggested by Benesch (2012)? Give reasons for your answer. – How far do you agree with the view that teacher emotions are linked with teaching quality, as stated by Frenzel et al. (2016)? – Drawing on your own teaching experience, which of the different factors or triggers mentioned throughout the chapter has significantly influenced your own emotions? – How important is emotional education in teacher education and professional development? Why do teaching professionals need to develop social-emotional competencies?

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Author Biographies

Juan de Dios Martínez Agudo is Associate Professor of Second Language Teacher Education (TEFL) at the University of Extremadura (Spain). His research interests lie at the interface of SLA research, L2 teaching and L2 teacher education, particularly L2 classroom discourse analysis, teacher learning and thinking, and cognitive and affective aspects of L2 teaching and learning. He has published several books and research articles on these areas in national and international publications. His most recent edited books are Teaching and Learning English through Bilingual Education (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012), English as a Foreign Language Teacher Education. Current Perspectives and Challenges (Rodopi/Brill, 2014) and Native and Non-Native Teachers in English Language Classrooms: Professional Challenges and Teacher Education (De Gruyter, 2017).

Evangelia Karagianni and Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra

Abstract Current research on teacher development highlights the significance of teachers’ emotions in a variety of formal and informal settings and attempts to delineate their role in teachers’ various career stages. The present paper seeks to trace changes in four EFL teachers’ emotions a decade after they participated in an informal ICT-based collegial network which aimed at their professional development through self-reflection, peer feedback and collaboration. Applying a qualitative analysis to the data collected from questionnaires and interviews, this follow-up study examines whether teachers’ emotions maintain sustainability of teacher development and how this is realized. More specifically, it is argued that teacher development can become an on-going process when practitioners act as independent teacher-learners and as peer-mentors who share their emotions, reflect on them and exchange views regarding their everyday teaching practice with colleagues in an emotionally safe environment, thus developing their cognitive emotionality.

Keywords EFL teachers’ emotions Á Sustainable professional development Cognitive emotionality

1 Introduction

Current theorising about teacher development highlights the role of teachers’ emotions in a variety of formal and informal settings and attempts to explore their place in teachers’ various career stages (Day and Lee 2011; Hargreaves 2005; Reio 2005). In our previous research (Karagianni 2012, 2014; Karagianni and Papaefthymiou-Lytra 2014), we studied the way four Greek teachers of English as a

E. Karagianni (&) Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece e-mail: [email protected] S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra (&) National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 385 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_21 386 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra foreign language (EFL) working in state primary schools collaborated in an asynchronous mode by sharing electronic diaries (see Sect. 2.3). Based on the data we collected, we argued that teachers’ emotions can provide a measure of teacher development in such informal in-service teacher development contexts. The present paper seeks to develop this perspective further by tracing changes in the speciﬁc teachers’ emotions over the years and examining whether emotions are the driving force which urges practitioners to carry on self-fulﬁlling developmental practices and activities.

2 Theoretical Background 2.1 Deﬁnition of Emotions

Definitions and theories of emotions can be traced in as early as 4th century B.C. in the works of Plato and Aristotle and are acknowledged to bear resemblances to the notions and theories we use today (Plamper 2015; Rosenwein 2007). More specifically, for Aristotle ‘pathe’, that is emotions, are cognitive responses to lived experience (Rosenwein 2007: 35). They are “all those affections which cause men to change their opinion in regard to their judgements” (Aristotle1, cited in Plamper 2015: 12). In the 20th century, Solomon (1993: 126) links emotion to judgement as well, and defines it as “a basic judgement about our Selves and our place in our world, the projection of values and ideals, structures and mythologies, according to which we live and through which we experience our lives”. In other words, emotions are subjective, evaluative judgements through which we attempt to interpret the situations we find ourselves in. Commencing from this definition, Bullough and Young (2002) argue that since emotions are rational and not reflective, they can become the object of reflection which may lead to reinforcement or waning of emotions per se and bring about changes in one’s beliefs or views. From this viewpoint, and taking into account the growing body of literature in the field (Calvo and D’Mello 2011; Day and Lee 2011; Keller et al. 2014), emotions appear to play a catalytic role in the construction of knowledge and decision making. If this view is combined with Zembylas’ (2005) situated, social and cultural aspect of emotions, it is clear that working environments can be generators of a wide gamut of emotions which can affect not only the way we view ourselves and others but also how we react and what course of action we follow (Jakhelln 2011). Educational environments (see Gkonou and Mercer 2017) including school staffrooms where emotions are “more openly shared” (Fineman 2001: 223) can be instances of such rich emotion-generating working environments which deserve in-depth study.

1Aristotle, The ‘Art’ of Rhetoric, trans. John Henry Freese (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959) EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 387 2.2 Teachers’ Emotions: A Brief Overview of Research

Teachers’ emotions emerged as a new field of educational research in the 1990s and since then the growing interest in emotions is visible in a mere recording of the increase of articles published in literature. Uitto et al. (2015) document this increase in their review of teacher emotions research published in the journal Teacher and Teacher Education (TATE) over a period of approximately thirty years (1985–2014). Initially, emphasis in research was placed on the individual that is the teacher and their negative emotions such as stress, depression and dissatisfaction while some years later it shifted to the social system and social relationships (Day and Lee 2011). Tsang (2014) reveals this shift by reviewing three sociological theories underlying emotional phenomena of teaching: labour process theory, emotional labour theory and emotional geographies. More specifically, labour process theory (Smyth et al. 2000) interprets teachers’ emotions as a product of educational reforms while emotional labour theory (Hochschild 1979) examines the impact of teaching on teachers’ psychological and emotional health and reveals that teachers’ emotions are often indirectly prescribed by overt or covert rules of the profession (Tsang 2011; Zembylas 2002). A weakness spotted in both theories is the fact that they appear to ignore teachers’ power to control their affective side which brings forward the need to manage emotions and regulate them rationally in order to promote effective teaching and facilitate learners’ development (Diefendorff et al. 2008; Hochschild 1983). Regulation of emotions highlights teacher agency and introduces another theoretical model of examining emotions that of emotional geographies. Hargreaves (2001: 1061) conceptualised teaching as an emotional practice and proposed the theoretical framework of emotional geographies of teaching, which he defines as “the spatial and experiential patterns of closeness and/or distance in human interactions and relationships”. It is clearly assumed, then, that teachers’ emotions are socially embedded thus reflecting the idea that teaching is a social practice (Zembylas 2005). To illustrate this point further Wosnitza and Volet (2005) argue that an object triggers emotions in a specific context and that ‘object’ is frequently a person or a group of people (I-h/she or I-them emotions). In other words, in the educational context of a classroom a student or a group of students can initiate teachers’ emotions and influence learning outcomes. It is worth mentioning, however, that in our previous study (see Sect. 2.3), besides students being ‘objects’ triggering teachers’ emotions, teachers were also a bi-directional ‘object’ initiating emotions. More specifically, teachers triggered more emotions to their colleagues every time they interacted with them by providing or receiving feedback on their classroom practices and this feedback seemed to affect their future teaching practices. From a different but complementary perspective, Gkonou and Mercer (2017), in the presentation and discussion of their research on emotional and social intelligence of English language teachers, also highlight the role of interpersonal relationships, both with colleagues and learners, as a source of positivity and strength for teachers’ professional well-being and as a contributing factor to the quality of their classroom practices. 388 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra

In a similar vein, and attempting to bridge the gap between theory and reality, Becker et al. (2015) empirically tested Frenzel et al. (2009)’s theoretical model of antecedents of teachers’ emotions in the classroom which assumes that students’ classroom behaviours have an impact on teachers’ emotional experiences. By examining the relationships between students’ motivation and discipline and teachers’ enjoyment and anger, as well as whether these relationships are mediated by teachers’ subjective appraisals, Becker et al. (ibid) emphasised the importance of teachers’ appraisals of situations as compared to actual classroom events since, as they argue, these appraisals appear to act as a mediating mechanism which explains teachers’ enjoyment and anger more effectively. They also maintain that teachers’ well-being can improve if they are assisted in becoming aware of their emotions. Apart from confirming the aforementioned prominent place of teachers’ emotions in the research agenda, a number of scholars (Schutz and Pekrun 2007; Schutz and Zembylas 2009; Uitto et al. 2015; Zembylas 2005) disclose the gaps and propose a number of directions for future research. More analytically, they pinpoint various areas for further research, such as (1) exploring emotions of teachers teaching different subjects (see Jacob et al. 2017; Sutton and Wheatley 2003) (2) researching emotions experienced in collegial networks (Lasky 2005), (3) using more innovative methods to record emotions apart from interviews, questionnaires and observations as well as (4) the value of critical reflection on emotions and their effects on instructional actions to be included as a specific didactic skill set in teacher education curricula.

2.3 Teacher Development and Emotions

Some of the aforementioned research gaps, such as examining emotions in collaborative contexts through less traditional research methods, were addressed in research we conducted in Greece (Karagianni 2012). One of the aims we set then was to explore whether four state primary school EFL teachers can enhance their reflective skills and develop professionally when they work in collaboration with their colleagues in distance mode and exchange electronic diaries describing, commenting and reflecting on their lessons for a period of twenty weeks. We wished to measure their professional development by investigating the role teachers’ emotions play. Using quantitative and qualitative research methods we analysed a corpus of 37,042 words collected from 73 diary entries of an average of 377 words each. First of all, by describing their lessons in their diaries, sharing them with colleagues and exchanging views on problematic aspects of their instruction, EFL teachers were forced to reflect critically on their practice in order to find more effective ways to achieve their pedagogic aims. Second, by having an audience expecting to read their diary entries, they were often motivated to plan and present a better lesson. Last, when teachers described their teaching practice and reflected on it in writing, both positive and negative emotions were spontaneously evoked and recorded. Following Kövecses’ (2000) force-dynamic cognitive model EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 389 of cause-emotion-response, and attempting to expand Frentzel et al.’s (2009) model of antecedents of emotions which underlines the impact of students’ classroom behaviours on teachers’ emotions, we examined teachers’ emotions through a four-stage framework of ‘teaching experience (cause)—emotion—reflection— development (response)’ and we classified their development in four levels, ranging from Level 1-development which occurs when there is any form of recording of what teachers do during their instructional practice and what they think about it to Level 4-development, which takes place when there is evidence that teachers become aware of their practices and their consequences in the classroom and decide to act upon them in order to improve their work in the classroom (Karagianni 2012: 206–207 and 306–313). Through the analysis of data we concluded that emotions: (a) appear to affect teachers’ critical reflection skills when they attempt to explain the cause of these emotions (b) contribute to developing teacher awareness when practitioners attempt to discuss complex issues further and seek solutions, while promoting additional collaboration and (c) urge them to seek alternative courses of action in order to turn negative emotions into positive ones. As regards the causes of teachers’ emotions, some of them, such as those related to students’ performance, appeared across all four levels of development, others such as those linked to job-related issues, teaching materials or classroom management aroused both positive and negative emotions more often at lower levels of development, namely Levels 1 and 2. As a result, emotions explicitly appeared less often at higher levels of professional development in our construct (i.e. Level-3 & Level-4), most probably because teachers at these levels are more confident and aware of their skills and can resolve theory/practice mismatches faster, more effectively and in most cases on the spot. Besides the aforementioned research, there seems to be a sparse but gradually growing interest in exploring this novel perspective of the connection between teachers’ emotions and professional development at different career stages by a limited number of researchers worldwide. For instance, Jakhelln (2011) explored the early experiences of three novice teachers in a Norwegian upper secondary school focusing on emotions arising in the classroom and in collaboration with colleagues as well as how emotions are communicated. Her study shows how emotions are a neglected area in teachers’ work and that they are neither well communicated nor exploited for development and learning. In essence, she illustrates the great importance of emotions as a positive source of early career teachers’ development and reveals the centrality of their inclusion into professional relationships within the school. Another recent study emphasising the significance of emotions for teachers’ professional development was carried out by Cross and Hong (2012) who underscore the importance of being able to identify and describe emotions as well as locate them in the teaching experiences if healthy and effective teaching practices are to be developed and emotions regulated. They also maintain that “teacher development programs should seek to create opportunities for teachers to have experiences that illuminate the rigors of teaching and create safe spaces where they can deeply examine their values, beliefs and the emotionality embedded in teaching” (ibid: 10). 390 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra

In our view, this aspect of awareness of emotions in school environments not only coincides with neuroscientists’ proposal (Ochsner and Gross 2008; Pessoa 2008, 2009), for an integrated approach towards cognition and emotion but also with our suggestions for further research regarding teachers’ awareness of observable and/or non-observable manifestations of emotions not just for reasons of mere emotion regulation and suppression but mainly for reasons of professional teacher development. In order to describe the documented manifestation of this integrated entity in educational settings, we have coined the term cognitive emotionality to delineate this concept. In our view, this concept deserves in-depth study since it may be interwoven with professional well-being, teacher effectiveness and professional development as we will attempt to show in the following sections.

3 Research Design 3.1 Aim and Context of Research

Taking into account the progress made in the field of studying emotions in educational contexts as well as the scarcity of empirical data, we wished to explore how the teachers who participated in our previous study feel about teaching now, where they stand professionally and to what extent their first experience of belonging to an informal peer teaching/training network of colleagues and articulating their feelings had influenced their career and professional growth. More analytically, for the present research, we formulated the following research questions: – to what extent does a teacher’s first positive participation in an informal collegial network sustain their positive emotions and future professional self-development? – can emotions serve as predictors of sustainable professional development? – how is this sustainability demonstrated in teachers’ professional development?

