Jay-Z and OJ

Jay-Z and O.J.: Sport and the Performance of Race in Hip-Hop Music

Kellen Jamil Northcutt Kayla Henderson University of Central Florida University of Washington

Kaylee Chicoski University of Central Florida

The purpose of this study was to understand the symbolic messaging in hip-hop music as it relates to the lived experiences and realities of Black Americans in the United States. The study examined the song and music video titled “The Story of O.J.,” by hip- hop artist Jay-Z to gain a better understanding of how Jay-Z interpreted the impact of Black Americans’ lived experiences in the United States on their identity and ability to progress economically and socially, regardless of social standing, within subcultures such as sport. Employing a content analysis method, data were collected and analyzed using critical race theory. The results of the analysis of lyrical and video data identiﬁed three major themes: (a) battle with Blackness, (b) economic enslavement and ﬁnancial freedom, and (c) systematic subjugation.

“NBC News reporter Sandy Vanocur (NNR): What is it something worthless and degrading” (King Jr. M.L. [NBC about the Negro, I mean every other group that came as an News]. 1967). immigrant somehow? Not easily, but somehow got around it. Is According to Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s 1967 interview with it just the fact the Negros are Black?” The National Broadcasting Company, the identity of Black Amer- Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK): “White America must see icans has been defined through the lens of White society for centuries. that no other ethnic group has been a slave on American soil. That Past research (Hawkins, 1998b; Landrine & Klonoff, 1996; Neville, is one thing that other immigrant groups haven’t had to face. Viard, & Turner, 2015; Steele & Aronson, 1994) has shown the Black The other thing is that the color, became a stigma. American struggle to be one that has to overcome negative symbolical and society made the Negroes’ color a stigma. America freed the slaves cultural perceptions created about their ethnic group. Historically, in 1863, through the Emancipation Proclamation of Abraham White Americans fashioned opposing images of themselves, com- Lincoln, but gave the slaves no land, and nothing in reality. pared with Black Americans, to support the legalization of oppressive And as a matter of fact, to get started on. policies that created a hierarchy that essentially made them the At the same time, America was giving away millions of acres dominant culture and subjugated Black Americans to second-class of land in the west and the Midwest. Which meant that there was a citizenship (Cooper, 2012; Helms, 1994). This established culture willingness to give the white peasants from Europe an economic robbed Black Americans of an opportunity to develop a positive base, and yet it refused to give its black peasants from Africa, who identity and created a milieu of perceived difference. These differ- came here involuntarily in chains and had worked free for two ences were interwoven throughout American society through science, hundred and forty-four years, any kind of economic base. religion, and policy (Hawkins, Francique, & Cooper, 2017). For And so, emancipation for the Negro was really freedom to example, perceptions associated with one’s skin color produced hunger. It was freedom to the winds and rains of Heaven. It was opposing views, as Black Americans were considered unclean and freedom without food to eat or land to cultivate and therefore was evil, while White Americans were defined as pure and good. freedom and famine at the same time. Scientifically, phrenological studies, coupled with the eugenics And when white Americans tell the Negro to ‘lift himself by movement of the 1800s, created false narratives about Black his own bootstraps,’ they don’t oh, they don’t look over the legacy intelligence reinforcing White superiority (Hawkins, 1998b). In of slavery and segregation. I believe we ought to do all we can and religion, the conversion of Black slaves to Christianity concerned seek to lift ourselves by our own boot straps, but it’s a cruel justice many slave owners due to the threat of rebellion. This concern to say to a bootless man that he ought to lift himself by his own caused some to create a reinterpretation of the Bible to maintain the bootstraps. status quo, justifying slavery through stories, such as one found in And many Negroes by the thousands and millions have been Genesis 9:19–27. In this story, Ham, the father of Canaan, sees his left bootless as a result of all of these years of oppression and as a father, Noah, naked and is therefore cursed and subjected to Shem result of a society that deliberately made his color a stigma and and Japheth (Myrdal, 2000). Further, the Civil War challenged White superiority and created turmoil for White slave owners. This tension led to de jure (legalized) policies, such as anti-miscegena- Northcutt is with the DeVos Sport Business Management, University of Central tion and Supreme Court (e.g., Plessy vs. Ferguson) decisions, that Florida, Orlando, FL, USA. Henderson is with the University of Washington, sought to divide the races and reestablish a social hierarchy Seattle, Washington, WA, USA. Chicoski is with the College of Business whereby Black Americans were second-class (Branch & Young, Administration, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA. Northcutt 2006). Subsequently, it led to the formation of the Jim Crow laws, ([email protected]) is corresponding author. which remained in effect until the mid-1900s. 192 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC Examining the Black Experience 193

