Nabard Research Study - 8

NABARD RESEARCH STUDY - 8

Report of Research Project

Climate Change, Impact and Adaptation: Gender Perspective in Indian Context

Submitted to the

Department of economic analysis and research (DEAR)

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) NABARD Research Study - 8

Project team

Dr. Usha Ahuja Principal Scientist

Dr. Vinayak Nikam Scientist (Senior Scale)

ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research New Delhi For more information:

ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NIAP) D.P.S. Marg, Pusa New Delhi – 110012, India. Phone: +91-11- 25847628 Fax: +91-11-25842684 E-mail: [email protected]

DISCLAIMER This study has been supported by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) under its Research and Development (R&D) Fund. The contents of this publication can be used for research and academic purposes only with due permission and acknowledgement. They should not be used for commercial purposes. NABARD does not hold any responsibility for the facts and figures contained in the book. The views are of the authors alone and should not be purported to be those of NABARD. About NABARD Research Study Series

The NABARD Research Study Series has been started to enable wider dissemination of research conducted/sponsored by NABARD on the thrust areas of Agriculture and Rural Development among researchers and stakeholders. ‘Climate Change, Impact and Adaptation: Gender Perspective in Indian Context’ is the eighth in the series. Climate change is one of the most serious threats that the world is facing. This study looks at the gender differential vulnerability and impact of climate change in the Indian context. Complete list of studies is given on the last page. Preface

Changing climate is one of the most serious threats and challenges the world is facing. There are different aspects of the impact of climate change, among them one important is gender differential effect. At global level, studies have shown that climate change affects men and women differently. In Indian conditions, because of complex social settings and structure, women’s life is bound by religious beliefs, traditions and patriarchal norms, impact and adaptation to climate change likely to be different from the perspective of the other countries. lack of ownership of natural resources; low participation in decision making at household; low capacity to cope with natural resources; low level of education and low extension contact etc. have potential to make women more vulnerable to climate change than men. In this backdrop, it was necessary to study the gender differential vulnerability and impact of climate change in Indian context; adaptation and mitigation strategies adapted.

I appreciate the initiatives of the project team to take up this topic for research and studying gender differential impact in three different agro-ecological situations representing desert ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem and cyclone as well as flood affected ecosystem. I would like to place on record the noteworthy contributions of both researchers who have contributed tirelessly, visited the places personally, spent enormous amounts of their time and efforts to carry out the research in a relatively new domain. This study will be a beginning for gender differential impact evaluation with more detailed and robust methodologies.

Director NICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics and Policy Research, New Delhi

Acknowledgement This report has taken final shape because of the efforts of a large number of persons and we acknowledge with all humility the help and support provided by every individual. In Rajasthan state, we are grateful to the logistics and technical support provided by Dr Rajkumar Chahal, at CSWRI, Avikanagar and Dr. Dharamvir Singh, KVK Vanasthali during data collection in the Tonk district. Our thanks are due to Mr. Bhanupratap Singh from Cairns India and Dr. Pradeep Pagaria from KVK Barmer for their help and support in selection of villages and during data collection in Barmer district. We would like to thank Dr Kumar Sharma from KVK Kullu and Dr. Pankaj Sud, Dr Kavitha from KVK Mandi for their logistic and technical support during the data collection process in Himachal Pradesh. We acknowledge and thanks for the support of Dr Das, Dr Ambika Nayak from KVK Bhadrak; Dr. Surjay Mishra, Dr Namita, Dr Lipsa from KVK Kendrapara of Odisha state.

We are thankful to all 1161 respondents from Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Odisha for sparing time and giving required information to fulfil the objectives of the project. We are thankful to the Mr Mehrab and Mr. Ahishek from Rajasthan; Mrs Maya and Mrs Nainita from Himachal Pradesh; Ms Jyoti and Mr. Sushant from Odisha for eliciting quality information from the respondents. We acknowledge the efforts of project staff Richa, Zia Ul Rehman, Ganesh, Vinayak, Kuldeep and Ranjith P C who have contributed immensely in preparation of questionnaire, data collection, data entry, analysis and writing report of the project.

We are grateful to Dr Suresh Pal, Director, ICAR-NIAP for providing all logistic, technical and administrative help as and when needed. We express our thanks to administrative and financial personnel of NIAP for providing required help in time for the project. Finally, we thank DEAR, NABARD, Mumbai for providing financial assistance to facilitate the research and guiding us for various procedural formalities required from our end.

