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Degenerative Spinal Disease (DSD), Which Is One of the Most Common Disorders in Humans

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Degenerative Spinal Disease (DSD), Which Is One of the Most Common Disorders in Humans editoriaL Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142 © Copyright by Wroclaw Medical University ISSN 1899–5276 Marek J. Sąsiadek, Joanna Bladowska Imaging of Degenerative Spine Disease – the State of the Art Obrazowanie w chorobie zwyrodnieniowej kręgosłupa – obecny stan wiedzy Department of General and Interventional Radiology and Neuroradiology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland Abstract The authors review the current state of imaging of degenerative spinal disease (DSD), which is one of the most common disorders in humans. The most important definitions as well as short descriptions of the etiopathology and clinical presentation of DSD are provided first, followed by an overview of conventional and advanced imag- ing methods that are used in DSD. The authors then discuss in detail the imaging patterns of particular types of degenerative changes. Finally, the current imaging algorithm in DSD is presented. The imaging method of choice is magnetic resonance, including advanced techniques – especially diffusion tensor imaging. Other imaging methods (plain radiography, computed tomography, vascular studies, scintigraphy, positron emission tomography, discog- raphy) play a supplementary role (Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142). Key words: spine degeneration, intervertebral disc degeneration, magnetic resonance imaging. Streszczenie Autorzy przedstawiają obecne poglądy na temat obrazowania choroby zwyrodnieniowej kręgosłupa (ch.zw.kr.), która jest jedną z najczęstszych schorzeń u ludzi. W pierwszej części pracy omówiono najważniejsze definicje oraz opisano krótko etiopatogenezę i objawy kliniczne ch.zw.kr., po czym przedstawiono standardowe i zaawansow- ane metody diagnostyczne stosowane w ch.zw.kr. Następnie omówiono szczegółowo zmiany obrazowe w posz- czególnych typach zmian zwyrodnieniowych kręgosłupa, wreszcie przedstawiono bieżący algorytm obrazowania w ch.zw.kr. Metodą obrazową z wyboru jest rezonans magnetyczny (MR), wraz z zaawansowanymi technikami, zwłaszcza obrazowaniem tensora dyfuzji (DTI). Inne metody obrazowe (radiografia konwencjonalna, tomografia komputerowa, badania naczyniowe, scyntygrafia, pozytronowa tomografia emisyjna, dyskografia) odgrywają rolę uzupełniającą (Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142). Słowa kluczowe: zwyrodnienie kręgosłupa, zwyrodnienie krążka międzykręgowego, obrazowanie rezonansu mag- netycznego. Degenerative spinal disease (DSD) is one of the nosing DSD and optimal diagnostic imaging algo- most common disorders, affecting adults at every rithms in different types of degenerative disease. age, which means it is an important medical and social problem. The results of treatment of DSD depend strongly on precise diagnostics. With the Definitions development and increased availability of magnet- ic resonance (MR), imaging methods have become Degenerative spinal disease (DSD) is also called the most important tool in diagnosing DSD and spondylosis or spondylosis deformans. A primary planning its treatment. feature is that it involves the whole disco-vertebral The aim of this review is to present the current unit (functional spinal unit) (see below), usually at possibilities of various imaging modalities in diag- multiple levels. 134 M. J. Sąsiadek, J. Bladowska A disco-vertebral unit (functional spinal unit) tic spondylodiscitis). The further stages of verte- is the complex of anatomic structures compris- bral body degeneration are fatty transformation ing a single segment of the spine. It consists of the and endplate sclerosis, as well as edge osteophytes intervertebral disc, adjacent parts of the vertebral [1–3, 6, 8]. Degeneration of the endplates may re- bodies, facet joints, ligamenta flava and longitudi- sult in their irregularities (erosive osteochondro- nal ligaments at a given level. All the components sis) or in intravertebral disc herniations (Schmorl’s of an FSU may be affected by degenerative spinal nodes) [3]. disease to varying degrees. Facet joint degeneration appears as hypertro- Spondyloarthrosis is one type of DSD; it main- phy and osteophytes of the articular processes, ly affects the facet joints and causes facet degenera- with narrowing of the joint space, less commonly tion. as the vacuum phenomenon, synovial hypertro- Degenerative disc disease (or discopathy) is phy or synovial cysts. Facet degeneration along another type of DSD, mainly affecting interverte- with disc degeneration can lead to degenerative bral discs. spondylolisthesis (anterolisthesis, i.e. anterior Disc herniation and disc bulging are types of displacement of the upper vertebra, or retrolis- degenerative disc disease characterized by part of