Given these challenging circumstances, the identity of Black offered him acceptance into mainstream White America (Hunt, Americans was compromised, thus, making it difficult for them to 1999). However, in 1994, this so-called acceptance was derailed, exist in and assimilate into American society successfully. DuBois as O.J. Simpson was considered a person of interest and eventu- (1903) described this struggle: ally charged with the murder of his ex-wife, Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend, Ron Goldman. He was acquitted of It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense ’ the murders in 1995, but the racially charged monumental trial of always looking at one s self through the eyes of others, of was the catalyst that critics (Howard, 2016; Walton & Chau, measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in ’ — 2018) believe eroded O.J. s mainstream acceptance. amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his twoness, an What is unique about O.J. Simpson’s Black identity conflict American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled was that it was flanked by critical time periods when social unrest strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged was at its peak. At the beginning of Simpson’s acceptance into the strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder. The history of mainstream in 1968, the Watts, California, riot was still a recent — the American Negro is the history of this strife, this longing to memory (1965), and the Vietnam War was being protested all over attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a the world. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy were better and truer self. In this merging, he wishes neither of the both assassinated, and the Summer Olympics in Mexico City were older selves to be lost. He would not Africanize America, for being protested by Black athletes John Carlos and Tommie Smith. America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would Similarly, when O.J.’s acceptance began its erosion in the early fl not bleach his Negro soul in a ood of white Americanism, for 1990s, four Los Angeles Police Department officers were acquitted he knows that Negro blood has a message for the world. He of the crime of savagely beating a Black man, Rodney King, in simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro spite of condemning video evidence. This acquittal subsequently and an American, without being cursed and spit upon by his led to the riots of 1992 in Los Angeles, California, and a version of fellows, without having the doors of Opportunity closed hip-hop, known as Gangsta Rap, had already emerged with groups roughly in his face. (p. 2) like Niggaz Wit Attitudes and artists such as Ice-T. Their respective songs challenged police brutality with titles such as “Fuck Tha Many scholars have tried to better understand the formation of Police” and “Cop Killer” (Walton & Chau, 2018). O.J.’s trial and Black identity development because of the negative experience and acquittal served as the climactic event of the 1990s that ended with conflict DuBois (1903) described. Cross (1991) sought to define Simpson’s sentiment “I’m not black, I’m O.J.” This sentiment was the various stages (i.e., preencounter, encounter, immersion– referenced by an activist and organizer of the Olympic Project for emersion, and internalization) Black Americans experience based Human Rights, Dr. Harry Edwards, in the ESPN film O.J.: Made in on conditional and environmental factors through his theory of America (Edelman, 2016). It reinforces the notion that “identity is Nigrescence. This transformation can be described as going from a constituted by characteristics that are not chosen, such as race” Eurocentric point of view that is considered anti-Black and nega- (Neville et al., 2015). When O.J.’s performance ceased with the not tive to one that is Afrocentric and considered pro-Black and guilty verdict, his Blackness prevailed, and the consequences of his positive (Cross, 1991). However, the dismemberment of identity, actions were felt (Walton & Chau, 2018). being Black and American, cannot be ignored within the American The events surrounding O.J. Simpson’s case are evidence of societal context, as Black Americans’ human rights (pre-13th, 14th, the racial tensions that have existed within the very fabric of the and 15th amendments) have historically been challenged (Cooper, United States of America for centuries. Race has always played a 2012; Hawkins et al., 2017). While these inadequate social repre- significant role in the lives of Black Americans. Acts of terror and sentations exist at the macrolevel of society, they also manifest violence against Black communities and individuals to maintain themselves at the microlevel, in areas such as sports. Dominquez power and control have been commonplace since the slave trade. (2018) argued that “sport has operated as a racial project for Other events that illustrate the motivation to dominate and control centuries, using the ostensible equality of the sporting endeavor are the Civil War; Wilmington, North Carolina, Massacre of 1898; to mask divergent, racialized life experiences, institutional privi- Tulsa, Oklahoma, race riots of 1921; and the unnecessary violence leges, and assimilative pressures” (p. 104). The ideal of over- and murder of young boys and men like Emmett Till in 1955, and coming racial issues through competition and deemphasizing countless others, such as Trayvon Martin in 2012, Eric Garner in the opposing systemic realities that persist when the competitions 2014, Tamir Rice in 2014, and Keith Lamont Scot in 2016. These cease can be misleading and create color blindness not only for the occurrences echo a system of legalized racism that has oppressed audience, but also for the performers (Dominquez, 2018). A prime Black Americans and negatively impacted their ability to generate example of this identity crisis is illustrated through critical narra- wealth, social capital, a positive self-image, physical health, a tives about Orenthal James Simpson (known as O.J. Simpson). healthy family structure, and access to equal education (Hawkins O.J. Simpson is a former college and professional football et al., 2017; Mays, Cochran, & Barnes, 2007). player, widely known for his athletic prowess that garnered him Similar to Niggaz Wit Attitudes attempts to address social accolades, such as the Heisman Trophy (given to the best colle- injustice in the late 1980s and early 1990s, hip-hop has reemerged giate football player) in 1968 and enshrinement in both the as a way to battle the resurgence of racism as prominent entertai- college and professional football Halls of Fame. He played ners use their platforms to speak up about the inequalities that exist collegiately at City College of San Francisco and the University (Dyson, 2019). This intersects with subcultures such as sports, as of Southern California. Most of his professional football career hip-hop artists have shared similar experiences as athletes. Argu- was spent with the Buffalo Bills, where he rushed for over 2,000 ably, most athletes and hip-hop artists have experienced low yards in one season (Hunt, 1999). Off the field, Simpson was an socioeconomic circumstances, grown up in similar communities, actor, sports commentator, and spokesman for national brands, and experienced the double standards of society toward Black and he was viewed as a hero—a Black hero—who arguably Americans (Cooper, 2012, Dyson, 2019, Melendez, 2008). Even transcended race, meaning that his status or unique abilities the clothes that they wear and brands that they associate with are

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC 194 Northcutt, Henderson, and Chicoski evidence of this natural intersection, as both endorse sports apparel racism operates as a reasoning for those race relations. According to companies such as Adidas, Nike, and other brands during perfor- Miles (2000), “the theory of racism becomes entangled in a theory of mance and nonperformance times (e.g., videos, athletic competi- ‘race relations.’ In so far as Marxist writers have incorporated an idea tions, concerts, commercials; McLeod, 2009). In the most popular of ‘race,’ as an analytical or even a descriptive concept, into their sports of football and basketball in the United States, the majority theorizing about racism, they too have become similarly entangled” of the athletes competing are Black: 58.9% in the National Football (Miles, 2000, p. 126). For Black Americans in America, race and League (NFL) and 74.8% in the National Basketball Association, racism have had a distinguishable and traumatic history. respectively (Lapchick, 2019a, 2019b). These implications and Racism toward Black Americans in America is largely a data should alert sport sociology and management communities to byproduct of the rules, systems, and regulations that persisted take a closer look at how to critique race, class, society, and sport. following the abolishment of slavery. Slave traders did not position The current study examines the Black experience through the Africa as the vanguard of their slave trade because Africans were examination of the song and music video titled “The Story of O.J.” Black, but instead because their tolerance to European diseases and by hip-hop artist Jay-Z. Jay-Z (Shawn Corey Carter) is a rap mogul understanding of European crop cultivation deemed them the best and businessman. He is regarded as a cultural icon and one of workers for European expansionary efforts. Cox (2000) hypothe- hip-hop’s greatest artists of all time, having sold over 100 million sized that “racial exploitation and race prejudice developed among records worldwide (Dyson, 2019). In July 2017, Jay-Z released the Europeans with the rise of capitalism and nationalism, and because song and music video “The Story of O.J.,” a black-and-white of the worldwide ramifications of capitalism, all racial antagonists animation that uses historical Disney and Warner Brothers cartoon can be traced to the policies and attitudes of the leading capitalist racist imagery to describe the Black experience. Jay-Z described people, the White people of Europe and North America” (p. 72). why he utilized O.J.’s sentiments for the song: Thus, “racial antagonism is essentially political-class conflict. The capitalist exploiter, being opportunistic and practical, will utilize O.J. would get to a space where he’s like, “I’m not black, I’m any convenience to keep his labor and other resources freely O.J.” Like Tiger Woods would get to a space and think, I’m exploitable” (Cox, 2000, p. 73). above the culture. And that same person when he’s playing However, the Africans’ inception into American slavery did not golf and playing great, you’re protected. When you’re not, sit well with the European, Christian principles at the time, causing they’re going to put pictures of you drunk driving and, like, White Americans to look more closely into developing a “justifica- embarrass you. That world will eat you up and spit you out. tion above mere economic expediency and the might of the strong” (Pan African Knowledge, 2017) (Myrdal, 2000, p. 87). The Bible was used to categorize Black The lyrics and imagery from the music video helped to Americans as cursed descendants of Noah's son, Ham, labeling evaluate constructs of identity, race, social class, and Black mas- Black Americans as outcasts, heathens, and barbaric in nature culinity within the context of sports, as well as within the greater (Myrdal, 2000). Socially, however, “the idea of race provided the American context. During the past four decades (1980–2019), hip- means of explaining slavery to people whose terrain was a republic hop music has emerged and been recognized in scholarship founded on radical doctrines of liberty and natural rights” (Winant, (Bridges, 2011; Cohen & Ballouli, 2018; Rashid, 2016) as public 2000, p. 182). However, around the time of the Civil War, wide- pedagogy, meaning the music itself has intrinsic educational value. spread ideologies centering around slavery opened the door for According to Rashid (2016), “its emergence as a cultural form biology and ethnology to act as a base for notions of theology and parallels its application in the vein of social justice” (p. 344). history, allowing ideas of inferiority to amass (Myrdal, 2000). From Educators such as Michael Eric Dyson teach courses on hip-hop these notions, numerous racial legislations and covert and overt and specific hip-hop artists like Jay-Z (Dyson, 2019). Hip-hop social dynamics were employed to further subjugate Black Amer- artists such as Jay-Z have used this artform to critique society and to icans to a lower caste system in society. This construction of false provide a voice for marginalized groups. history benefits the oppressor and creates a pathway to shape present In what follows, we discuss the literature related to the issues and future. “The failure to allow for changes, in [how the] word race in the study and other similar topics. Next, the qualitative method has been used, has important consequences; for those who misun- used will be explained. Lastly, the findings will be presented and derstand the past of their society are also likely to misunderstand the discussed. present because people judge the present in light of what they believe the past to have been. The past cannot be properly understood if changes in the significance of words are not allowed for” (Banton, Review of Literature 2000,p.52). A Brief History of Race and Racism Language, Race, and Privilege When discussing the history of race and race relations, it is important to first note that race is a completely constructed and man-made One of the most ubiquitous topics currently discussed as part of the concept used to group people. It is not the social cognitions that we social climate in America, from politics to sports, is diversity. It is have given other cultures, but instead the eugenics and qualities being celebrated and discussed like never before, yet it has been passed on to a related group that characterizes all of their members appropriately questioned for its often-idealistic notions that lack (Benedict, 2000). However, in English discourse, race appeared first awareness of White privilege, domination, and superiority. With an in text as early as the 17th century, and in North American scientific increase in public discourse, “nearly half of Americans believe that literature, in the late 18th century, to designate and elucidate various diversity is ‘mostly a strength’ for the country” (Bell & Hartmann, phenotypical differences between human beings (Miles, 2000). 2007, p. 895). However, how Americans dissect and analyze Racism is a more modern creation that was first understood in diversity has become an area in academia that warrants close the 1938 published book by Magnus Hirschfeld entitled Racism.In attention. In Bell and Hartmann’s(2007) Diversity in Everyday an effort to explain how different races might react, the ideology of Discourse, researchers found that Americans idealize diversity as a