Research Team

Content

Sr. No. Topic Page number Executive summary 1-5 Introduction and background Background of the study 1 Knowledge gap and justification of project 6-9 Objectives Review of literature Research Methodology Research design Locale of study and study area 2 Description of study area 10-37 Methods of data collection Analytical tools Photographs 3 Result and discussion 38-125 Rajasthan Socio economic characteristics of respondents Gender wise participation in farm activities 3.1 38-70 Perceived reasons behind climate change Vulnerability and impact of climate change Adaptations and mitigation strategies Himachal Pradesh Socio economic characteristics of respondents Gender wise participation in farm activities 3.2 71-96 Perceived reasons behind climate change Vulnerability and impact of climate change Adaptations and mitigation strategies Odisha Socio economic characteristics of respondents Gender wise participation in farm activities 3.3 97-125 Perceived reasons behind climate change Vulnerability and impact of climate change Adaptations and mitigation strategies 4 Evaluation of Policies and programs and suggested reforms 126-136 5 Summary and Conclusion 137-139 6 Bibliography 140

List of Tables

Table Title Page No. number Description of districts in terms of percentage agricultural land, CV of 2.1 11-12 temperature and rainfall 2.2 Sampling procedure for selection of respondents for the study 13 2.3 Comparison of various population indicators in Barmer district 14 2.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of state and Barmer district 15 2.5 General livestock statistics of Barmer 17 2.6 Distribution of workforce in the Tonk district 19 2.7 Livestock population in Tonk district of Rajasthan 20 2.8. Demographic characteristics of the Mandi district 21 2.9 Demographic characteristics of the Kullu district 24 2.10 Demographic characteristics of Bhadrak district of Odisha 26 2.11 Demographic characteristics of Kendrapara district of Odisha 28 2.12 Five capitals, components and sub-components of Vulnerability index 31-32 Categorizations of subcomponents into exposure, adaptive capacity and 2.13 32-33 sensitivity 2.14 Statements showing impact of climate change 33-34 2.15 Adaptation strategies adopted by the respondents to climate change 35 2.16 Mitigation strategies adopted by the respondents 36 Socio economic characteristics of respondents of Tonk and Barmer districts of 3.1.1 39 Rajasthan 3.1.2 possession of materials by respondents of the Rajasthan 41 3.1.3 Gender differences in social participation in Rajasthan 42 3.1.4 Different farm activity performed by male and female in Rajasthan 43 3.1.5 Perception of male and female on reasons behind climate change in Rajasthan 46 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human capital 3.1.6 48 in Rajasthan 3.1.7 Gender differential impact of climate change on human capital in Rajasthan 48-49 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital 3.1.8 50 in Rajasthan 3.1.9 Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital in Rajasthan 50-51 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital 3.1.10 52 in Rajasthan 3.1.11 Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital in Rajasthan 52-53 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial 3.1.12 54 capital in Rajasthan 3.1.13 Gender differential impact of climate change on financial capital in Rajasthan 54 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical 3.1.14 55 capital in Rajasthan 3.1.15 Gender differential impact of climate change on physical capital in Rajasthan 55-56 3.1.16 Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts of Rajasthan 57-58 3.1.17 challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change in Rajasthan 59 3.1.18 Different adoption strategies adopted by the respondents in Rajasthan 63-64 3.1.19 Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents in Rajasthan 69 Socio economic characteristics of respondents of Mandi and Kullu 3.2.1 71-72 districts of Himachal Pradesh 3.2.2 Possession of materials by respondents from Himachal Pradesh 73-74 3.2.3 Gender differences in social participation in Himachal Pradesh 74 3.2.4 Different farm activity performed by male and female in Himachal Pradesh 76 Perception of male and female on reasons behind climate change in Himachal 3.2.5 77-78 Pradesh Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human capital 3.2.6 79 in Himachal Pradesh Gender differential impact of climate change on human capital in Himachal 3.2.7 80 Pradesh Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital 3.2.8 80-81 in Himachal Pradesh Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital in Himachal 3.2.9 81-82 Pradesh Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital 3.2.10 82-83 in Himachal Pradesh Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital in Himachal 3.2.11 83 Pradesh Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial 3.2.12 84 capital in Himachal Pradesh Gender differential impact of climate change on financial capital in Himachal 3.2.13 85 Pradesh Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical 3.2.14 85-86 capital in Himachal Pradesh Gender differential impact of climate change on physical capital in Himachal 3.2.15 86 Pradesh 3.2.16 Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts of Himachal Pradesh 87-88 3.2.17 challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change in Himachal Pradesh 90 3.2.18 Adoption strategies adopted by respondents from Himachal Pradesh 92-93 3.2.19 Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents from Himachal Pradesh 96 3.3.1 Socio economic characteristics of respondents from Odisha 97-98 3.3.2 possession of materials by respondents from Odisha 99 3.3.3 Gender differences in social participation in Odisha 100 3.3.4 Different farm activity performed by male and female in Odisha 101 3.3.5 Perception of respondents from Odisha about reasons behind climate change 102 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human capital 3.3.6 104-05 in Odisha 3.3.7 Gender differential impact of climate change on human capital in Odisha 106 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital 3.3.8 107 in Odisha 3.3.9 Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital in Odisha 108 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital 3.3.10 109 in Odisha 3.3.11 Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital in Odisha 110 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial 3.3.12 111 capital in Odisha 3.3.13 Gender differential impact of climate change on financial capital in Odisha 112 Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical 3.3.14 112 capital in Odisha 3.3.15 Gender differential impact of climate change on physical capital in Odisha 113 3.3.16 Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts in Odisha 114-15 3.3.17 challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change in Odisha 117 3.3.18 Adoption strategies adopted by respondents from Odisha 122-23 3.3.19 Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents from Odisha 125 List of Figures