3.2 Participants and Context

The participants of the present study are the same four female EFL teachers (N = 4) who participated in our ﬁrst research and who are still working in state primary schools in Greece. The mean age of the subjects is 48.5. Three of them are located in different suburbs of Athens while the fourth still lives and works in Tripolis, a large town of central Peloponesse. All of them have been teaching English in Greek state primary schools for more than 20 years but they started their careers in the private sector where they worked for at least ﬁve years. The mean years of their total teaching experience is 27.5 while the mean years of teaching in state primary schools is 22.25. EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 391 3.3 Research Instruments

For the purposes of this study and taking into consideration the limited number of subjects, we opted for a qualitative method of analysis. The ﬁrst instrument we utilised was the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire for Teachers (AEQ-T) as revised and validated by Hong et al. (2016). This questionnaire was devised by Frenzel et al. (2010) to measure teachers’ anger, anxiety, and enjoyment related to instruction while the version we used (Hong et al., ibid) was validated in an Asian context (Japanese and Korean teachers) and was revised to include the emotion of pride, too. Initially, Hong et al. (ibid) aimed at including pride and frustration, but based on their analyses they deleted frustration from their measure as it did not demonstrate good internal consistency and did not emerge as a factor. Our purpose of using this instrument was to measure our participants’ emotions with a reliable instrument in order to compare them to the emotions recorded in our study of 2012 and relate them to their professional development. Concurring with Hong et al.’s (2016) view that pride is a salient emotion in teachers’ instructional life, we chose their version of AEQ-T in order to measure pride as well. Therefore, we focused on four emotions, two positive (pride and enjoyment) and two negative (anxiety and anger) in order to measure variations of these emotions over the years. The questionnaire we used consisted of 15 items including four items for each of the three emotions that is anxiety, pride, enjoyment and three items for anger. The answers were designed on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1-I strongly disagree to 4-I strongly agree which forces respondents to take a positive or a negative side and were completed by participants on Google forms (http://goo.gl/forms/ jGcyX7cSaoUgw96w1). For the purposes of this study we also interviewed our subjects using a structured interview with open-ended questions (Cohen et al. 2007), (https://goo.gl/forms/ FGbwhrIRc4xXmU332). The interview was conducted over the telephone and the subjects’ answers were recorded in note form. The aim of the interview was to (a) explore the teachers’ views and feelings regarding their past experience of participating in a community of practice and trace its impact ten years later and (b) record possible manifestations of this development. Descriptive data analyses were performed using IBM© SPSS© Statistics version 22.

4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings

According to the descriptive analysis of the subjects’ answers to AEQ-T, we can claim that our subjects are positively disposed towards teaching. The pattern that emerges when one examines the graphic representations of their answers (see Fig. 1) is that teaching still generates very positive emotions to these practitioners. More analytically, concerning questions about pride, all teachers answered ‘I agree’ to all the relevant questions except one teacher who chose ‘I strongly agree’ to the 392 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra question ‘I get a feeling of pride as a result of my work’. As for the answers concerning enjoyment, they are also very positive, divided between ‘I agree’ and ‘I strongly agree’. In other words, teachers generally feel proud of the way they prepare for their lessons, how they teach and what they achieve through their teaching. In addition, all of them agree (2 = strongly agree, 2 = agree) that they enjoy teaching and are enthusiastic about it. They also have fun preparing for their lessons (4 = agree). Regarding their negative emotions towards teaching, that is anxiety and anger, the subjects do not appear to worry about preparing to teach or be angry with what they experience before or while teaching. To be more specific, regarding anxiety, thinking about teaching does not make them feel uneasy since they all strongly disagree. Also, preparing to teach as well as teaching per se do not cause them to worry (answers are equally divided between ‘strongly disagree’ and ‘disagree’). It is worth noting, though, that concerning their being worried about their teaching not going well the ‘disagree’ option is marked by the majority (3 out of 4) which may illustrate that they are never completely satisfied with their teaching and they always wish to improve. As far as anger is concerned, although their answers reveal that they do not get angry with teaching or while teaching, the ‘disagree’ option which is preferred over the ‘strongly disagree’ may show that even teachers who are so much in favour of teaching can spot aspects that occa- sionally make them have slightly negative feelings. This view is confirmed by another interesting aspect of the particular teachers’ emotions as is revealed by close examination of the distribution of their responses in Fig. 1. Although teachers appear to somehow confine their positive emotions to the ‘agree’ scale (26 responses out of 32), they seem divided concerning negative emotions as they choose the ‘strongly disagree’ option as often as the ‘disagree’ option (14 responses out of 28). In other words, they seem to be more reserved towards expressing full enjoyment or pride more strongly and to always wish to improve. Regarding the second instrument we utilised in this study, that is the structured interview, the subjects’ responses, which are reported below in narrative form, are linked to two themes: – the facts they remembered and the emotions they had about their participation in an informal ICT-based collegial network ten years earlier and – the impact that experience had on them and their future professional development as well as how this impact was realised.

Teacher A acknowledges the project’s rewarding aspect and the reassuring feeling of togetherness she had but she also comments on its demands time and work-wise. It was actually the feeling of ‘I’m not alone in this boat of teaching and […] other colleagues share the same problems or have the same insecurities and doubts as me’ that remained after a decade. As a teacher she felt conﬁdent about her skills then although she doubted at times ‘about doing things the right way’, a feeling she still experiences. She says she attends seminars in order to ‘keep up with things’. She also enrolled in a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) once but she was not able to complete it due to time constraints. Since her participation in the project, she has EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 393

Fig. 1 Graphic representation of teachers’ responses co-authored a number of EFL books both for the state and the private sector and this is a field she plans to devote herself to when she retires after 30 years of service. Teacher B clearly remembers that her participation in the project was her first professional collaborative experience. She was inspired by the idea of diary keeping which she has incorporated in her teaching practice and her professional endeavours ever since. Her most vivid recollection of the project is her effort to sit down and write her diary as soon as she finished teaching in order to capture as many details as possible of the things that worked in practice. She also remembers the pride she felt when she received positive feedback on her lessons from her colleagues. She comments on the advantages of her participation in that project as it boosted her self-esteem, revealed her strengths and weaknesses, helped her reflect and improve and appreciate collaboration. Similarly to Teacher A, she acknowledges that ‘It made me realise that I was part of a big family of struggling teachers with more or less the same worries and expectations from the trade’. Concerning negative feelings about the project, she remembers fearing exposure to colleagues, time pressure and additional work load. Since then, she is actively involved in online seminars, has joined networks of teachers, collaborates with colleagues on various national and international projects, exploits social media at a local and international level to keep learning and developing. She shares lesson plans and publishes her work. She feels extremely proud of herself when she gets recognition from colleagues abroad. She is committed to teaching and even when she has thoughts about trying other activities those are mentoring inexperienced teachers or organising projects which certainly relate to teaching. 394 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra

Teacher C remembers and describes the project in detail and admits benefiting from it as it was the first time she took part in a collaborative project of that type. She says she felt inexperienced and insecure as a young teacher then. She experimented with what she had learned during her postgraduate studies but she was also more worried about others’ opinion such as parents and colleagues. She was more emotionally involved with her students then and she had mixed feelings about her achievements as a teacher. Reflecting on the project, she notes its benefits concerning reflection, collaboration and exchange of ideas as well as positive feedback, emotional boosting and the feeling of solidarity among people sharing the same anxieties. The only downside she recalls is the feeling of inadequacy she had towards colleagues with more innovative ideas but she interprets it positively as a creative motive towards improvement, confirming theoretical views that negative feelings are of considerable value since they can be driving forces for improvement. Now, because of her teaching experience since then she feels very confident and competent, capable of handling serious or unexpected situations. This teacher eagerly states that she is in favour of continuous professional development and tries to prove it by referring to the new instructional practices she adopts, the great number of seminars she has attended and the various European projects (e.g. Erasmus+) her school has participated since her involvement in our first study. She has also refined her digital skills and she can use the Moodle platform to communicate with colleagues and share digital scenarios. She is currently involved in school administration as she serves as a principal which means that she spends fewer hours teaching. Therefore, for the time being she is obliged to devote more time and energy on administration than teaching. Teacher D provides a short but accurate description of the project although she started by saying that she did not remember much about it. She remembers feeling anxiety and frustration then, not liking the books she had to use with her classes, having to teach in more than one schools and generally not being able to do her best. Now she feels more confident and relaxed and her working conditions have improved. She enjoys teaching and she believes that her students share the same feelings. She has found talking to peers and exchanging ideas about teaching techniques and practices helpful and encouraging. She has steadily adopted collaboration practices in her professional life and encourages colleagues to talk and share their teaching experiences and practices with her. She tries to keep up with technological advancements and ‘attend some interesting seminars’ but lack of time and personal reasons do not let her participate in collegial networks. She does not have any special plans about her future and she ‘just wants to be able to make her teaching as pleasant for her students and herself as possible’. This teacher appears less willing to externalise her personal and professional drives than the other three. Although she gives short answers and does not elaborate much on her involvement in our previous study, it is worth noticing that what she does remember relates to positive aspects of collaboration. Her emotions regarding her teaching skills are more positive now and so is her general attitude towards teaching. EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 395

Frequency/Percentage 164 Emotions 100.00% 91 Positive emotions 55.49% 73 Negative emotions 44.51%

Fig. 2 Teachers’ emotions in diary entries (Karagianni 2012, p. 309)

Types of Emotions in diary entries Emotions in AEQ-T excitement, joy, pleasure, satisfaction, love Enjoyment Pride Pride anxiety, frustration, shame, helplessness, stress Anxiety Anger Anger Guilt ----

Fig. 3 Correspondence of Teachers’ emotions in the research instruments

To further substantiate this view, we shall now proceed with comparisons between the subjects’ responses to AEQ-T and the emotions they recorded while describing and analysing their practice in their diaries a decade ago (see Karagianni 2012). Although comparisons are quite hard since the research methods are dissimilar and the analyses differ, yet, on re-examining the old data and ﬁltering them through the four emotions that AEQ-T researches, a lot of interesting aspects are revealed. First, the subjects’ positive emotions about teaching dominated their diary entries then and outnumbered their negative emotions (Fig. 2). Second, through the text analysis we performed in an attempt to draw parallels between their positive and negative diary emotions then and the AEQ-T emotions displayed, we noticed that enjoyment about teaching and the various aspects related to it prevailed in positive emotions. As far as negative emotions are concerned, teachers often aired their anxiety regarding facets of their instructional practice in their diaries (Fig. 3). Expressions of either anger or pride concerning teaching are scant in the diaries while guilt appears often, especially in comments related to other colleagues’ instructional achievements. Attempting to provide a basis for comparison of the four EFL teachers’ emotions over a decade, it is apparent from their autobiographies that these teachers were highly positive towards teaching in the past (see Karagianni 2012: 272–278), and that positive emotions about their job still prevail. They rarely seemed to experience negative feelings and when they did, they were generally mild and momentary, directed towards speciﬁc students’ behaviours, teaching materials or other aspects which were not directly associated with their feelings about teaching. Negative emotions continue to be limited and remain under their control according to their replies to the AEQ-T instrument, as presented in the previous sections of this study. 396 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra

Furthermore, it should be underlined that negative emotions, as recorded in our previous research, seemed to trigger teachers’ critical reflection skills and their inner motivation to analyse their practice and improve in order to feel better. Regarding the dynamic nature of negative feelings towards learning, our view coincides with Benesch’s(2012) who convincingly argues that negative emotions are often neglected or trivialised, overlooking, thus, the complexity of emotions, of cognitive processes and social contexts and the role they play in learning. Besides exploring teachers’ emotional development concerning instructional practice, we have also traced further manifestations of their professional development as evidence, in our view, of cognitive emotionality. More specifically, two of them have served administrative posts in the last ten years either as principals or deputy principals of state primary schools. In addition, although all of them held a Master’s degree when they participated in the first research (3 of them in TESOL and 1 in Cognitive Science) (Karagianni 2012: 273–276), one of them acquired a second Master’s degree in Educational Management and Administration. All of them keep taking part in various conferences and seminars. They have also fostered collaboration with colleagues either face-to-face in teachers’ staff rooms and meetings or through participation in electronic communities of practice and involvement in European projects. Last but certainly not least, two of them are involved in a number of advanced professional activities, such as designing and publishing EFL materials and/or book writing, mentoring and teacher training. In conclusion, drawing from the data we collected and analysed for the purposes of this study and wishing to provide answers to the research questions we raised, we can claim that these four teachers’ positive emotions concerning teaching practice, can be attributed to a great extent to their participation in our previous study and have had a lasting positive impact on their professional development. In other words, teachers feel that peer teaching/training of the nature we have explored has had lasting beneficial effects through critical reflection, feedback, awareness raising and collaboration. More analytically, their involvement with a group of colleagues, who operated as independent-minded learner-teachers and each other’s mentors helped them feel less stressed or intimidated. They tried to develop as practitioners by discovering themselves what they should do or what they should change in order to improve and they continue learning and improving as foreign language instructors and education administrators even a decade later. We believe that emotions have played an important role in their professional development setting in motion what we have called cognitive emotionality the underlining process for sustainable development. Besides, in our view, the case we examined provides us with tangible evidence that professional development seems to evolve along two dimensions, an external one linked to career prospects, collaboration with colleagues and involvement with materials production, mentoring tasks and school management as is mainly manifested in Teacher A, B and C’s developmental choices and an internal one connected to personal satisfaction and achievement of pedagogic goals, such as the developmental dimension primarily adopted by Teacher D. EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 397

5 Conclusion and Further Research

From the studies we referred, the suggestions included in the agendas for future research in recently published books exploring emotions in educational contexts and the research reported here, it is apparent that teachers’ emotions are of paramount importance and should be studied further in relation to teacher professional development and well being. Therefore, we suggest applying AEQ-T to a broader local, national, wider European or international context so that mapping of teachers’ emotions is achieved and emotional geographies are developed further and a connection of emotions to teacher development is confirmed. Although AEQ-T was validated in the context it was initially designed for, we feel that further improvement and expansion of this instrument to include more emotions should be aimed at. We also propose longitudinal studies concerning teachers’ emotions on teachers’ formal in-service training contexts which operate under the guidance of external knowledgeable authorities such as universities or school advisors (see Papapefthymiou-Lytra 2007) as well as informal self-initiated in-service professional development environments such as networks of colleagues. The data from such studies could help us compare and contrast the effects of such informal professional communities to those produced by formal in-service training schemes. Last, research should also aim at exploring whether and how teachers’ emotions and drive to develop professionally are linked to various personality characteristics of teachers and how this development is manifested. Thus, we believe, the concept of cognitive emotionality as a driving force to teacher development will be further researched and refined. Recommended Readings – Calvo, R. A., & D’Mello, S. K. (2011). New perspectives on affect and learning technologies. Springer Science & Business Media. The central theme of this volume is on integrating cutting-edge research at the crossroads of Affect, Learning, and Technology. In the first part of the book, the authors discuss the conceptual changes that are driving the renewed interest in affect and learning, and the theoretical perspectives that cut across most projects in the field. The second part describes case studies that describe progress and shed light on some of the numerous research questions in the field. The third part of the book brings in discussions to help us reassess the purpose of these new endeavours with interdisciplinary perspectives from noted scholars in the field. – Gabryś-Barker, D., & Gałajda, D. (Eds.). (2016). Positive psychology perspectives on foreign language learning and teaching. Cham: Springer International Publishing. This recent collection of articles explores foreign language learning and teaching concerns through the lens of positive psychology. It focuses both on the well-being and success of the learner and the professional and personal well-being of the teacher. Further, the book stresses the importance of the 398 E. Karagianni and S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra

positive emotions and character strengths of those involved in the process of language learning and teaching, as well as the significant role played by enabling institutions such as school and, at the micro-level, individual FL classes. – Hargreaves A. (2001). Emotional geographies of teaching. Teachers college record, 103(6), 1056–1080. This paper is often cited in teachers’ emotions related literature. It introduces and develops a new idea in education and in social science-that of emotional geographies. The concept of emotional geographies is used to explain the nature of teachers’ recollections of emotionally laden interactions with those around them. Although the focal point of concern is teachers’ interactions with parents, teachers are also invited to describe extended critical incidents of both positive and negative emotional encounters with four different parts of their role set—students, colleagues, administrators, and parents. – Uitto, M., Jokikokko, K., & Estola, E. (2015). Virtual special issue on teachers and emotions in Teaching and teacher education (TATE) in 1985–2014. Teaching and teacher education, 50, 124–135. This article reviews literature on teachers’ emotions. It analyses the diversity and significance of the research that Teaching and Teacher Education journal (TATE) has published on teachers and emotions, describes the changes that have happened in the field and illustrates the trends and gaps, as well as future directions for research on the topic.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – Read the following extracts from teachers’ diary entries (from Karagianni 2012: 291–287). Can you identify which teachers’ emotion(s) is/are behind this discourse?

