Mridang

A view of the Siddha Yoga drum from the perspective of the Indian music system

——

Agostino De Marco

November 2000 This page is intentionally blank.

2 Contents

1 A brief Introduction to Indian music 1 1.1 Mythological origins ...... 2 1.2 Historical development ...... 3 1.2.1 The early history ...... 3 1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru ...... 4 1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen ...... 5 1.2.4 The last two centuries ...... 6 1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and dance ...... 6 1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music ...... 7 1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods ...... 8 1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to R¯aga ...... 9 1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani Sangeet ...... 11 1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) ...... 13 1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet ...... 15

2 The Siddha Yoga drum 17 2.1 The mridang ...... 17 2.2 The drum in the context of indian music ...... 19 2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar ...... 20 2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan ...... 20 2.3 Relation between pakh¯awaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam ...... 22

i ii CONTENTS

2.3.1 Construction ...... 22 2.3.2 Tone ...... 23 2.3.3 Technique ...... 24 2.3.4 Philosophy ...... 25 2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants ...... 25

3 Getting started 29 3.1 Acquiring a mridang ...... 29 3.2 Basic care and tuning ...... 31 3.3 Sitting position ...... 35 3.4 Powder ...... 35

4 Basic strokes 37 4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes ...... 37 4.1.1 The right hand open stroke N¯a (na;a)...... 38 4.1.2 The left hand open stroke Gi (; a;ga)...... 38 4.1.3 The left hand closed stroke Ka (k) ...... 39 4.1.4 The right hand closed stroke Te (.tea)...... 39 4.1.5 The right hand closed stroke Ti (; a;ta) ...... 40

4.1.6 The bol TiT. a (; a;taf)...... 40 4.1.7 The right hand open stroke Tin (; a;tMa) ...... 42 4.1.8 The right hand open stroke Tun (tMua)...... 43 4.2 Combined strokes ...... 44 4.2.1 The bol Dh¯a (;Da;a)...... 44 4.2.2 The bol Dhin (; a;DMa)...... 44 4.2.3 The bol Kha (Ka) ...... 45 4.2.4 The bol Dhi (; a;Da) ...... 45 4.2.5 The bol Dhe (;Dea)...... 45 4.2.6 The bol Dhun (;DMua)...... 45

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 CONTENTS iii

4.2.7 The bol Khun (KMua)...... 46 4.3 Drum notation ...... 47 4.4 Exercices ...... 48

5 Advanced material 55 5.1 Other bols ...... 55 5.1.1 The right hand closed stroke Ne ...... 55 5.1.2 The right hand open stroke D¯ı ...... 55 5.1.3 The right hand closed stroke Ma ...... 56 5.1.4 The pakhawaj style T¯a ...... 57 5.1.5 The left hand closed stroke bol Ge ...... 57 5.1.6 The bol Dhak ...... 57

5.1.7 The bol TeRiK¯ıT. a ...... 57 5.2 Exercices ...... 58

6 The North Indian rhythmic system 61 6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts ...... 61 6.1.1 T¯al ...... 61 6.1.2 M¯atr¯a ...... 62 6.1.3 Vibh¯ag ...... 62 6.1.4 Avartan ...... 63 6.1.5 Sam ...... 64 6.1.6 Kh¯al¯ı ...... 64 6.1.7 The bols as a system of mnemonics ...... 65 6.1.8 Lay ...... 67 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns ...... 68

6.2.1 T. heka ...... 68 6.2.2 Prakar ...... 73 6.2.3 Tihai ...... 75

November 2000 [email protected] iv CONTENTS

6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools ...... 77

7 The Kaherawa Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 81

7.1 The basic .theka and his role in a n¯amasan. k¯ırtana ...... 81 7.2 Slow, medium, fast thekas (prakars)...... 81 7.3 Additional variations ...... 81 7.4 Cadential material: tihais ...... 81 7.5 Other phrases ...... 81 7.6 The bhajan theka ...... 81

8 The Dadra Tal in Siddha Yoga chants 83

8.1 The basic .theka ...... 83 8.2 Slow, medium, fast prakars ...... 83 8.3 Tihais ...... 83

9 Examples of accompanyment 85 9.1 Accompanying Jyota se Jyota ...... 85 9.2 Accompanying Gurudeva Amara Pyara ...... 85 9.3 Accompanying Sadguru Ki Arati ...... 85 9.4 Accompanying a nama sankirtana ...... 85 9.4.1 Starting a chant ...... 85 9.4.2 Speeding up a chant ...... 85 9.4.3 Skipping to half tempo ...... 85 9.4.4 Concluding a chant ...... 85 9.5 The role of cymbals and kartal in a chant ...... 85

A That – the indian modes 87 A.1 Swar – the notes ...... 87 A.2 Saptak – the scales ...... 88 A.3 The ten Thats ...... 90

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 CONTENTS v

B Details on drum construction 93 B.1 The treble head (pudi)...... 93 B.1.1 Basic structure ...... 93 B.1.2 Construction ...... 95 B.1.3 Quality of gajara ...... 98 B.1.4 The syhai ...... 99 B.1.5 Quality of syhai ...... 102

C A list of suppliers of Indian instruments 105

November 2000 [email protected] vi Chapter 1

A brief Introduction to Indian music

The music of India is one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the world. The origins of this system go back to the Vedas. Many different legends have grown up concerning the origins and development of Indian classical music. Such legends show the importance that music has to Indian culture. Modern historical and cultural research has also given a good perspective on the field, showing that Indian music has developed within a very complex interaction between different peoples of different races and cultures. It appears that the ethnic diversity of present day India has been there from the earliest of times. The basis for Indian music is sangeet. Sangeet is a combination of three artforms: vocal music, instrumental music and dance. Although these three artforms were originally derived from the single field of stagecraft (see section 1.3), today these three forms have differentiated into complex and highly refined individual artforms. The present system of Indian music is based upon two important pillars: r¯aga (or r¯ag) and t¯ala (or t¯al). R¯aga is the melodic form while t¯ala is the rhythmic. R¯aga may be roughly equated with the Western term “mode” or “scale”. There is a system of seven notes which are arranged in a means not unlike Western scales. However when a westerner looks closely he sees that it is quite different what he is familiar with (see more in section 1.6). T¯ala (rhythmic forms) are also quite developed. Many common rhythmic patterns exist. They revolve around repeating patterns of beats. T¯ala is equivalent to the Western concept of rhythm. Most pieces of Indian music, whether a long improvisation or a devotional song,

1 2 A brief Introduction to Indian music

have a rhythmic structure, i.e. a plan of organized beats that the players use as a foundation. Most of Siddha Yoga music is composed in simple groups of six, eight, nine, twelve, or sixteen beats. But given its ancient and divine origins, one should not be surprised to learn that the Indian system of rhythm frequently uses such sophisticated and complex patterns in groups of seven, ten, or fourteen. The interpretation of r¯ag and t¯al is not the same all over India. Today there are two major traditions, or systems, of music. There is the North Indian (see section 1.7), and the South Indian tradition (see section 1.8). The North Indian tradition is known as Hindustani sangeet and the south Indian is called Carnatic sangeet. Both systems are fundamentally similar but differ in nomenclature and performance practice. In Siddha Yoga music is fol- lowed the Hindustani system. Many musical instruments are peculiar to India. The most famous are the sitar and tabla. However there are many more that the average person may not be familiar with. All of this makes up the complex and exciting field of Indian classical music. Its understanding easily consumes an entire lifetime.

1.1 Mythological origins

By looking at mythology one can really see the significance that Indian music (sangeet) has to Indian society. This is illustrated in the story concerning its origin. In the N¯at.ya S¯astra´ , which is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world (circa 2nd century B.C.), the author Bharata writes:

Once, a long time ago, during the transitional period between two Ages it so happened that people took to uncivilised ways, were ruled by lust and greed, behaved in angry and jealous ways with each other and not only gods but demons, evil spirits, yakshas and and such like others swarmed over the earth. Seeing this plight, Indra and other gods approached god Brahma and requested him to give the people a toy (Kridaniyaka), but one which could not only be seen but heard and this should turn out a diversion (so that people gave up their bad ways)

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.2 Historical development 3

Although it was decided to give the celestial art of sangeet to mankind, a suitable human had to be found who was capable of receiving this gift. Sangeet had always been in the realm of the demigods (g¯andharva). A super–human of superior spiritual ability was required to convey this celestial artform to the world of man. It fell upon the great sage Narada to be the first mortal recipient of this divine art. Through Narada, we are indebted for the presence of classical music.

1.2 Historical development

There are many important events in the history of Indian music. These milestones show the development of musical thought from early history to the present day.

1.2.1 The early history

The early history of Indian music may be explained by the Indo–European theory. According to this theory, there was a culture, or group of cultures who were so successful that they spread throughout Europe and parts of Asia. Although no one knows where they came from, present thought tends to place their origins somewhere in Eurasia, either north of the Black sea or north of the Caspian. Within this family there are several major groups. Indo–Aryan is a group which has special significance for India because this is the language and culture which generated the Vedas and other classical texts of ancient India. The classical music of India is said to have its roots in this culture. The connection between Indo–European expansion and Indian music may be seen in mythology. Mythol- ogy refers to music being brought to the people of India from a place of celestial beings. This mythical land (G¯andharva Desh) is usually equated with heaven. However, some are of the opinion that this mythical land could actually be Kandahar in what is the modern Afghanistan. Therefore, the myths of music being given to the world by the celestial be- ings (g¯andharva) may actually represent a cultural connection with this ancient Indo–Aryan homeland. Further evidence may be seen in musical structure. In the first few centuries B.C.,

November 2000 [email protected] 4 A brief Introduction to Indian music

Indian music was based upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation that was found in ancient Greek music. The link to Sanskrit is another strong indication of Indo–European roots. Many of the earliest texts were written in Sanskrit. It is also generally believed that classical music is derived from the Samaveda (a part of the Vedas). The nature of music in prehistoric India may be obscure but the picture begins to become clear in the first few centuries B.C.. Bharata’s N¯at.ya S¯astra´ (circa 200 B.C.), provides a detailed account of stagecraft in that period. Here we find mention of seven shuddha j¯ati (pure modes) and eleven mixed j¯atis (modal forms not produced by simple modulation). There is also a very detailed discussion of the musical instruments of the time. The first millennium provides us with several texts which show the evolution of Indian music. The Brihaddeshi written by Matanga (circa 700 A.D.) is very important. It is in this work that we first find the word “rag” mentioned. Another important text is the Sangeet Ratnakar by Sharangdev. This work, written around the thirteenth century, gives extensive commentaries about numerous musical styles that existed at that time.

1.2.2 The contribution of Amir Khusru

Perhaps one of the most significant milestones in the development of Indian music was the life of Amir Khusru (born circa 1253, died 1325). He was a poet–musician who served at the court of Sultan Allaudin Khilji (1296–1316). There is a tendency among Indians to attribute the development of almost everything to him. He is erroneously referred to as the inventor of instruments like the sitar and tabla and of numerous musical forms which did not develop until many centuries after his death. Although the extent of his contribution to Indian music is more legendary than factual, he nevertheless symbolizes a crucial turning point in the development of Indian music. Amir Khusru is an icon representing a growing Persian influence on the music. This influence was felt to a greater extent in the North than in the South. The consequence of this differing degree of influence ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of Indian music into two distinct

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.2 Historical development 5 systems: the Hindustani sangeet of the North (see section 1.7), and the Carnatic sangeet of the South (see section 1.8).

1.2.3 The contribution of Tansen

The musical career of Tansen is another landmark in the development of Indian music. He is significant because he symbolizes the maturing of the north Indian system as a distinct entity from south Indian music.

Figure 1.1: Tansen (16th century)

Tansen is considered to be one of the greatest musicians that ever lived. He was the court musician of the famous Mogul Emperor Akbar (16th century). He was so highly valued in the court that he was called one of the “Nine Jewels” in his court. It is in the period of Tansen that the famous catalogue of musical instruments known as Ain–i–Akbari, was compiled by Abul Fazi for the Emperor Akbar. The details of Tansen’s life are incomplete. He was born in a Hindu community and had his musical training under his guru Swami Haridas. He then went to the court of the Raja Ram Baghela, a great patron of the arts. From there he migrated to the court of Akbar. It is said that Tansen could work miracles with his singing. This is called nada siddhi in Sanskrit. He is supposed to have acquired such supernatural abilities through the devotion

November 2000 [email protected] 6 A brief Introduction to Indian music

for his guru. It is said that on occasion he could create rain by singing the monsoon r¯aga Megh Malhar. It is also said that he could create fire by singing r¯aga Dipak. Many r¯agas are ascribed to Tansen. Such as Mian ki Malhar, Mian ki Todi and Darbari Kanada are the most famous. Today the followers of his style are said to belong to the Senia Gharana (see more on gharanas, music traditions, in section 6.3).

1.2.4 The last two centuries

The eighteenth century marks the birth of many of the musical forms that we think of today. D¯adr¯a, kheyal, thumri and a host of other forms are traceable to this period. The early part of the 20th century brings the most recent revolution in north Indian music. This is provided by two people: V. N. Bhatkhande and V. D. Paluskar. These two men revolutionized the concept of Indian music. Paluskar is responsible for the introduction of the first music colleges while Bhatkhande is responsible for the introduction of an organized system which reflects current performance practice. Both men are also responsible for the development and popularization of a modern musical notation.

1.3 The Sangeet: vocal music, instrumental music and dance

Sangeet is a word which doesn’t really translate into English. In its most general sense it is considered synonymous with the term “music”; however it is actually a threefold artform of vocal music, instrumental music, and dance. Since classical dance is also a component, it is not strictly synonymous to the Western term “music”. There is a historical reason why sangeet is composed of these three artforms. In the Vedic and post Vedic period it was customary to perform mythological dramas. These dramas used dancers to mime the story, instrumentalist to play the musical accompaniment, and vocalist to tell and sing the story. There is a standard terminology whenever one wishes to be specific. Dance is refered to as nritya, vocal is refered to as g¯ayaki, and instrumental is known as vadhya sangeet.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music 7

Figure 1.2: The statue of a dancer

1.4 The traditional pedagogy of music

Classical music in India is considered more than mere entertainment; it is a moral and spiritual redeemer. Therefore, the divine qualities inherent in the artform imply certain prerequisites; key among them are guru, vinaya and sadhana, i.e. teacher, humility, and discipline.

The music guru, or teacher, is the most important prerequisite in traditional musical pedagogy. Music is said to be a guru mukha–vidhya (i.e., knowledge which must come from a teacher). This is considered the highest form of knowledge. Traditional pedagogy is based upon the transfer of knowledge from the teacher (guru) to the disciple (shishya) in an unbroken tradition (parampara). The tradition of guru–shishya–parampara extends back countless millennia.