Fig. No. Title Page number 2.1 Map of India showing selected states for the study 10 2.2 Map of Rajasthan State highlighting the Barmer and Tonk districts 17 2.3 Rainfall pattern of Tonk district since 1969 to 2015. 18 2.4 Map of Himachal Pradesh highlighting selected districts of the state 23 2.5 Map of Odisha state showing Bhadrak and Kendrapara district 27 2.6 DFID Sustainable livelihood framework 30 3.1 Overall impact on five capitals of SLA in Rajasthan 56 Gender difference in potential impact and adaptive capacity in 3.2 58 Rajasthan 3.3 Impact on five capital of SLA in Himachal Pradesh 86 Gender differential potential impact and adaptive capacity in 3.4 89 Himachal Pradesh Gender wise Impact of climate change on five components of SLA 3.5 113 in Odisha Gender differential potential impact and adaptive capacity in 3.6 116 Odisha List of Plates Page Plate No. Title number Researchers interacting with the farmers from Narnio ki Dhani 1 37 village in Badmer district of Rajasthan Researchers interacting with the farmers from Bhotiya Jagar village 2 37 of Badmer district of Rajasthan Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Bhotiya Jagar 3 44 village of Barmer district of Rajasthan Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Soda village 4 45 of Tonk district of Rajasthan Researchers interacting with the farmers from Soda village of Tonk 5 45 district of Rajasthan Photograph showing water harvesting structures build by NGO in 6 66 Barmer district 7 Water storage structure in the field 67

8 Water bottles modified to keep water cool during summer season 67 Dried food stuffs to increase shelf life which can be consumed 9 68 throughout the year 10 Thatched roof house to resist from heat intensity in Barmer district 68 Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Kullu district 11 75 of Himachal Pradesh Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Mandi district 12 75 of Himachal Pradesh Photographs showing diversification of crops and intercropping in 13 91 Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Kendrapara 14 103 district of Odisha Researchers interacting with the farmers from Kendrapara district of 15 103 Odisha Researchers interacting with the farmers from Bhadrak district of 16 103 Odisha Photograph showing elevated portion (left side) for vegetable 17 119 growing during time of flood. Photograph showing adaptation strategies (left) for flood and storage 18 120 of food grains (right) 19 Vegetable cultivation by the farmers from Bhadrak district of Odisha 120 Traditional methods of decorating and painting the house in Bhadrak 20 121 district of Odisha

List of Abbreviations CBR- Crude Birth Rate CDR- Crude Death Rate CCAFS- Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security CGIAR- Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CRIDA-Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture CGWA- Central Ground Water Authority CGWA-Central Ground Water Authority CSR-Corporate Social Responsibility CV- Coefficient of Variation DFID- Department for International Development (United Kingdom) FGD-Focussed Group Discussion ICAR-Indian Council of Agricultural Research IMD-Indian Meteorological Department IMR- Infant Mortality Rate IPCC- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change KVK- Krishi Vigyan Kendras MKSP- Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana MMR- Maternal Mortality Rate NDDB- National Dairy Development Board NGOs-Non-Governmental Organisations NAPCC- National Action Plan on Climate Change NREGA- National Rural Employment Guarantee Act OBC-Other Backward Classes PRA-Participatory Rural Appraisal PRIs-Panchayat Raj Institutions SLA- Sustainable Livelihood Approach SAPCC- State Action Plans on Climate Change Executive summary Today, climate change is one of the most serious threats and challenges the world is facing and is manifest in the form of rising temperature, increasing droughts, floods, cyclones, ice melting, sea level rise, changing pattern of rainfall and snowfall etc. Worldwide may studies have shown gender differences in impact of climate change; adaptation and mitigation strategies used by men and women. Indian socioeconomic and traditional settings are different from the rest of the world. Women have poor access to land, financial resources, health, education and extension services. Owing to the patriarchal nature of family, they have less participation in decision making in household and farming. Impact of climate change cannot be isolated from all these social conditions.