‘I try to vary my techniques. I strongly believe in having fun in the classroom and being involved in creative things (so I often play games and try to involve my students in projects) but I often feel guilty for not sticking to the book and not teaching grammar and vocabulary in the traditional way. So I do resort to traditional techniques from time to time because I also believe that the learners need something to use as reference material, something ‘concrete’ you can fall back on to feel secure.’ ‘I liked the fact that they all participated eagerly. They seem to be very interested in their pen-pal exchange and helping them with deciding what to write about motivates them.’ – Write an account of a class incident of yours (what happened, why). Then read your piece of writing carefully and spot emotion words intersected in the text (verbs, adjectives, adverbs). Are they positive or negative? How are these emotions linked to the incident? Then reﬂect on how you can overcome negative emotions and enhance positive ones. Next, discuss your views with your colleague(s) to spot similarities/differences in opinion after reading each other’s descriptions. EFL Teachers’ Emotions: The Driving Force … 399

– Fill in the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire for Teachers (http://goo.gl/ forms/jGcyX7cSaoUgw96w1). Based on your readings on teachers’ emotions so far, what do your answers reveal about you as a teacher? – Based on your Educational Psychology readings so far, which personality aspects do you believe could be related to teachers’ expression of positive/ negative emotions?

References

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Author Biographies

Evangelia Karagianni holds a Ph.D. in Teacher Development (University of Athens) and an M. Ed. in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (Hellenic Open University). She has been teaching English in state primary schools since 1993 and she also tutors EFL teachers at the HOU Master’s programme. She co-authored Beta English & Think Teen (coursebooks used in state schools). She also participated in the compilation of the new Foreign Languages Curriculum for the Ministry of Education. She has published papers in peer-reviewed journals and presented her work in numerous conferences. Her current professional interests lie in teaching young learners, the use of ICT in foreign language learning/teaching and teacher development.

Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra is Professor Emerita of Applied Linguistics in the Faculty of English Language and Literature, University of Athens. She is a past Academic Director of the M. Ed. in TESOL programme at the Hellenic Open University. She has researched and published numerous articles and books in the areas of classroom discourse analysis and learning, learning and communicating strategies, linguistic and cultural awareness and learning, self-access, autonomous and distance learning, the role of L1 in S/F language learning/acquisition, assessment and certiﬁcation, adult foreign language education as well as teacher education and training for both English and Greek as foreign languages. She has organized and taught in teacher training seminars, presented her research and delivered talks in conferences and symposia worldwide. She is active in carrying out research in the FL classroom and teacher education and training and publishing it as well as speaking in conferences and symposia as an invited speaker. Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching in Second Language Teacher Education: Opportunities and Challenges for Teacher Education in Poland and Turkey

Joanna Madalińska-Michalak and Bünyamin Bavli

Abstract This chapter is devoted to the issue of developing teacher emotional competence. It mainly focuses on the emotional competence of second language teacher and the opportunities and the challenges in the development of initial teacher education, induction and continuous professional development of teachers. The paper raises the question of emotional education for teachers throughout their careers. The research study presented in the chapter provides insights into pre-service second language teachers’ emotional competence in Turkey and Poland. The research is comparative in nature and allows making the attempts to explain its subject with taking into account such variables as: age, gender, academic achievements, country of residence, and enthusiasm, conﬁdence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, and compassion, which are the subscales of PTECS (Prospective Teachers Emotional Competence Scale). On the basis of the research ﬁndings some conclusions on developing emotional competence for L2 teaching in second language teacher education are formulated.

Keywords L2 teachers Á Emotional competence Á In-service education Developing competence Á L2 education Á Teacher educator Á Teacher career Comparative study

J. Madalińska-Michalak (&) Faculty of Education, University of Warsaw, Mokotowska 16/20 Str, 00-561 Warsaw, Poland e-mail: [email protected] B. Bavli Department of Curriculum and Instructional Studies, Faculty of Education, Yıldız Teknik University, Davutpaşa Cad, 34210 Esenler, İstanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 403 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_22 404 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli

1 Introduction

Recent decades have brought the signiﬁcant shifts in the context of key competencies for reforms and transformations taking place in the modern world and the rapidly growing knowledge society. The OECD new conceptual learning framework: “Learning Compass 2030” (see: OECD 2016) shows that there are increasing demands on schools to prepare students for more rapid economic and social change, for jobs that have not yet been created, for technologies that have not yet been invented, and to solve social problems that have not been anticipated in the past. Education at school should aim to foster holistic student learning and well-being. The OECD project seeks to develop a framework to better understand the competencies (i.e. knowledge, skills, attitudes, and metacognition) that will prepare students for a more volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world in 2030. The project focuses on not only cognitive dimensions, but it embraces social and emotional aspects (i.e., tolerance, respect, fairness, personal and social responsibility, integrity or self-awareness) of students’ learning as well. For such an education, there is a need to work on teachers and the teacher education in order to put a greater emphasis on teachers’ knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Among the required teachers’ competences, the key role is played by teachers’ emotional competence (Schleicher 2012; Madalinska-Michalak 2015). In this chapter, we will focus on the issue of developing teacher emotional competence. The point of departure for our consideration is the issue of teacher education and its quality. Teacher education, as we argue, is best viewed as a continuum from initial teacher education through induction to continuing professional learning. In the next part of our considerations, we focus on emotions in teaching and further we present the concept of teacher’s emotional competence and its attributes. In the third part of the chapter, our research on prospective teacher’s emotional competence in Turkey and Poland is presented and discussed. On the basis of the presented research ﬁndings and the previous our research, we draw conclusions on developing teachers emotional competence and teacher education. The chapter raises the question of emotional education for teachers throughout their careers.

2 Teacher Education—Towards Continuum and Quality

Internationally, there is an emerging consensus that teacher education is best viewed as a continuum from initial teacher education through induction to continuing professional learning (Livingston 2012). The need for greater coherence between the different aspects of teacher education has long been recognised. In the book edited by Hudson (2017) on overcoming fragmentation in teacher education policy and practice it is clearly shown that the ‘universitization’ of initial teacher education is sometimes perceived as widening the gap between theory and practice. Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 405

In many countries, there is no firm alignment between initial teacher education, induction and continuing professional development. Teacher education drivers are related to national systems and represent conflicting forces on teacher education institutions. Neoliberal policy initiatives have resulted in greater fragmentation. Research findings on education across the globe led to a conclusion that student achievement is directly related to the quality of teachers and their teaching. In the contemporary literature, teachers’ work is recognized as the most important factor influencing the quality of education at school (Abbott 1988; Darling-Hammond 1999; Hattie 2003; OECD 2005; Hudson 2017). At the same time, it is stressed that the quality of teachers and teachers’ professionalism depend on the quality of their teacher education (Darling-Hammond 2017; Hudson 2017; Madalinska-Michalak 2017; European Commission 2005). The issue of improving the quality of teachers’ education and the quality of teaching and learning is a priority and one of the main goals of the process of reforming educational systems not only in European countries. In many countries across the globe, the attention is devoted to the quality of teachers’ work and the quality of their education, and it is reflected in research priorities concerning teaching, teaching as a profession, learning, teachers’ professional development and school leadership (Madalinska-Michalak 2017). Regarding the contemporary challenges of transforming and improving educational outcomes that teachers and school leaders have to face up, all teachers, not just some, have to be equipped for effective learning in the 21st century. This requires rethinking of many aspects, including, among others, – developing teaching as a profession, – improving the societal view of teaching as a profession, – recruiting top candidates into the profession, – retaining and recognising effective teachers, – having a path for growth and supporting teachers in continuing professional development (OECD 2011). There is growing recognition that the complex, diverse and changing contexts in which teachers work means that they need to revise, add to and enhance their knowledge and skills continually throughout their careers and engage in different forms of professional development according to their own and their pupils’ needs. It is generally agreed that the quality of teaching matters. Therefore, it is important to recruit and train those teachers who are able to develop as excellent teachers and can work continuously to improve the quality of their teaching. This involves focusing on what drives really good teaching—committed, engaged and passionate teachers. Researchers made some observations about the qualities that are essential in good teaching. Among these qualities, a significant role is played by emotions. Some academics have even argued that emotions are at the epicentre of teachers’ work and that good teaching requires the emotional capacity to manage various personal, work-related and external policy challenges (Day et al. 2007; Day and Gu 2010). Although teaching is reconceptualized as essentially relational, 406 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli requiring emotional skills of the teachers, and what is more researchers argue explicitly for teachers to value and integrate emotions in their praxis if they are to develop successful schools and take care of students educational achievement, emotions of teaching and inner emotional life of teachers are still rather implicit in the contemporary literature, at least we can observe this trend in Poland and Turkey.

3 Teachers, Teaching and Emotions

Emotions play a very important role in the functioning of every human being, including, among other things, motivational and organizational functions (emotions can organize patterns of coping with the events that occur, they may also disor- ganize human activity and planning), or they have a very significant effect on human health (well-being). Teachers—no matter what subject and at which level of education they teach—are faced, day by day, with meeting the needs and demands of students, parents, colleagues, administrators, school districts, and governmental accountability officers. Research shows that the effort to meet the needs of so many different constituencies evokes teachers’ emotions (Darby 2008, p. 1160). On the basis of the contemporary literature, one can state that teaching at its best is perceived as a passionate affair and emotional endeavor (Fried 1995; Day 2004; Hargreaves 1998, 2001, 2004; Nias 1996; Day and Leitch 2001; Van Veen and Lasky 2005; Zembylas and Barker 2007; Day and Gu 2009, 2010; Cooper 2011; Corcoran and Tormey 2012; Madalinska-Michalak 2015; Mortiboys 2012). Teachers can experience a sense of happiness when their teaching goals are achieved; they can feel proud when their students are able to accomplish the tasks assigned to them or they may feel frustrated when their students have difficulties in encountering new intellectual challenges. Sometimes, teachers are very tense when the students behave unacceptably towards them. They may also feel disappointed when the students do not put enough efforts into the tasks they are to perform (Sutton and Harper 2009, p. 389). The extent to which teachers are able to understand their own emotions and emotions of others is related to their ability to lead and manage teaching and learning. Good teaching, “requires the connection of emotion with self-knowledge” (Zembylas 2003, p. 213). One of the conditions of sustaining good teaching is hopefulness and resilience, the ability to manage and lead in challenging circumstances and changing contexts (Bullough 2011; Day and Gu 2010; Gu and Day 2007). Emotions of teachers do not appear in a vacuum. They are embedded in a specific social, cultural and political context. On the grounds of a cultural approach to emotion in psychology, including James Averill’s constructivist theory of emotion (1994), emotions are syndromes, and the rules governing them are social, not biological. Emotions play an important role in the social system, and the term emotional syndrome finds its usefulness in perceiving emotions as social roles. Social rules are defined by certain rules of behaviour appropriate to the position Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 407 occupied. Rules tell people about emotions: they tell them how they are supposed to judge and interpret their own reactions and others. According to Averill, this assessment is whether the interpretation is self-evident that it is culturally conditioned. It is important in the evaluation process not to understand that working on emotions is an activity aimed at achieving some social and individual goals. These goals are related to how emotions should be expressed, how they should be regulated in specific situations. Each community has a so-called ‘emotional culture’. The processes of socialization and upbringing are conducive to learning this emotional culture, allowing the individual to understand and be able to read cultural messages properly. Being a teacher means that the teacher should behave according to the social rules assigned to that role. Teachers along with acquiring professional experience learn how to work with their emotions, how to behave in response to specific situations in school, how to express their emotions and how to express them. The issues of emotions in teaching and teachers’ emotions and their emotional competence have remained largely understudied, which is especially evident when we take into consideration emotions in second language teaching. The topic even though is important, is ignored because teachers’ emotions have been seen as subjective, irrational and hard to capture.