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC Examining the Black Experience 195 necessary construct of our world and “the new cornerstone of freedom for every American as promised, but instead solely for the American democratic idealism” (p. 895). However, many people property-holding White man. This presents an overarching body of tend to view diversity very superficially, neglecting the more subjugation so that anyone not a White, male proprietor is deemed intrinsic levels of diversity and failing to effectively communicate unworthy and left out of social standings and planning. According it on an individual level. Here, researchers found that Americans to Leonardo (2004), without warning, the “white supremacist, became more racially charged in their individual discussions and patriarchal, capitalist subject represents the standard for human, are often uncomfortable examining the structural inequalities in the or the figure of a whole person, and everyone else is a fragment” context of diversity (Bell & Hartmann, 2007, p. 902). Additionally, (p. 139). Furthermore, domination plagues our thought process in it was found that Americans use the word “diversity” when they so much that the referents in public discourse are particulars are really referencing race—more specifically, the relationship disguised as universals of the White race speaking for all of between Black Americans and White Americans. Furthermore, humanity (Leonardo, 2004; Bonilla-Silva, 2012). “race is the primary experiential lens through which difference The notions and vagueness of diversity, privilege, language, in all of its forms are experienced and understood. Therefore, supremacy, and domination lead to a color-blind ideology that only although ‘diversity’ may sound race-neutral or appear to transcend further illustrates these problems. Explained in greater depth, Bell and race altogether, the discourse of diversity is deeply racialized. Hartmann (2007) explained that “unspoken norms about racial Americans’ poignant and life-shaping experiences with and under- difference, cultural assimilation, and the core values of U.S. society standings of diversity involve race and especially racial others” create cultural blind spots to the ways in which race—the primary (Bell & Hartmann, 2007, p. 905). To effectively discuss the notions social referent for discussion of diversity—structures social life” of diversity, Americans must refrain from using diversity as the (p. 896). Moreover, color-blind ideals pair well with liberal-individ- rhetorical and linguistic umbrella to discuss cultural differences ualistic ideas and downplay the existence of racial inequalities that are (Bell & Hartmann, 2007). Doing so allows the notion of diversity present in society. It creates an avoidance of race talk to maintain to remain undeveloped and ambiguous, allowing people to discuss decorum in society (Bell & Hartmann, 2007). The doctrine has also race openly without acknowledging the racial disadvantages and operated as a political tool to maintain racial order and covertly veil an inequities that permeate American society (Bell & Hartmann, institutionally racialized system that deems cultural difference as a 2007). The defining element of diversity discourse will “separate reasoning for inequalities, instead of systemic “social forces” (Ferber, discussions about diversity, difference, and multiculturalism from 2007). The inability to properly attach correct language to the more uncomfortable conversations about inequality, power, and overarching topic of diversity results in a system that perpetuates privilege” (Bell & Hartmann, 2007, p. 906). This notion of racially injustices further and spills into other constructs of society. adjusting one’s grammar to appropriately discuss injustices will help White Americans to better understand the structure of the CRT in Sport racial situation in America. To more effectively discuss the true undertones of diversity, a When considering alternatives to the gradations of privilege, strong discourse on privilege and, more specifically, supremacy is language, and racism, critical race theory (CRT) challenges the needed, as it offers a narrative that does not acquiesce to White status quo and provides a way to open the dialogue of new racial reasoning (Leonardo, 2004). Examined further, “discourses opportunities (Bell, 1992; Brown, 2003; Landson-Billings, 1998; on supremacy acknowledge white privileges, but only as a function Milner, 2007). CRT is a legitimate epistemological and theoretical of a whites’ actions toward minority subjects and not as mysterious approach to conducting research in the sport management field and accumulation of unearned privileges” (Leonardo, 2004,p.150). is the best alternative to the dominant Eurocentric worldview. Often when discussing privilege, the tendency to massage the un- Epistemology is largely the way people understand the world comfortableness of the subject neglects the historical backing of the and is also “a ‘system of knowing’ that is linked to worldviews roles that White Americans played in defining the system that stands based on the conditions under which people live and learn” (Singer, today. “There is a cost here of downplaying the active role of whites 2005, p. 465). Stated differently, it is the way upon which we see who take resources from people of color all over the world, appro- things in our world and have been socialized to internalize the priate their labor, and construct policies that deny minorities’ full Eurocentric dominant worldview. In retaliation of the Eurocentric participation in society” (Leonardo, 2004,p.138).Privilege,there- worldview, CRT emerged as a counterargument to the positivist fore, is not a preposterous happening of society, but a “daily cognate motive behind the Civil Rights Movement meant to provide of structural domination” (Leonardo, 2004,p.148).Stateddiffer- liberation and empowerment to Black Americans (Singer, 2005). ently, the privileges that White Americans enjoy in our society were The CRT works to unravel the idea that racism is not created under a system of domination so that they may thrive as a ubiquitous, but a systemic tool that is deeply intertwined with group (Leonardo, 2004,p.137).Thoughthesystemmayseem American life and looks to use first-hand accounts to bring light complex, it is actually quite simple; it has been set up to benefit and change to educational institutions. The paradigm also looks White Americans by mystifying the system as a whole, removing to separate the notions of democracy and capitalism, which are White Americans as agents in the discourse, and “stifling the dis- commonly intermingled. Singer (2005)believes“traditional civil cussion with inane comments about the ‘reality’ of the charges being rights approaches to solving inequality have depended on the made” (Leonardo, 2004,p.148). ‘rightness’ of democracy while ignoring the structural inequality The systemic role of privilege has played into the greater of capitalism” (p. 52). We cannot argue for a better democracy concept of domination. “Domination is a relation to power that and leave the catalyst of capitalism out of the picture, especially subjects enter into and is forged in the historical process. It does not considering that America was built on capitalism and property form out random acts of hatred, although these are condemnable, rights. In America, during the Civil Rights Movement, there was but rather out of a pattered and enduring treatment of social groups” acallforthe“natural right” of citizens to be upheld, not minding (Leonardo, 2004, p. 139). This pattern has been issued in America that the basis of humanity in the United States was not built on through the ratification of a Constitution that failed to provide this right. This “natural right” did not have the legal standing