Close to 84 per cent of all economically active women in India are primarily engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Moreover, about 60 per cent of agricultural operations are exclusively done by women except ploughing. Women are dependent on natural resources like soil, water, forest etc. for earning their livelihood. Climate change has a significant effect on these natural resources, which ultimately affects the people dependent upon them. Climate change affects women not only in farming but in other aspects also like migration, social exploitation, drudgery, stress etc. Therefore, study was carried out with the following objectives.

1. To study the gender differences in impact and vulnerability to climate change in agriculture and allied sectors.

2. To identify gender differential adaptive strategies to cope with the impact of climate change in agriculture.

3. To evaluate policies and programs on climate change and suggest suitable policy options/ interventions for farm women.

Study was carried out in three states of India viz. Rajasthan, Odisha and Himachal Pradesh which represents different agro climatic situations Rajasthan state represent desert ecosystem; Odisha state represents most cyclone and flood affected state of India; Himachal Pradesh represents the Himalayan ecosystem affected by climate change effects like melting of glaciers and decline of snowfall. Districts from each state were selected using two broad criteria- firstly, coefficient of variation of rainfall and temperature from the year 1969 to 2015, secondly percentage of agricultural area in the district. Thus, from Rajasthan, Tonk (186 respondents) and Barmer (153respondents) districts; from Odisha state Bhadrak (203

1 respondents) and Kendrapara (225 respondents) districts; from Himachal Pradesh Mandi (195 respondents) and Kullu (199 respondents) districts were selected for the study. Thus, 1161 respondents including men and women were interviewed for the study.

To study the gender differences in impact and vulnerability to climate change in agriculture and allied sectors, Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) approach (DFID, 2001) was followed. Key components of the framework are assets comprising five capitals (natural capital, physical capital, human capital, social-political capital and financial capital). Indicators and variables related to these components were identified using review of literature and findings of pilot studies in the selected areas. The statement from these five capitals were categorized in IPCC ‘s dimensions of vulnerability to climate change i.e. exposure, adaptive capacity, and sensitivity. Exposure here is a magnitude and duration of climate related exposure to events such as a drought or change in precipitation. The degree to which the system is affected by exposure is sensitivity. Ability of the system to withstand/ recover from exposure is adaptive capacity. Vulnerability to climate change was then calculated using IPCC-IV formula; by subtracting adaptive capacity index from exposure index and multiplying by sensitivity index. Impact of climate change was measured on the scale of 1-5 as perceived by the respondents. Socio economic and cultural strategies, agro eco system strategies, technological, indigenous technological knowledge based strategies were enlisted and responded in terms of fully adopted, adopted to a great extent, adopted to some extent and not at all adopted were elicited from the respondents. Similarly, mitigation strategies were also analysed.

In work participation, in Rajasthan share of work by the female respondent in pre harvesting farm activities like dibbling and sowing of seed and in pesticide application was zero. Hoeing and weeding was the only pre harvesting activity where the dominance of women was seen. In Himachal Pradesh, burden of work in some of the pre harvesting operations like fertilizer application, sowing of seed, transplanting and in raising of vegetable nursery is shared equally by male and female. The male (90% of work) dominated a Land preparation activity such as ploughing and harrowing. In marketing of crop produce, the participation of women respondents was found to be zero in both Kullu and Mandi district, whereas their participation in selling of animal produce was in the range of 10-35 per cent. In Odisha state, there were not that many significant differences in the participation of male and female in the pre and post harvesting operations. In some of the work the participation of male was found to be slightly more in ploughing and harrowing, application of fertilizers,

2 dibbling & seed sowing and hoeing and weeding. In animal husbandry, the participation of females seems to be more in feeding and milking and male in grazing. The dominance of male was seen in marketing of both crop produce and animal produce.