The second prerequisite is vinaya (humility). This also reflects the divine origins of the artform. Classical music is said to be a worship that involves both the listener and the artist alike. Any negative emotions such as arrogance (abhiman) becomes an impediment. This is

November 2000 [email protected] 8 A brief Introduction to Indian music

an impediment from both the divine aspect as well as a matter of simple pedagogy (e.g., ”If one thinks he already knows everything, then what is there to learn?”) The final prerequisite for a student of classical music is sadhana, or discipline and practice. The divine origins of the artform require that the student “be prepared” to be a recipient of this knowledge.

1.5 Aesthetics and the nine moods

The music of India presents a main difference with respect to the Western music: Indian music is melodic only. When we hear Indian music, we hear a melody played against a drone, (usually given by a stringed instrument known as tamboura, see fig. 1.3) which is tuned to a tonic (or home key) that never shifts throughout the piece, no matter how long it is. This is quite different from what can be heard in a Western music piece; a melody played against a moving series of accompanying chords with the possibility of the home key shifting several times. The concept of a fixed key in Indian music gives the music a focus in a way that allows the listener and player to immerse themselves deeply in the feeling of the one key. It also means that the interest and excitement of the music will be generated by the melody, rhythm, or words, not the underlying harmonies or modulating keys.

(a) (b) Characteristic decorations

Figure 1.3: The tamboura – the instrument giving the drone

In Indian musical thought it is said that every note represents a different emotion or feeling, so when some notes are grouped together in a specific way, a correspondig association

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to R¯aga 9 is conjured up. The ancient scriptures describe nine fundamental emotions from which all complex emotions may be produced. Just as all hues may be produced by mixing the three primary colours, so too, all emotions are said to be derived from these principal emotions. They are called nava rasa and are shown in table 1.1 below. These emotions form the aesthetic foundation for sangeet.

Shringar Love Hasya Comic Karuna Sadness Raudra Furious Veera Heroic Bhayanak Terrible Vibhats Disgusting Adbhuta Wonderment Shanta Peace

Table 1.1: The Nine Moods (Nava Rasa)

Music requires an acoustic vehicle to convey these emotions. This acoustic vehicle is known as r¯aga. R¯aga may be thought of as the melodic foundation upon which classical Indian music is based. During the last few centuries it was customary to anthropomorphize the raga in the form of g¯andharvas (demigods) and apsaras (celestial nymphs). The divine quality of music contained in the system of r¯agas is perhaps best illustrated in nad siddhi. This is the ability to perform miracles by singing or playing certain r¯agas. The most famous miracle–working musician was Tansen (see section 1.2.3).

1.6 Fundamental concepts associated to R¯aga

The r¯aga is the most important concept that anyone involved in listening or playing Indian music should understand. The Hindi/Urdu word “r¯ag”is derived from the Sanskrit r¯aga which means “colour”, or “passion”. It is linked to the Sanskrit word ranj which means “to colour”. Therefore r¯agmay be thought of as an acoustic method of colouring the mind and

November 2000 [email protected] 10 A brief Introduction to Indian music

the heart of the listener with an emotion. There are hundreds of r¯agas in Hindustani and Carnatic music, each with particular connotations such as steadfastness, devotion, majesty, stillness, etc.

Figure 1.4: A Ragmala painting depicting a Ragini

This is fine as a general concept but what is it musically? It is not a tune, melody, scale, mode, or any concept for which an English word exists. It is instead a combination of different characteristics which define the r¯ag. It is important to understand that a r¯aga is not exactly a scale, for there are different r¯agas that have the same scale. What differentiates one from the other is the way the notes are used. The characteristics of a r¯aga are:

• There must be the notes of the r¯ag. They are called the swar. This concept is similar to the Western solfege.

• There must also be a modal structure. This is called that in North Indian music and mela in Carnatic music.

• There is also the j¯ati, i.e. is the number of notes used in the r¯ag.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani Sangeet 11

• There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana / avarohana.

• Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of signifi- cance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi (or King) and samavadi (or Queen).

• There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad or swarup.

In addition to the main characteristics of r¯ag, there are some other less important ones. For instance r¯agas have traditionally been attributed to particular times of the day. They have also been anthropomorphized into families of male and female r¯ags: r¯aga, ragini (see fig. 1.4), putra r¯aga, etc. Over the centuries r¯aga have been ascribed to certain demigods. A natural consequence of such anthropomorphism is that there be a familial relationship between them. Therefore, in the past few centuries there arose a complicated system of r¯ags (male r¯ags), raginis (female r¯ags), putra r¯ags (sons of rags), etc. This was the basis for a system of classification before the advent of modern musicology. Today the that, i.e. the indian system of modes, is the basis for the modern classification of r¯aga(see more in appendix A).

1.7 The north Indian system of music – Hindustani Sangeet

The north Indian system of music is known as Hindustani Sangeet. It covers an area that extends roughly from Bangladesh through northern and central India into Pakistan and as far as Afghanistan. The usual interpretation states that the Hindustani system may be thought of as a mixture of traditional Hindu musical concepts and Persian performance practice. The advent of Islamic rule over northern India caused the musicians to seek patronage in the courts of the new rulers. These rulers, often of foreign extraction, had strong cultural and religious sentiments focused outside of India; yet they lived in, and administered kingdoms

November 2000 [email protected] 12 A brief Introduction to Indian music

Figure 1.5: The geography of musical styles in India

which retained their traditional Hindu culture. Several centuries of this arrangement caused the Hindu music to absorb musical influences from the Islamic world, primarily greater Persia.

There are a number of musical instruments that we associate with Hindustani Sangeet. The most famous is the sitar and tabla. Other less well known instruments are the sarod, sarangi and a host of others. Some of the major vocal forms associated with Hindustani Sangeet are the kheyal, gazal, and thumri. Other styles which are also important are the dhrupad, dhammar, and tarana. This is just a small sampling for there are many other vocal styles.

Most of the concepts mentioned here and in next chapters are from the Hindustani sangeet since this is the system adopted in Siddha Yoga music.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic Sangeet (an outline) 13

Figure 1.6: A veena player

1.8 The south Indian system of music – Carnatic Sangeet (an outline)

Carnatic Sangeet, or also Karnatik Sangit, is the south Indian system of music. It has a rich history and a very sophisticated theoretical system. South Indian performers and composers have, gained a world class reputation by singing and playing instruments such as veena (vina), gottuvadyam, violin, and mridangam. In the West, Carnatic Sangeet is not as well known as Hindustani Sangeet (north Indian music). Whenever Westerners think of Indian music, they immediately think of Ravi Shankar and the sitar. Although South Indian music is extremely sophisticated, there has not emerged an artist with the widespread recognition that North Indians, like Ravi Shankar, have been able to generate. Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Carnatica. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture. Purandardas (1480-1564) is considered to be the father of Carnatic Sangeet. He is given credit for the codification of the method of education, and is also credited with several thousand songs.

November 2000 [email protected] 14 A brief Introduction to Indian music

Venkat Mukhi Swami (17th century) is the grand theorist of Carnatic music. He was the one who developed the melakarta system. This is the system for classifying south Indian r¯ags. Carnatic music really acquired its present form in the 18th century. It was during this period that the so–called “trinity” of Carnatic music, Thyagaraja, Shamashastri, and Muthuswami Dikshitar composed their famous compositions. In addition to the “trinity”, numerous other musicians and composers enriched this tradition. Carnatic music has a very highly developed theoretical system. It is based upon a complex system of r¯agam (r¯ag) and th¯alam (t¯al). These describe the intricacies of the melodic and rhythmic forms respectively. The melodic foundation is the r¯agam (r¯ag). R¯agam is basically the scale. Similarly to the north Indian system, the seven notes of the scale are Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, and Ni. However, unlike a simple scale there are certain melodic restrictions and obligations. Each ragam has a particular way that it moves from note to note. The r¯agams are categorised into various modes. These are referred to as mela, and there are 72 in number. The mela are conceptually similar to the that of North Indian music (see more in appendix A). There is however, a major difference. South Indian scales allow chromatic forms that are not allowed in Hindustani sangeet. For instance it is perfectly acceptable for the first three notes (i.e., Sa, Ri, Ga), to all be roughly one semitone apart. It is these permissible forms which allow there to be so many mela. The thalam (t¯al) is the rhythmic foundation to the system. The south Indian t¯als are defined by a system of clapping and waving, while this is much less important in the north. North Indian musicians define their t¯ala by their .theka (combinations of bols, or syllables, or strokes). Nomenclature is one of the biggest differences between North and South Indian music. It is normal for a particular r¯aga or t¯ala to be called one thing in the North and something totally different in the South. It is also common for the same name to be applied to very different r¯aga and t¯ala. It is theses differences in nomenclature that have made any theoretical reconciliation difficult.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet 15

Vocal music forms the basis of South Indian music. Although there is a rich instrumen- tal tradition that uses Saraswati vina, venu and violin, they revolve around instrumental renditions of vocal forms. There are a number of sections to the Carnatic performance. Varanam is a form used to begin many south Indian performances. The word varanam literal means a description and this section is used to unfold the various important features of the r¯agam. The kritis are fixed compositions in the r¯ag. They have well identified composers and do not allow much scope for variation. However such compositions are often preceded by alapana. The alapana offers a way to unfold the r¯agam to the audience, and at the same time, allow the artist considerable scope for improvisation. The niruval and the kalpana swara also provide opportunities to improvise. Another common structure are the r¯agam, thanam, and, pallavi. South Indian performances are based upon three major sections. These are the pallavi, anupallavi, and charanam. The rich tradition of South Indian music is one of the worlds gems. The high perfor- mance standards and the well organised theoretical foundation put it on par with anything that world has seen, either East or West.

1.9 Relationship between Hindustani and Carnatic Sangeet

The reasons for the differentiation between North and South Indian music are not clear. The generally held belief is that North Indian music evolved along different lines due to an increased exposure to the Islamic world. This results from nearly 800 years of Islamic rule over northern India. Unfortunately, evidence suggests that this answer is a gross over–simplification. For instance, the state of Kerala in southern India has an extremely large Muslim population, but virtually no identification with north Indian music. By the same token, the Islamic influence over Orissa (north) was negligible, yet the artistic forms are clearly identifiable as Hindustani. Although there is a poor correlation between the geographical distribution of

November 2000 [email protected] 16 A brief Introduction to Indian music

Hindus / Muslims and the two musical systems, there is an almost exact correlation between the Indo–European / Dravidian cultures and the two musical systems.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 Chapter 2

The Siddha Yoga drum

2.1 The mridang

The percussion instrument mainly used in Siddha Yoga chants and music, see fig. 2.1, is a drum whose origins date back thousands of years. This drum is known with various names. One of these is pakh¯awaj; another one is mridang.

(a) The system of (b) The treble head (c) The bass head bolts

Figure 2.1: The mridang used in Siddha Yoga chants

Strictly speaking the mridang is an entire category of barrel shaped, double headed drums. In its classical form, the instrument known as the Mridang or Mridanga, is referred to in ancient Sanskrit works and is also pictured in the paintings on the walls of the famous

17 18 The Siddha Yoga drum

Ajanta caves. Similar drums have been found in Indus Valley excavations dating back 4 millenia. It is thus clearly a very ancient invention, and its acoustical perfection must be considered a remarkable testimony to the inventiveness and musical taste of its progenitors. The classical pakh¯awaj is the north Indian version of mridang, see fig. 2.2(a). In southern India instead the mridang evolved in a drum known as mridangam, or carnatic mridangam, see fig. 2.2(b).

(a) North indian pakh¯awaj (b) South indian mridangam

Figure 2.2: Two examples of mridang

The classical pakh¯awaj does not present metal parts but is laced with rawhide. The lacing fixes the drum heads to the wooden shell. Wooden pegs, known as gatta, are inserted between the straps and the shell for the purpose of tuning. The sliding of the tuning pegs induces tension variations in both the drum heads. The drum heads, known as pudi, are the peculiar part of the pakh¯awaj among the other drums of the mridang class. The treble head, fig. 2.3,

Figure 2.3: The treble head of a pakh¯awaj

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 19

has basically three parts: (i) the outer weaving (gajara or pagri), (ii) the membranes, (iii) the black spot (syahi, or shyai) in the center. The bass (bigger) head is in principle similar to the treble one except that there is a temporary application of flour and water instead of the black permanent spot. Details on the construction of pudi are reported in appendix B. The Siddha Yoga drum, usually called mridang also, is a modern evolution of the original ancient pakh¯awaj. In this “screw–type” pakh¯awaj the system of straps is replaced by a system of metal hooks fixed to the shell by bolts, see fig. 2.1(a). This makes possible the tuning of a single head, sometimes without using a hammer for the fine tuning of the treble head, while letting unchanged the tension of the other head. Acting on the screws with a wrench, each of the drum heads can be tuned.

2.2 The drum in the context of indian music

Pakh¯awaj is the most common north Indian representative of the class of mridang. It was once common throughout north India. In the last few generations this drum has been replaced by tabla in performance music forms, fig. 2.4(b).

(a) Tabla (b) A north Indian classical music perfor- mance with tabla accompaniment

Figure 2.4: Tabla is today the preferred percussion instrument for the rhythmic accompanyiment of Hindustani classical music

A Tabla set is formed by a small wooden drum called danya and a larger metal one called

November 2000 [email protected] 20 The Siddha Yoga drum

banya. It is said that tabla was developed by cutting a pakh¯awaj into two pieces.

2.2.1 Dhrupad and Dhammar

There are several styles of pakh¯awaj playing. The most well known and important is for the accompaniment of dhrupad and dhammar singers. Dhrupad is perhaps the oldest style of classical singing in north Indian music today. The heyday of this style was in the time of Tansen (16th century). It is a very heavy, masculine style performed to the accompaniment of the pakh¯awaj. It is known for its austere quality and strict adherence to the rhythmic structure (tala). The moods of dhrupad may vary but themes revolving around the victories of great kings and mythological stories are common. Devotional themes are also very common. Dhammar is a very old style of singing as well. This name is also applied to instrumental renditions of vocal compositions. It has many similarities to dhrupad. The major difference is that it is slightly more romantic. Themes of dhammar typically revolve around Krishna and the Holi festival. In fact the dhammar is often called hori, or holi. Pakh¯awaj is found in accompaniment of Orissi dancers and occasionally for kathak dance. It is also found in a classical form from Rajasthan known as Haveli Sangeet. Pakh¯awaj compositions are passed down from generation to generation. They are taught by a series of mnemonic syllables known as bols.

2.2.2 Bhajan and Kirtan

Pakh¯awaj is very much used for Devotional music forms, like n¯am¯asan. k¯ırtana and bhajans of Siddha Yoga. The bhajan has a special place in India. Most bhajans were written between the 14th through 17th centuries. They were songs sung in the praise of God through which spiritual truths were portrayed in the simple language of the farmers, merchants and other common people of the time. Bhajan is an important part of the Bhakti movement born in India during the Mogul period. Bhajan is not defined by any musical characteristics; it is simply defined by a sense

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 2.2 The drum in the context of indian music 21

of devotion (bhakti). Bhajans cover a broad spectrum of musical styles from the simple musical chant (dhun, or kirtan) to highly developed versions comparable to thumri. Thumri is a common style of light classical music with text of romantic and devotional nature, and usually revolving around a girl’s love for Krishna. Bhajan, like thumri is, can become a style characterized by a greater flexibility with the raga. The poetic content of the bhajan also covers a broad spectrum. The more traditional ones are by great poet saint such as Mirabai, Surdas, or Kabir, and are considered to be of the highest literary quality. An important form related to bhajan is the dhun, which sometimes is actually nothing more than a musical version of a chant.