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American values upheld. Thus, the tension between property 2005). Thus, voices are needed to further develop theories that better rights and human rights is what has kept Black Americans at a support students, athletes, and all people of color who do not fall disadvantage in society. under the universal Eurocentric umbrella. Singer (2005) explained, “CRT is a legitimate attempt to elucidate the potential of an alternative race-based epistemology Race, Sport, and O.J. to reconceptualize the present disciplinary-based system of knowledge that has traditionally been legitimized in the academy While many academics have provided an analysis into the world in general and the sport management field in particular” (p. 466). of sport and race, the subject still warrants deeper discussion and White Americans have created a system of dominance that has thought, as “the potential for explosive, transgressive, and revo- enabled them to control the “nature of ideas permeating society lutionary scholarship on the subject is unlimited” (Sammons, and its social institutions. As a result, the folkways, morals, values, 1994, p. 238). Engaging in discourse surrounding the scholarship attitudes, and beliefs of the dominant White race have become the of sport will help to identify additional experiences of Black norm or standard upon which other racial and ethnic groups in society people and provide future direction for scholarship that will, in are judged and evaluated” (Singer, 2005,p.476).Theparadigm turn, help the sport management field (Sammons, 1994). After all, opens the discussion to better observe other possibilities, theories, and sport allows for more exposure when it comes to diversity. Sports physical methods that can work to foster learning and advancement of can be a mechanism to create more diversity opportunities for other theories and thoughts from races outside of European and White people to see and understand others in different ways. Bell and scholars. By allowing for a paradigm more diversified in makeup and Hartmann (2007) explained, “the only clear, concrete explana- nature, ideas and literature are better shaped as a result and can have a tions of the benefits of diversity we heard involved popular profound effect on sports management discourse and learning, as well culture” (p. 900). Using the platform of sport can help scholars as providing a deeper analysis of athletic experiences. to more accurately and more loudly confirm or refute studies on In the context of sport management, CRT’s aim is to provide discrimination in society. This is considering the fact that the sport management researchers and students with fundamental history of Black sport, though a social construct and cultural awareness of how CRT’s epistemological and methodological phenomenon, has largely had political undertones and nuances bases could be applied to investigation in the field of sport (Singer, (Harrison, 1998). Through this, the dimensions of culture must be 2005). Scholars (Harrison & Lawrence, 2003; Singer, 2005; fully investigated and elucidated while also ensuring the analysis Tate, 1997; Wing, 1997) have noted a number of major tenets of internal dynamics, as well as cultural styles (Sammons, 1994). of CRT: However, America’s hypersensitivity to race often permeates into (a) Racism is an ordinary part of American society and deeply other social constructs and can create an interplay of the racial and fi rooted in the culture; social inequities that exist in society at large. More speci cally, “sport history can make valuable and unique contributions to (b) A culture develops its own narrative to accommodate its issues of domination and oppression by males in Black life and own self-interest; cultures because of the exaggerated chauvinism inherent in the (c) White elites will encourage the advancement of minorities sports world” (Sammons, 1994,p.208). as long as it promotes their self-interest. Ferber (2007) analyzed the effect that inequality and color- blind racism can have on constructing Black male masculinity that In regard to sports in America, this theory implies that Black promotes White male superiority and White superiority at large. athletes are allowed entry into the industry as a form of labor to The admiration of Black athletes allows White Americans to laud produce revenue through their athletic prowess, where an overrep- Black athletes and their talents without actually having further resentation of Black athletes exists, but the decision-making roles interaction with Black America, allowing them to continuously of commissioners, athletic directors, coaches, and presidents are live under the color-blind ideology. However, as noted earlier, still largely occupied by White males at the collegiate level. Recent color-blind ideology dangerously mimics racism of the past that data supports this notion in major revenue-generating sports, such suppresses athletes not insomuch as their mental capacity (as sociol- as Division-I football (Football Subdivision level) and basketball. ogists tried to do in the past), but in their masculinity and as a sense of In the two most popular sports of football and basketball, Black property (Hawkins, 1998a, 1998b). Assumptions about Black males athletes comprise over 50% of the representation at 54.3% and have defined them as physical, aggressive, and naturally gifted 53.6%, respectively (Lapchick, 2018). This is juxtaposed to lead- without acknowledging their ability to hone their skills through ership at the athletics director and head coaching positions, where hard work and discipline. Ferber (2007) explained: White Americans made up 84.3%, 90%, and 92.7% of the athletics director positions in Division I, II, and III and 86.2%, 87.4%, and Black men’s talent is often attributed to nature, whereas the 91.4% of all head coaching positions in Divisions I, II, and III in accomplishments of White athletes are instead characterized as 2017–2018, respectively (Lapchick, 2018). “fortitude, intelligence, moral character, strategic preparation, Moreover, CRT helps us to understand how the current pro- coachability, and good organization.” Thus, the success of cesses and structural aspects of sports can negatively impact minority Black men in sports is entirely consistent with White suprem- students. The CRT framework should be utilized to provide unique acist ideology. (p. 19) perspectives and approaches to assist scholars in sports to recognize, examine, and alter the historical aspects of sports that maintain The amount of racist imagery that one intakes almost daily, appli- the status quo by supporting racial positions of subordination and cable to these notions, causes White Americans to naturalize racism domination (Singer, 2005). To counteract this idea, one of the and thus naturalize inequality (Ferber, 2007). One of the biggest biggest colloquiums of CRT is providing storytelling as an analysis cases supporting the mentioned notions of racism is that of O.J. of Black athletic experiences (Hawkins et al., 2017). By naming Simpson. one’s reality, research and writing can be shaped to demonstrate how Critical to the White American identity is the notion of the Black understanding is not always universal, but situational as well (Singer, male as hypersexual, animalistic, and savage and their desire to tame