In Rajasthan, exposure of both men and women to the situation like high temperature, droughts were the same. Sensitivity index for females was higher in both Barmer and Tonk districts. Migration of male members to the other cities for employment, less access to information and physical resources, constraints in fetching water etc. were important factors that contributed to an increase in sensitivity of women. However, adaptive capacity of the females was less when compared with the men mainly because of low level of literacy, less access to credit in rural settings, lack of (or not use of) toilet facilities and improper nutritious diet. Potential impact of climate change (adding sensitivity and exposure) was more on women than men in both districts. All these conditions made women marginally more vulnerable than males. Women reported more impact of climate change on human capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital of sustainable livelihood approach. However, the impact on natural capital was almost the same for both men and women.

In the state of Himachal Pradesh, both men and women were exposed equally to rising temperature, landslides and irregular snowfall; though exposure index score was less as compared to Rajasthan and Odisha. Sensitivity of women was more, but the difference was negligible as compared to other states. This is mainly because more participation of women in decision making and more access to information as male member’s seek jobs outside the village leaving all agricultural activities in the hands of women. Though the adaptive capacity of females from the state was slightly lower than men, it is better than Rajasthan and Odisha. More education level, diversification of agriculture, availability and use of toilet facilities etc. were the important reasons behind more adaptive capacity of the females in Himachal Pradesh. Owing to all these factors, the adaptive capacity of the women was more in Himachal Pradesh as compared to two other states; however, it was slightly less than the males. Similar was the case for potential impact of climate change on both gender when added sensitivity and exposure. Women reported more impact of climate change on all components of SLA viz. human capital, natural capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital except for financial capital in Kullu and for physical capital in Mandi district where difference was less apparent.

3 In Odisha state, both men and women were exposed to two vagaries of climate change i.e. cyclone and flood. There was not much difference between male and female exposure index in Kendrapara district. In Bhadrak district women were more exposed to climate change events than men, mainly because of increased drudgery because of these events, migration of male members forced them to work more in the field etc. Sensitivity index of female was more in Bhadrak district as compared to male because of more incidences of illness, more borrowing, long distance to reach vehicle station, more dependence upon forest based energy for cooking purpose etc. Adaptive capacity of females in both districts was significantly lower than men because of improper nutritious diet, no training related to climate change events, lack of toilet facilities at home, less assistance from local government during climatic events. Potential impact (adding sensitivity and exposure) was more on females than male. Owing to all factors vulnerability of females was considerably more than men in the state, Vulnerability of women was highest among all six districts of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Odisha. Reported impact of climate change on all components of SLA viz. human capital, natural capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital was more on women than men except for natural capital. In case of Kendrapara difference was less.

Respondents from three states had adopted different strategies to withstand the climate variability. Migration of male members leads to adoption of changing gender roles and activities. Diversification of agriculture, more borrowing, more work on field, planting plant varieties as per market demand, intercropping and crop rotation etc. were some of the strategies adopted by the respondents from Rajasthan state. In Himachal Pradesh, increasing temperature had caused shifting of crops to other parts and decreasing yield. For this farmer had adopted strategies like planting diverse varieties of crops, rotation of crops, use of high yielding seeds, even indigenous knowledge to control pests and diseases. In Odisha, changing food habits, income diversification, out migration by makes, receiving subsidized food, planting diverse varieties of crops, crops resistant to floods, intensive land management, traditional methods of storage etc. were the strategies adopted by the respondents to climate change.

Mitigation strategies involve action taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term risk and hazards of climate change. In Rajasthan, water conservation in the field was the most common mitigation strategy used by the respondents using different structures/tools in the field. Even many companies are using their CSR funds for water constructing the structures

4 to conserve the water, prevent run-off of rainwater. In Himachal Pradesh, afforestation, improving quality of livestock feeding, conservation of natural resources like soil and water were the important mitigation strategies adopted. In Odisha, mitigation strategies adopted by the respondents were improving quality of livestock feeding, water conservation, nutrient management etc.