Figure 2.5: An image of Mirabai

The structure of bhajan is very conventional. It contains a single refrain sthai and numerous verses antara. The last antara has special significance because it contains the name of the author. The Kirtan or Dhun is related to the bhajan. The major difference is that bhajan is usually performed by a soloist, while kirtan and dhun usually involve the audience. The musical quality is consequently much simpler. The term Kirtan is used by Hindus and Sikhs, while the term Dhun seems to be used only by Hindus, especially Gujuratis.

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2.3 Relation between pakh¯awaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam

Pakh¯awaj, tabla and mridangam form the basis for the classical percussion in India. Questions arise as to the differences and similarities between them. Differences may fall into four categories: construction, tone, technique, and philosophy. The music of India is one of the oldest systems of music in the world. There is the Hindusthani sangeet, the north Indian music system, and the Carnatic sangeet in the south. Collectively these two limbs form the body of a musical tradition that is said to extend back several thousand years. Although there are many similarities between the two systems there are also differences. One of the differences is in the choice of rhythmic accompaniment. The Carnatic sangeet of southern India prefers the mridangam. This instrument, like the north Indian pakh¯awaj, is a single piece of wood that is hollowed out and has playing heads on both sides. North Indian music prefers the pakh¯awaj and tabla.

2.3.1 Construction

There are a number of differences between the construction of mridangam, tabla and pakh¯awaj (even if some principles of construction of pakh¯awaj and tabla are essentially the same). Some of the differences are obvious and some are more subtle. The most obvious difference in construction is that mridangam and pakh¯awaj use a single resonator while tabla uses two. Therefore the tension of the left and right sides of tabla are separately controlled (actually this happens also for the Siddha Yoga drum thanks to the system of bolts), while they are inseparably linked in mridangam and pakh¯awaj. Pakh¯awaj, Siddha Yoga mridang and mridangam’s single resonator also produces an acoustic coupling between the two heads. The drumheads show major differences. For instance the mridangam is made of ex- tremely heavy hides while the tabla, the pakh¯awaj and the Siddha Yoga mridang use thinner ones. The tabla bayan has a permanent dry application while the mridangam and the clas- sical pakh¯awaj have a temporary wet application of flour and water. Siddha Yoga mridang bass head has instead an inner permanent semi–dry application.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 2.3 Relation between pakh¯awaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla and South Indian mridangam23

(a) The bass head (b) Sitting position

Figure 2.6: More details on mridangam

All these drums have a skin that does not completely cover the surface. There is a hole in this outer covering which exposes the main membrane below. The outer annular membrane is much more prominent in the mridangam than in the tabla, pakh¯awaj and mridang. There are items placed between the main membrane and the annular membrane that further accentuate these differences. Tabla, pakh¯awaj and mridang often have a string placed between the annular covering and the main skin, while mridangam has straw. This may not appear to be a significant difference but the purpose of these insertions is diametrically opposite. String is placed in the north Indian drums to lift the annular membrane and reduce the dampening effect. The mridangam instead has pieces of straw placed radially between the two skins. This actually increases the dampening and acts as a snare. The cumulative effects of these differences in construction create major differences in the tone of the instrument.

2.3.2 Tone

Mridang, pakh¯awaj, tabla and mridangam are characterized by a rich and varied tone. Some strokes evoke clear pitched sounds while others evoke unpitched sounds. The pitched strokes clearly show the tonal differences between these drums. For example the rim stroke on the treble head is a major stroke on both the mri-

November 2000 [email protected] 24 The Siddha Yoga drum

dang/tabla/pakh¯awaj and the mridangam. Although the nomenclature varies this stroke is usually called N¯a in the North and Nam in the South. If one looks at the sound fre- quency spectrum of this stroke, on both instruments a predominant third harmonic is the main characteristic. However, the fundamental may be seen in significant proportion in the mridangam while it is essentially absent in the mridang/tabla/pakh¯awaj. Furthermore the second harmonic tends to be evoked in the north Indian drums while it is suppressed in the mridangam. The open stroke is also a major stroke for both drums. This is called Tun in the North and Deem in the South. Both strokes are characterized by a very prominent fundamental. However there is a significant difference in the second harmonic of the frequency spectrum. The open stroke of the left hand is called Ga in tabla, Gi in mridang and pakh¯awaj and Thom in the South for mridangam. It shows a tremendous difference between these instruments. Tabla has a very pronounced fundamental (harmonic) and a long sustain. There are much fewer harmonics in this stroke. Conversely the pakh¯awaj, the Siddha Yoga mridang and south Indian mridangam have a much more complex harmonic spectrum and a significantly reduced sustain.

2.3.3 Technique

The fingering technique is a very important consideration in this discussion. Tabla has a distinct leaning toward the delicate fingering while Pakh¯awaj, mridang and the mridangam have a balance between the powerful and delicate techniques. A brief look at the history of the instruments shows why. The evolution of both the pakh¯awaj, Siddha Yoga mridang, tabla, and mridangam may be traced to an archetypical mridang. This instrument had a close association to the an- cient mythological dramas. This association meant that the drums would sometimes have to support both masculine and feminine characters. The delicate movements of the dance are known as lasya while the more powerful masculine movements are known as tandava. Pow- erful techniques were developed to accentuate the masculine roles while delicate techniques were developed to support the feminine roles.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 25

In the last several centuries the drumming technique in north Indian music has bifur- cated. The more powerful and aggressive techniques have been relegated to the pakh¯awaj while the delicate techniques have been relegated to tabla. Yet there was no bifurcation of technique in the South. The powerful and aggressive techniques exist alongside the delicate. In Siddha Yoga mridang both delicate and aggressive techniques are retained so that they can properly accompany the various Siddha Yoga chants in all their moods and speeds.

2.3.4 Philosophy

There is another area of difference between the north and south Indian percussion styles. This reflects a basic philosophic difference between North and South Indian music. For example in performance music, tabla or pakh¯awaj provide the rhythmic base for the entire performance. Since the main performer will constantly refer to the drum, it is essential that there be a conventionally established pattern that may be universally understood. This pattern is called theka. Too much variation from the established theka may lead to a breakdown in communication and thus compromise the entire performance. In the old days, vocalists and instrumentalists would not allow their drummers to play anything except theka. Today there is much greater freedom, still the basic responsibility remains. The role of the mridangam in south Indian music is much different. The mridangam does not have to provide the rhythmic base for the performance. Such a base is provided by a conventionally established pattern of claps and waves. Half of the audience in a south Indian performance may be clapping along with the performers. With so many people providing the base there is a greater freedom given to the mridangam player. The consequence of not having to provide a base means that there is no such thing as a theka, therefore different accompanying rhythms may be used according to the artistic discretion of the performers.

2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants

There are two types of chanting in Siddha Yoga centers and ashrams: swadhyaya, the chant- ing of sacred texts, and n¯amasan. k¯ırtana, or fast chants. The text chants, like the Guru

November 2000 [email protected] 26 The Siddha Yoga drum

G¯ıta, Rudram, and Shiva Mahimna are taken from the ancient scriptures of India and are usually sung in simple melodies at a medium pace, and accompanyed by harmonium and tamboura (see fig. 2.8).

Figure 2.7: Playing for a Siddha Yoga fast chant

N¯amasan. k¯ırtana, which means “the divine repetition of the name of God”, are the chants that usually use the drum in addition to the harmonium and tamboura. These chants exclaim one or more of the names of God over and over, usually in a call and response fashion. They most often begin at a slow or moderate tempo and speed up gradually. Many n¯amasan. k¯ırtana are based on specific ragas, and the melodies are more involved than those in the text chants. The role of the drum in a n¯amasan. k¯ırtana is to maintain the tempo so that everyone may sing in time together. There are also other instruments that are played to provide rhythmic support during a Siddha Yoga fast chant. They include hand cymbals, see fig. 2.9(a), and kartal, a pair of wooden blocks with small metal jingles mounted on it, see fig. 2.9(b). These instruments are played simply beating them together.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 2.4 The role of mridang in Siddha Yoga chants 27

Figure 2.8: Harmonium and Tamboura

(a) Cymbals (b) Kartal

Figure 2.9: Other rhythmic instruments used in Siddha Yoga fast chants

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28 Chapter 3

Getting started

3.1 Acquiring a mridang

Buying a mridang from India is the first thing that most people think of. This is the preferred course if someone is actually going to India. It is important not to go to the shop by oneself unless the craftsman or the shop owner is well known. The chances of getting a good drum at a reasonable price are unlikely if one goes without someone who knows the instruments and the shopkeeper very well. If one is not actually going to India, things are more difficult. It is not practical to do retail business by correspondence. Therefore, one should think about purchasing such an instrument in his or her country or continent (in the case of North America or Europe). Transportation times in the West are typically only a few days as opposed to Indian weeks or months. Chances for damage are tremendously reduced. Should there be damage, it is easier to exchange or obtain compensation. There is really one disadvantage when dealing with western firms: cost. A mridang in America or Europe costs many times what comparable merchandise costs in India. In any case, all things considered, it is usually better to deal with western firms: the difference in cost is worth the headhache of trying to do business overseas. There is a list of suppliers in the Appendix C of this volume. Familiarizing with the parts of the drum makes many things easier. It allows to com- municate with importers and musicians. It also gives necessary background to get started. Major parts of the mridang are shown in fig. 3.1. These parts are: (i) the heads (pudi), (ii)

29 30 Getting started

the wooden shell (lakadi), (iii) the bolts.

Figure 3.1: Main parts of a mridang

Let us make a closer look at the pudi, fig. 3.2. The four parts that one has to be concerned with are: (i) the black spot (syahi), (ii) the main membrane (sur or maidan), (iii) the anular membrane (kinar or chat), and (iv) the leather braid (gajara or pagri).

Figure 3.2: Parts of the drumhead

There are many decisions which must be made during the time of purchase. It would be impossible to predict all of the options, but here are a few common ones.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 3.2 Basic care and tuning 31

There are various types of lacing and tightening arrangements. Not all of them are of the same quality. One may find rawhide, leather, rope and turnbuckles. In traditional pakh¯awaj method of lacing the rawhide is used, fig. 3.3. As the name implies, rawhide is a skin that has a minimal chemical treatment after it was removed from the animal: usually only the addition of salt as a preservative. It is readily available in India and relatively inexpensive. It has the the disadvantage of being sensitive to changes in humidity and temperature and it is sometimes difficult to work with.

Figure 3.3: Traditional pakh¯awaj lacing

The case of metal turnbuckles, or bolts, is the preferred option in Siddha Yoga drums. They have the advantage, among the others recalled in chapter 2, of making the drum less susceptible to changes in humidity and temperature, hence the drumheads are more stable in their tuning. The best mridangs usually come from the two Indian states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. This area has a ready supply of shisham (Indian rosewood, Dalbergia sisu), which is tight grained and very heavy. There is also a good supply of the special powder used to make the syahi. The rawhide of traditional pakh¯awajs also tends to be much heavier in this area. The availability of good materials and skilled craftsmen give these two states a very high proportion of excellent drums.

3.2 Basic care and tuning

One of the first things that musicians have to learn is how to take care of their instruments. The mridang requires some special consideration. This instrument is used in such a sacred

November 2000 [email protected] 32 Getting started

and uplifting praactice as chanting that one has to take good care of him and pay him great respect. It is said that Saraswat¯ı, the goddess of speech, arts and learning resides in each and every musical instrument. As a sign of respect, many musicians in India will salute their instrument, or touch their hands to the instrument and then to their hearts, before picking it up to play. Great care is taken to avoid stepping over any musical instrument. The following points can be made about the care for the drum. The most important thing is to keep the black spot (syhai) dry. It is very sensitive to moisture. This is one of the reasons why mridang players use talcum powder when they play. Even a small amount of sweat on the player’s hands is enough to damage the drumhead. Using covers to protect the skin of each drumhead is a good idea when the instrument is not being played. A dust cover is also good. The mridang should not be exposed to extreme variations of temperature. Excessive heat may split the skins. Sudden exposure to cold may cause moisture to condense in the syahi and cause damage. The drum should be stored out of traffic’s way to avoid accidental damage. It can be stored standing upright on the big end only. A cradle, i.e. a very low wooden stand that the drum can lie across, is a very good way as well, particularly if the ends are covered. Cradles also help position the drum at a comfortable height for playing. Periodic wiping of the outside will help keep the instrument looking nice. Wax polishes and the like are not necessary and best avoided. Great care has to be taken when transporting any instrument. Completely covering the mridang, when it does not hinder carrying it, will help avoid accidental scratches and scrapes. The drum heads, especially the treble head, should be kept always in tune. There is a common misconception that a drum like this should be loosened whenever it is not going to be played. This is true when dealing with the poorest quality mridangs. Doing this for any good quality drum will make it unreliable while performing. The treble head of a mridang has a stringent requirement for pitch. In table 3.1 is reported a list of treble head diameters and recommended tunings. There are three things

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 3.2 Basic care and tuning 33

that one should keep in mind about this table. The first is that the diameter is measured from the rim, as shown in fig. 3.4, not from the braid of the drumhead. The second is that the drum shell is sufficiently flexible to go a step in either directions, in terms of tuning: for instance, a 6 inches head could be tuned in A flat or in F sharp instead of G. The final point is that table 3.1 has not taken thickness of the skin into consideration. Therefore the table is only a rough guide.

Figure 3.4: The correct way of determining the pudi size

One uses the N¯a or the Tin strokes (see chapter 4 for more details on the drum strokes) to determine the pitch. The use of these strokes has the advantage of showing what the tension is under a very small area of the rim.

Size (in) Pitch 5 1/4 C 5 1/2 B 5 3/4 A 6 G 6 1/4 F 6 1/2 F sharp

Table 3.1: Recommended tunings for mridang treble heads

Tuning is performed on the braid. One raises the pitch by slightly tightening the skin. This is accomplished by acting on the bolts. Conversely, one lowers the pitch by slightly

November 2000 [email protected] 34 Getting started

loosening the skin, again acting on the bolts in the reverse way. At times, for precise tuning, a hammer can be used, striking the braid. It is very important that one strikes only the gajara with the hammer. An accidental strike against the wooden lip will irreparably damage the head.

It is important that the tension around the drum be uniform. A drum which is out of tune has a cross pattern of pitches. As shown in fig. 3.5, there are two opposed areas of relatively high pitch and two areas of relatively low pitch. Between them are zones where the pitch is poorly defined. If one is having a hard time hearing the pitch it may be because one is acting on the bolts in an area of undefined pitch.