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC Examining the Black Experience 197 the Black male body (Ferber, 2007; Hawkins, 1998a, 1998b). to, were revealed in the lyrics and through a secondary source in the According to Sammons (1994), “O.J. as a prime suspect and as Footnotes . . . The Story of O.J. commentary that was searched on quasi-fugitive: ‘Simpson’s public image had taken on two of our YouTube. Jay-Z was speaking to the Black community to help most potent and perverse images of black manhood—the black beast them understand that their success as Black does not allow them to and the emasculated, infantile black male” (p. 238). O.J.’sdemise transcend racism. He also highlighted the importance of ownership catapulted the mainstream view of Black masculinity to the forefront for Black Americans and provided some examples to help them and confronted the age-old notions of Black stereotypes. The racial become financially independent. Moreover, Jay-Z shed light on the nature of the O.J. Simpson trial and O.J.’s inability to transcend race Black experience in America. (though fervently attempted by O.J.) allows for a greater dissection of The what question (i.e., what is the major issue in Jay-Z’s song the racism and racial inequities present in not only American society, for Black Americans) was answered by the investigator by reading but American sports as well. each line of the lyrics to determine common threads. This process is referred to as line-by-line coding (Glaser, 1978). Additionally, the process of open coding was used by the investigator to identify Methods potential themes by extracting examples from the lyrics and frames from the video (Agar, 1996; Bernard, 1994; Flick, 2009). This Design procedure is often referred to as identifying raw themes. The raw data themes are quotes that capture a sentiment provided by the A qualitative methodology was employed to better understand and participant (singer; Marshall & Rossman, 1999). The third listen to more fully identify representations of Black Americans’ experi- the song by one of the investigators involved a memoing technique, ences within the specific context of the song and video, “The Story which is utilized to record commonalities among codes or raw data of O.J.” A content analysis was performed to examine “The Story themes (Ryan & Bernard, 2000). Of the three types of memos that of O.J.” lyrics and unearth recurrent words and themes (Patton, Ryan and Bernard (2000)defined, code notes were the type the 2002). According to Patton (2002), content analysis aims to researcher utilized, as it affords the researcher the ability to analyze text, make sense of the qualitative material, and identify “ ” core consistencies and meaning. CRT (Bell, 1992; Brown, 2003; summarize his or her ideas about what is going on in the text Landson-Billings, 1998; Milner, 2007; Wing, 1997) provided a (Ryan & Bernard, p. 783). theoretical lens to examine and understand issues of race common From the code notes, three major themes were established, to Black Americans. This particular song was selected because it applied, and counted via the use of MAXQDA software, and was believed that the song elucidates the intersection of race, class, associated with the music video frames after intercoder agreement sports, and culture. among the researchers was reached: (a) battle with Blackness (perceptions of color), (b) economically enslaved and financial freedom, and (c) systematic subjugation. Figure 1 is a product of Data the process and provides examples of the data and coding structure. The data that were used in this study consisted of lyrics from one To decrease the subjectivity, another member of the research team song by hip-hop artist Jay-Z. While Jay-Z’s directory of music is evaluated the data and coding structure. Additionally, disagree- numerous, this song was selected because the lyrics highlight the ment about the data was discussed until consensus was achieved. social realities of Black Americans and provide content that This process of peer review helped to add credibility to the study, as extends beyond music and into other domains, such as sport. the data were analyzed by more than one researcher (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). Analysis Utilizing a coding technique, the data was deconstructed, concep- Findings tualized, and reconstructed (Flick, 2009). According to Flick “ ” (2009), theories are developed through the consistent evaluation Based on the content analysis of The Story of O.J., three major fi and comparison of phenomena. When coding, Flick (2009) sug- themes were identi ed. The results provided thick and rich narra- gested that researchers approach the text with questions that answer tives of Jay-Z’s perspective of what it is like to be Black in what (issue or phenomenon mentioned), who (people involved and America. The themes will be discussed as follows: (a) battle their roles) is doing what (intensions) and to whom, when (time, with Blackness, (b) economically enslaved and financial freedom, course), and where (location). Researchers should also ask why to and (c) systematic subjugation. The figures displayed below each uncover “which reasons are given or can be reconstructed” (Flick, theme will provide visual framed imagery from the “The Story of 2009, p. 310). From this series of questions, the text will begin to O.J.” video that corresponds with the lyrics of the song and each unfold (Flick, 2009). respective theme. The song was coded in stages and started with one member of the research team reading the printed lyrics while listening to the Battle With Blackness song in its entirety to get an overview of the song. Second, the researcher listened to the song again and coded, using MAXQDA As mentioned earlier in the introduction, Black Americans have 2020 (VERBI Software, Berlin, Germany), each line to determine struggled with their identity based on their experience in America what common themes were being conveyed. During this process, (Dubois, 1903). It was evident from the content analysis of the song the researcher began to answer the questions outlined by Flick that skin pigmentation has been used as a rubric to determine value (2009). For example, to answer to who is involved and communi- and social standing. The battle with Blackness was one of the most cating their thoughts was Jay-Z. When answering the when ques- salient themes in this song. The opening clip introduces Nina tion, the song and video premiered in July of 2017. Other questions, Simone, from whom the musical sample for “The Story of O.J.” such as why did Jay-Z record this song and whom was he speaking originates. The original song by Ms. Simone is titled “Four

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Figure 1 —“The Story of O.J.” Codes.

Women” and tells the story of four different Black women whose brotha, faux brotha, real brotha, rich brotha, poor brotha, house skin pigments seem to impact their mobility positively (lighter brotha, field brotha, still brotha, still brotha” (Jay-Z, 2017). With skin) or negatively (darker skin) in America. In the song, the words these lyrics, Jay-Z conveyed that no matter how much fame you “skin is, skin, my skin is black, my skin is black, my skin is yellow” earn or your status, you are still seen as a stereotypical Black man. are repeated (Jay-Z, 2017). Further, the lyrics expose the effects of Figure 2 (Frames 7 and 8) introduce O.J. Simpson. He is seen slavery that these women experience, as all the women have either running the football again and then shown in a press conference Black, yellow, tan, or brown skin. The song also exposes the explaining that he is not Black, but O.J. This infamous sentiment stereotypes plaguing Black men in America in the same way Nina made by O.J. Simpson in the video may suggest why he remained Simone expresses. Additionally, an exaggerated caricature of a neutral on Black civil rights issues at the height of his stardom, Black woman is shown as half naked, curvy, and entertaining men distancing himself from his race. At a time when Black athletes in a room at a Burlesque show. She is the stereotype of what Black such as Bill Russell, Muhammad Ali, Jim Brown, and Kareem women look like and how they act (hypersexual) juxtaposed to Abdul-Jabaar were using their platform to bring Black issues to the Nina Simone’s classy character in the next frame. The exaggerated forefront, O.J. remained quiet and seemingly comfortable in his caricature of a light complexion is seen as more beautiful to that ability to transcend race. of Nina Simone, who is fully clothed, has dark skin, and sings The following frames (9–19) in Figure 2 continue to show O.J. somberly and proudly of her “black skin.” Simpson running the ball, but display the light, dark, faux, real, In Figure 2 (Frame 6), we are introduced to the first Black male rich, poor, house, and field brothas, respectively above the stadium. caricature (Jaybo) who is holding a watermelon, a racist trope that These comparisons (light vs. dark, faux vs. real, rich vs. poor, and became a big part of American culture in the late 1800s. After house vs. field) are intraracial disparities used to separate Black slaves were freed, Black Americans grew, ate, and sold water- Americans from their identity. If you are light, faux, rich, and a melons, making the fruit a symbol of their freedom. As a response, house brotha, you are considered superior and have a higher status. American media began creating racist caricatures to dehumanize If you are a dark, real, poor, or a field brotha, you are considered and insinuate that Black Americans were unclean, lazy, childish, inferior and have a lower status. These descriptors explain how and happy with their subservient life (Hawkins, 1998b). This clip social hierarchy is constructed for Black Americans and supports goes back and forth with that of O.J. Simpson running the football, the literature (Cross, 1991; DuBois, 1903; Steele & Aronson, 1994; with the hook of the song repeating the lyrics “light brotha, dark Landrine & Klonoff, 1996) regarding negative stereotypes and the

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Figure 2 — Battle with Blackness theme frames from “The Story of O.J.” video (Jay-Z, 2017).