India’s plans, policies, programs viz., MGNREGA, NAPCC, SAPCC, NICRA, NRLM and others have a considerable impact on agriculture-related livelihoods. The adaptation aims to be gender-sensitive, gender inclusive envisioning gender parity. Most of these programs can make a fundamental shift in perception of gender issues on climate change effects. They have the potential to mainstream the gender issues and enable them to adopt various measures to cope-up with climate change. Some programs have highest coverage (eg. MGNREGA) and has all the necessary aids to bring awareness on climate change adaptation and mitigation among women. However, in reality existing programs have not paid much attention to include gender and tend to ignore women. On mere observation India’s policies are either genders blind or gender neutral. In terms of livelihoods, they mostly focus only meeting women’s practical needs ignoring their strategic needs, which are vital for social position. This is one of the reasons to reflect the persistent gender disparity in India. Therefore, existing policies and programs must deliberate women issues arising from climate change to insulate/equip the generations ahead.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Changing climate is one of the most serious threats and challenges the world is facing. Impact of climate change likely to manifest in the form of increase in the intensity and/or frequency of disasters and extreme events such as droughts, heat waves, tropical cyclones, intense rainfall, ice melting, thunderstorms, severe dust storms and sea level rise. These events can exacerbate poverty. There are different aspects of the impact of climate change, among them one important is gender differential effect. Climate change affects men and women differently. Women’s role and needs are different; they lack the ownership of natural resources; low participation in decision-making at household; low capacity to cope with natural resources; which makes them more vulnerable to the effect of climate change. Climate change related natural events like drought, flood, cyclones etc. affects the poor and marginalized section of the society most and women account for a large proportion of this section.

Women have unequal access to assets and employment opportunities and when natural resources are eroded, it hits the women hardest because activities carried out by women to meet their family needs mainly depend on natural resources like land, water, forest etc. Unseasonal rain or drought increase the women’s workload, increase their drudgery, and stress level. Traditionally, women have been conservators of the natural environment. They have been protecting biodiversity as most plant and animal species were domesticated by women to meet household needs. With increasing commercialization and changing role structures, traditional roles played by women have vanished resulting in the extinction of plant and animal species used by them. Though women are more vulnerable to climate change, it is a well-established fact that they are effective actors or agents of change in relation to both mitigation and adaptation. Women often have wisdom, knowledge and expertise that can be used in climate change mitigation, disaster reduction and adaptation strategies.

About 70 per cent of the world's women are poor and most of them lack ownership of natural resources, lack access to climate information, engaged in physical activities in

6 agriculture. Change in climate affects their physical, economic and food securities. Many times, they do not have access to or control over the capital that can help them to adapt to changes and the plans and policies do not incorporate changes in this sense. In Indian situations, women face social, economic and political barriers that limit their coping capacity. Women are more vulnerable when they are highly dependent on local natural resources for their livelihood and limited mobility places women in rural areas in a position where they are disproportionately affected by climate change.

In India, 82 per cent farmers are small and marginal where women are depending on agriculture as a source of livelihood. Nearly 84 per cent of all economically active women in India are engaged in agriculture and allied activity (Agricultural Census 2011). Women except ploughing exclusively do about 60 per cent of agricultural operations and they are dependent on natural resources like soil, water, forest etc. for earning their livelihood. Climate change has an effect on these natural resources, which ultimately affects the people dependent upon them. In India women have poorer access than men to land, financial resources, health, education, information; they are seldom part of ownership right and decision-making. Outward men migration for employment puts the whole burden of agriculture on women what we called feminization of agriculture, which has become a common phenomenon in Indian context. All these factors make women more vulnerable to climate change and weaken their capacity for adaptation and mitigation. Given the significant percentage of women are small and marginal and their

Climate impact studies carried out globally have shown that climate change affects women harder than men. Social settings and structure in India is complex and women’s life is bound by religious beliefs, traditions and patriarchal norms. Moreover, in rural settings they are more dependent on men and natural conditions for their livelihood. Impact of climate change cannot be isolated from all these social conditions. Climate change affects women not only in agriculture but also in other aspects like migration, social exploitation, increase in drudgery, increase in stress etc.

Knowledge/Technology gaps and justification for taking up the project Worldwide many studies have been carried out to study the effect of climate change viz. sea water level and weather related phenomenon in agriculture. Many studies have shown that there are gender differences in the impact of climate change and adaptation and mitigation strategies used by men and women. However, Indian socioeconomic and

7 traditional settings are different and gender related differences in impact, adaptation and mitigation needs to be explored. Patriarchal system and gender based systemic differences makes women more vulnerable to the vagaries of climate change, which needs to be studied using standard methodologies. There is a need to study policies and programs of the government in relation to climate change and suggest strategies for effective formulation and implementation of gender and climate related policies.

Objectives 1) To study the gender differences in impact and vulnerability to climate change in agriculture and allied sectors. 2) To identify gender differential adaptive strategies to cope with the impact of climate change in agriculture. 3) To evaluate policies and programs on climate change and suggest suitable policy options/ interventions for farm women.