4 Teachers’ Emotional Competence

Teachers’ emotional competence is still a relatively new and growing area within teacher education (Madalinska-Michalak 2015). Considering the importance attributed to the emotional competence of teachers in the educational process, it is worth looking at how the emotional competence of a teacher can be understood. In the presented considerations, the term of emotional competence is used in preference to the term of emotional intelligence. We assume that while the term emotional intelligence can be used to determine the cognitive ability to process emotional information, the term emotional competence can be understood as the specific coping skills in real life situations life, in which the information is to appear. Whereas emotional intelligence is one aspect of cognitive ability, emotional competence is the level of proficiency of one aspect of emotional intelligence (Seal and Andrews-Brown 2010). Emotional intelligence envelopes a wider range of cognitive abilities, whereas emotional competence speaks to the degree of self-regulation and awareness. Emotional competence can be perceived as the deeper subset of emotional intelligence. One can state that emotional intelligence is the underlying foundation for emotional competence and emotional competence is an expression of emotional intelligence (for example, emotional intelligence emphasizes controlling one’s emotions whereas emotional competence is the ability to express emotions appropriately and effectively). Emotional competence (different skills) depends on 408 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli the process of one’s development and his or her education, which has enormous value in the discussions on teacher education and teacher professional development. In literature, emotional competence is an elaborate construct that includes the individual’s knowledge and abilities, including the consciousness of one’s emotional state, the sense of emotion, and the range of abilities and abilities that govern emotion and better functioning in a changing environment (Madalińska-Michalak and Góralska 2012; Madalinska-Michalak 2015). Emotional competence is the knowledge and ability that an individual achieves in order to function in a variety of situations. Speaking of emotional competence, we assume that the knowledge and skills that are being developed are the result of learning processes. Emotional competence manifests itself in an individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and express his or her emotions in the right way, depending on the situation in which he or she is, as well as in recognizing, understanding and responding to the emotions of others. Appropriately developed emotional competencies are particularly important for people who work in the broader education sector, as they are essential to all those who do the work that requires patience, commitment, time and understanding of others. Emotional competence is a category that has been introduced by Saarni (1999). It depends on social constructivism as a theoretical background for its development and implementation. In the book ‘The Development of Emotional Competence’, Saarni writes about emotional development in mid-childhood and adolescence, and examines emotion as a part of the culture, and establishes a pattern of studying emotion within the lives of children. According to Saarni, emotional competence ‘entails resilience and self-efficacy (and self-efficacy includes acting with one’s sense of moral character)’ (ibidem, p. 2). She claims that when a person is emotionally competent, she or he will demonstrate self-efficacy in emotion-eliciting transactions, which are social in nature (ibidem). According to Saarni, the feeling of one’s own self-efficacy performs the key role in explaining the development of the emotional competence. To describe emotional competence, Saarni uses the term skills, which clearly differentiates this category from the term of emotional intelligence. Emotional competence is the knowledge and skills that an individual has learnt in order to be able to function in a way suited to different situations. It depends on the skill of functioning in social situations to “switch on” the emotions in such a way that will facilitate meeting specific goals. Emotional competence not only constitutes efficiency of acting, it is also a potential that is a condition for active and creative participation in culture. It is an ability of individual reflection and social negotiation. Being emotionally competent means being an active and creative entity, who actively participates in occurring processes of social changes. Saarni distinguishes the following eight components—skills of the emotional competence: • Awareness of one’s own emotions, • Ability to discern and understand other’s emotions, • Ability to use the vocabulary of emotion and expression, Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 409

• Capacity for empathic involvement, • Ability to differentiate subjective emotional experience from external emotion expression, • Adaptive coping with aversive emotions and distressing circumstances, • Awareness of emotional communication within relationships, and • Capacity for emotional self-efficacy. A strength of Saarni’s proposition is a comprehensive examination of the skills she proposed. Regarding school-age children and young adolescents, Saarni examines the formation of eight key emotional skills in relation to processes of self-understanding, socialization, and cognitive growth. Marking out the connections between emotional competence, interpersonal relationships, and resilience in the face of stress, she also explores why and what happens when development is delayed. Saarni’s considerations on the emotional competence and the results achieved from an international educational project devoted to the emotional competence of teachers: “EL4VET: Teachers First—Using Emotional Literacy to Improve VET Teaching in the 21st Century” (project EL4VET, No. 2010-1-GB2-LEO05-03477)1 were the basis for creating a model of teacher’s emotional competence (see Madalińska-Michalak and Góralska 2012; Madalinska-Michalak 2015). In the model a number of different attributes of emotional competence of teachers were identified. Among these attributes were the following: Compassion, Enthusiasm, Forgiveness, Optimism, Power, Relational, Self Confidence, Social Justice, Trust, Youth Culture and School Ethos (see: Madalinska-Michalak and Góralska 2012). The project research showed that all these attributes are important for teachers to create a positive, inclusive learning environment in schools. By developing their interpersonal and intrapersonal skills and learning to be culturally responsive, teachers can acquire the skills to deliver lessons that engage, motivate and improve students’ learning outcomes. The brief characteristic of these attributes is presented in Table 1. The proposed model of teacher’s emotional competence assumes that the teacher is responsible for creating an atmosphere conducive to the students’ engagement in the learning process. The fundamental of the model is the assumption that thinking, emotions and behaviours are inextricably linked, and learning itself is conditioned by emotions. Teachers who develop their skills, knowledge, attitudes and recognise

1The aims of this joint European-wide two-year project (2010–2012) were to transfer innovative emotional literacy programme for secondary school teachers, involved in vocational education and training (VET), in the following EU countries: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, England, Malta, Poland and Portugal. The project was based on an assumption that the way to raise students’ learning achievements and reduce students’ alienation and behavioural problems is to not only focus on students themselves but ﬁrst of all to improve the emotional literacy of teachers, whose ‘soft skills’ training has been neglected to date. Conducting the project, all partners shared the belief that teachers using emotional literacy skills can enhance classroom behaviour and motivation, learning performance, soft skills competences and the prospects of long term employability for students and trainees. Project partners worked on the development of an emotional literacy methodology and a toolkit for VET teachers and trainers, and organized the national pilot workshops. 410 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli

Table 1 Teacher’s emotional competence: attributes and its characteristics Attribute Characteristics Compassion – ability to read emotions – ability to listen to others – understanding the needs and feelings of others – understanding others’ perspectives – sensitivity towards others’ perspectives – establishing relationships with young people based on trust – the ability to sympathize with the suffering of others and the willingness to help them when necessary Enthusiasm – having a passionate interest in delivering the lessons in an energetic, interesting way – willingness to share the knowledge in the field – responsiveness to the needs of students – willingness to consider different modes of lessons delivery to excite learners – encouraging students to broaden their knowledge – engaging students in education Forgiveness – perceiving that others may make mistakes and misbehave – to accept the fact that we all make mistakes, but we can draw conclusions on this basis – understanding what a person was upset and responding to a problem – ability to help the person who upset them to see what they have done – ability to ‘let go’ of feelings of anger and continue work in class – be able to pardon someone for making a mistake or wrongdoing Optimism – see setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw – belief in the capabilities of all students – having a positive attitude and being enthusiastic – be guided by hope for success, not fear of failure – persisting in seeking goals despite obstacles and difficulties Power – be aware of the potential for power to be misused – leading, giving example to imitate – to use their skills as a communicator to diffuse difficult situations – acknowledging the contribution students can make and that they should be heard and not just seen – to be willing to listen and not teach in an authoritarian manner negotiate and jointly set the consequences instead of punishing students – to manage their authority with respect to others and themselves Relational – being an approachable person, – willingness to devote time to listen to others – the desire to engage with and interact with students outside the school environment – finding the balance between focusing on the task and attention to the relationship – willingness to cooperate and share their knowledge – recognize and understand issues related to students, their aspirations, interests and problems – creating appropriate relationships with students and other people (continued) Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 411

Table 1 (continued) Attribute Characteristics – ability to show empathy with students – work with the students to achieve positive results – creating a friendly atmosphere of cooperation Self-confidence – assertiveness, self-assurance and affordability – awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses – be a reflective person – learning from your own experience – openness to sincere criticism, new perspectives, continuing learning and self-development – the ability to admit mistakes and the desire to draw conclusions from their own mistakes – willingness to learn from students and their families – recognizing and rewarding students’ achievements – ability to show a sense of humor – to interact freely with the students – provide feedback and encouragement to pupils Social justice – behave with respect and fairness in the communication with students – respect for people from other backgrounds – be transparent in dealings with others—not one rule for one and a different rule for another – understand diverse worldviews and be sensitive to group differences – see diversity as an opportunity to create the right educational environment, where diverse people can thrive – avoiding creating any prejudices based on gossip heard from other teachers or other premature opinions about a student’s ability – the ability to relate and interact with others on the basis of respect Trust – to be fair, truthful and honorable in relationships with students – be confident in and reliant on the good qualities of others – encourage students to talk to them – perceiving and developing pupils’ abilities – encourage students to know that they can share their knowledge, their own concerns, and to give them the sense that they can trust the teacher – to act ethically – be reliable and authentic Youth culture and – be sensitive and caring in relationships with students school ethos – understand the fact that all students have large, albeit varied, learning opportunities – knowing that working with students can sometimes be difficult and challenging – awareness that students are autonomous persons (have different interests, dress differently, listen to other music, etc.) – being in relationships with students, avoiding patronage – recognise that young people are in a period of transition between childhood and maturity – know that young people will be challenging and difficult at times 412 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli the cultural dimension of teaching, and can also develop their own ability to conduct the interesting and motivating to learning lessons. Taking into account the cultural factor is very important because it is the culture that determines both forms of emotional expression and forms of social interaction. Thus, knowledge and understanding of student culture is the basis for building the right conditions for the learning process.

5 Prospective Second Language Teachers’ Emotional Competence

The study aimed to explore emotional competence of pre-service teachers studying in Turkey and Poland comparatively. To that end, a non-experimental quantitative research design was used by employing a descriptive survey method (Creswell 2012). Within this respect, to determine the relationship between demographic variables (gender, age, academic achievement, country of residence) and emotional competence (enthusiasm, conﬁdence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, and compassion), which are the subscales of PTECS (Prospective Teachers Emotional Competence Scale). To gather data about teachers’ emotional competence, especially their behaviours and attitudes in the classroom and how they might wish to change or develop these as a part their development a survey questionnaire was constructed. The questionnaire allowed also to collect the basic data on the research participants, especially on their age, gender, academic achievement. The questionnaire is called ‘Prospective Teachers Emotional Competence Scale’ (PTECS). This self-report instrument including 11 factors of teachers’ emotional competence (enthusiasm, conﬁdence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, & compassion) and it consists of 89 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale. PTECS has been based on the research instrument Teachers Emotional Literacy Scale (TELS) that was used in the EL4VET project. The questionnaire was administrated to 53 Polish and 97 Turkish pre-service teachers studying at universities in Poland and Turkey. As it was challenging and time-consuming to include all pre-service teachers in the study in Poland and Turkey, the researchers obliged to sample the population. In the sampling process, some criteria such as studying at the school of education, not actively teaching, studying at a university in Poland and Turkey, voluntary participation, effective time management were taken into account. Within this respect, apart from paper-based scales delivered to pre-service teachers, an online scale was developed to reach the pre-service teachers conveniently. As a consequence, questionnaires were conveyed face to face and via the internet to pre-service teachers studying at public and private universities in Warsaw, Poland and Istanbul, Turkey by using random sampling technique (Creswell 2012). Table 2 presents the number of pre-service teachers participated in the study in Poland and Turkey. Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 413

Table 2 Number of the Country f % participants Poland 53 35.3 Turkey 97 64.7 Total 150 100

Table 3 Gender of the Gender Polanda Turkey participants f/% f/% Female 49/94.3 73/75.3 Male 3/5.7 24/24.7 Total 52/100 97/100 aAs one of the participants didn’t specify the gender, s/he has been excluded

Table 4 Age of the Age Poland Turkey participants f/% f/% 17–24 44/93 74/76.3 25 and more 9/17 23/23.7 Total 53/100 97/100

Table 5 Academic Academic achievement Poland Turkeya achievement of the f/% f/% participants Low 16/30.2 37/38.1 High 37/69.8 59/60.9 Total 53/100 96/100 aAs one of the participants didn’t specify the GPA, s/he has been excluded

According to the Table 2, the number of the participants in Turkey was less than the number in Poland. The sample size was (n = 150). In addition to total number of the participants from Poland and Turkey, Table 3 outlines the number of female and male participants in Poland and Turkey. The demographics revealed that 94.3% of 52 pre-service teacher participants in Poland were female and 5.7% of them were male. In Turkey, 75.3% of 97 pre-service teacher participants in Poland were female, and 24.7% of them were male. Regarding the demographics, participants’ age was also obtained. Table 4 displays the details of participants with respect to age. As it is clear from the table, most of the participants in Poland and Turkey are younger than the 25 years old. In the study, related to demographics, pre-service teachers academic achievement was also acquired. Table 5 shows the academic achievement of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. 414 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli

The Table on academic achievement demonstrates that the percentage of high achieving pre-service teachers is higher in Poland than Turkey. Furthermore, it is also clear that the percentage of low achieving preservice teachers in Turkey is higher than Poland. In order to explore the relationship between pre-service teachers’ demographics and enthusiasm, confidence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, compassion which are the subscales of PTECS (Prospective Teachers Emotional Competence Scale), independent samples t-test were calculated. On the basis of the gathered data analysis some interesting research findings emerged from the study. Data analysis allowed to evaluate research teachers’ emotional competence and examine the relationship between pre-service teachers’ demographics and enthusiasm, confidence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, compassion which are the subscales of PTECS.

5.1 Emotional Competence: Sub-scale Scores Means

Table 6 presented at the following present the sub-scale scores means of Polish and Turkish pre-service teachers. The independence samples t-test was used to explore the sub score means of pre-service teachers from Poland and Turkey. Table 6 shows that only Youth culture mean scores of pre-service teachers in Poland were higher than the pre-service teachers in Turkey (t148 = −2.554; p < 0.5). Furthermore, sub-scores

Table 6 Comparison of sub-scale scores means according countries (Poland and Turkey) Emotional competence—subscales Country t P Poland Turkey M/Sd M/Sd Enthusiasm 30.7/4.1 29.2/4.8 1.863 0.064 Conﬁdence 38.9/5.1 38.7/6 0.228 0.820 School ethos 45.2/6.8 44.2/7.4 0.883 0.378 Optimism 19.9/2.7 19.7/3.4 0.399 0.690 Power 25.4/3.1 25.2/4.2 0.382 0.703 Forgiveness 21.6/2.9 21.4/3.7 0.272 0.786 Youth culture 24.5/2.7 23.2/3.2 2.554 0.012* Social justice 31.2/4.4 30.8/5.3 0.554 0.580 Relational 44.1/6.9 44.2/7.4 −0.121 0.904 Trust 35.4/5.2 34/6 1.417 0.159 Compassion 24.6/4 24.2/4.9 0.504 0.615 * The mean difference is signiﬁcant at the .05 level Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 415

Fig. 1 Summary of sub-scale scores means pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey means also reveal that in all other sub-dimensions, there were not any statistically significant differences for pre-service teachers both in Turkey and Poland. However, it is clear that there are some similarities of sub-score means of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. The level of optimism and forgiveness of pre-service teachers both in Poland and Turkey is rather low. Culture and compassion mean score level of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey is low, as well. On the contrary, the mean score level of confidence, school ethos and relational of pre-service teachers both in Poland and Turkey is the highest. Especially the level of confidence score of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey is almost the same (Fig. 1).