thesis, i.e. posterior displacement of the upper the disc or the whole disc protruding beyond the vertebra) due to vertebral instability [1, 2, 6]. The intervertebral space. Disc herniation is one of the involvement of the ligamenta flava results in their most common and severe types of DSD. hypertrophy [3]. Longitudinal ligaments may be It is important to remember that DSD affects compressed or broken by disc herniation; pos- many structures of the spine and it is not always terior longitudinal ligaments may also ossificate equivalent to disc herniation or degenerative disc (ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga- disease [1, 2]. ments: OPPL) [3]. All the changes mentioned above can lead to spinal stenosis, either central (narrowing of the Etiopathology central part of the spinal canal) or lateral (narrow- ing of the lateral recesses of the spinal canal and As the authors have noted elsewhere [3], intervertebral foramina). Spinal stenosis can be degenerative changes of the spine are a part of accompanied by compression of the spinal cord, normal aging; they start in late adolescence and leading to its ischemia, edema, myelomalacia or progress with age. They may or may not manifest gliosis [3, 9]. themselves clinically. Many factors can accelerate the formation of degenerative changes, e.g. de- velopmental anomalies or infectious diseases of Clinical Presentation the spine. However, the most important factor is trauma, both acute and chronic, including chronic The most common clinical symptom is back overload [3–5]. pain of variable severity, constant or intermittent, Degenerative disease is most often located in located at the levels of the involved segments of the lumbar spine, followed by the cervical and tho- the spine [6, 10, 11]. Asymmetric disc herniation, racic spine. The lower parts of the lumbar spine lateral spinal stenosis or osteophytes compressing (segments L4–S1) and cervical spine (segments the nerve roots cause radicular pain along the af- C4–C7) are the most commonly involved [3]. fected root [6]. The same conditions may cause The first stage of disease is usually degenera- neurological deficits, e.g. weakness in the upper tive dehydration of the nucleus pulposus of the in- or lower extremities. Central spinal stenosis in the tervertebral disc, combined with the fissures in the lumbar region may lead to neurological claudica- adjacent annulus fibrosus (annular tears) and end- tion, and in the cervical or thoracic regions to my- plate cartilage microfractures [1, 2, 6, 7]. Annular elopathy due to chronic compression of the spinal tears (concentric, transverse or radial) are pres- cord [3, 6, 9]. ent in almost all individuals over 40 years of age and could thus be considered paraphysiological; however, some (especially radial tears) may result Degenerative Spinal Disease in disc herniation. Other forms of disc degenera- – Imaging Methods tion are the vacuum phenomenon (gas collections, mostly nitrogen) and calcifications [3]. The two most important and most commonly Injury of the endplate cartilage, on the other used imaging modalities are plain X-ray films of hand, causes an aseptic reaction of the subchon- the spine and magnetic resonance (MR). Other dral bone, with an increase in water content (asep- methods are performed much less frequently and Imaging of Degenerative Spine Disease 135 are currently considered supplementary imaging provements in MR equipment (fast gradient sys- techniques. tems, parallel imaging, multielement phased-array Conventional radiographs of the spine are coils), basic MR techniques including spin-echo still useful as an initial study, enabling detection (T1- and T2-weighted images), gradient-echo and of major abnormalities, e.g. narrowing of the disc fat saturation sequences are now characterized by space (which is compatible with discopathy), os- high resolution and increased signal-to-noise ra- teophytes, degenerative sclerotization, scolio- tio. In addition, many supplementary techniques sis, spondylolisthesis and other congenital spine have been introduced, e.g. steady-state sequences anomalies. In mild cases of DSD radiography can (like CISS or FIESTA), which provide excellent suffice as the only imaging study [1, 2, 7]. delineation of the outlines of disc herniations; MR MR is the imaging method of choice, and myelography, a non-invasive technique that has should be used in all patients with long-term pain, replaced conventional and CT myelographies; and radicular symptoms or neurological deficits [12]. post-contrast sequences, which are especially use- MR allows for a complex assessment of degenera- ful in post-operative studies [14, 22]. tive changes in all the structures of the disco-verte- Recently there have been attempts to apply ad- bral unit – both the bony and soft tissue structures vanced supplementary techniques, such as diffu- (see below). sion-weighted imaging (DWI) and diffusion
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