Critical review of present status of climate change and gender research at national and international levels

Globally different studies have been carried out on climate change and gender to ascertain the extent of impact. Along with the gender along with socio-demographic factors Such as age, class is critical knowing climate change is experience (Vincent et al. 2014). It was observed from a study in Australia that more occurrences of drought put women under increasing pressure to earn off farm income and contribute to more on-farm labour (Alston, 2011). In addition, differential access to social and environmental resources required for adaptation is further adding to gender dimension to increase the vulnerability (Vincent et al. 2014). Because of poor access to resources, social exclusion from the decision-making process and labour markets makes women less able to cope with and adapt to climate change impacts (Rijkars and Costa 2012).

More women die than men in early years because of natural disasters and climate change (FAO 2007; Neumayer and Pluemper, 2007). Women in Bangladesh were more vulnerable to flood because they could not swim (Rohr 2006). Women are more likely to be victims of violence in emergency shelters after disasters (Jenkins and Phillips 2008). Thus, there are gender differences in vulnerability and adaptation to climate change. Recognition of these differences will help in gender sensitive response, policies and programs that will help

8 in reducing vulnerability of men and women to climate change (Alston 2013). Tschakert (2013) concluded that a right based approach to development could be helpful in reducing inequalities and vulnerabilities. Hence, it was found that access to education and strengthening of social capital are best means for improving adaptation of rural farmwomen (Below et al., 2012).

In Indian context, Panda et al. (2014) noticed that addressing gender concerns in the context of climate change requires government led adaptation strategies supported by budgetary outlays. Until now, the gender budgeting framework has not looked into the impact of climate change on women (Panda et al., 2014). For livelihood, many poor women in India are actively engaged in agricultural activities, which frequently get affected by changing weather patterns. The Loss of livelihood to change in weather will increase their vulnerability and marginalization (UNDP, 2007). In India the role of women is more diverse than any other country, in general they are also responsible for tasks such as food collection and energy supply for the household as well as many care-giving tasks such as caring for the children, sick, elderly, the home and assets (Enarson, 2000). In hill and mountain regions, and in arid and semi-arid areas where forests have disappeared and agriculture remains poor, women spend between six and ten hours daily collecting the resources they need to meet their basic survival needs (CSE 1999). Devastation and destruction emanating from increase in extreme events puts extra burden on women, who have to keep the family together after floods and storms and to feed them (Parikh et.al. 2003).

Chapter 2 Methodology Questionnaire preparation, sampling, data collection, data entry, analysis were the essential phases involved in methodology.

Research design Ex-post facto research design was used. Such type of research design is used when manifestation of variables has already occurred and researcher has no control over it nor can manipulate. In this research manifestation of impact of climate and adaptation by the men and women has already occurred and researchers have explored and described the various variable associated with it.

Locale of study and sampling This topic explains how states, districts and respondents have been selected for the study purpose. Selection of states Stratified random sampling method was followed for the study. Three states of India viz. Rajasthan, Odisha and Himachal Pradesh which represented different agro climatic situations and climate change effects were selected purposively for the study. Rajasthan state represents desert ecosystem and ideal for studying impact of climate change on desert ecosystem.

Fig.2.1 Map of India showing selected states for the study

Odisha state represents most cyclone affected state of India, hence we considered it ideal for studying the effect of cyclones in the context of climate change. Himachal Pradesh represents the Himalayan ecosystem affected by climate change effects like melting of glaciers, landslides and decline of snowfall, therefore it is ideal state for studying the effect of climate change on Himalayan ecosystem.

Selection of districts Districts from each state were selected using two broad criteria- firstly, coefficient of variation of rainfall and temperature from the year 1969 to 2015, secondly percentage of agricultural area in the district. Thus in some districts of Odisha, though coefficient of variation of rainfall was more than the selected districts, they were not selected because percentage agricultural area was less as compared to selected states. Similar pattern was followed in Himachal Pradesh and Rajasthan also. Based on these criteria, from Rajasthan, Tonk and Barmer districts were selected having per cent agricultural area, coefficient of variation of rainfall and temperature as 66.71, 0.53, 0.0223 and 60.78, 0.52, 0.0200 respectively. From Odisha state Bhadrak and Kendrapara were selected having per cent agricultural area, coefficient of variation of rainfall and temperature as 68.00, 0.22, 0.0108 and 51.14, 0.30, 0.0124 respectively. From Himachal Pradesh Mandi and Kullu districts were selected having per cent agricultural area, coefficient of variation of rainfall and temperature as 22.31, 0.37, 0.0188 and 59.92, 0.28, 0.0206 respectively.