Figure 3.5: Cross tension pattern of an off–tune pudi

The main difficulty in tuning the mridang is due to the difficulty in hearing the pitch. Actually, complex physical and psychoacoustic phenomena occurr during the tuning process. In the end it is just a matter of experience.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 3.3 Sitting position 35

3.3 Sitting position

Correct posture is very important for studying and playing mridang. The posture will determine the ease and difficulty that the player will have in controlling the instrument. By far the most important thing to remember with the posture when playing the drum is to relax. The drum should be kept as close as possible so that no excessive stretching and straining of the arms and back are required. A cradle or a cushion for the drum is a good thing, as it raises the drum heads so that the forearms can be more or less horizontal. When one sits to play the drum, he or she can sit as if for meditation. Whatever floor– sitting position that is comfortable is good, so that position will not be changed frequently, as that can be difficult while playing. Half–lotus and easy–posture are very good for getting hands at the right height. The back should be relaxed and upright. The neck, the shoulders and upper arms are also relaxed. Any tension in the wrists, arms or shoulders will eventually lead to strain.

3.4 Powder

It is very important to use a small amount of powder when playing. There are different kinds and they do not all work the same. The powder should protect the syhai against water: even a small amount of sweat may cause major damage. Moreover, for the ease of playing, the powder should act as a lubrificant to allow free movement of the hands while in contact with the skin. Last, the powder used should show a resistance to caking up on the drum. A build up will choke the sound and must be removed with care. Talcum powder is a common powder used for mridang playing. Curiously, talcum pow- der is not at all hygroscopic yet it still affords protection against moisture. It is moderately resistant to caking and is the best product able to mantain its lubrificating action.

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36 Chapter 4

Basic strokes

This chapter contains a list of the basic strokes with their techniques. The techniques which are described here are for right handed people. A left handed person should simply reverse the drum and exchange the terms left and right. In fig. 4.1 below are reported again the names of the parts of a treble drumhead, as they are often referred to in this chapter for the clear illustration of techniques.

Figure 4.1: Treble head chart

4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes

The following is a description of the fundamental strokes to be played with the right hand or with the left hand. An important distintion has to be made for strokes performed Khula, “open”, or with resonance, and strokes performed bandh, “closed”, without resonance.

37 38 Basic strokes

4.1.1 The right hand open stroke N¯a (na;a)

The open stroke N¯a (pronounced as in “Not”) is a common resonant stroke of the right hand. It is produced by holding the last two fingers lightly against the syahi and using the index finger to forcefully hit the rim (chat or kinar) of the treble head. It is important to keep the middle finger extended so as not to hit the drum.

Figure 4.2: The open right hand stroke N¯a (na;a)

The correct position may be visualized by an “X” running across the drum. This cross pattern is not imaginary but is a reflection of actual resonance characteristics. The position of this cross is determined by the ring finger and little finger. Sliding these fingers around will cause the position of the cross to vary. Maximum efficiency is produced when one strikes the chat at the position where the other leg of the cross passes over the rim. N¯a is a resonant sound, therefore it is called khula, and is shown in fig. 4.2. There are several versions of this stroke, also known as T¯a. They are differentiated by the exact place of striking and whether the finger is allowed to rebound or not.

4.1.2 The left hand open stroke Gi (; a;ga)

The open stroke Gi (pronounced as in “Gear”) is a very common resonant stroke of the left hand. It is also the easiest to execute. One simply strikes the bass head with the flat fingers. Notice that the tips of the fingers extend inside the area of the bass head so that the striking hand hits the the rim with the palm. It is a resonant sound, therefore it is called khula, and is shown in fig. 4.3(a).

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes 39

4.1.3 The left hand closed stroke Ka (k)

The closed stroke Ka (pronounced as in “Cup”) is a very common nonresonant stroke of the left hand. It is also easy to execute. One simply strikes the bass head with the flat palm and fingers. It is a flat slapping sound with no resonance, therefore it is called bandh, and is shown in fig. 4.3(b).

Sometimes Ka is also calledK¯a, Ke, Ki or K¯ı.

(a) The left hand open (b) The left hand closed stroke Gi (; a;ga) stroke Ka (k)

Figure 4.3: Left hand fundamental strokes

4.1.4 The right hand closed stroke Te (.tea)

The closed stroke Te (pronounced as in “Test”) is a common stroke of the right hand. There are at least four ways to play this bol. However only two are common: the Dilli (Delhi) style and the Purbi style.

The Dilli (Delhi) way is to strike the center of the syahi with the middle finger of the right hand. This is shown in fig. 4.4(a). The approach known as Purbi is different. One leads off with the last three fingers of the right hand (i.e. middle, ring, and little fingers). This technique is shown in fig. 4.4(b). Te is a bandh sound.

November 2000 [email protected] 40 Basic strokes

4.1.5 The right hand closed stroke Ti (; a;ta)

The closed stroke Ti (pronounced as in “Tea”) is executed by striking the center of the syahi with the index finger as in fig. 4.4(c). It is a bandh sound. This stroke may have other names when played in longer bol combinations. Another common name for this stroke is the bol Re.

(a) The Dilli (Delhi) (b) The Purbi style Te (c) The stroke Ti style Te (.tea) (.tea) (; a;ta)

Figure 4.4: Right hand closed strokes

4.1.6 The bol TiT. a (; a;taf)

This bol, TiT. a, is made of two closed strokes of the right hand. There are at least five techniques for executing this stroke, but here only two shall be described. One Dilli (Delhi) and one Purbi. The basic Dilli (Delhi) style is simple. Ti is made by striking the center of the syahi with the middle finger (like the Dilli style Te). This is a non–resonant (bandh) stroke. T. a is made by striking the center of the syahi with the index finger (like Ti). This too is a non–resonant (bandh) stroke and should have a sound that is indistinguishable from Ti. This technique is shown in fig. 4.5. The sequence of strokes in the execution of this bol may also be reversed like in fig. 4.6. The bol will be called TiT. a as well, or Reverse TiT. a. The execution of the bol TiT. a in Purbi style is a little bit different. Ti is executed by

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.1 Fundamental one–hand strokes 41

Figure 4.5: The sequence of strokes in the Dilli (Delhi) style TiT. a (; a;taf)

Figure 4.6: The sequence of strokes in the Dilli (Delhi) style Reverse TiT. a striking sharply with the last three fingers of the right hand (i.e. middle, ring, and little fingers, like in Purbi style Te). T. a is executed by striking the center of the syahi with the index finger (like Ti).

Figure 4.7: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style TiT. a

November 2000 [email protected] 42 Basic strokes

The sequence of strokes in the execution of this bol may also be reversed like in fig. 4.8. The bol will be called (Purbi style) TiT. a as well, or (Purbi style) Reverse TiT. a.

Figure 4.8: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style Reverse TiT. a

There are several variations in the bol. It is also common to find this sequence called TeT. e, TeT. a, TiT. e.

4.1.7 The right hand open stroke Tin (; a;tMa)

The open stroke Tin (pronounced as in “Tin can”) is a common resonant stroke of the right hand. Its hand position is very similar to N¯a, but it is much softer and more delicate. This stroke is produced by placing the last two fingers of the right hand lightly against the syahi and striking on the border between the syahi and the maidan. As with N¯a, the middle finger is extended and does not strike the drum. Great care must be taken so that the stroke is resonant. This resonance will only come if it is a light ricochet. The exact striking position is determined by the construction of the drum but it is usually at the border of the syahi and maidan. This technique is shown in fig. 4.9.

Beginners often have a difficult time making Tin sound different from N¯a. There are two points to keep in mind. First, the stroke must be resonant (khula). Second, it must be played very softly.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.2 Combined strokes 43

Figure 4.9: The open right hand stroke Tin (; a;tMa)

4.1.8 The right hand open stroke Tun (tMua)

The open stroke Tun (pronounced as in “Tune”) is a common resonant stroke of the right hand. The head is not muted at all but allowed to resonate freely. The head is struck in the center of the syahi with the index finger of the right hand. This technique is shown in fig. 4.10.

Figure 4.10: The open right hand stroke Tun (tMua)

There are several variations in pronunciation. Some common examples are Tu (as in “Two”), Thu, Thun, etc.

November 2000 [email protected] 44 Basic strokes

Figure 4.11: Obtaining a combined stroke striking the drumheads with both hands together

4.2 Combined strokes

Combined strokes are listed nn the following sections. They are played with both hands together, see fig. 4.11.

4.2.1 The bol Dh¯a (;Da;a)

The bol Dh¯a (pronounced as in “Ad hoc”) is a combination of N¯a and Gi, see fig. 4.12.

Figure 4.12: The bol Dh¯a (;Da;a) = N¯a (na;a) + Gi (; a;ga)

4.2.2 The bol Dhin (; a;DMa)

The bol Dhin (pronounced as in “And hinder”) is a combination of Tin and Gi, see fig. 4.13.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.2 Combined strokes 45

Figure 4.13: The bol Dhin (; a;DMa) =Tin (; a;tMa) + Gi (; a;ga)

4.2.3 The bol Kha (Ka)

The bol Kha (pronounced as in “knock house”) is a combination of N¯a and Ka, see fig. 4.14.

Figure 4.14: The bol Kha (Ka) = N¯a (na;a) + Ka (k)

4.2.4 The bol Dhi (; a;Da)

The bol Dhi is a combination of Ti and Gi, see fig. 4.15.

4.2.5 The bol Dhe (;Dea)

The bol Dhe is a combination of Te and Gi, see fig. 4.16.

4.2.6 The bol Dhun (;DMua)

The bol Dhun is a combination of Tun and Gi, see fig. 4.17.

November 2000 [email protected] 46 Basic strokes

Figure 4.15: The bol Dhi (; a;Da) = Ti (; a;ta) + Gi (; a;ga)

Figure 4.16: The bol Dhe (;Dea) = Te (.tea) + Gi (; a;ga)

Figure 4.17: The bol Dhun (;DMua) = Tun (tMua) + Gi (; a;ga)

4.2.7 The bol Khun (KMua)

The bol Khun is a combination of Tun and K¯a, see fig. 4.18.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.3 Drum notation 47

Figure 4.18: The bol Khun (KMua) = Tun (tMua) + Ka (k)

4.3 Drum notation

Indian music used to be dominated by a strictly oral tradition. Only recently, from the beginning of the 20th century, notation has risen in importance in both musical pedagogy and musical scholarship. In India the musical system of notation in use today is known as the Bhatkhande system, from the name of Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande (see section 1.2.4) who introduced it with his work Hindustani Sangit Paddhati in 1932.

From a practical viewpoint, notation is important as well, especially when concepts are conveyed to people of different cultural and musical backgrounds. In this book Western musical notation along with Indian rhythmic conventions is used whenever is possible. The simplicity of Indian rhythmic notation sometimes would be sufficient to illustrate basic or even more complex patterns, but the illustration also in terms of Western musical notation seems to stimulate the non Indian readers for a faster assimilation of the rhythmic concepts.

There are serious problems when one attempts to write the Indian names of the strokes (bols) or of combinations of strokes, in English, unless proper diacritic marks are used in the transliteration of Devnagri script. Today even in English books on Indian music also the Devnagri notation is often found.

The most important thing in rhythmic notation is the adopted system to describe the timing. Here this is hndled by various marks that show the beats, or m¯atr¯as. The single beat is the foundamental thing in a rhythmic pattern. Therefore:

November 2000 [email protected] 48 Basic strokes

N¯aN¯aN¯aN¯a

represents four beats with one N¯a in each beat. If one whishes to specify double time then one joins the bols with a bracket. For instance

N¯aN¯a N¯aN¯a N¯aN¯a N¯aN¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }

indicates eight N¯as played in four m¯atr¯as. In this manner N¯aN¯aN¯a indicates triple time, | {z } three N¯as played in one m¯atr¯a, and N¯aN¯aN¯aN¯a indicates quadruple time, four N¯as played | {z } in one m¯atr¯a. This system is remarkably simple. In fig. 4.19 are shown some common examples written in both Indian and Western notation. From this figure one can notice the use of dashes (–), which indicate rests. Rests may have different time durations. In Western notation this is specifyed with proper symbols. In the simple rhythmic Indian notation the time duration, or value, of a rest can be argued by the context in which it is used. For instance, when the simple notation: “Dh¯a ”, is found the stroke indicates one beat. In cases where a more articulate phrase of more than one m¯atr¯a like: “Dh¯a− TiT. a ” is found, the rest is used to fill | {z } | {z } up, together with the Dh¯a, the first m¯atr¯a. Here “−” has the same time value of Ti or T. a. The measure is another important component of Indian musical notation. It is called vibh¯ag and is designated by a vertical bar. In practical terms, when one keeps the time, a measure is also designated by either a clap or a wave of the hands. In chapter 6 the North Indian rhytmic system will be presented and these concepts will be introduced in a more complete way. Here, by looking at fig. 4.19, is sufficient to get familiar with the simple bol–based Indian rhythmic system.

4.4 Exercices

In this section a number of exercises are suggested for getting familiarity with the fundamen- tal bols. An attitude to performe different bols in succession has to be developed, together with the correct technique for each bol, so that the hand movements required to play more complex patterns can become natural. They are important for strengthening the finger also.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.4 Exercices 49

The verbal repetition of the bols is very important. It is a way to memorize exercises, patterns and .thekas. It also helps rememberig where to put the hands for the correct stroke execution.

TiT. a

The bol TiT. a can be used as a basic exercise for strenghtening the right hand fingers. As first pattern practice:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ti T. a Ti T. a TiT. a TiT. a TiT. a TiT. a

Note that the second half of this pattern is effectively played at twice the speed of the first: in the first half one bol per beat is played; in the second half two bols per beat are played. This exercise should be played very slowly in the beginning, keeping the pads of the fingers pressed firmly on the drum skin between strokes. Then different speeds can be experimented, starting slowly and keeping the bols very clear sounding. Here play the standard TiT. a (see fig. 4.7). Actually this bol is spread over two beats in the first half and played two times (beats 1–2 and beats 3–4). In this case the bol T. a in beats 2 and 4 could be replaced by the bol (word) T. e (see fig. 4.4(b)). In the second half the TiT. a is considered as a single bol of two strokes.

Another exercise for practicing with TiT. a is:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TiT. a – TiT. a (rev.) – TiT. a (rev.) – TiT. a –

Note that TiT. a is played first as a standard TiT. a (see fig. 4.7), then as a reverse TiT. a (see fig. 4.8). The symbol “–” indicates a rest and suggest that the exercise have to be practiced slowly.

GiTunTunGi and GiTunK¯aTe

Here are two more pattern one can play with and vary:

November 2000 [email protected] 50 Basic strokes

1 2 3 4 Gi Tun Tun Gi Gi Tun K¯a Te

See fig. 4.3(a) for Gi, and fig. 4.3(b) for K¯a.

Developing the N¯a technique in addition to other bols

Here are some good exercises for the right hand involving N¯a. The two–stroke exercises are useful for developing a clear N¯a technique in conjunction with those particular bols. The four–stroke exercise are patterns that can be viewed as parts of more complex .thekas (see section 6.2.1 for more details).