Black struggle for identity. This social hierarchy strongly correlates the listeners to adopt perceived positive Jewish culture behavior in to the challenges Black Americans experience to achieve and building credit and buying property. sustain economic mobility (Chetty, Hendren, Jones, & Porter, In Figure 4 (Frame 30), Jaybo is seen walking on million- 2018). dollar bills and discourages “living rich and dying broke.” Popular culture often correlates the accumulation of high-cost items Economically Enslaved and Financial Freedom (e.g., fancy cars, clothes, sitting in VIP at the club) with being rich. In Frame 31, Jaybo makes the decision to purchase an Studies (Chetty et al., 2018; Kaushal & Nepomnyaschy, 2009; appreciating item (art) to build wealth, a lesson presumably learned Thomas, Mann, & Meschede, 2018) regarding wealth disparities through his mistake in not buying property earlier in the song. He have shown significant gaps in the financial resources of Black and depicts a small Black child that is confused with this concept, but White families. According to Thomas et al. (2018), the wealth gap nonetheless is still acquiring knowledge of how to properly build “is driven by several key factors: homeownership, education, wealth for himself. The lyrics read, “I bought some artwork for one employment, and inheritance” (p. 1079). Discriminatory practices million. Two years later that sh** worth two million, few years are widely associated with these disparities and have served as a later that sh** worth eight million. I can’t wait to give this sh** to significant limitation to upward mobility for Black Americans. my children” (Jay-Z, 2017). Figure 4 (Frame 33) puts the song Given these systematic issues and challenges that have left lyrics in perspective as it references slavery and the hope for a Black Americans economically disadvantaged, Jay-Z shared com- Black man to leave an inheritance to his children. mon financial mistakes through the caricature of Jaybo, in the Building on Frame 33 of Figure 4, Frame 34 of Figure 4 shows hopes of educating the Black community not to repeat them, and Jaybo’s intent to provide lessons to the listeners. The lyrics read, offered suggestions on how to build wealth. He first described his “Ya’ll think it’s bougie, I’m like it’s fine, but I’m trying to give you acquisition of depreciating assets (cars) over appreciating ones a million dollars’ worth of game for nine ninety-nine” (Jay-Z, (property). The lyrics state, “I bought every V-12 engine, I wish I 2017). Figure 3 (Frame 35) and Figure 4 (Frame 37) illustrate the could take it back to the beginning” (Jay-Z, 2017). In Figure 3 mindset shift of Jaybo as he is seen unchained, walking through the (Frame 25), Jaybo is seen is seen with a psychiatrist disclosing his bowels of a slave ship with Black caricatures in shackles surround- discomfort of not buying property that would have increased in ing him. As he walks up the steps, he is displayed owning the ship valuation. The lyrics read, “I could have bought a place in Dumbo (saluted by White attendants) and discouraging behaviors such as before it was Dumbo, for like two million, but that same building “holding money to your ear” to signify you have wealth. In Figure 4 today is worth twenty-five million. Guess how I’m feeling? (Frames 43 and 44), Jaybo is shown flying as Dumbo over cotton Dumbo” (Jay-Z, 2017). fields and New York, handing out money to the masses. This In Figure 3 (Frame 29), we see Jaybo at a strip club, dismayed signifies how financial freedom allows him to empower his com- at the culture. He explains that building credit is more important munity and overcome a system that has historically subjugated than throwing money away at strippers. These highlighted mistakes Black Americans to second-class citizenship through democratic magnify negative financial behaviors that have the propensity to and capitalistic inequity (Singer, 2005). Unfortunately, it also enslave Black Americans. However, in the same frame, Jay-Z demonstrates how race and poverty perpetuate systematic subju- offered insights on how to become financially free and encouraged gation (Chetty et al., 2018).

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Figure 3 — Economically enslaved theme frames from “The Story of O.J.” video (Jay-Z, 2017).

Figure 4 — Financial freedom theme frames from “The Story of O.J.” video (Jay-Z, 2017).

Systematic Subjugation corners, where the hustlers be” (Jay-Z, 2017). Arguably, the roles mentioned are reserved for the disenfranchised. The final theme that emerged from the content analysis was In Figure 5 (Frame 23), Black angels are displayed ascending systematic subjugation. As CRT posits, racism is an ordinary to heaven with gunshot wounds. This is notating crime and part of American society and is deeply rooted in the fabric of violence in Black communities and the high death rates. Addition- the nation (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). These roots of racism ally, Jay-Z spoke to gang violence and turf wars, where Black have created a social caste system placing Black Americans at a Americans pledge allegiance to a neighborhood that they do not fi disadvantage, making it dif cult for upward mobility. Mass incar- own, reinforcing the dearth of opportunities to achieve the Ameri- ceration, unemployment, and life expectancy rates are staggering can dream. He stated, “Please don’t die over the neighborhood that and are considered tools that perpetuate a free labor system and lack your momma rentin’. Take your drug money and buy the neigh- of concern for Black lives. While Black men make up 7% of the borhood, that’s how you rinse it” (Jay-Z, 2017). general population, they make up over 40% of the U.S. prison Figure 5 (Frame 24) provides imagery of the stereotypical population (Pager, 2007). Black Americans still have the highest Black woman who serves as “Mammy,” which is a form of a maid unemployment rate in the United States (Wilson, 2018). Addition- and nurse for White children. She is larger in size, has full lips, and ally, a mortality gap exists between Black Americans and White appears to be happy with the conditions. This image was first Americans, as Black Americans have higher death rates than White described in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s 1852 novel, Uncle Tom’s Americans (Mays et al., 2007). These issues, coupled with negative Cabin. racial stereotypes (e.g., angry, danger to the community, menaces Figure 5 (Frames 39, 40, and 27) shows Africans making their to society, unintelligent), are problematic and leave Black Amer- first journey to America in shackles, being sold as families to slave icans with limited options for advancement. masters, and picking cotton fields. This can be associated with mass Figure 5 (Frame 22) highlights the issue of unemployment, as incarceration and exploitation. The animation displays the fate of Jaybo is seen on the corner, depicting a drug dealer. He lists several the Black family: trembling in fear, sad, and subjected to slavery. subservient employment options for Black Americans throughout The last two clips, Frames 41 and 17, respectively, display a public history in the verse. The lyrics read, “I’mafield brotha with shined lynching and Jaybo sitting in the “colored section” on a bus. These cutlery, gold-plated quarters where the butlers be, imma play the clips show the lack of concern for Black lives and legislation

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Figure 5 — Systematic subjugation theme frames from “The Story of O.J.” video (Jay-Z, 2017).