5.2 Gender and Emotional Competence

The results of the gender and emotional competence sub-scales are presented in Table 7. The results allowed for examining the differences in gender and their emotional competence between Polish and Turkish pre-service teachers. A t-test was performed to explore if sub-scores means differed according to the gender of the pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. As shown in Table 7, Accordingly, school ethos mean scores of female pre-service teachers in Turkey were higher than the male pre-service teachers (t95 = −2.226; p < 0.5). Furthermore, compassion mean scores of female pre-service teachers in Turkey were higher than the male pre-service teachers (t95 = −2.251; p < 0.5). In all other 416 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli

Table 7 Analysis of sub-scale scores according to gender Emotional competence—subscales Gender t p Female Male M/Sd M/Sd Enthusiasm (P) 31/4 28.7/0.57 −0.994 0.325 Enthusiasm (T) 29.8/4 27.7/6.1 −1.867 0.065 Confidence (P) 39/5.4 37/3 −0.659 0.513 Confidence (T) 39/5.9 37.8/6 −0.801 0.425 School ethos (P) 45.8/6.8 40/4.3 −1.442 0.156 School ethos (T) 45.1/6.5 41.2/9.1 −2.226 0.028* Optimism (P) 20.1/2.6 18.3/3.7 −1.084 0.284 Optimism (T) 20/3.2 18.9/4.1 −1.348 0.181 Power (P) 25.7/3 23.7/2.5 −1.146 0.257 Power (T) 25/4.1 25.9/4.5 0.960 0.340 Forgiveness (P) 21.7/2.9 19/4.2 −1.235 0.223 Forgiveness (T) 21.3/3.5 21.7/4.3 0.319 0.750 Youth culture (P) 24.7/4.9 22.7/2.6 −1.238 0.222 Youth culture (T) 23.1/3 23.2/4 0.021 0.983 Social justice (P) 31.5/3 28.3/4.5 −1.178 0.244 Social justice (T) 30.9/5.1 30.4/5.8 −0.408 0.684 Relational (P) 44/3.5 42.7/7.2 −0.334 0.740 Relational (T) 44.7/7 42.6/8.4 −1.239 0.230 Trust (P) 35.7/4 33.3/5.3 −0.749 0.457 Trust (T) 34.3/5.6 33/6.9 −0.896 0.372 Compassion (P) 24.9/4 22/5.6 −1.194 0.238 Compassion (T) 24.9/4.3 22.3/5.9 −2.251 0.027* * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level sub-dimensions, there were not any statistically significant differences both in Turkey and Poland.

5.3 Age and Emotional Competence

Table 8 presents the following difference between Polish and Turkish pre-service teachers age and their emotional competence. Table 8 clariﬁes the t-test results with respect to age of pre-service teachers. t-test was performed to explore if sub-scores means differed according to the age range of the pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. The results suggested that conﬁdence mean scores of pre-service teachers over 25 years old in Turkey was higher (t95 = −2.010; p < 0.5) than those teachers in Poland. It was also detected that school ethos mean scores of pre-service teachers over 25 years old was higher Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 417

Table 8 Analysis of sub-scale scores according to age Emotional competence—subscales Age t p 17–24 25 and more M/Sd M/Sd Enthusiasm (P) 31/3.5 30.5/5.5 0.306 0.761 Enthusiasm (T) 28.8/4.8 31/4.2 −1.943 0.055 Confidence (P) 39.3/5.2 37.1/5.2 1.159 0.252 Confidence (T) 38/5.9 41/5.6 −2.010 0.047* School ethos (P) 45.4/6.9 45.2/6.7 0.096 0.924 School ethos (T) 43.1/7.2 47.4/7.2 −2.495 0.014* Optimism (P) 20/2.7 19.8/2.5 0.267 0.791 Optimism (T) 19.5/3.3 20.4/3.7 −1.096 0.276 Power (P) 25.6/2.7 24.8/4.7 0.735 0.466 Power (T) 25/4.2 26.1/4.2 −1.158 0.250 Forgiveness (P) 21.4/2.9 22.3/3.5 −0.792 0.433 Forgiveness (T) 21.3/3.7 22/4 −0.927 0.356 Youth culture (P) 24.7/2.7 23.8/3.3 0.914 0.365 Youth culture (T) 23.2/3.3 23.2/3 −0.109 0.913 Social justice (P) 31/4.4 32.3/5.1 −0.745 0.460 Social justice (T) 30.6/5.4 31.5/4.8 −0.780 0.437 Relational (P) 44.2/7 43.2/7.2 0.382 0.704 Relational (T) 43.6/7.4 46.1/7.1 −1.434 0.155 Trust (P) 35.6/5.3 34.6/5.1 0.552 0.583 Trust (T) 33.7/6 34.8/6 −0.713 0.478 Compassion (P) 24.9/4.1 24/4 0.913 0.365 Compassion (T) 24/5 25.1/4.6 −0.975 0.332 * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level

in Turkey (t95 = −2.495; p < 0.5) than in Poland. In all other sub-dimensions, there were not any statistically signiﬁcant differences both in Turkey and Poland.

5.4 Academic Achievements and Emotional Competence

Table 9 presents the difference between Polish and Turkish pre-service teachers academic achievements and their emotional competence. Table 9 suggests information about pre-service teachers’ academic achievement and sub-score relations. According to t-test performed to explore that conﬁdence mean scores of pre-service teachers with high GPA were higher both in Turkey (t94 = −2.489; p < 0.5) and Poland (t51 = −2.223; p < 0.5). It was also obtained that, optimism mean scores of pre-service teachers with high GPA were higher both in Turkey (t94 = −2.013; p < 0.5) and Poland (t51 = −3.014; p < 0.5). On the other 418 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli

Table 9 Analysis of sub-scale scores according to academic achievement (GPA) Emotional competence—subscales Academic achievements t p Low (low & High (high & medium) very high) M/Sd M/Sd Enthusiasm (P) 29.2/3.1 31.3/4.3 −1.759 0.085 Enthusiasm (T) 28.1/3.9 29.9/5.2 −1.844 0.068 Confidence (P) 36.6/3.8 39.9/5.3 −2.223 0.031* Confidence (T) 36.8/5.8 39.8/5.8 −2.489 0.015* School ethos (P) 43.2/4.6 46.1/7.5 −1.402 0.167 School ethos (T) 43.1/6.9 44.7/7.7 −0.965 0.337 Optimism (P) 18.3/7.3 20.7/2.6 −3.014 0.004* Optimism (T) 18.8/3.4 20.2/3.4 −2.013 0.047* Power (P) 24.7/3 25.8/3.1 −1.143 0.258 Power (T) 24.6/4.5 25.8/3.9 −1.334 0.184 Forgiveness (P) 19.8/2.2 22.3/2.9 −2.912 0.005* Forgiveness (T) 20.8/3.6 21.7/3.7 −1.050 0.296 Youth culture (P) 22.9/2.3 25.2/2.7 −2.968 0.005* Youth culture (T) 22.7/2.5 23.4/3.6 −1.019 0.311 Social justice (P) 30/3.4 31.8/4.8 −1.382 0.173 Social justice (T) 29.7/5.6 31.5/5.1 −1.650 0.102 Relational (P) 41.3/5.1 45.2/7.3 −1.899 0.063 Relational (T) 43/7.9 44.8/7 −1.202 0.232 Trust (P) 33/3.1 36.5/5.6 −2.328 0.024* Trust (T) 33.7/5.9 34.1/6.2 −0.402 0.689 Compassion (P) 23.2/3.7 25.3/4 −1.820 0.075 Compassion (T) 23.5/5 24.9/4.8 −1.292 0.200 * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level hand, forgiveness mean scores of pre-service teachers with high GPA were higher in Poland (t51 = −2.912; p < 0.5). Furthermore, it was also discovered pre-service teachers with high GPA also had higher scores on Youth Culture (t51 = −2.968; p < 0.5) and Trust (t51 = −2.328; p < 0.5).

6 Conclusions

In this chapter, the issue of teacher emotional competence was raised. A special attention was paid to the emotional competence of second language teacher. In the chapter, the research on pre-service second language teachers’ emotional competences was presented. The research allowed to explain its subject with taking into account such variables such as age, gender, academic achievements, country of Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 419 residence, and enthusiasm, confidence, school ethos, optimism, power, forgiveness, youth culture, social justice, relational, trust, compassion. The research has some limitations as it only includes pre-service teachers in Poland and Tukey. Furthermore, it is also limited as it involves participants from Warsaw city in Poland and Istanbul city in Turkey (two largest cities in both countries). In addition to that, the analyses were administrated depending on the assumption of participants’ sincerity and objectivity. Finally, the study is limited as it involves sophister and final grade pre-service teachers. However, the study results direct our attention to the issue of teacher education of L2 teachers, and it can be helpful in formulating some conclusions on opportunities and challenges of this education in the context of developing L2 teachers’ emotional competence. The results revealed that there is a difference in the mean of youth culture scores of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. Pre-service teachers in Poland have a high level of youth culture in comparison to pre-service teachers in Turkey. Pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey scored the highest on confidence, school ethos and relational. Especially the level of confidence score of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey is almost the same. There is also a difference in the mean of emotional competence scores of the male and female pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. School ethos and compassion mean scores of female pre-service teachers in Turkey were higher than the male pre-service teachers. There is also a difference in the mean of emotional competence scores of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey depending on the age. Accordingly, confidence and school ethos mean scores of pre-service teachers over 25 years old in Turkey was higher than the pre-service teachers in Poland. Academic achievement also made a difference in the mean of emotional competence scores of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. Optimism mean scores of pre-service teachers with high GPA were higher both in Turkey. On the other hand, forgiveness mean scores of pre-service teachers with high GPA were higher in Poland. Furthermore, it was also discovered that pre-service teachers with high GPA also had higher scores on Youth Culture. According to the presented research results, teacher educators should create a lot of educational situations for developing prospective teachers’ emotional competence, especially in such areas as optimism, forgiveness, culture, compassion. Especially, it is critical for pre-service teacher educators to make efforts to develop prospective teachers’ optimism and forgiveness both in Poland and Turkey. Furthermore, Turkish teacher educators should cultivate male pre-service teachers’ school ethos and compassion. However, both in Poland and Turkey, female and male pre-service teachers’ optimism and forgiveness should be developed. Finally, optimism and forgiveness should be developed for all age groups of pre-service teachers in Poland and Turkey. There is no real research on in-service L2 teachers’ emotional competencies in Poland and Turkey and the educational needs and experiences of these teachers within the area of developing emotional competence. Nevertheless, we can assume that the findings that were obtained by researching pre-service teachers can be useful in designing the training, workshops for in-service teachers. There are some 420 J. Madalińska-Michalak and B. Bavli areas that should be treated with the specific attention like for examples: school culture, compassion, optimism and forgiveness. These areas can be treated as challenges for teacher education in the field of developing L2 teachers’ emotional competence. On the other hand, confidence, school ethos, relational can be perceived as opportunities for emotional education for L2 teachers. The idea of developing teachers’ emotional competence is still perceived as a new one. At the same time, there is a need to provide teachers with the programmes that will be useful for their analysis, reflection and emotional competence building to enhance their ongoing teaching practice at the classroom level (Madalinska-Michalak 2015). The issue of developing teacher emotional competence contributes to a wider discussion on the opportunities, challenges and recent trends in the development of initial teacher education, induction and continuous professional development of teachers. It raises the question of emotional education for teachers throughout their career. The research shows that the teachers can find even short programmes on emotional education to be of real value to them in their continuous learning to teach. Well-designed education offer to teachers can support them in the development of their emotional competence and can have an effect on the teachers’ practice in their school workplace (Corcoran and Tormey 2012; Madalinska-Michalak 2015). Recommended Readings – Elias, J. M., & Arnold, H. (2006). The educator’s guide to emotional intelligence and academic achievement. Development of emotional competence. California: Corwin Press. In the book, the authors clarify the classroom practices of emotional intelligence for educators. – Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam Books. Daniel Goleman has emotional intelligence books of the international best seller. In his book, Goleman underlines the importance of emotional intelligence for achievement in the life and provides detailed information about the skills of emotional intelligence. – Goleman, D. (2000). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. This book discusses and compares the emotional intelligence with the IQ with the samples around the world. The book also provides information about professional life achievement and emotional intelligence relation. – Jackson, S. (2013). Emotional competence: How teachers can get students to learn easier and faster. California: Missing Piece Publications. The book presents practical information about emotional competence for teachers to be used in the classroom during the instruction. – Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York: The Guilford Press. Developing Emotional Competence for L2 Teaching … 421

In her book, Carolyn Saarni provides comprehensive information about the development of emotional competence of school-age children and young adolescents. Saarni also clariﬁes key emotional skills with the focus of culture and gender.

Questions for Reﬂection and Discussion – What do you think about the relation of IQ and EQ? Is it EQ more critical for student achievement than EQ? If yes, why do you think so? – Why emotional education of L2 teacher during the whole teachers’ career is important? Please give at least 3 reasons for it. – What kind of activities should be done in teacher education according to the result of this research in both countries? Why? – Do you believe that teacher education institutions (pre and in-service) should provide professional development activities on emotional competence not only to L2 teachers but to all subject teachers? If yes, why do you think so?

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Author Biographies

Joanna Madalińska-Michalak is titular Professor of Social Sciences (Educational Research) at the University of Warsaw and head of the Chair of Didactics and Teacher Education, Faculty of Education at University of Warsaw, Poland. Her research work has focused on educational leadership, teacher education, teachers and school principals competences and development, and research ethics. She is actively involved in many national and international research projects. She has delivered keynotes in a wide range of countries. She is an author of more than 200 scientific publications, mainly articles in journals and books. She serves for global, international, and national scientific organisations. She serves for global, international, and national scientific organisations. She serves as a member of the Board of Directors of International Council of Education for Teaching (ICET), a representative of Polish Educational Research Association in World Education Research Association (WERA), a member of Council Board of European Educational Research Association (EERA). She is a Chair of Teacher Education Policy in Europe Scientific Network (TEPE), President of Polish Educational Research Association (PERA), and a member of Board of Scientifc Associations at the Polish Academy of Science.