N¯aTe

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Te – N¯a – Te –

See fig. 4.2 for N¯a, and fig. 4.4(b) for Te. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a Te N¯a Te N¯a Te N¯a Te

and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a Te N¯a Te N¯aTe N¯aTe N¯aTe N¯aTe

N¯aTun

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Tun – N¯a – Tun –

See fig. 4.10 for Tun. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a Tun N¯a Tun N¯a Tun N¯a Tun

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.4 Exercices 51 and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a Tun N¯a Tun N¯aTun N¯aTun N¯aTun N¯aTun

This exercise should be played very slowly in the beginning, then experimenting different speeds, starting slowly and keeping the open bols N¯a and Tun very clear sounding.

TiT. aTunN¯a

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ti T. a Tun N¯a Ti T. a Tun N¯a

This exercise helps getting the feeling of tangling up the fingers. It should be played very slowly in the beginning, then experimenting different speeds, starting slowly and keeping the open bols N¯a and Tun very clear sounding and looking for the distinction from the closed bol TiT. a.

N¯a–TeTun

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Te – Tun – Te – Tun – then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tun – N¯a – Tun – N¯a – then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Te – Tun – N¯a – and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Te Tun N¯a – Te Tun

November 2000 [email protected] 52 Basic strokes

N¯aTunN¯aN¯a

This exercise can be practiced breaking it down in smaller parts as the previous one. The full pattern is:

1 2 3 4 N¯a Tun N¯a N¯a

N¯aTinTiT. a

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Tin – N¯a – Tin –

See fig. 4.9 for Tin. Then practice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tin – TiT. a – Tin – TiT. a – then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a – Tin – TiT. a – N¯a – and finally

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N¯a Tin TiT. a – N¯a Tin TiT. a –

Developing the technique for combined strokes

Here are some good exercises for developing the technique for combined strokes.

Dh¯aTunN¯a

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dh¯a – Tun – Dh¯a – Tun –

then

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 4.4 Exercices 53

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dh¯a Tun N¯a – N¯a Tun N¯a –

When this pattern has been mastered one can vary it playing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dh¯a Tun N¯a – Kh¯a Tun N¯a –

DhunN¯aDh¯a

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dhun – N¯a – Dh¯a – Tun – then

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dhun N¯a Dh¯a – Tun N¯a Dh¯a –

When this pattern has been mastered one can vary it playing

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dhun N¯a Dh¯a – Khun N¯a Dh¯a –

DhiT. a

First practice this simple one slowly:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dhi – T. a – Dhi – T. a –

Here the stroke T. a is part of the standard bol TiT. a. It could also be called T. e. Actually the right hand plays here the bol TiT. a which is spread over four beats. Then practice 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 DhiT. a – TiT. a – DhiT. a – TiT. a –

Here the right hand plays the bol TiT. a in beat 1, 3, 5 and 7. Finally play 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dhi T. a Dhi T. a DhiT. a TiT. a DhiT. a TiT. a

November 2000 [email protected] 54 Basic strokes

1,2,3,4 G 4 © 4 Dh¯a ––– ;Da;a –––

(a) 1 bol in 4 m¯atr¯as

1,2 3,4 G 4 ¨ ¨ 4 Dh¯a – Dh¯a – ;Da;a – ;Da;a –

(b) 2 bols in 4 m¯atr¯as

1 2 3 4 G 4 § § § § 4 Dh¯a Dh¯a Dh¯a Dh¯a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a

(c) 4 bols in 4 m¯atr¯as (single time)

1 2 3 4 G 4 § § § § § § § § 4 Dh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a

(d) 8 bols in 4 m¯atr¯as (double time)

1 2 3 4 G 4 § § § § § § § § § § § § § § § § 4 Dh¯aDh¯aDh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯aDh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯aDh¯aDh¯a Dh¯aDh¯aDh¯aDh¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a ;Da;a

(e) 16 bols in 4 m¯atr¯as (quadruple time)

Figure 4.19: Rhythmic notations

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 Chapter 5

Advanced material

5.1 Other bols

5.1.1 The right hand closed stroke Ne

The bol Ne (pronounced as in “Nectar”) is a nonresonant stroke which is made by striking the edge of the syahi with the last two fingers of the right hand. This stroke has numerous names, especially when used as part of larger bol expressions. Another common name is Ra. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The closed right hand stroke Ne

5.1.2 The right hand open stroke D¯ı

The bol D¯ı (pronounced as in “Dee”) is a resonant stroke which is made by striking the center of the syahi with all four fingers of the right hand. This bol is similar to the khula stroke Tun,

55 56 Advanced material

but is more accentuated. Its full resonance is achieved by immediately rebounding the hand away from the drum surface. This stroke is known also as pakhawaj style tin. In addition it has numerous names when appearing in other bol combinations. Other common names ones Din, Ding, Ma, Thun. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2: The open right hand stroke Di

5.1.3 The right hand closed stroke Ma

The bol Ma (pronounced as in “Mum”) is a nonresonant stroke which is made by striking the edge of the syahi with the all for fingers of the right hand keeping them and the palm flat. This bol may be played differently, as a loud open sound like Di, when it is present in other bol combinations. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.3: The closed right hand stroke Ma

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 5.1 Other bols 57

5.1.4 The pakhawaj style T¯a

The pakhawaj style Ta is a stroke which is made by striking the treble head with the whole hand. The entire hand is allowed to rebound except for the little finger. The little finger remains upon an imaginary line which bisects the head. Its tecnique is shown in fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4: The pakhawaj style Ta

5.1.5 The left hand closed stroke bol Ge

This bol is derived from the a very expressive modulated tabla bol Ga. To play Ge on the mridang play Gi hitting the center of bass head with the tips of the middle and ring finger (or the middle finger only). Then immediately slide the base of the palm from the rim of the head towards the center.

5.1.6 The bol Dhak

The bol Dhak is a combination of N¯a and Ge.

5.1.7 The bol TeRiK¯ıT. a

The bol TeRiKiT. a is a four stroke sequence of non resonant (bandh) taps wich are usually played quite rapidly. Precise timing and crisp bols are required to play this phrase. There are two basic techniques, the Dilli (Delhi) and the Purbi styles. The Delhi style is characterized by an independent use of the middle finger. Te is played by striking the center of the shyahi with the middle finger of the right hand. Ri is played by striking the

November 2000 [email protected] 58 Advanced material

center of the shyahi with the index finger of the right hand. K¯ı is played by striking the left hand sharply against the bass head (like K¯a). T. a is played by striking the edge of the shyahi with the last two fingers of the right hand. This sequence is illustred in fig. 5.5. The Purbi approach is a bit different. We lead off with the last three fingers of the right hand (i.e.middle, ring, and little fingers); this would be the Te. Ri is played by striking the center of the syahi with the index finger. K¯ı is a standard left hand K¯a, and the final T. a would be played with the last three fingers. This sequence is illustred in fig. 5.6.

Figure 5.5: The sequence of strokes in the Delhi style TeRiK¯ıT. a

Today it is very usual to mix Dilli and Purbi techniques. It is common to mix them even within the same composition. Such mixing is done in order to get a balance of speed and clarity.

5.2 Exercices

Not available yet.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 5.2 Exercices 59

Figure 5.6: The sequence of strokes in the Purbi style TeRiK¯ıT. a

November 2000 [email protected] This page is intentionally blank.

60 Chapter 6

The North Indian rhythmic system

6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts

The rhythm is fundamental to the creation of any musical system. From a historic stand- point, rhythm structures existed in India many centuries before the word r¯aga was ever used. Given this historical preeminence, it is not surprising that rhythm occupies an important position in the Indian system of music. There are similarities between Western and Indian rhythm. Western rhythm may func- tion at the level of beats, measures or even longer cycles. The same is true of Indian rhythm. They can be looked at more closely at these different levels. The Indian science of rhythm is known as t¯al. Today, percussion instruments have replaced the clap in the performance, but the term still reflects its origin. The basic concepts of t¯al are: t¯al¯ı, or bh¯ar¯ı, kh¯al¯ı, vibh¯ag, or ang, m¯atr¯a, bol, .theka, laya, sam and avartan. These concepts are discussed in the following sections.

6.1.1 T¯al

The word t¯al literally means “clap”. The clapping of hands may be is the oldest form of rhythmic accompaniment. Today, a system of claps, t¯al¯ı, and waves, kh¯al¯ı, forms a conceptual common ground. It is common to the way Indian instrumentalists, dancers and vocalists think of rhythm. The clap of the hands is an important part of both the science and practice of North

61 62 The North Indian rhythmic system

Indian music. It has a hoary past. An elaborate system of clapping and hand movements is mentioned in the ancient text N¯at.ya S¯astra´ (see section 1.1) where it is part of the system of timekeeping known as kriy¯a. The clap of the hands is very important for the conceptual- ization of Indian rhythms. North Indian musicians use the claps to designate the measures (vibh¯ag) which are highly stressed. The most stressed measure is the beginning of the cycle (sam), the most important beat in the whole cycle. The clapping of hands is also of great practical importance in performances. It is a convenient means for the singers and other musicians to communicate with the drum player without having to break the performance. The clapping must not be taken only into itself because it exits along with its counterpart, the wave. This wave or kh¯al¯ı is also important in designating the measures (see below).

6.1.2 M¯atr¯a

The most fundamental unit of Indian rhythmic theory is the m¯atr¯a. This translates to “beat”. In many cases the m¯atr¯a is just a single stroke. However, just as sixteenth, or eighth–notes may be strung together to make a single beat, so too may several strokes of the drum be strung together to have the value of one m¯atr¯a.

6.1.3 Vibh¯ag

A higher level of structure with respect to the m¯atr¯a is the vibh¯ag. This translates to “measure” or “bar”. A measure may be as little as one beat or more than five; usually a vibh¯ag is two, three, or four m¯atr¯as (beats) in length. The vibh¯ags are described in terms of claps and waves. A vibh¯ag, which is signified by a clap of the hands, is said to be bh¯ar¯ı or t¯al¯ı. Conversely, a vibh¯ag which is signified by a waving of the hand, is said to be kh¯al¯ı. For example a common indian t¯al called Tint¯al, taken now as an illustration of these concepts, has 16 beats divided into four vibh¯ags (measures – marked by claps or waves) of four m¯atr¯as (beats – indicated by number, claps or waves) each. Indian musicians say that this t¯al is a “cycle divided into 4+4+4+4”. Its clapping arrangement is shown in table 6.1.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts 63

m¯atr¯as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 t¯al Clap 2 3 4 Clap 2 3 4 Wave 2 3 4 Clap 2 3 4 avartan This is one avartan

Table 6.1: The pattern of claps and waves defining Tint¯al

This brings to the concept of the overall cycle. This Indian cycle, called avartan, represents the highest level of looking at the rhythm.

6.1.4 Avartan

The avartan, cycle, is in some ways comparable to the Western cycle (e.g. a 16 bar blues pattern) with but a few differences. One of the biggest differences is that in Western music the measure is considered inviolate, while in North Indian music the cycle is considered inviolate. That is to say that a Western musician would think nothing of establishing a 16 bar pattern, break the pattern for some artistic reason and then reestablish it; however the measures would all be the same. Conversely, Indian musicians typically will mix the measures. For instance a common t¯al known as Jhapt¯al is four measures of (i) two–beats, (ii) three–beats, (iii) two-beats, (iv) three-beats respectively (i.e. a cycle divided as 2+3+2+3), however the overall 10 beat pattern, shown in table 6.2, may not be altered.

m¯atr¯as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 t¯al Clap 2 Clap 2 3 Wave 2 Clap 2 3 avartan This is one avartan

Table 6.2: The pattern of claps and waves defining Jhapt¯al

Avartans may be of any number of m¯atr¯as. The most common numbers are 16, 14, 12, 10, 8, 7, and 6. Most of the music played in Northern India today is in one of these numbers. Although the cycle is found in Western music there is a flexibility that is not allowed in Indian music. If one is playing a 16 beat structure, one must maintain that structure throughout.

November 2000 [email protected] 64 The North Indian rhythmic system

6.1.5 Sam

The importance of the cycle gives special significance to the first beat. This beat, called sam (pronounced like “sum”), is a point of convergence between the drum player and the other musicians. In Sanskrit the word sam means “with”, “together”, or “common”. One of the main functions of the sam is to establish a point of resolution. Although improvisations and fixed compositions may begin almost anywhere in the cycle (avartan) they almost always resolve on the sam. Whenever a cadence is indicated it will usually end on this sam. This means that the sam may be thought of as both the beginning of some structures as well as the ending of others. The sam is also a pivotal point. For example in a north Indian classical music recital, usually accompanyied by tabla, during the performance the tabla player keeps time by playing a conventional pattern of drum strokes (.theka) and the main musician is free to improvise. Sometimes it is common to trade places. During this, the main musician keeps time by playing a melodic theme (gat or sthai) over and over. This allows the tabla player to take off and improvise. After a period the roles reverse again. The sam is important because it is pivotal to this transition. The sam is so important that it has its own notational symbol. In the Bhatkhande system of notation it is noted with cross such as an “x” or an “+”. The sam is in almost all the t¯als a clap of the hands.1

6.1.6 Kh¯al¯ı

The word kh¯al¯ı literally means “empty”. However in the field of north Indian music it has a special significance. Here the word implies a wave of the hand. This wave of the hand, along with its counterpart, the clap of the hand, t¯al¯ı, forms as said the basis for timekeeping in north India. The wave of the hand is used to designate the first m¯atr¯aof those measures (vibh¯ags) which are only moderately stresses. Therefore one almost never finds the kh¯al¯ı applied to

1There is only one exception and that is the case of the t¯al known as Rupakt¯al. This lone exception designates the beginning of the cycle with a wave of the hands (kh¯al¯ı). See section 6.2.1 for more details.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts 65

strongly stressed beats like the sam. The kh¯al¯ı is especially important in symmetrical metres such as Tint¯al of 16 beats, or D¯adr¯at¯al of 6 beats, or Kaherava t¯al of 8 beats. For such symmetrical t¯als the kh¯al¯ı is indispensable for correct orientation. For example, if there were no kh¯al¯ı, Tint¯al would be a confusing string of four beat measures and it would be very difficult to find the beginning of the cycle. Therefore the kh¯al¯ı may be thought of as an index. The kh¯al¯ı, along with the t¯al¯ı, form a convenient method by which vocalists may com- municate with the drum player without halting the performance. This allows communication between the artists to continue during the performance without a break in the musical flow.