(separate but equal) that maintains the status quo, leaving Black consciousness ideology in the lyrics, as one of the main characters Americans vulnerable to the system that does not recognize their (O.J. Simpson) renounces his Blackness to remain socially humanity. accepted despite his status as a star athlete. Sports are a microcosm of American society, but often times have the propensity to create color blindness not only for the consumers, but actors as well Discussion (Dominquez, 2018). Juxtaposed to O.J. Simpson’s neutral position on civil rights issues, when star athletes, such as Tommie Smith As mentioned earlier, the present study examined the representa- (Olympian), John Carlos (Olympian), Muhammed Ali (former tions of Black Americans’ experiences in the United States through Boxer), and Colin Kaeapernick (former NFL football player) a content analysis of the song and music video, titled “The Story of embrace their Blackness to protest inequality, their actions are O.J.,” by hip-hop artist Jay-Z to gain a better understanding of how met with negative consequences that fragment their social stand- Jay-Z interpreted the impact of Black Americans’ lived experiences ing (Hawkins, 1998a). The video also provides exaggerated in the United States, on their identity and their ability to progress, animated caricatures that represent negative stereotypes that dis- economically and socially, regardless of social standing. Findings play Black Americans as unintelligent, hypersexual, subservient, from the content analysis revealed that Black Americans are still brutish, and childish (Hawkins, 1998b). In sports, these negative challenged by a racially discriminate system that recognizes them stereotypes are compounded for Black athletes, who also have to as second-class citizens despite their status. overcome the categorizations as “dumb jocks” and “not serious The first section will apply the theoretical framework to about their education” (Melendez, 2008). Further, the song repeat- analyze the data. The second section will discuss the limitations edly informs the listener that, no matter the social status of Black of the study. Lastly, the final section will conclude with implica- Americans, great or small, their social order has been stratified and tions for stakeholders. predetermined by a racially discriminatory system since the Afri- can diaspora. These lyrical and visual expressions shared by Jay-Z Theoretical Analysis indicate that racism is perceived as widespread and ordinary in American culture. This finding is consistent with CRT’s first tenet. The CRT recognizes continuing political and financial disparities Economic enslavement and financial freedom were also im- based on race. CRT challenges status quo ideologies of different portant issues that emerged. Jay-Z’s lyrics support the literature forms of racism in America that manifest themselves through people (Cooper, 2012; Chetty et al., 2018; Kaushal & Nepomyashy, 2009; and social institutions (Bell, 1992; Donnor, 2005; Milner, 2007). Thomas et al., 2018) discussing the significant gaps in wealth, The three major tenets of CRT are as follows: (a) Racism is an income, and unemployment, and a system of exploitation. These ordinary part of American society and deeply rooted in the culture; financial disparities are also relevant when examining sports culture (b) A culture develops its own narrative to accommodate its own and racial discrimination. Research (Clopton, 2011; Cooper, 2012; self-interest; and (c) White elites will encourage the advancement Singer, 2009) related to this issue has emphasized the overrepresen- of minorities as long as it promotes their self-interest (Bell, 1992; tation of Black athletes in the revenue-generating sports of football Harrison & Lawrence, 2003; Landson-Billings, 1998; Singer, 2005; and basketball at the collegiate level and a dearth of Black Amer- Tate, 1997; Wing, 1997). icans in upper management positions (i.e., president, head coaches, The utilization of CRT in the evaluation of this study provided director of athletics, commissioner; Beamon, 2008; Donnor, 2005; an important lens to view race. The emergence of the battle with Harrison & Lawrence, 2003; Kennedy & Dimick, 1987; Lapchick, Blackness theme is consistent with previous research (Cross, 2018). This is problematic for Black student-athletes, as positive 1991; Landrine & Klonoff, 1996; Neville et al., 2015; Steele & role models are absent. Having Black representation in leadership Aronson, 1994) and highlights the struggles Black Americans still roles may encourage athletes to pursue careers in sports adminis- face to overcome negative stereotypes. The lyrics used in “The tration. Furthermore, economic values are associated with re- Story of O.J.” discuss skin pigmentation of Black Americans and spective job titles and functions. The lack of Black Americans how skin complexion can create social hierarchies inside and in these decision-making roles reinforces the gap in wealth and outside the culture. The song also reinforces Dubois’s(1903)dual earnings in American society between Black Americans and

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White Americans. Additionally, critics (Beamon, 2008; Branch, their voice, resources, and influence to make a difference in their 2011; Cooper, 2012, 2019; Donnor, 2005; Huma & Staurowsky, communities (Rhoden, 2006). The data presented from Jay-Z’slyrics 2012) also assert that student-athletes are a labor force who do not support the second tenet of CRT, where society has created a narrative benefitequallyfinancially for their contributions to institutions to justify the marginalization of Black Americans. However, Jay-Z’s and sports at large. The revenue-generation sports of football and courage to present a hip-hop song and video, such as “The Story of basketball, heavily composed of Black student-athletes, under- O.J.,” provides a unique perspective and counteracts the racial write the nonrevenue men’sandwomen’s sports (tennis, golf, position of subordination and domination (Singer, 2005). crew, soccer, volleyball, and softball) made up of mostly middle- and upper-class White athletes (Donnor, 2005). Limitations While discrimination and exploitation have played a role in hindering most Black Americans from achieving equal economic While this study fills in gaps in the race and hip-hop literature and mobility, the song offers financial advice to overcome the systemic achieved some compelling results, there were also some limita- oppression. Jay-Z told stories of his financial mistakes through the tions. One limitation was that the “Story of O.J.” was the only song purchase of depreciating assets and lack of awareness to acquire examined. Evaluating more hip-hop artists’ songs would have appreciating ones. He also evaluated these past decisions, took yielded more data and provided more narratives regarding Black responsibility, and adjusted his way of thinking to elevate himself experiences in America. Another limitation was the lack of gender and his family. The lyrics discuss the importance of financial representation. Given the nature of the song and references to the literacy and not wasting financial resources on revelries. Jay-Z male athletic figure of O.J. Simpson, this study focused more on the also spoke to the importance of building credit and of purchasing Black male experience and did not include the Black female appreciating assets, such as property and art. Further, he encour- student-athlete perspective as often. Black female student-athletes aged Black Americans to be owners of businesses and benevolent are not exempt from facing challenges associated with race, sport, to the Black community to overcome the established system of and social standing. Another limitation was the lack of diversity in subjugation. The inequities articulated by Jay-Z’s lyrics and visual the genre of music. Only studying hip-hop music excluded the imagery regarding economics and methods of control by members views of other ethnic groups, as well as Black Americans who of the dominant culture support CRT’s third tenet, which asserts might have had similar or different experiences. The final limitation that Black athletes have been afforded access to sports as labor to was bias. There was a heavy reliance on the principal investigator reinforce the self-interest of White elites. for analysis and interpretation of the data collected. The final theme that emerged from the content analysis was Future research should continue to utilize content analysis, systematic subjugation. The lyrics and imagery from the video CRT, and other hip-hop artists to examine sports, higher education, depict the roots of slavery and the stereotypes that reinforce the and other social experiences of ethnic groups. Other studies once prescribed colonial placement of Black Americans. These could examine the impact of hip-hop music on female and White descriptions parallel the literature (Hawkins, 1998a, 1998b). athletes. Additionally, studying female hip-hop artists’ perspec- Throughout the video, Black Americans are animated as slaves tives on Black females and athletes may shed more light on their arriving to the United States in shackles and are shown picking experiences. These research approaches could influence policies cotton. Jay-Z rapped about the various subservient options for and support resources for athletes and students in higher education. Black Americans throughout the song. Arguably, the imagery and lyrics in the video represent racial imbalances that specify the Implications placement of Black Americans in America as a labor force, The findings from this study have some practical implications for signifying exploitation. Black Americans are also shown being ’ sold as property on auction blocks, as maids, and as drug dealers stakeholders. Using components of CRT to analyze Jay-Z s perceptions of the Black experience, themes emerged that highlighted working the street corners. Further, the video animates a lynching, fi the death of Black men, and policies (separate but equal) that the battle with Blackness, economic enslavement and nancial demonstrate a lack of concern for Black lives. Throughout the song freedom, and systemic subjugation. The character of O.J. Simpson and video, the lyrical hook reminds the listeners of the historical is unique and important in this assessment, as it reinforces the notion that sports are a microcosm of the American society. Given constructs of racial discrimination and how cultural differences fl were established to keep Black Americans marginalized. the rhetoric regarding sports and the in uence they have on popular As mentioned above, the role of an athlete as only a laborer and culture and society, recommendations are provided for Black athletes and hip-hop artists to use their platforms to educate entertainer is problematic and socializes Black athletes to the athletic ’ role (Edwards, 2000). Additionally, these categorizations and narra- consumers about society s shortcomings and their mistakes and tives undervalue Black Americans who are successful in other fields to offer remedies to overcome adversities and lack of understand- of human endeavor and discourage athletes from visualizing them- ing (Beamon, 2008). selves in other competences (Harrison, 1998). Fortunately, hip-hop Athletes. For Black athletes who compete at every level, education artists like Jay-Z are inspiring athletes to use their influence to counter is essential. While earning a degree is beneficial, understanding the the narratives about the Black experience and roles that have tradi- history of racism and the impact it could have on them socially and tionally been communicated by the dominant group. Lebron James economically is important. A study by Rudman (1986) found that is a great example of an iconic athlete who defies the stereotype most Black males who participate in college sports feel that sports will and has created a platform, uninterrupted, where athletes and other support their quest of becoming a professional athlete and help them entertainers are encouraged to speak their truth. Additionally, the avoid discrimination. However, athletes need to understand that “more than an athlete” movement pushes back against the status quo society’s acceptance of them as athletes is somewhat conditional ideology of being an athlete only and encourages athletes to commu- and does not exempt them from the inequalities that Jay-Z outlined in nicate other capacities (e.g., business man, philanthropist, father, his lyrics. When the cheering stops after games, spectators return to friend, educator) that they serve in and empowers athletes to utilize their homes, and the status quo living arrangements that reinforce the