Bünyamin Bavli started his teaching experience as an assistant English Language Teacher in Frankfurt, Germany between 2006 and 2007. After turning back to Turkey, he worked as a teacher of English at various state schools, took charge in school management, designed, administrated and conducted EU financed projects at the local Ministry of Education in Turkey between 2006 and 2014. In 2014, he started to work at Yıldız Teknik University School of Education after taking different positions in public. He received his Master’s Degree on critical thinking skills of teachers in Curriculum and Instruction department in 2011. He served as a visiting researcher at Warsaw University to conduct doctoral dissertation research financed by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Recently, he has defended his doctoral dissertation on English teacher effectiveness in Poland and Turkey. He serves as a Doctor at curriculum and instructional studies. His research interests are curriculum evaluation, instructional design, curriculum development, and teacher education. Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity Development: Implications for Second Language Teacher Education

Marie-Claire Lemarchand-Chauvin and Claire Tardieu

Abstract The impact of emotions on professional identity development in the ﬁeld of second language teacher education has become a focus of research quite recently. In many French teacher-training contexts the construction of a mainly rational professional identity has been thought relevant, emotions such as fear, anger or sadness being very often considered as a nuisance. Paradoxically, pre-service teachers continue to stress the emotional aspects of their work without really being heard by the educational authorities who keep emphasizing linguistic and didactic proﬁciency. This chapter addresses both the negative and positive impacts of emotions on the construction of second language teachers’ professional identity at the start of their career and proposes concrete ideas for pre-service and in-service training. After presenting a theoretical and conceptual framework (Plutchik in Emotion a psycho-evolutionary synthesis. Harper, New York, 1980; Psychological Review, 99(3), Jul 1992, 550–555, 1992; Belzung in Biologie des émotions. de Boeck, Louvain-la-Neuve, 2007; Jonczyk in Affect-language interactions in native and non-native English speakers. Springer, 2016) and a literature review about emotions, the authors analyse logs kept by seven pre-service teachers over a school term and comment on the results of a survey they conducted on four groups of teachers at different stages of their teaching career. They conclude by suggesting some concrete ways to empower language teachers as they build a well-balanced professional identity.

Keywords Second language teacher education Á Emotions Á Professional identity development Á Body and voice Á Reﬂective practice

M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin (&) University of Paris Est Créteil, Créteil, France e-mail: [email protected] C. Tardieu (&) University of Sorbonne Nouvelle—Paris 3, Paris, France e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 425 J. de D. Martínez Agudo (ed.), Emotions in Second Language Teaching, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_23 426 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu

1 Introduction

The impact of emotions on professional identity development in the field of second language teacher education has become a focus of research only recently. In many teacher-training contexts the construction of a mainly linguistic and didactic professional identity has long been thought relevant, emotions being considered as a nuisance. Paradoxically, pre-service teachers have for a long time looked for support to address the emotional aspects of their work without really being heard by the educational authorities. What to do with the fear of entering the classroom, the anger that may arise due to a disruptive class situation, the happiness of a successful moment or the sadness one may feel when confronted to one’s own limits? Since Aristotle and Descartes, emotions have been defined and described in various ways, and a distinction has been made between emotions and feelings, the latter being considered as cognitive phenomena by contemporary research. Indeed, defining emotions is not an easy task. The very word emotion shares the same etymology as motion from the latin movere: to move. An emotion is by definition something unstable and capable to “move” us, to “shake” us too. Conversely, the act of teaching is supposed to remain under control and the training received by would-be-teachers is precisely meant to help them acquire such mastery. Previous research (Lemarchand-Chauvin 2016) has shown the profound discrepancy between the student teachers’ and the teacher trainers’ discourses, the former emphasizing emotions and relationships, the latter on didactics and professional postures. Emotions have been a subject of consideration for philosophers, who tend to define them and discuss their universal value. Yet, there is no general agreement between their theories and no real scientific certainty. In his Rhetorics and Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle lists the following emotions: anger, pity, fear and desire and associates them to pleasure or pain. This distinction finds recent echoes in Belzung’s work (2007) which emphasizes the positive or negative valence of emotions, a notion consistent with what the teachers in our study report about their professional practice. Descartes describes six main emotions: admiration, hate, love, desire, joy and sadness and distinguishes between primary and secondary emotions (a combination of the main emotions). This differentiation is backed up by contemporary research on cognitive phenomena (Izard 1977; Plutchik 1980; Reid 1976). The American philosopher James (1884) associates emotions with the physiological perception of changes in our body, which seems in keeping with both Spinoza’s establishing a strong connection between the affect and the body (1677/ 2005) and Merleau Ponty’s phenomenology of perception (1945). Contemporary research has greatly benefited from all these works. For instance, Ochs and Schieffelin (1989: 7) prefer to use the term “affect”, which includes “feelings, moods, dispositions and attitudes associated with persons and/or situations.” The Chilean neuroscientist and philosopher Varela has developed a theory that enhances the role of emotions and the importance of “embodied cognition”. More recently Damasio (1994, 1999, 2003) and Goleman (1995) have also Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 427 emphasized the role of affect on human intelligence, the latter popularizing the concept of “emotional intelligence” created by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Their approach may be considered as an inclusive theory about emotions, which are no longer opposed to feelings or reason but partake of the very dynamics of human life. Finally, Jonczyk (2016) questions the previous models and the validity of the generally accepted categories and suggests a new approach to the issue with the concept of “core affect”. Adopting a neuropragmatic perspective, he discusses the relationship between affect and language in the context of monolingual and bilingual interactions. All these advances in scientific research lead us to consider that emotional development should be part and parcel of the training of language teachers. Indeed, whether they be pre-service on in-service, language teachers have to deal with their own emotions and those of their students on a daily basis. This chapter precisely aims to address both the negative and positive impact of emotions on the construction of second language teachers’ professional identity. Our protocol involves two types of data: firstly, logbook data collected from 7 pre-service English teachers, in Académie de Créteil in France, who were asked to write about their emotions for a whole school term; secondly, answers to a survey carried out among 33 pre-service teachers, 6 year 1 in-service teachers, 8 year 5 in-service teachers, and 8 expert teachers every day for two weeks. Our data analysis aims to answer the following questions: 1. What sort of emotions do pre-service English teachers feel in the context of their work? 2. What circumstances trigger those emotions? 3. Do they share their emotions with others? 4. To what extent do teachers experience the same emotions in the course of their career? Finally, we will draw on the results to propose some concrete solutions that may reconcile the two polar opposites – emotions and cognition. In doing so, we aim to empower language teachers as they build a well-balanced professional identity.

2 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

The purpose of this part is to highlight some notions and conceptual tools relevant for our survey and analysis. The current chapter will thus retain a list of “primary” emotions derived from contemporary works: joy, sadness, shame, anger, guilt, fear and surprise (Izard 1977; Plutchik 1980; Ekman 1992). Knowing that giving one common deﬁnition of the word emotion is rather complex (Kleinginna and Kleinginna 1981 in Belzung 2007: 15), we will nevertheless stick to these familiar categories. Indeed, our data consist of what teachers write or say about their own emotions in relation to their teaching practice. 428 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu

Other works in the fields of psychology (Lazarus 1991), sociology (Kemper 1993) or cultural studies (Abu-Lughod and Lutz 1990) tend to question the uni- versality of emotions according to their various modes of expression or interpretation. When it comes to selecting the most frequent emotions experienced and reported by teachers, one may wonder if the same general emotions are to be found and what personal values and commitment teachers dedicate to the act of teaching. We will also rely on the concept of negative and positive valence (Belzung 2007) in keeping with the situations reported by the novice teachers, joy being felt as a pleasant, positive emotion, contrary to anger or fear which awake negative, repressive feelings. We want to understand what their emotional triggers are and how emotions seem to affect their feeling of professional efficacy. Although the current study will not include physiological data, connecting emotions with perception and sensations cannot be totally ignored all the more since the teaching profession is seen as an intellectual one. As early as 1960, neuroscientist Mac Lean proposed a model of the evolution of the human brain with the concept of “triune brain” (1990) composed of the reptilian complex (basic behaviours), the limbic system (emotions) and the neo-cortex (reasoning). He thus suggested that the limbic system was the gatekeeper giving or refusing access to the neo-cortex. Do we note in our corpus such an influence of the emotions over the intellect - impeding or facilitating thinking and decision-making in the course of teaching? In line with our interest in what teachers say about their emotions in a professional context, Rimé’s work is highly relevant (1998, 2005) and the notion of “sharing”. Indeed, Rimé advocates the social sharing of emotions as “a powerful elicitor of social integration”. This study will seek to determine whether our teachers share their emotions, who with and for what benefit if any. This research is also concerned with professional identity (Dubar 2001; Ion 1996) involving both social and biographical dimensions. In the context of initial and in-service teacher education, the very notions of “image” and “provisional self” coined by Ibarra (1999) seem particularly relevant. Thus, investigating about professional identity necessarily implies inquiring about change and accompaniment to change if the issue of sustainable professional development (Bédard and Béchard 2009) is to be tackled. According to Rege-Colet (2016), Scharmer’s theory U (2009) can offer a useful metaphor to account for social, organizational and personal transformations, that of a U-shaped journey. Emotions cannot but be part and parcel of a process that involves experimenting, sharing, analysing, learning and eventually changing.

3 State of the Art

The research on the issue is already extensive. Using teachers’ narratives, Zembylas (2003) deals with the topic in terms of teachers’ self-development. He suggests that the construction of teacher identity is “at the bottom affective”—which is in keeping Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 429 with Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence—and is dependent on “power” and “agency” (Zembylas 2003: 213). He further argues that “teachers’ emotions can become sites of resistance and self-transformation” (ibid.: 213). For de Sousa (1980: 446): “If we cease to think of emotions as irrational, then we can view them as ‘instruments of freedom’ rather than as tools of self-oppression”. This is exactly what we would like to verify in our study. To what extent can emotions be handled in such a way that, whether they be positive or negative, they no longer create a barrier to action and become factors of empowerment for teachers? Zembylas also emphasizes the social dimension of our emotions. He writes: “The emotions that teachers experience and express, for example, are not just matters of personal dispositions but are constructed in social relationships and systems of values in their families, cultures, and school situations. These relationships and values profoundly influence how and when particular emotions are constructed, expressed, and communicated” (ibid.: 216). He quotes feminist research, which deconstructs usual dichotomies: object/subject, or emotion/reason and points at established hierarchies for that matter. His approach is neither psychological nor sociological but post structural, i.e. it envisages the issue of identity as dependent on discourses and disciplinary places in which it is embedded. In this paradigm, teacher identity is no longer viewed in reference to a normative ideal but rather as informed by discursive practices. In the context of education, it means that the teachers’ emotions are also governed by institutional discourses. This aspect is particularly relevant for us as pre-service teachers are constrained to read and comply with the official recommendations and the numerous sometimes contradictory formative discourses. Finally, Zembylas offers “a promising route for teachers’ efforts to construct ways to empower themselves and overcome feeling of personal inadequacy and powerlessness in teaching. Identity transformation occurs when the emotional salience or power of one’s experiences changes” (2003: 229). He also identifies two key factors: storytelling and awareness. Since our study relies on what teachers write in their logbooks, the data analysis reveals a type of discourse that is precisely both narrative and reflective. As for the emotions to be analysed here, we assume that Gabriel’s(1957) study will be particularly relevant since it draws up a list of the various emotional problems encountered by teachers in the classroom: frustration, strain, annoyance, elation and depression. It is to be noted here that these “emotional problems” slightly differ from the general taxonomies exposed earlier. If annoyance can be associated with anger, elation with joy and depression with sadness, frustration and strain seem particularly specific to the profession, although strain can be viewed as a form of fear. Another interesting study by Bartky (1990) tackles the specific issue of shame, which is very often mentioned by teachers, although shame does not belong to the category of emotions, stricto sensu. It seems to us that rather than relying on a general list of emotions our study should be based on a more specific list proper to the teaching profession, that is frustration, strain (fear), annoyance (anger), elation (joy), depression (sadness) and shame. 430 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu

We may then wonder which of these six specific “emotions” either impede or on the contrary facilitate teachers’ professional empowerment. The theories mentioned above tell us that a single answer should not be looked for. In that respect, Nias (1993, 1996) asserts the importance of considering teaching not just as a technique but also as strongly connected with our individual lives. Although we may find the same types of emotions among our 33 pre-service teachers, we assume that all teachers do not necessarily react to them in the same way and that their narrative and reflective discourses will differ. Of course, teachers’ emotions cannot be considered as separate from students’ emotions (Sutton and Wheatley 2003). Here, students’ emotions will only be mentioned in relation to teachers’ emotions, which remain the core of our research. Emotion regulation whether it be through breathing exercises or reflective activities is another important notion for teacher education, according to Fried (2011). This will be useful when it comes to suggesting activities for teacher training. This brief review of the relevant literature on the topic is far from exhaustive. Yet, it has highlighted a range of studies encompassing a variety of topics on the issue. Our study will thus focus on: – Teachers’ emotions in relation to class situations; – Teachers’ negative or positive feelings about their emotions; – Teachers’ sharing or not sharing their emotions with others.

4 Methodological Framework

Saric (2015: 2) points at the fact that it is very difficult to measure teachers’ emotions, because they involve psychological as well as physiological phenomena which manifest themselves in different ways according to individuals. To avoid the difficulty and complexity of measuring teachers’ emotions in the classroom, a group of volunteer teachers were asked to write or talk about emotional episodes that occurred while working. 7 pre-service English teachers volunteered to keep an online written or oral logbook daily for a school term. They were provided with Plutchik’s wheel of emotions (1980) and were asked to report about their emotions at work or when preparing lessons at home, then to specify if they shared their emotions and who with. In parallel, a logbook-like survey was sent daily for two weeks to 55 English teachers of the académie of Créteil, among whom 33 pre-service teachers (including the 7 volunteers above mentioned), 6 year 1, 8 year 5 and 8 expert in-service teachers in charge of tutoring. These four categories take into account the evolution of the career of teachers, but of course the resulting sample is not representative in itself of the broader population of English teachers in France. Our teachers were Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 431 asked to choose the emotions they felt among a list of six selected from Izard’s (1977), Plutchik’s(1980) and Ekman’s(1992) shared “primary” emotions: joy, sadness, shame, anger, guilt, fear and surprise. They were allowed to add emotions that were not in the list so as to let them express themselves as freely as possible. They were asked to describe the events that triggered these emotional episodes. Then, they had to mention if they had shared or not their emotions and who with. 488 answers were collected. The data—the 7 logbooks and the 488 answers to the survey—were examined and analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively using Tropes, a semantic analysis software developed by the French University of Aix-en-Provence. Before analysing the results, it is important to specify that what the teachers who answered the questionnaire or/and filled in the logbook consider as emotions does not always happen to be emotions according to Izard’s, Plutchik’s or Ekman’s definitions (see infra: Kleinginna 1981 in Belzung 2007: 15) So even if sometimes the words tend to correspond more to affects or feelings than to emotions, we will nevertheless use the term “emotion” in a generic sense so as to respect the respondents’ answers.