6.1.7 The bols as a system of mnemonics

The mnemonic syllable, called bol, is a very important concept in the Indian rhythmic thought. The word bol is derived from the word “Bolna” which means “to speak”. It is a series of syllables which correlate to the various strokes of the pakh¯awaj or tabla and are used to define the t¯al. Mnemonic syllables are used in pakh¯awaj, mridangam, and tabla. These drums are said to reproduce inner divine sounds that can be heard in meditation. So the bols can be viewd like m¯atr¯as. There is a difference in the way that north Indians and south Indians use these syllables. In the north the t¯al is actually defined by the bols while in the south they are merely a mnemonic aid to the musician. There are numerous example of how north Indian musicians use the bol to define the t¯al. The case of Tint¯al is a good example. It has the bols Dh¯a, Dhin, N¯a, Tin,2 arranged as in table 6.3 below, where vibh¯ags are marked by “x”, “0”, or numbers. There are other t¯als which have the same patterns of claps (t¯al¯ı) and waves kh¯al¯ı) as Tint¯al, but they are considered separate t¯als because the bols are different. Another t¯al that shows a symmetry similar to Tint¯al is the Kaherava t¯al used in most of the Siddha Yoga fast chants. It has the bols Dh¯a, Dhin, N¯a, Tin, Ge, Ka arranged as in

2See chapter 4 for an introduction to the drum bols and their technique.

November 2000 [email protected] 66 The North Indian rhythmic system

x 2 Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a 0 4 Dh¯a Tin Tin N¯a N¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a

Table 6.3: The Tint¯alT. heka

table 6.4. The kh¯al¯ı breaks the cycle in two equal parts. Those of tables 6.3 and 6.4 are examples of .theka which is a conventional arrangement of bols defining the t¯al and subject to variations during the accompanyiment of a piece (see more in section 6.2.1).

x 0 Dh¯a Ge N¯a Tin N¯a Ka Dhin N¯a

Table 6.4: The Kaherava T. heka

The situation is somewhat different in the south. South Indian t¯al are defined by the clapping and waving and the syllables are merely technical mnemonics. In Carnatic music it is not normal to have different t¯als sharing the same clapping / waving patterns. It is very common for people to actually equate the bols with the strokes themselves, however there are differences amongs the different (Hindustani) percussion instruments. For instance there are differences between the bols of the pakh¯awaj and those of the tabla. One may even find subtle differences between one school of tabla or pakh¯awaj (gharana) and another. The end result is that the bol should be seen as a mere description of the technique rather than an iron clad prescription. However the word bol is so attached to the strokes that it has come to mean both the verbal recitation as well as the performance of the strokes. Bols are indeed important because they allow the drummers to remember compositions, such as .thekas or their variations. Musicians also use the bols to perform the mental permutations to know if an improvised

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.1 Elementary rhythmic concepts 67

passage or “lick” will work.

6.1.8 Lay

Lay is the tempo, or speed of a piece. The Hindi term for tempo is lay and is derived from the Sanskrit term laya. It is a very simple concept, but its application is sometimes complicated. It goes without saying that there have to be some practical limit to usable tempi. One beat every ten minutes would be so slow as to be musically useless. At the other end of the spectrum, 100 beats per second would be so fast that it would be perceived as a tone and not as a rhythm. A general breakdown of Indian lay is shown in the following table 6.5.

Lay – tempo Name beats/min English ati–ati–drut 640 very very fast ati–drut 320 very fast drut 160 fast madhya 80 medium vilambit 40 slow ati–vilambit 20 very slow ati–ati–vilambit 10 very very slow

Table 6.5: The Indian speeds of a musical piece

Table 6.5 is an idealized breakdown of lay. In practice there can be different interpretations of speeds. For instance, vocalists use a slower definition of time than instrumentalists.

The lay or tempo usually changes throughout the performance. These changes in tempo are inextricably linked to the various musical styles. In general we can say that only very short pieces will maintain a fairly steady pace. Most styles will start at one tempo and then increase in speed.

November 2000 [email protected] 68 The North Indian rhythmic system

6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns

Although there are many compositional forms, or patterns of bols, there are really only two overall classes: cyclic and cadential. These mutually exclusive classes are based upon simple philosophies. The cadential class has a feeling of imbalance; it moves forward to an inevitable point of resolution, usually on the sam. Mridang turnarounds and tihai s are examples of such forms. It is a classic case of tension/resolve. In contrast, the cyclic class comprises material which rolls along without any strong sense of direction. One may generally ascribe a feeling of balance and repose to this class. These include our basic accompanying patterns, such as .theka and prakar (ways to play a .theka). The alternation between the cyclic and the cadential material is like a dynamo which drives a performance of Indian music forward. This happens in a Siddha Yoga chant as well. The cyclic material is the groove or rhythmic foundation upon which the other musicians rely. The stability of the cyclic form makes it suitable for providing the musical framework for drum accompaniment. Conversely the tension and instability of the cadenza provides the energy to keep the performance or the chant moving.

6.2.1 T. heka

T. heka is the accompaniment pattern used for Indian music and is the most basic cyclic form. The word .theka literally means “support” or “a place of rest”. Whenever a drummer is accompanying a vocalist, dancer, instrumentalist, or a chant, with tabla or mridang he will spend most of the time playing this. T. heka is defined entirely by its function. It is the major accompaniment pattern for north Indian music. Any structure imaginable may be found, but a binary structure, i.e. bh¯ar¯ı–kh¯al¯ı, is quite common. T. heka has become inextricably linked to the fundamental concepts of tal. In northern India, when one speaks of Tint¯al, Rupakt¯al, or any other t¯al, one is generally speaking of the .theka. It is common for several north Indian t¯als to have the same number of beats, same arrangement of the vibhags, and

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns 69

the same timekeeping (i.e., clap/wave patterns), yet be distinguished by their .thekas. This is unthinkable in south Indian music.

Fig. 6.1 below shows the common Tint¯alt.heka.

(Sam) (2) G 16 4 § § § § § § § § Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a ;Da;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a ;Da;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a

(Kh¯al¯ı) (4) G 16 § § 4 § § § § § § T¯a Tin Tin T¯a T¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a ta;a ; a;tMa ; a;tMa ta;a ta;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a

Figure 6.1: Tint¯alT. heka

In the single fig. 6.1 various concepts of Indian rhythmic theory are illustrates. The more usual notation is shown in Sanskrit (Devnagri script) while Western elements have been added for the benefit of the non-Indian reader. The common t¯al known as Tint¯al is composed of four vibh¯ags, of four m¯atr¯as each, for a total of 16 m¯atr¯as (see also tables 6.1 and 6.3). The individual strokes are specified with the bol (i.e., Dh¯a, Dhin, etc.) and their time value with the usual Western musical notation. As usual the beginning of each measure is designated by a symbol (i.e., cross, number or zero). These indicate the clapping arrangement (t¯al¯ı) within the t¯al. The wave of the hand (kh¯al¯ı) at beat 9 is designated with a “0” while the claps are designated with a number. The clap at sam, first beat of the cycle, is not designated with “1” but with a cross. A number designates then a second clap and third clap.

The topic of the .theka and its bols is made interesting by the differences between pakh¯awaj and tabla. The former is an ancient instrument while the latter is much younger. Hence there are many .thekas used in tabla accompanyiment which that tabla has derived from the progenitor, pakh¯awaj. It is very common to see traditional pakh¯awaj phrases such as Dh¯aDh¯aDinT¯a, or TeT. eK¯aTaGaDiGeNe in tabla compositions. In general all the patterns which were composed for the pakh¯awaj can be played on

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tabla. The contrary is not true. Some bass modulated tabla bols are extremely difficult to obtain with a pakh¯awaj. These bols and their combinations with other tabla treble (open and closed) bols are called “pure tabla bols” and are present in .thekas that can only be played with tabla. However, the pakh¯awaj compositional forms entered the tabla tradition retaining their unmodulated character, thus maintaining their mood of somber majesty. One very common .theka from the pakh¯awaj is Chaut¯al given in table 6.6 below.

x 2 3 4 Dh¯a Dh¯a Din T¯a K¯ıT. a Dh¯a Dhin T¯a Te T. e K¯aTa GaDi GeNe | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }

Table 6.6: The Chaut¯alT. heka

A representation of Chaut¯al similar to that given for Tint¯al in fig. 6.1 is given in fig. 6.2 below. (Sam) (2””) (3) ”” (4) G 12 § § § § § § ”” ”” 4 § § § § § § § § § § § Dh¯a Dh¯a Din T¯a K¯ıT. a Dh¯a Dhin T¯a TeT. e K¯aT. a G¯aD¯ı GeNe | {z } | {z } ;Da;a ;Da;a ; a;dM ta;a |k +:af{z } ;Da;a ; a;DMa ta;a |.tea{z.fe } |k+:af{z } ga;ad¤;a .geatea

Figure 6.2: Chaut¯alT. heka

It is a 12 beat t¯al divided in 4+4+2+2. It does not have vibh¯ags beginning with a kh¯al¯ı. This is usual in pakh¯awaj compositional forms where the system of clapping was different from the one adopted today. Today a t¯al must have both claps and waves of the hands, while many pakh¯awaj traditions did not use the concept of wave at all. A tabla t¯al of 12 beats and divided also in 4+4+2+2 like Chaut¯al, but having the kh¯al¯ı on beat 9 is the t¯al known as Ekt¯al. It is given in table 6.7 below. A representation of Ekt¯al with elements of Western music notation is also given in fig. 6.3. There are cases, such as slow tempi, in which Ekt¯al is further divided is 2+2+2+2+2+2 (having two kh¯al¯ıs, on m¯atr¯as 3 and 7), and cases, faster tempi, where Ekt¯al is considered a 6 beat t¯al divided into 2+2+1+1.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns 71

x 2 0 4 Dhin Dhin Dh¯aGe TeReKeT. e Tin N¯a Kat T¯a Dh¯aGe TeReKeT. e Dhin N¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }

Table 6.7: The Ekt¯alT. heka (x) (2) (0) (4) G 12 § § § § § § § § § § 4 § § § § § § § § § § Dhin Dhin Dh¯aGe Te Re Ke T. e Tun N¯a K¯a T¯a Dh¯aGe Te Re Ke T. e Dhin N¯a | {z } | {z } ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a .gea |.tea :=e{z :ke .fe } tMua na;a k+:a ta;a ;Da;a .gea |.tea :=e{z :ke .fe } ; a;DMa na;a

Figure 6.3: Ekt¯alT. heka

Tempo is another difference between the pure tabla. thekas and the pakh¯awaj forms. Tabla. thekas may be performed as slow as 10 to 20 beats–per–minute or as fast as 700 beats– per–minute. In contrast the pakh¯awaj material is in general performed in medium–slow, medium–fast tempo, generally between 50 and 180 beats–per–minute. There is a tendency for .theka to be based upon two symmetrical structures. The t¯al known as Jhapt¯al is an example, see table 6.8. A representation of Jhapt¯al with elements of Western music notation is given in fig. 6.4.

x 2 0 4 Dhin N¯a Dhin Dhin N¯a Tin N¯a Dhin Dhin N¯a

Table 6.8: The Jhapt¯al T. heka

(x) (2) (0) (4) G 2939293 § 4 § § § § § § § § § Dhin N¯a Dhin DhinN¯a Tin N¯a Dhin DhinN¯a ; a;DMa na;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa na;a ; a;tMa na;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa na;a

Figure 6.4: Jhapt¯alT. heka

In Jhapt¯al the 2+3 structure DhinN¯aDhinDhinN¯a is opposed by another 2+3 structure

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TinN¯aDhinDhinN¯a. This symmetry is also illustrated in D¯adr¯at¯al, divided 3+3, see fig. 6.5.

(x) (0) G 6 § 4 § § § § § Dh¯a Dhin N¯a Dh¯a Tin N¯a ;Da;a ; a;DMa na;a ;Da;a ; a;tMa na;a

Figure 6.5: D¯adr¯aT. heka

In this last example the phrase Dh¯aDhinN¯a is reflected in the structure Dh¯aTinN¯a. There are however numerous .thekas which do not exhibit this symmetrical quality. Therefore symmetry must be considered a tendency rather than a rule. As an example of asymmetrical division, a very common 7 beat t¯al divided into 3+2+2 is known as Rupakt¯al. His .theka is given in fig. 6.6.

(0) (1) (2) G 39292 § § 4 § § § § § Tin Tin N¯a Dhin N¯a Dhin N¯a ; a;tMa ; a;tMa na;a ; a;DMa na;a ; a;DMa na;a

Figure 6.6: Rupakt¯al T. heka

The Rupakt¯al is interesting because it does present the sam on the first m¯atr¯a of the cycle. Instead of sam the first beat is in this case “stressed” by kh¯al¯ı (a wave instead of a clap). In this situation the remaining two vibh¯ags are equally stressed by two claps giving to this t¯al a peculiar pulse.

There is another observation that may be made about the structure of the .theka in general; there is a tendency for the bols to follow the structure of the vibh¯ag. For instance, looking back at the Jhapt¯al in the earlier example, in the division 2+3+2+3, the clapping arrangement of Jhapt¯al is reflected in the bols DhinN¯a+DhinDhinN¯a+TinN¯a+DhinDhinN¯a. However there are exceptions, like the Ekt¯al division and vibh¯ag / bol correlation, that show that this is merely a tendency rather than a rule.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns 73

Finally in fig. 6.7 is shown the Kaherava. theka of 8 beats, divided into 4+4. It represents the t¯al in wich most of the Siddha Yoga fast chants are set.