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC Examining the Black Experience 203 systemic norms of racism persist (Dominquez, 2018). Athletes have to Hip-hop artists. Without a doubt, hip-hop entertainers have be more cognizant of this and understand that their futures are influence and access to multitudes of listeners. These listeners determined in the present. In essence, what they do now determines are not just Black, but mainstream consumers around the world. their future. They must understand that achieving professional sports We see the cross-pollination of music and sports, as multiple playing careers are not guaranteed, as fewer than 2% make it to the performances have been given by the likes of Nelly, Puff Daddy, major professional ranks (NFL and National Basketball Association) Missy Elliot, Nicki Manaj, J. Cole, Drake, Kendrick Lamar, and in football and basketball (National Collegiate Athletic Association, others at the NFL Super Bowl and National Basketball Association 2019). Additionally, they must fully grasp the data and literature All-Star game halftime shows (McLeod, 2009). Not to mention, (Singer, 2005) surrounding the lack of leadership opportunities for during pregame warm-ups, timeouts, and other breaks in competi- Black Americans to work in sports or any other sector after their tion, hip-hop music is played, heard, and enjoyed by the fans in careers are exhausted. The research by Lapchick (2018), mentioned these sports venues. earlier, highlighted that White Americans made up 84.3%, 90%, and While hip-hop is a source of entertainment, it is also a medium 92.7% of the athletics director positions in Division I, II, and III and of education for the masses (Bridges, 2011; Rashid, 2016). Hip- 86.2%, 87.4%, and 91.4% of all head coaching positions in Divisions hop artists must continue to use their platform to serve as role I, II, and III in 2017–2018, respectively. This awareness is vital and models and educators like athletes (Donnor, 2005; Dyson, 2019). should make athletes think about ways to change this paradigm, other However, what gives hip-hop artists an advantage to impact society than education. more so than athletes is the liberty they have to communicate Building on education, Black athletes should seek out mentors messages in their music that athletes wish they could (Dyson, 2019). and advocates. Studies by Donnor (2005) and Martin, Harrison, Given this freedom, Black hip-hop artists must continue to speak for and Bukstein (2010) found that positive interactions with those on the margins of society unapologetically. They must tell the parents and faculty had a positive impact on the quality of life truth about their lived experiences and the stress that comes along of student-athletes. It is imperative that athletes seek counsel to with being Black in America. They must share their tragedies and achieve success and avoid potential pitfalls in many aspects of triumphs of being in the entertainment industry. Additionally, hip- their lives. They should also connect with other athletes who have hop artists should continue their learning about the history of racism, walked in their shoes. These current and former players could help capitalism, money, and politics. Once they learn the system, they “ athletes achieve their goals on and off the field by connecting them need to share the knowledge gained, like Jay-Z did in the Story of ” “ ’ ’ ’ ’ fi ’ with meaningful resources (e.g., financial, marketing, lifestyle) and O.J., as he stated, Ya ll think it s bougie, I m like it s ne, but I m ’ networks (social capital) and provide them with sound guidance. trying to give you a million dollars worth of game for nine ninety- ” ’ Athletes should also encourage their parents to get involved and nine (Jay-Z, 2017). This sentiment expressed in Jay-Z s song should ’ share information with younger athletes’ parents about the proba- underscore the hip-hop artists desire to empower others through bility of playing sports beyond high school, the process of recruit- lyrical expression and provide tools for listeners to overcome their ment, how to build healthy relationships with campus personnel, hardships and advance to achieve the American dream. utilizing campus resources, selecting an agent, turning profes- Further, new songs could be written to provide more in-depth sional, and the transition after sports. Having a healthy network instructions about how to build credit, start a business, and buy a of trusted friends, colleagues, and advisors would help athletes home. Hip-hop artists could also leverage technology to create advance socially and economically. interactive videos that lead viewers to tangible resources that provide Another way to shift this paradigm of inequality is for continuing education on these topics for viewers to explore. Lastly, athletes to present a united front. In November of 2015, Black hip-hop artists should serve as mentors to up-and-coming hip-hop artists and their families. Like sports, the entertainment industry is athletes on the football team at the University of Missouri fi understood their influence and power. The team provided a competitive, and competition for fans and consumers can be erce. blueprint for Black athletes to collectively influence their current However, hip-hop artists should display mutual respect for one and future opportunities for upward mobility by standing in another and choose wisdom over consumers, as wisdom can provide protection and access to more opportunity beyond albums. As the solidarity with the Concerned Student 1950 group and student Ecclesiastical passage notes, “Wisdom is as good as an inheritance Jonathan Butler. The Black football players at Missouri ceased all and an advantage to those who see the sun, because wisdom is football-related activities until Jonathan Butler ended his hunger protection as money is protection, and the advantage of knowledge strike and certain demands were met that created a better envi- is that wisdom preserves the life of its owner” (Ecclesiastes 7:11–12, ronment for Black students on the Missouri campus. If Black Holman Christian Standard Bible). athletes of today do not disrupt the current social and economic Athletes and hip-hop artists have a great opportunity to model collectively, exploitation will continue and their desire to continue to shape American culture in a positive way. While be whole, socially and economically, will be limited. According both have shared in the hardships of overcoming adversity, they to Singer (2009), athletes see themselves as laborers and are aware are also a beacon of life and hope for Black Americans and America of the system that does not compensate them fairly. Respectfully at large. Utilizing their intellect, natural talents, discipline, and hard demanding more jobs for Black administrators, coaches, and work, athletes and hip-hop artists can use their platforms to offer faculty would aid Black students and athletes in their develop- solutions to a system of racism that has negatively impacted Black ment now and hopefully create more opportunities for them to lives and America for centuries. occupy professional positions later. This would also make predominately White campuses more hospitable and welcoming and hopefully reduce the level of mistrust Black students have who Conclusion attend predominately White campuses (Melendez, 2008). Like Jay-Z, if Black athletes were to use their influence to speak up and In conclusion, this content analysis presented findings related to act collectively within the popular culture of sports, positive Jay-Z’s perspective of Black Americans’ lived experience in the outcomes would abound. United States. This analysis has enhanced the overall understanding

SSJ Vol. 37, No. 3, 2020 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/30/21 06:52 AM UTC 204 Northcutt, Henderson, and Chicoski of the Black experience and their ongoing struggle for equality Branch, T. (2011). The cartel: Inside the rise and imminent fall of the and singular identity. While there is a large volume of research NCAA. San Francisco, CA: Byliner Inc. documenting the concerns of Black Americans, little research has Bridges, T. (2011). Towards a pedagogy of hip hop in urban teacher presented the experience and perceptions of Black Americans education. Journal of Negro Education, 80(3), 325–338. through music. Brown, T.N. (2003). Critical race theory speaks to the sociology of mental The lyrics from the song as well as the animation are highly health: Mental health problems produced by racial stratification. consistent with existing research. This analysis adds to the greater Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 292–301. 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