5 Analysis of the Results (Questionnaire N = 488 Answers, Logbook N = 40,176 Words)

In the context of their work, pre-service teachers experience more emotions with a negative valence (60% of the respondents) than emotions with positive ones (40%). In both the questionnaires and the logbooks, the positive emotions they most often mention are joy and satisfaction. These emotions are usually felt when they consider that they gave a good class or when they experienced intersubjectivity with their students. They also feel joy because they love teaching—notwithstanding the inherent difficulties of the job. They are happy and enthusiastic at being in charge of their own students for the first time, whatever the fragility of their situation. The emotions with a negative valence are anger and annoyance, fear and apprehension, and guilt, anger being the most cited emotion. Anger and annoyance are mostly triggered by students’ bad behaviour and violation of rules, but they can also be felt because of bad relationships and conflicts with tutors. Pre-service teachers tend not to mention their dissatisfaction to their tutors, as they know tutors will assess their training year. Lack of communication sometimes ends up in anger. Fear, apprehension and guilt are more closely linked to moments when beginners doubt about their abilities in teaching and achieving goals. These emotions are also felt when they are about to be observed by their tutors during a lesson and when they gave “a bad class”. The answers to the questionnaires and the logbooks show that more than half of pre-service teachers (54%) share their emotions. They first talk about the emotional episodes they have been through with their colleagues (or tutors), then they talk to 432 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu their friends and in a lesser degree to their partners. It is interesting to add that nearly all of those who kept a logbook used this tool as a means of sharing their emotions (with themselves as they would have done with a secret diary, or with the researcher as they made comments to give further explanations) even when they specified that they had not shared with anybody. Some wrote that they did not like sharing negative emotions with family or friends, so they used the logbook to express their anger. Most of the time, sharing with colleagues provides relief and comfort, especially when violation of rules by disruptive students is concerned. This does not help trainees solve their problems but it facilitates social integration, and it creates a feeling of belonging to the same community, it facilitates unity (Rimé 2005). Only sharing with a logbook lowers the intensity of the emotional upset triggered by the memory of the episode, and therefore it contributes to relief or emotional recovery (Rimé et al. 1998). During the course of their career, teachers tend to experience the same emotions as when they were beginners. The difference is only relevant when they reach a certain degree of expertise. Year 1 and Year 5 teachers experience approximately the same percentage of positive and negative emotions (59 and 58% respectively for negative emotions and 41 and 42% for positive emotions) as pre-service teachers, which is logical since they are all at the beginning of their career and thus they may encounter comparable difficulties and similar satisfactions. The slight difference may come from the fact that in-service teachers have a permanent contract, when trainees still fear not passing the qualification examination at the end of their training year. Expert teachers experience balanced emotions (50% for both negative and positive emotions). They are more confident about their practice and they know that the institution recognizes their expertise. Regarding emotions with a positive valence, they all mentioned joy first, followed by surprise for Year 1 teachers, and satisfaction for Year 5 and expert teachers. Like pre-service teachers, Year 1 teachers first experience joy when they consider that they have taught a good lesson. They also feel joy when they see their students working. At that point joy is the result of the mastering of a class as preparing good lessons and managing the students are still their main preoccupa- tions. Expert teachers and, to a lesser extent, Year 5 teachers write about joy and satisfaction associated with their love for teaching. They also mention the joy of giving good lessons. Many expert teachers mention their satisfaction when students are at work and making progress. At that stage of their career, their joy is more centred on the work and progress of their students than on their own abilities. This shows that they have reached a level of professional maturity when trainees are still ‘professional adolescents” (Blanchard-Laville 2013). Anger is the most negative emotion they all mentioned. It is interesting to notice that the more work experience they have, the more anger they declare feeling. 30% of pre-service and Year 1 teachers feel anger whereas 44% Year 5 and 57% expert teachers do. Their anger is triggered by the bad behaviour of disruptive students. When crosschecking the answers, one can conclude that expert teachers feel more Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 433 anger than beginners. The latter are aware of their flaws and show less anger than experts who are sure about their efficiency and do not accept their lessons to be ruined by students’ indifference or misbehaviour. Besides, caring is central in their teaching, which explains that they can easily be disappointed or hurt (O’Connor 2008) and thus angry. Other negative emotions are mentioned but in a far less significant percentage. Year 1 mention sadness (triggered by their lack of practice) and Year 5 and experts mention being tired. Tiredness is referred to by the four categories of teachers especially at the end of school terms when class councils or parent-teacher meetings take place in the evening after class. The four categories of teachers share their emotions, but the more experienced they are, the less they share. Beginners feel the need to share both positive and negative emotional episodes. They share their victories and their difficulties for they are eager to get advice from their colleagues. Seeking advice and help is then seen as a will to progress, as a necessary stage of the construction of their professional identity, and is therefore valued by the community. Trainees emphasize the joy they feel when they share with students, which means that they do not put up barriers between themselves and the students, and that they are willing to present themselves as real human beings with emotions. Yet, when they become more experienced, teachers tend to share their emotions less frequently. This is not because they care less about problems, for we saw how strongly they feel anger. A dichotomy teacher-human seems to apply. The myth of the “model teacher” is still very present among teachers and they hide their emotions from their students and from their colleagues (Hargreaves 2000) to avoid showing their potential weaknesses and their vulnerability. The model teacher is flawless: strong, authoritative and always efficient. Experienced teachers tend to judge each other very severely on professional matters such as the knowledge of their teaching subject, their pedagogy and didactical expertise and classroom management (Barrère 2002). This can explain why they are reluctant to welcome peers or university students in their classes. Several reasons engaging their emotions can be put forward. First of all, some of them encounter shame when they doubt about the validity of their accent or when they lack vocabulary in the language they teach. The mastering of their subject is a very sensitive matter for teachers as it is usually associated with their personal history—studying a language engages love or even passion for a country and its culture. Teaching inspectors relate that it is more difficult for them to point to teachers’ pronunciation mistakes or bad accent than to flaws in their pedagogy. Another reason for refusing to share with peers deals with pedagogy. Many teachers fear letting their colleagues or university students observe their lessons for they are not sure about the validity of their pedagogy. This is especially the case of aging teachers who do not master new approaches and are ashamed of their own methods. Another reason for closing their classrooms’ doors is the question of noise. Having silent students is for teachers a sign of perfect classroom management and language teachers tend to think so too. They thus face a permanent dilemma: having silent students—a proof of their authority—or participative and active students engaged 434 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu in oral activities, which means noise and the risk of being considered as lenient by colleagues or by the principal passing by their classes. In a survey carried out with 180 confirmed teachers, only 11% answered that they sang with their students, the fear of noise being cited as one of the main reasons for not singing. The mythical identity of the model teacher explains why experts share less their emotions than beginners. When expert teachers share, they tend to do it with friend peers or with their families. They do not share with ordinary colleagues, as it would mean admitting their weaknesses. Hence, we can say that the sharing of emotions in the teaching profession is ruled by the stereotyped representations that teachers have of themselves, of their identity. Experienced teachers have more stereotypes—mainly negative ones—than beginners about the perception of their profession, of educational innovation, of their schools, of the students and their parents (Buchilova 2002). Traditionally, it is thought that novices do not fear experimenting and are eager to innovate. They are supposed to ask questions to peers or mentors, which helps them construct their identity through developing professional gestures. Experienced teachers share their knowledge with beginners but are not supposed to have questions, difficulties or flaws. Not sharing with their colleagues can explain why teachers complain about feeling isolated and refuse teamwork (Barrère 2002). The four categories of teachers share their emotions with their colleagues first, and then with their partners. The intensity of the emotions can justify multiple sharing. Sharing is a means to get comfort and relief. It reinforces unity and the sense of community (Rimé 2005). In the context of their profession, teachers feel strong and very contrasted positive and negative emotions. We only quoted the most often mentioned ones and did not refer to frustration, stress or sadness, which were also cited. If teachers mention their love of teaching, they also highlight the fact that it is a very hard and painful job. Some pre-service teachers admit feeling shame when they do not know how to handle a difficult situation. They then feel worthless and have very low self-esteem. Others declare feeling anger but being unable to express it in front of their students, others mention the same about joy. It is also worth noting that both the logbook and the questionnaire triggered interesting reactions among teachers: several participants wrote that it helped them realise what they were really concerned about (i.e.: one was surprised only writing about events and not mentioning the preparation of the lessons although “there was a lot to say about them”). Several wrote that writing in the logbook-like questionnaire every day was like writing “very private things” in a secret diary and added that they were thinking about using a logbook in the future. Seven trainees who volunteered to keep a logbook reported the same. The effect turned out to be positive (and in some cases addictive) for some who also filled it in at weekends or during the holidays. In an interview some specified that it had forced them to have a reflective approach to their work. We also quoted the importance of stereotyped representations of teachers on their profession, which can be responsible for negative emotions like fear or shame that could prevent them from progressing. We underlined the benefits of sharing emotions with peers. Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 435

In order to help pre-service teachers take their emotions into account to build their professional identity and to support them in the long run, one might consider what sort of activities could be implemented.

6 Practical Ideas for Teacher Training

In this part, we will report on three types of activities which were implemented with teachers at the beginning of their careers. The ﬁrst type an approach is based on reﬂective practice, the second activity presents Forum Theatre and the last one focuses on the optimization of teachers’ use of their bodies and voices in the context of their work.

6.1 Reﬂective Practice

6.1.1 Framework on Reﬂective Practices

The notion of “reflective practitioner” (Schön 1983, 1987) was introduced for the initial training of student teachers about 20 years ago, at the end of the 1990s and more specifically at the turn of the century with the publication of a ministry of education circular in 2002. Vacher (2011) notes that a great diversity of practices were implemented in the French teacher training schools (called IUFM at the time) in an attempt to think outside the box of “applicationism”. However the results did not seem to meet the expectations for lack of reflection and training on reflexive practice by teacher trainers themselves. According to Schön, a clear distinction should be made between reflection in action and reflection upon action. Meta-analysis or “reflexivity” means reflection upon reflection (Donnay and Charlier 2006). Vacher (2011) adds that if reflection gives the opportunity to analyse situations, reflexivity goes beyond as it takes into consideration long-term professional development. Perrenoud (2001) or Vermersch (1994) highlight the fact that the teaching practices are largely generated by unconscious habits or representations. If this is the case, reflective practice also aims to bring those representations to the surface of the mind. In that sense, Vermersch’s “entretien d’explicitation” (1994) or even Clot’s “instruction au sosie” (1995) are very useful for our study. The “entretien d’explicitation” aims to directly ask the person the reasons why he/she acted in such a way. The “instruction au sosie” which was first used by Oddone and Briante (1981) to analyse the activity of workers in the Italian motor industry in the 1970s, will be the object of the workshop described in the following part. 436 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu

6.1.2 Description of a Session of “Instruction to Your Double”

A workshop to analyze professional practice was set up with a group of volunteer teachers and several sessions of “instructions to your double” were organized. The aim was to get them to make a reflective analysis of their activity to focus on professional gestures which are part of language teachers’ identity. A volunteer participant was given the following instruction by the teacher trainer: “Imagine I were your double, and that tomorrow I had to replace you at work. What instructions would you like to give me so that nobody would notice the difference?” The discussion took place in front of the group who first had to remain silent and was asked to take notes and prepare questions. The volunteer participant started explaining how he usually conducted a class session. Then, the trainer playing the part of the novice double asked the volunteer teacher to recap, to go back to specific pieces of information so as to explain them again or be more precise. The discussion entered a process of co-analysis and the group was invited to take part. As the instruction and the discussion were recorded, the volunteer teacher was asked to go back to the recording and then to write a reflective report. The experiment can be replicated with several teachers or conducted slightly differently with pairs of teachers exchanging roles under the supervision of the tutor. This exercise can help deconstruct stereotyped representations.

6.2 Forum Theatre

6.2.1 Framework of Forum Theatre

Art-based activities such as Forum Theatre can be suggested to help teachers deal with their emotions: express them to cope with them, but also act them when they are not felt, tame them when they are too strong or on the contrary amplify them. Boal (1995: 7), creator of the Theatre of the Oppressed, gives a helpful deﬁnition of his technique:

In this new kind of theatre, the debate does not come at the end –the forum is the show. This is, in a manner of speaking, a desecration: we desecrate the stage, that altar over which usually the artist presides alone. We destroy the work offered by the artists in order to construct a new work out of it, together. A theatre which is not didactic, in the old sense of the word and style, but pedagogic, in the sense of a collective learning. This approach does not provide participants with ready-made solutions to their questions and/or difficulties, but it turns them into “active observers” or “spect’actors” (ibid.) who take part in the reflection to find potential solutions together. The aim for the “spect’actor” is “to extrapolate into his real life the actions he has rehearsed in the practice of theatre” (ibid.: 40) Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 437

6.2.2 Description of a Session of Forum Theatre

A training session based on Forum Theatre was organized with a group of volunteer pre-service teachers so as to work on classroom management. Conflict situations between students and teachers were acted out. Then “spect’actor” teachers shouted “stop” and took the place of the “oppressed” person. Several novice teachers acted the scene again, trying to find ways of changing the situation and give it a different outcome. The performers and the spectators are thus on an equal footing for their roles can be swapped at any moment, and the discussion is open. To make it fruitful, it is necessary for the teacher trainer to play the role of the “joker”, that is the moderator of the conversations. Emotions with a negative valence—like anger or fear—were acted out, and the more the scenes were replayed, the weaker they became since the “spect’actors” had managed to find a solution to get rid of them or at least to lower their intensity and make them bearable.

6.3 The Body and the Voice of Teachers

6.3.1 Framework of the Body and the Voice of Teachers

The bodies of teachers have interested research in psychology, in sociology (Pujade-Renaud 1983) or in philosophy and anthropology (Vanier 2004) for decades but little has been written so far on the importance of the voice and the body as pedagogical tools (Tellier and Cadet 2014) or as means to convey emotions in class. The initial training of pre-service teachers tends to ignore—or takes for granted— the importance of the voices and the bodies of teachers on their presence in class and on their relationship with students (Tagliante 1994: 63), just as it ignores teachers’ emotions (Favre 2015). The voice cannot be disconnected from the body as it entirely depends on the posture and on the breathing (Pillot-Loiseau in Tellier and Cadet 2014) and emotions are transmitted by the voice and body language. If the body is full of tensions, the voice will be tense and students will feel the negative emotions conveyed. Guimbretière (in Tellier and Cadet 2014) suggests helping teachers discover their own prosodic proﬁle (speed, pitch, segmentation and tone) so as to improve the use of their didactic voice, play with it and take advantage of it in class. Emotions— with a positive or a negative valence—can then be added to give more life to the 438 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu message. Negative emotions like stress can alter the voice for it dries the vocal cords mucosa, stiffens the posture and modiﬁes the breathing (Bento in Tellier and Cadet 2014). The voice, the gaze and the body articulate what teachers feel and can be worked on to master emotions or use them on purpose. Being aware of one’s gait and stand in front of a group and of one’s gestures (McNeill 1992; Kendon 2004; Tellier and Cadet 2014) is thus important.