(Sam) (Kh¯al¯ı) G 8 § 4 § § § § § § § Dh¯a Ge N¯a Tin N¯a Ge Dhin N¯a ;Da;a .gea na;a ; a;tMa na;a .gea ; a;DMa na;a

Figure 6.7: Kaherava T. heka

6.2.2 Prakar

The prakar is the variation or improvisation upon the .theka. When a indian drummer refers to “playing the .theka” he is actually referring to the prakars. This is because a basic .theka can be too simple and dull to be used in any degree. There are a number of ways to create these variations; yet the most widespread are the ornamentation and alteration of the bols. Ornamentation is the most common process for generating prakars. This keeps the performance varied and maintains the interest of the audience. The basic .theka is a skeleton, while the prakar puts the flesh onto it. We can illustrate this with these two examples of D¯adr¯a, see fig. 6.8. The difference in moods between these two examples is clear. The first example, fig. 6.8(a), has a childlike simplicity and becomes monotonous after a while. Conversely, the second example, fig. 6.8(b), is more lively. It is important to keep in mind that this is nothing more than the original .theka with some ornamentation. This prakar would be mixed in with an indefinite number of similar improvisations to keep the performance moving at a lively pace. Ornamentation is not the only process, for many times a prakar is formed by a complete change in the bols. This is usually done for stylistic reasons. An example is illustrated in fig. 6.9, where the basic Kaherava, fig. 6.9(a), is compared with a prakar which is sometimes referred to as bhajan k¯at.heka, fig. 6.9(b). The relationship between this pair of Kaherava .thekas is very different from the relationship seen in the D¯adr¯a examples. The basic bols of

November 2000 [email protected] 74 The North Indian rhythmic system

(x) (0) G 6 § 4 § § § § § Dh¯a Dhin N¯a Dh¯a Tin N¯a ;Da;a ; a;DMa na;a ;Da;a ; a;tMa na;a

(a) Basic D¯adr¯at.heka

(x) (0) G 6 § § § § § § § 4 § § § § § § § Dh¯aGe Dhin Te Ke T¯aKe Dh¯aGe Tin Te Ke T¯aKe |;Da;a{z .gea } ; a;DMa |.tea :ke{z ta;a :ke } |;Da;a{z .gea } ; a;tMa |.tea :ke{z ta;a :ke }

(b) Dadra prakar

Figure 6.8: A variation of D¯adr¯at.heka

Kaherava are not contained in the bhajan k¯at.heka. This prakar represents a totally different interpretation. When there is a restructuring of the bols it is sometimes called a kisma. We have seen that prakar is the variation upon the .theka. This may be a simple orna- mentation or it may be a totally different interpretation of the t¯al. There is an interesting relationship between the basic timekeeping and the performance. One may find alternation between blinding bursts of speed and slow simple accompaniment. Yet through all of these alternations, the basic rhythm usually does not change. Therefore, this sets up a situation where we have two rhythms going on simultaneously. One rhythm is the abstract basic t¯al indicated by the claps and waves. The other one is the actual performed piece. The relationship between the performed and the abstract is referred to as layakari. Common layakari are single–time, double–time, triple–time, etc. One can also find interesting layakaris such as three–beats–over–two, seven–beats–over–four, etc.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.2 Cyclic and cadential bol patterns 75

(x) (0) G 8 § 4 § § § § § § § Dh¯a Ge N¯a Tin N¯a Ge DhinN¯a ;Da;a .gea na;a ; a;tMa na;a .gea ; a;DMa na;a

(a) Basic Kaherava. theka

(x) (0) G 8 § § (§ § 4 § § § ? (§ § § § ? § Dhin N¯aDhin – Dhin N¯aGe Tin N¯aTin – Tin N¯aKa | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } ; a;DMa na;a ; a;DMa – ; a;DMa na;a .gea ; a;tMa na;a ; a;tMa – ; a;tMa na;a k

(b) Bhajan k¯at.heka (Kaherava prakar)

Figure 6.9: A variation of Kaherava. theka

6.2.3 Tihai

The tihai , sometimes called tiya, is the most typical of the Indian cadential forms. It is defined entirely by its structure, i.e. a tihai is essentially the repetition of a phrase three times. This triadic structure creates a rhythmic counterpoint which produces a strong sense of tension in a performance. The resolution on the sam provides the release. It is so important that the majority of Indian cadenzas are based upon the tihai at some level. Fig. 6.11 is an example of a tihai . In this example the phrase TeRiK¯ıT. aDh¯a– is repeated three times. The last Dh¯a of the last iteration corresponds to the first beat of the next cycle. The most common philosophy for the resolution of a tihai is to resolve upon the sam. The phrases of the tihai (referred to as p¯ala) may be linked in two ways. One way is to use a time interval between the three p¯alas (phrases). This is called a dumdar tihai . Dum literally means “breath”, but has the secondary meaning of a very small unit of time. The second approach has no gap between phrases. This is referred to as bedum. These two approaches are shown schematically in fig. 6.10. The bedum tihai has a number of interesting characteristics. An example of a bedum

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Figure 6.10: Structure of Dumdar and Bedum Tihai

(x) (2) (0) G 16 § § 4 § § § § § § § § § § Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a Dh¯a Dhin Dhin Dh¯a T¯a Tin Tin T¯a ;Da;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a ;Da;a ; a;DMa ; a;DMa ;Da;a ta;a ; a;tMa ; a;tMa ta;a

First Iteration Second Iteration Third Iteration (4) z }| { z }| { z }| {(x) G 16 § § § § § § § § § § § § 4 § @ § @ §

Te Re Ke T. e Dh¯a – Te Re Ke T. e Dh¯a– Te Re Ke T. e Dh¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } .tea :=e :ke .fe ;Da;a – .tea :=e :ke .fe ;Da;a – .tea :=e :ke .fe ;Da;a

Figure 6.11: A Dumdar tihai in Tint¯al

tihai is shown in fig. 6.12. The phrase TiT. aK¯aT. aGaDiGeNeDh¯aTiDh¯a is repeated three times without any interval between.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools 77

z }| { (x) Phrase (2) G 8 § § § § § § § § § § § 4 § § § § § TiT. a KaT. a GaDi GeNe Dh¯aTi Dh¯aTi T. aKa T. aGa | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } |; a;ta{z f} |k{z f} Ga ; a;d .gea tea ;Da;a ; a;ta ;Da;a ; a;ta |f{z k} |f{z Ga }

(0) (4) (x) G 8 § § § § § § § § § § 4 § § § § § § § DiGe NeDh¯a TiDh¯a TiT. a KaT. a GaDi GeNe Dh¯aTi Dh¯a | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } ; a;d .gea tea ;Da;a ; a;ta ;Da;a |; a;ta{z f} |k{z f} Ga ; a;d .gea tea ;Da;a ; a;ta ;Da;a

Figure 6.12: A bedum tihai in Tintal

6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools

Gharana (lit. “family–household”) may be thought of as a school, style, or approach to the learning of an instrument and its performing practice. Today this is concept is peculiar to north Indian music. It is linked to the very an- cient concept of the Guru–Shishya–Parampara (linage of teacher / disciple) but with some interesting modern twists. The names of the gharanas are almost always derived from a geographical location. This is usually the city, district or state that the founder lived in. Two examples are the Gwalior Gharana (vocal) or the Farukhabad Gharana (tabla). The gharana system as we think of it today is not really very old. Most of the gharanas today are not more than 100–300 years old. The modern gharanas are generally traceable to the period when the Mogul empire collapsed. Gharanas are found throughout the North in every field of dance, vocal and instrumental music. Gharana has important significance for Indian musicians, singers and dancers because it stands for a particular artistic tradition having an established artistic creditability. There are pakh¯awaj, tabla, sitar, or vocal gharanas which are widely recognized and aknowledged to be the most important because of having developed their own repertoires and individual

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performing styles. The most highly esteemed performers of modern times are exponent of one of these musical traditions. The gharanas were formerly the important centers of learning. In the professional sense a gharana had some of the characteristics of a guild. It was always understood that tracing one’s lineage to a major gharana was a prerequisite for obtaining a position in the royal courts. The gharanas were entrusted with the duty of maintaining a certain standard of musicianship. The traditions were passed on by the descendents of the original founders and their disciples. It was generally expected, however, that the most in–depth teaching was to be given to the eldest son. But the family traditions were also passed on to disciples who exhibited special talent as this helped a gharana to strengthen and expand its reputation. In the artistic sense the gharana is somewhat comparable to a “style” or “school”. Over the years poor transportation and communication caused the various gharanas to adopt their own particular approach to presentation, technique and repertoire. Today, as a result of increased communications and recordings, these traditions are no longer isolated and restricted to particular family groups. The stylistic differences are less discernable and more difficult to recognize as there are many performers who perform the repertoires of various gharanas and imitate the playing styles of other performers. Even so it is necessary for professional Indian musician to be able to identify with a particular tradition, so that it is still difficult for aspiring artists not affiliated with a gharana to pursue a professional career. As a matter of fact, when two Indian musicians meet, is not unusual to hear them introducing themselves saying first the name of the gharana they belong to. In former times the gharanas jealously guarded their traditions. Even a father is known to have refrained from teaching his own son because he feared the son would then pass this information on to others outside the gharana. This attitude was prevalent in the past and it is still encountered in certain circles. This has lead to the loss of a great deal of older repertoire which was never written down or shared with other gharana members. In the past few decades the gharana system has had a negative impact on the standard of musicianship. Improvements in communications have made it a professional imperative for musicians to have as broad of a background as possible. The secretive nature of the gharana

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 6.3 Gharanas – The stylistic schools 79

Figure 6.13: Musicians from the same gharana pose proudly system coupled with the fact that gharanas tended to specialize in only one technique or approach is inconsistent with modern pedagogic and professional requirements. It is for this reason that many of the aspects of this system have been abandoned in modern music colleges in India. Although each of the gharanas have their own minor variations, there are two major approaches for the drum playing; Dilli and Purbi. The Dilli style derives its name from Delhi. It is characterized by a strong emphasis on rim strokes and use of the middle finger. The Purbi style derives its name from the Hindi word purab. Purab means “Eastern” and reflects the fact that this style was popular in Lucknow, Benares, and other eastern parts of the country. The Purbi style is characterized by open hand strokes and a strong emphasis on material from pakh¯awaj.

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80 Chapter 7

The Kaherawa Tal in Siddha Yoga chants

7.1 The basic .theka and his role in a n¯ama san. k¯ırtana 7.2 Slow, medium, fast thekas (prakars) 7.3 Additional variations 7.4 Cadential material: tihais 7.5 Other phrases 7.6 The bhajan theka

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82 Chapter 8

The Dadra Tal in Siddha Yoga chants

8.1 The basic .theka 8.2 Slow, medium, fast prakars 8.3 Tihais

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84 Chapter 9

Examples of accompanyment

9.1 Accompanying Jyota se Jyota 9.2 Accompanying Gurudeva Amara Pyara 9.3 Accompanying Sadguru Ki Arati 9.4 Accompanying a nama sankirtana

9.4.1 Starting a chant 9.4.2 Speeding up a chant 9.4.3 Skipping to half tempo 9.4.4 Concluding a chant 9.5 The role of cymbals and kartal in a chant

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86 Appendix A

That – the indian modes

A.1 Swar – the notes

Swar are nothing more than the seven notes of the Indian musical scale. Swar is also called sur. At a fundamental level they are similar to the solfa of Western music. These are shown in table A.1. Two of these swar are noteworthy in that they are immutably fixed. These two notes are shadj (Sa) and pancham (Pa) and are referred to as achala swar. These two swar form the tonal foundation for all the Indian classical music. The other notes have alternate forms and are called chala swar. There are two forms of the names of the notes. There is a full version (i.e. shadj, rishabh, etc.) and an abbreviated version (i.e., Sa, Re, Ga, etc.). The abbreviated name is most commonly used. This is called sargam.

Full name Abbreviation Western name Shadj Sa C Rishabh Re D Gandhara Ga E Madhyam Ma F Pancham Pa G Dhaivat Da A Nishad Ni B

Table A.1: The seven indian Swar (notes)

87 88 That – the indian modes

The swar (notes) are assembled to make the scales. These scales are called saptak. The swar have special relationships with each other. Although there are only seven notes they repeat in the upper and lower directions. Therefore, when ascending the scale when one reaches Ni, then the scales starts over with Sa, Re, Ga, etc. This is the upper register. By the same token when one is decsending the scale, it does not stop at Sa but continues down as Ni, Dha, etc.; this is the lower register.

A.2 Saptak – the scales

The word saptak has two meanings. The first is the English word “register”. The second meaning translates to the English word “gamut” or “the series of seven notes”. The word saptak in Sanskrit means “containing seven” and is derived from the Sanskrit word “sapta” which means “seven”. As already said the swar Sa and Pa are immovable. This forms our perfect fifth. Every other note has various forms. However Hindusthani sangeet (North Indian system) and Carnatic sangeet (south Indian system) take different views as to how many, and what these positions shall be. In Hindusthani sangeet the movable notes have two forms. The notes: rishabh (Re), gandhara (Ga), dhaivat (Dha), and nishad (Ni) may be either natural (shuddha) or flattened (komal). Madhyam (Ma) is unique in that its alternate form is augmented or sharp. This note is called tivra ma. Therefore, we find that we are actually dealing with 12 swar. This extended concept is shown in table A.2. These are roughly comparable to the keys on a harmonium, or piano (chromatic scale). The situation in Carnatic sangeet (the south Indian system) is a bit more complex. In the South the movable notes Re (Ri), Ga, Dha, and Ni may occupy one of three positions, natural, flattened, or augmented (sharp). Ma however still only occupies two positions, either natural or augmented position. In the previous table is evoked a model which is somewhat similar to the Western chromatic scale. This is not exactly correct. The Western scale is based upon the equal tempered scale while the Indian scale is based upon pure tones. Therefore the exact level of

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 A.2 Saptak – the scales 89

intonations will vary. Saptak may also mean the gamut of seven notes, or it may mean the octave being performed (register). Unlike Western music which has an absolute frame of reference, the North Indian system changes from instrument to instrument. The middle register, referred to as madhya saptak, is whatever is most comfortable for that person or instrument; everything else is reckoned from here. Therefore one register above this is referred to as tar saptak; and the lower register is referred to as mandra saptak. Additionally, two octaves above the middle is called ati–tar saptak; three octaves is called ati–ati–tar saptak, etc. In a similar manner two octaves below is called ati–mandra saptak; three octaves below is called ati–ati–mandra saptak, etc.

Full name Abbreviation Western name Shadj Sa C Komal Rishabh Re D flat Shuddha Rishabh Re D Komal Gandhara Ga E flat Shuddha Gandhara Ga E Shuddha Madhyam Ma F Tivra Madhyam Ma´ F sharp Pancham Pa G Komal Dhaivat Dha A flat Shuddha Dhaivat Dha A Komal Nishad Ni B flat Shuddha Nishad Ni B

Table A.2: Alternate forms of the seven indian Swar (notes) in the Hindustani system

The register is indicated in traditional notation by the presence or absence of dots. If there is no dot then the middle register (madhya saptak) is presumed. The dot over a swar indicates that it is tar saptak. Two dots over the swar indicate that it is ati–tar saptak. Conversely, a dot below indicates that it is mandra saptak. Two dots below indicate that the swar is ati–mandra saptak.

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A.3 The ten Thats

The that is the specification as to which of the alternate forms of swar (notes) will be chosen in a rag. Several of the swar have alternate forms: natural (shuddha), flattened (komal). The permutations of the various forms give rise to numerous scales with vastly differing intervals. Therefore the concept of that is essentially the same as the Western concept of a mode. There are 32 seven–note combinations of the swar. However, only ten are conventionally accepted as thats. These are shown in the figg. A.1, A.2, and A.3 below (where the notation has been normalised to the tonic of C; no absolute pitch is implied). There are problems whenever one is talking about the number of thats. Generally only ten are acknowledged; twenty are in common usage; while 32 are possible given present concepts of scale construction. This has created a lot of confusion in north Indian pedagogy. Three common scales which are not part of the ten thats are Ahir Bhairav, Charukesi, or Kiruvani.

G § § § § § § § § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(a) That Bilawal (Ionian)

G § § 2§ § § § § § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(b) That Khammaj (Mixolydian)

Figure A.1: The ten Thats (I)

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 A.3 The ten Thats 91

G § § 2§ § § § 2§ § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(a) That Kafi (Dorian)

G § 2§ 2§ § § § 2§ § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(b) That Asawari (Aeolian)

G § 2§ 2§ § § 2§ 2§ § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(c) That Bhairav (Phrygian)

G § 2§ § § § 2§ § § Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(d) That Bhairav

Figure A.2: The ten Thats (II)

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G § § § § § § § 4§ Sa Re Ga Ma´ Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(a) That Kalyan (Lydian)

G § § § § § 2§ § 4§ Sa Re Ga Ma´ Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(b) That Marwa

G § 2§ § § § 2§ § 4§ Sa Re Ga Ma´ Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(c) That Purvi

G § 2§ § § § 2§ 2§ 4§ Sa Re Ga Ma´ Pa Dha Ni Sa˙

(d) That Todi

Figure A.3: The ten Thats (III)

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 Appendix B

Details on drum construction

B.1 The treble head (pudi)

The mridang is a drum of unique tonal quality. This quality is derived primarily from the complexity in construction of its drumheads. The drumhead, known as pudi, puddi, or purri, is indeed so complex that it would be safe to say that no other drumhead on earth surpasses it in this regard, though others may occasionally equal it. The fashioning of the pudi (drumhead) is a highly specialized craft. This craft is passed down from father to son in a manner typical of India tradition. The apprenticeship usually starts in childhood and is completed only when the craftsman reaches full maturity. A close look at the construction will reveal why it takes so long to learn the craft. In fig. B.1, one can see the various parts of the pudi. These are: the gajara (braid), the chat (outer annular membrane), the bharti (inner annular lining), the maidan (main resonating membrane), and syahi (black spot).

B.1.1 Basic structure

In fig. B.2(a) is shown an expanded cross section (minus the woven hoop called the gajara) of a mridang pudi. There are basically three parts of the pudi: (i) the weaving (gajara), (ii) the membranes (iii) the syahi, or shyai, (black spot). The gajara is composed of several components. The gajara is the most important part of the pudi as well as the most visible. It is a heavy ring of woven leather and rawhide,

93 94 Details on drum construction

Figure B.1: Parts of Pudi; (1) chat (annular membrane), (2) maidan (main resonating membrane), (3) syahi (black spot), (4) gajara (braid), (5) bharti (inner annular lining)

composed of thong made of thick buffalo hide, which is woven into the pudi around its periphery. It functions as a tensioning hoop, fitting over the top of the body of the drum and transferring tension from the lacing to the sounding skin.

The bharti is an invisible layer of skin on the inside surface of the pudi. This is important for giving mechanical strength to the pudi.

The resonation membrane is basically made of two components, the maidan, or sur, and the chat, or kinar. The chat is an upper annular layer of skin which covers only the outer periphery of the sounding surface. It serves a dual purpose. On one hand it gives mechanical strength to the weaving, but on another level, it is an important part of the resonating membrane. The chat is important because it has great effect upon the tonal quality of the drum. The maidan has the distinction of being the only skin which covers the entire opening. This is therefore the most important part of the pudi.

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most distinctive part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 B.1 The treble head (pudi) 95

B.1.2 Construction

Making the pudi begins by taking the rawhide of a goat and soaking it in water. Once the rawhide is wet, excess hair and tissue is removed and the whole is allowed to dry. Templates, known as jal, are used to mark off circles of various sizes for use on various drums of different dimensions. The circles are then cut and the unused sections are cut into trapezoids of varying sizes. These trapezoids will be used later. The circular pieces of skin are now graded as to quality. The lowest grade will have the centers removed and be used for making the outer covering of the pudi (the chat). The medium grade is used for low cost, student grade drums, while the highest grade is used for professional quality pudis. The skins are again soaked in water and removed. The chat is made now. The lower quality skins are utilized by folding them in half several times to form a triangle. The tip is cut off, so that when it is unfolded, there will be a circle of about two to three inches in diameter that has been removed. The chat now has to be fixed to the main playing skin (maidan). The chat is laid on top of an intact skin so that the outer surfaces of both skins face up. Insertions are made parallel to the edge of the skins with a small chisel. Care should be taken so that the chat is slightly bunched up, so that on the drum all of the tension will be exerted against the maidan, see fig. B.2(b). A piece of cord is inserted with a large needle and threaded back and forth through the two skins as the insertions are made. Finally the two ends of the cord are tied together. The chat serves several very interesting functions. One of the jobs is to give strength and durability to the pudi. The main resonating membrane undergoes a tremendous amount of abuse where it passes over the sharp edge of the drumshell. This extra layer of skin increases the life span of the head. Under normal use a pudi may last anywhere from 2 to 10 years. The chat also effects the tone of the instrument. If the chat is very broad and extends inwards to a great extent, it will decrease the sustain of the instrument. The effects of the chat upon the tone may be illustrated in several ways. The most obvious is the manner in which the craftsman trims the chat to give the right tone upon completion of the drum.

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(a) Exploded view of the drum and (b) Chat (or Sur) and Maidan (or Ki- the pudi nar)

(c) A pudi at an intermediate stage (d) Making the insertion slits of making for the gajara

Figure B.2: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (I)

Another is a trick used by many musicians to enhance the tone of their instruments; a string is placed around the drum between the chat and the maidan. This may have an effect which is sometimes subtle and sometimes great. This is a tricks which utilize the acoustic interactions between the chat and the maidan, thus demonstrating the effect of the chat

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 B.1 The treble head (pudi) 97

(a) Insertion of the three (b) Top view of the Ga- (c) The finishing point of the thongs (tasma) and the core jara Gajara of the Gajara

Figure B.3: Details on the construction of the drum treble head (II) upon the tone of the mridang. The bharti is made now. The previously mentioned trapezoids are soaked in water, and laid around the rim of the drumshell. The shorter edges face inside, see fig. B.2(c). The chat and maidan, joined previously, are now stretched over the bharti and drumshell and tied securely (fig. B.2(c)). There is no real attachment between the pieces of bharti, maidan, and chat at the present stage of construction. The attachment will come with the

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weaving of the gajara. The weaving of there gajara begins by making vertical slits around the edge of the drum, see fig. B.2(d). The bass head requires 64 slits while the treble head requires only 48. Care must be taken that all layers of the skin have been penetrated. Two long pieces of buffalo hide are used for the weaving. Each thong (tasma) is first soaked in water, then lightly covered with oil. As shown in fig. B.3(a), the two thongs are inserted into three adjacent holes up to their midpoints, thereby making four loose ends. There must be a central core around which the gajara is woven. This is made by taking two or three lengths of inferior quality leather thong and wrapping them around the rim, see figg. B.3(a)and B.3(b). The gajara the function of transferring the tension from the lacing to the maidan. However it does so in a manner which is considerably more refined than the hoop found in Western drums. Unlike Western drums the gajara has a buffering effect upon this tension. This buffering is important because very little variation in tension is tolerated by the mridang. This low tolerance is a natural consequence of the requirement for precise tunability. An interesting feature of this buffering effect is that changing the tension on the bolts functions as a “course tuning” while lightly hitting the gajara with a small hammer acts as the “fine tuning”. In practice the majority of the tuning is done without any change in the tension of the bolts at all. The gajara also performs the necessary function of joining all three levels of skin (i.e., bharti, maidan, and chat) together. Finally the pudi is now removed from the shell and the bharti is trimmed so that there is an even 1/2 inch projecting into the middle of the pudi. The function of the bharti appears to be primarily mechanical in nature. The bharti reinforces the maidan and keeps it from tearing under high tension.

B.1.3 Quality of gajara

The gajara is very important in determining the quality of the puddi. If one looks closely at the gajara one will see that it weaves the bharti, maidan and chat all together. In order for this to happen there must be holes to allow the bolt hooks to penetrate. It is this number of

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 B.1 The treble head (pudi) 99

penetration which effect how evenly the tension is going to be distributed. If the head is 5 inches or less, 32 penetrations is usual, otherwise the treble head uses 48 penetrations. For a bass head, 64 penetrations are the optimum. A lower number is an indication of shoddy workmanship. There is an easy way to tell the number of penetrations without counting every slit in the head. Simply count the number of slits per insertion of bolt hook. Mridang always has 16 bolt hook insertions; therefore, a 2–1 ratio corresponds to 32; 3–1 corresponds to 48; and 4–1 corresponds to 64. The illustrations in B.4, show a 2–1 relationship for the poor quality gajara, fig. B.4(b), and 3–1 for the good quality gajara, fig. B.4(a). The bunad is sometimes an indicator for quality. Bunad is a light goatskin which is cross woven into the heavier buffalo hide. Many areas of India do not use bunad, therefore the presence or absence is not necessarily significant. However if a pudi without bunad comes from a shop or locale which normally uses them, then it is a hint that the pudi was rushed and may not be of the highest calibre.

(a) A gajara of good quality (b) A gajara of bad quality

Figure B.4: Two gajara of different quality

B.1.4 The syhai

The syahi, or shyai, the black spot in the center of the pudi, is probably the most distinctive part of the drum. It is there to give the mridang its distinctive tone. The process that takesto the application of the black spot to the head skin is explained below.

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A base upon the maidan for the syahi is established. This is done by boiling a small amount of mucilage (called raal, saresh or sharesh) until it becomes soft and gummy. It is then applied to the exposed surface of the maidan to form a circle of approximately 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches. The circle is then allowed to dry in the sun. Syahi masala is the key ingredient for the creation of the syahi. This is a commercially available powder reputed to be made of soot, iron dust, and other unidentified vegetable matter. It is said that the best syahi masala comes from Bhawnagar in the Western state of Gujarat. To prepare the paste for syahi, a little vessel is filled with a small quantity of water and white flour. This is heated and mixed to make a glue (lai). The glue is now mixed with the syahi masala. The whole mixing process is done in a rubber mat made from an old inner tube. After a thorough mixing the paste is finished. The application of a layer involves three steps: (step 1) The syahi paste must be applied. This is done by using the first finger of the right hand to take up a small quantity of paste. The paste is quickly applied with a circular motion of the finger to the area previously covered by the mucilage. Support is given to the first finger by placing the second finger over the first. (step 2) Excess paste must be removed. This is done by scraping with a curved metallic strip. The drum is rotated during this process so that the application is of uniform thickness. (step 3) Polishing with a stone is the final step. Immediately after the excess paste has been removed, a polished piece of basalt is used to rub the syahi repeatedly. The pressure is very important; it starts gently and builds up to a considerable level. Periodically the stone is rubbed against the cheek to deposit a microscopic amount of sweat. The polishing is very important because it will determine the density of cracks which are visible in the syahi. Steps 1, 2, and 3 are repeated for more layers. The diameter of each layer remains full size until four or five layers have been applied (see fig. B.2(a)). Then the diameters are reduced until the layers are hardly more than half an inch. A few full size layers are again applied, followed by decreasing sizes. This process continues until the desired thickness and shape is attained. The finished syahi is the most distinctive part of the drum head. It has a greater impact upon the tone than any other part. For a further understanding it is necessary to

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 B.1 The treble head (pudi) 101 understand how membranes resonate. A membrane stretched over a hoop with uniform tension resonates in a most unmusical manner. It is an inharmonic spectrum with no clearly defined fundamental. Across the world there are two approaches to modifying the drum’s tonality. One approach is to further muddle the harmonic structure. The “snare” on a snare drum is a well known example. This has been a common approach for many Western drums for centuries. A completely opposite philosophy exists in efforts to give the drum a more defined pitch. A classic approach is to attach the membrane to a resonator and use the membrane to excite the resonator. Such an approach is found in the timpani and conga. Of relatively recent origin (in the West) are methods involving the modification of the membrane itself. Stories abound of conga players who take a heavy hide and sand the periphery of the skin so that the finished drumhead is thicker in the middle and thinner at the edge. Another example is the adhesive dots placed at the center of many marching drums. For both cases, the increase in mass in the center serves to make the membrane vibrate in a more harmonic fashion. This is exactly what the syahi does. It produces a more clearly defined harmonic and therefore a more clearly defined pitch. One of the ramifications is that a change in the drum sound can be effected by changing the syahi. Therefore it is quite common to find mridangs made of the same thickness skin, on the same size rim, with the same tension yet having very different musical pitches. This is because a thick syahi will naturally resonate at a lower frequency than a thin one. The shape of the syahi is also very important. The syahi will always be thicker in the center than at the edge. But if the geometry is not correct then many of the resonance modes will not converge in a proper way. The sound will be dissonant with different strokes evoking different pitches. This is unacceptable to Indian music which require a clearly defined tonal base. Moreover, the syahi is applied in numerous thin layers. However it no longer behaves in this manner. The key to this lies in the network of cracks which permeate the syahi. It is clear at a glance that the syahi covers a considerable area of skin. It is also obvious that the ingredients of the syahi harden to the consistency of cement. Such a hard material covering

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a substantial area of the skin should hamper the vibration. The cracks are the key to the syahi having flexibility, even though it is composed of such a rigid material. What appears to be a monolithic application is in reality a matrix of unconnected particles, bound firmly to the skin but unconnected to each other. Because they are unconnected the syahi exhibits a surprising degree of flexibility.

B.1.5 Quality of syhai

For a good syahi it is especially important that it have a tight grain of cracks, see fig. B.5. Syahi is made of a hard material whose stiffness would impede the vibrations of the skin were it not for a simple mechanism. The cracks represent particles which are joined only to the skin below and merely articulate with each other. This is how the syahi is able to be flexible even though it is composed of inflexible material. The density of the cracks represents the degree of flexibility. A high density is very desirable because it indicates a high flexibility. A low density is bad because it indicates a low flexibility. Figg. B.5(a)and B.5(b) show typical examples.

(a) A syhai of good quality (b) A syhai of poor quality

Figure B.5: Two syhai of different quality

Fig. B.6 shows a drum which has major damage to the syahi. The recommended procedure is to replace the entire pudi. In India one would simply replace the syahi; however, this is a very labor intensive operation and is not practical in the West. A minor damage to the syahi is indicated by an annoying “buzz” or missing particles.

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Figure B.6: Major Damage to Syahi - The recommended repair for such damage is replacement of the pudi

Missing particles may be esthetically unpleasant but in no way effect the sound. A loose particle on the other hand adversely effects the sound. It is often possible to fix loose particle without resorting to major work. Unfortunately one must first find it.

(a) A normal syhai (b) A syhai with loose parti- cles

Figure B.7: Particles of syhai

One way to locate the particle is to hold the drum upside down under a strong light then strike it. If the drum is struck in this position it is often possible to see the loose particle with the naked eye. See figg. B.7(a) and B.7(b). This is a very good approach when it works because you can see exactly where the loose particle is. Unfortunately it doesn’t always work.

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There is another way which always works but does not allow one to isolate a single particle. Lightly strike the drum with a Tin stroke. Now slightly rotate the drum. Repeat the process. If one moves around the rim in this manner it will be seen that in one rotation there will be heavy buzz, light buzz, heavy buzz, light buzz. Now pay very close attention to the last two fingers during this process. These two points of the light buzz described a line which bisects the drumhead. The loose particle will be somewhere on this line. In practice both of these techniques may be used together to isolate the particle. When the loose particle is found one simply has to place a tiny drop of white glue or super glue to bind it to an adjacent particle. The buzz usually disappears.

MRIDANG DRAFT Ver. 1.0 Appendix C

A list of suppliers of Indian instruments

105