6.3.2 Description of a Session of “Body and Voice”

A body and voice workshop was organized with a group of volunteer teachers. Relaxation exercises came first, followed by kinaesthetic activities to help them become aware of their existing tensions. Some postures convey tensions and emotions like anger fear or stress, which is the case when standing back on one’s heels as it forces to lock one’s knees. They were asked to walk in front of the group and to look at the participants, as they would do in class at the beginning of a lesson. Walk and gaze convey numerous emotions that were analysed collectively. Some participants were asked by their colleagues to do the exercise again until an improvement was noticed. The voice was then worked on after relaxing the muscles of the face and practising breathing exercises. The position of their heads was corrected when necessary as when it is held too high, the quality of the voice is altered. Discovering and then working on their prosodic profile helped teachers realize that monotony, boredom or stress could sometimes be felt. It allowed them to put more positive emotions (i.e. enthusiasm, satisfaction, interest or surprise) in their speech, so as to motivate their students. During the training, they were asked to choose one emotion they felt difficult to express in class and to act it with increasing intensity. After the second session of this workshop, some pre-service teachers said that it had a positive impact on their practice. Those who could not give way to certain emotions (i.e. anger or enthusiasm) had understood how to perform them, and many had shared episodes of positive emotions with their students. Some also emphasized the importance of the workshop teamwork as it had helped them share emotions that can sometimes be painful and they mentioned that they felt supported and thus less isolated. From these small-scale exploratory activities, we would like to suggest possible applications, which may contribute to a better integration of emotions into the professional development of language teachers (Table 1). Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 439

Table 1 Suggestions for integrating emotions in teacher training Type of Workshop Activity suggested negative suggested emotions Anger Forum theater The situation causing anger can be played and replayed Body and voice until a solution is found workshop Improvisation activities can be suggested to play on emotions and tame them. Anger can then be felt but not displayed in class Fear Instruction to When uncertain about one’s practices, this exercise can the double help analyse the activity in a reﬂective way. The co-analysis and the feedback provided will help feel more conﬁdent or open new perspectives Stress Body and voice – Relaxation exercises focusing on breathing can be workshop suggested to help lower the intensity of stress – In class, focusing on one’s breathing can help cope with stress – Establishing rituals can also be a way of diminishing stress at the beginning of lessons

7 Conclusions

Although our study was conducted with a very small number of teachers and would need to be extended to a larger scale and over a longer period of time, we would like to draw a positive conclusion. Through thinking about their emotions via their logbooks or their sharing with others, the pre-service and Year 1 teachers seem to be more able to cope with their emotions. In the context of their work, pre-service English teachers feel more negative valence emotions than positive ones. Anger— or annoyance to a lesser degree—is the most often encountered owing to students’ bad behaviour or conflicts with their tutors. Fear, apprehension and guilt develop when they are about to be observed by their tutors and when they become aware of their difficulties in teaching and thus question their abilities. More than half of pre-service and in-service teachers share their emotions as they are in need of comfort and advice. They are aware that their more experienced peers can help them progress therefore they feel free to mention both their victories and failures. If they are inclined to share, expert teachers are much more reluctant to do it owing to the persisting myth of the “model teacher” that they should be after years in the teaching profession. Rimé (2005) has shown the benefits of sharing on the building of a team spirit and the feeling of belonging to a group. The “model teacher” myth keeps experienced teachers isolated, deprived of the possibility to share and cope with their dominant negative emotion: anger. The findings presented in this chapter highlight the necessity for language teachers to keep on sharing their emotions all through their careers so as to cope with them and strengthen unity in the profession by getting rid of the representations they have of themselves. The myth of the model teacher deprives expert 440 M.-C. Lemarchand-Chauvin and C. Tardieu teachers of the possibility of sharing negative emotions which keeps them isolated. If the sharing of emotions is essential to unify teams, it is also a powerful asset to progress and help develop professional identity. Explaining one’s practices and analysing them with peers is a first step towards tolerance and collective reflectivity. This is part of the professional gestures teachers should acquire. The pilot workshops we described could be useful tools to help them continue sharing in the long run and thus progressively develop a well-balanced professional identity. Recommended Readings – Boal (1995). The Rainbow of Desire. Oxon: Routledge. In his book, Boal tries to show how powerful and therapeutic theatre can be and how this art can help people transform their lives. He first describes his theory, and then provides the readers with concrete examples of his techniques. – Rimé (2005). Le partage social des émotions. Paris: PUF. After describing what an emotion is and what can trigger it, Rimé focuses on the sharing of emotions and questions its function. Through the analysis of numerous experiments and surveys, he aims at understanding the reason why sharing develops social integration. – Tellier and Cadet (2014). Le corps et la voix de l’enseignant: théorie et pratique Paris: Maison des Langues. This collective work aims at presenting the body and the voice of teachers different points of views—phonology, medicine, didactics, multimodality. It provides the readers with various scientific chapters on the subjects followed by practical worksheets that can be used in a training context. – Vacher (2011). La pratique réflexive. Recherche & formation, (1), 65–78. This article focuses on the use of practice analysis in the initial training of pre-service teachers. After describing the concepts of reflexivity, thought, repercussions and metacognition, Vacher defines teaching tools and examines their effects.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion – How to empower teachers themselves in the control and coping of their emotions all through their career? – What sort of tools and activities can be implemented in both pre-service and in-service training for that purpose? – How to measure the evolution of emotions in the professional development of language teachers? – How to encourage teachers to share their emotions with others and develop a sense of community for their own benefit as language professionals and for the benefit of their students? Teachers’ Emotions and Professional Identity … 441

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Author Biographies

Marie-Claire Lemarchand-Chauvin worked as a qualiﬁed ESL teacher in secondary schools before becoming a teacher trainer at the University of Paris Est Créteil (UPEC) where she currently teaches pedagogy and didactics to Master students and ESL pre-service teachers. She is an ELT author for Editions Maison des Langues (Diffusion) and co-authored secondary school textbooks. As a Ph.D. student in the Sorbonne-Nouvelle-Paris 3 University, she works on pre-service teachers’ emotions. Her research focuses on the role played by emotions in the development of pre-service teachers’ professional identity.

Claire Tardieu is Professor of English Didactics at Sorbonne Nouvelle Paris 3 (Sorbonne Paris Cité), France. She lectures on Foreign Language Teaching and Learning to undergraduates, postgraduates and ESL pre-service teachers. She is also in charge of the Master of Education. Her research (Prismes EA 4398) focuses on assessment and didactic terminology. As a French Ministry of Education contributor in the Department of Evaluation, Prospective and Perfomance (DEPP) she has taken part in several European projects (Dutch Grid, Ebaﬂs, Cef-Estim) and is currently completing the EvaluE project. Afterword

My comments on this excellent collection of papers reflect the perception of one who has only been peripherally engaged in thinking about the role of emotions in language teaching and language teacher education. Until I read this book, that is! Reading this set of papers prompted me to reflect on why an issue that is so central to teacher identity, to classroom teaching, as well as to teacher education, has been marginalized in much of the professional literature until recently. The answer is provided by many of the contributors to this book since emotions have been viewed in much of the standard SLA literature as something fuzzy, difficult to tease apart into its different dimensions, and not observable therefore difficult to research. Emotions were often typically regarded as “soft” and unobservable in comparison to the “hard” quantifiable and rational facts about second language learning and teaching that were the focus of much research attention from the 1970s. One remembers the scorn from some hard-core researchers in relation to books such as Gertrude Moskowitz’s Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: A Sourcebook on Humanistic Techniques, one of the first teacher educators to provide resources and activities to support an emotionally managed classroom. Today, however, the pendulum of opinion has swung back to ideas closer to those of Moskowitz and Earl Stevick and with collections such as this book there is no longer any excuse not to locate the study of emotions with the mainstream of research on language teaching and language teacher education. Emotions are now more often understood as central to teaching and learning and can have either a facilitating or inhibiting role. What are readers such as myself and others likely to take away from this book? One important point made through the book is that research and theorizing on emotion has highlighted different ways in which emotion has been understood. One perspective is the personal and cognitive understanding of emotion. This is a traditional view of emotion as feelings that are unique and personal to the individual and that manifest themselves in different ways according to the context and circumstances. Emotions from the viewpoint of the individual reflect the unique set of characteristics associated with a particular individual to be managed and

controlled. We are told that we must learn to “control” our emotions. One of my friends is very “emotional” and sheds tears very readily. Another gets flushed very readily even if fairly minor incidents prompt disagreement and this shows on his face as it turns red. A more nuanced and socio-cultural understanding of emotion is described throughout this book, since emotions are shown to have both a cognitive and a social dimension. They can be viewed as a core dimension of language use, teaching, and teacher-learning and arise as a result of a dynamic interplay between the teacher and learners’ feelings about learning and the context and activities of learning and teaching. They can shape the way teachers teach. From this perspective emotions are not merely something that we “have’ but something that we “do”. And learning to teach involves not only mastering how to communicate subject matter to learners but how to manage the emotional dimensions of teaching and learning, which can be either facilitative or disruptive to learning, a dimension that is often not considered in discussions of teachers’ pedagogical thinking and practice. Following Shulman, for example, a typical teacher education program seeks to develop skills such as the following: (a) To analyse potential lesson and identify ways in which it could be used. (b) To identify specific linguistic goals. (c) To anticipate any problems that might occur and ways of resolving them. (d) To make appropriate decisions about time, sequencing, and grouping arrangements. What is not included however is an understanding of the emotional dimensions of teaching and strategies for managing the emotional side of teaching. Emotions can be considered the hidden side of teaching. Crucial to teacher learning is discovering how to manage the learners’ and the teacher’s emotions in the classroom. So what is included in the study of emotions in teaching and teacher learning as reflected in this book and why is it an important issue to consider? Firstly, emotions are feelings teachers and learners have about different aspects of teaching and learning. These feelings may be positive or negative. Contributors discuss the following:

Positive feelings Negative feelings Conﬁdent Angry Curious Annoyed Engaged Anxious Enjoyable Bored Enthusiastic Concerned Interested Depressed Fun Disgusted Glad Dissatisﬁed Grateful Exhausted Happiness Frustrated (continued) Afterword 447

(continued) Positive feelings Negative feelings Joyful Jealous Passionate Mad Pleased Nervous Proud Sad Satisﬁed Stressed Tense Uneasy Worried

For teachers, emotions include feelings about such things as themselves, their colleagues, their learners, classroom activities, their teaching context and about teaching resources, about what they perceive to be the beneﬁts and rewards of teaching. Such feelings may be reﬂected in choices teachers may make, prompting them to choose ones that support positive rather than negative emotions. For example: – Their choice of colleagues to work with in activities such as team teaching and peer observation. – Whether they prefer group-based or individual activities such as lesson planning and curriculum development. – The rules and procedures they make use of for dealing with classroom management issues. – The extent to which they make use of activities that address classroom climate, such as games, songs, personal stories and jokes. – The extent to which they make use of activities that involve collaborative rather than competitive learning. – The extent to which they consider emotional factors when choosing commercial materials. – Their preference for teacher-made materials or commercial materials. A personal anecdote may be relevant here in relation to the role of emotions in the design of commercial materials. In my textbook series Interchange, one of the design feature of the course was to bring in humor wherever possible, both as a kind of emotional support for teachers as well learners. An example of humor in dialogs (perhaps more likely to be appreciated by teachers than learners) is a conversation between a female customer and a clerk in a drug store that occurs in level 2 of the series: Clerk: Can I help you madam? Customer: Yes I’m looking for some super-vitamins. Clerk: Super-vitamins? Customer: Yes my husband doesn’t seem to have any energy these days. Clerk: Well you might like to get him to try these. They are new and pretty effective. 448 Afterword

Customer: Great, I’ll take 2 large bottles please. In order to provide humor for both teachers and students, Sam Viviano—the art director of Mad Magazine (a popular magazine for teenagers) was commissioned to provide humorous art throughout the entire series. For learners, emotions include feelings about themselves, about their teachers, about other students, about using English in class, about the teachers’ command of English, about the instructional methods and teaching resources the teacher makes use of such as textbooks or the internet. Thus one can compare the different emotions that arise in relation to activities such as these: – Using English with a native speaker versus using English with a non-native speaker. – Taking part in group-based classroom activities rather than individual activities. – The choice of fluency activities rather than accuracy activities in a lesson. – Getting feedback from the teacher or from other learners. – Getting feedback publicly or privately. – Using English with classmates rather than on-line in a chat room. This resonates with my own experience as a language learner. When I was beginning to develop proficiency in French while a student in French-speaking Quebec City, I tended initially to seek out international students to try out my French, rather than French-Canadian native-speakers of French. In this way I was able to manage the stress that using a foreign language can create. It wasn’t till much later that I developed the confidence to try out my French with native speakers. Using English in a chat room is another stress free way of developing proficiency in English. Whereas classroom-based communication in English is stressful for many learners, sometimes making them unwilling to communicate, the chat room is a stress-free context for the use of English. The participants are not handicapped by their limited English proficiency or fear of making mistakes in front of their peers. Consequently chat room interactions often result in more successful comprehension as well as a greater quantity of target language production than classroom-based communication. Chat room interaction may not only raise awareness of the language participants use, providing opportunities for self-repair and negotiation of meaning but can also provide opportunities for learners to construct their identities as second-language speakers of English. Perhaps the most important message I take from this collection of papers is the need to acknowledge the importance of teachers’ and teacher-educators’ management of emotions during teaching as well as the need to make use of mixed-methods research in exploring the nature and functions of emotions in teaching and learning. Effective management of emotions can lead to better uptake of content and pedagogical knowledge, contributing to what can be called the teacher’s “emotional competence”. Attributes that lie within this domain of teacher-learning include: – Awareness of the nature of teacher and learner emotions. – Ability to recognize students’ emotions, such annoyance, anger and resistance. Afterword 449

– Ability to use classroom discourse and voice to reflect positive emotions. – Ability to use both verbal and non-verbal communication in expressing emotions. – Ability to adjust one’s teaching based on emotional factors. – Ability to manage one’s emotions to reflect the professional role and identity of the teacher. – Ability to use translanguaging to change the emotional climate of the classroom. – Ability to use emotions to encourage student engagement in learning. – Ability to use strategies to address feeling learners may have of embarrassment, fear or anxiety. Throughout this book a wide range of strategies are discussed and illustrated that can be used to incorporate a focus on emotions in teacher education courses. Both the research that is reported and the theorizing of the nature of emotions in teaching and teacher that is provided through the collection also suggest that this important collection of papers represents another important milestone in establishing the significance of the “emotional turn” in applied linguistics and language teacher education.

Jack C. Richards University of Sydney Australia