Table 2.1. Description of districts in terms of percentage agricultural land, CV of temperature and rainfall Rajasthan % Agril Rainfall Temp Odisha State % Agril Rainfall Temp State area CV CV area CV CV Ajmer 54.33 0.50 0.0223 Angul 28.06 0.19 0.0135 Alwar 64.14 0.31 0.0200 Bargarh 56.85 0.25 0.0119 Banswara 50.35 0.33 0.0160 Bhadrak 68.00 0.22 0.0108 Barmer 60.78 0.52 0.0200 Balasore 50.13 0.21 0.0108 Bharatpur 78.15 0.31 0.0200 Balangir 44.44 0.26 0.0129 Bhilwara 41.36 0.28 0.0218 Boudh 27.42 0.24 0.0130 Bikaner 55.28 0.40 0.0220 Cuttack 39.95 0.19 0.0135 Bundi 45.45 0.28 0.0200 Deogarh 21.09 0.21 0.0144 Chittorgarh 42.16 0.28 0.0196 Dhenkanal 30.11 0.19 0.0135 Churu 84.73 0.39 0.0218 Gajapati 17.55 0.23 0.0121 Dungarpur 34.85 0.38 0.0194 Ganjam 47.38 0.21 0.0121 Ganganagar 71.84 0.49 0.0192 Jagatsinghpur 53.89 0.21 0.0124 Jaipur 60.33 0.35 0.0222 Jajpur 48.62 0.18 0.0135 Jaisalmer 19.46 0.45 0.0198 Jharsuguda 29.33 0.19 0.0144

Jalore 65.37 0.51 0.0178 kalahandi 42.30 0.28 0.0117 Jhalawar 53.42 0.29 0.0200 Kandhamal 13.34 0.24 0.0121 Jhunjhunu 70.19 0.36 0.0228 Kendrapara 51.14 0.30 0.0124 Jodhpur 61.05 0.38 0.0206 Kendujhar 29.52 0.21 0.0140 Kota 52.95 0.26 0.0187 Khordha 38.43 0.20 0.0124 Nagaur 73.29 0.46 0.0219 Koraput 30.87 0.32 0.0110 Pali 50.79 0.44 0.0202 Malkangiri 23.49 0.24 0.0140 S. Madhopur 58.75 0.29 0.0200 Mayurbhanj 34.17 0.20 0.0133 Sikar 67.69 0.38 0.0228 Nuapada 48.31 0.26 0.0117 Sirohi 31.99 0.49 0.0197 Nabarangpur 34.22 0.33 0.0110 Tonk 66.71 0.53 0.0223 Nayagarh 32.39 0.21 0.0124 Udaipur 16.95 0.34 0.0194 Puri 38.51 0.21 0.0124 Dholpur 52.09 0.27 0.0185 Rayagada 22.63 0.23 0.0106 Baran 50.47 0.3 0.0187 Sambalpur 26.88 0.19 0.0144 Dausa 67.18 0.36 0.0222 Subarnapur 51.71 0.27 0.0144 (Sonepur) Rajsamand 20.30 0.29 0.0197 sundergarh 29.25 0.19 0.0144 Hanumangarh 86.42 0.37 0.0187 Karauli 40.06 0.29 0.0200 Districts of Himachal Pradesh Bilaspur 26.11 0.24 0.0197 Lahaul &spiti 0.37 0.47 0.0241 Chamba 6.01 0.4 0.0222 Mandi 22.31 0.37 0.0188 Hamirpur 32.02 0.24 0.0197 Shimla 12.55 0.26 0.0206 Kangra 20.04 0.31 0.0197 Sirmaur 17.93 0.38 0.0188 Kinnaur 1.33 0.49 0.0222 Solan 20.86 0.25 0.0197 kullu 59.92 0.28 0.0206 Una 24.88 0.24 0.0197 * Highlighted districts indicates the selected districts based on percentage agricultural area, coefficient of rainfall and temperature. (Source: Indian Meteorological Data) Selection of the respondents From each state, after selecting the districts of study, villages were selected purposively which are more representative of the district, based on the discussion with the Krishi Vigyan Kendra personnel of the district. Thus from Barmer district, Narnio ki Dhani and Bhotiya Jagar villages; from Tonk district Soda and Dholi village; from Bhadrak district, Salam Pur, Solagaon villages, from Kendrapara district, Andrapara and Berhampur villages; from Kullu district Kalheli and Gadori villages; and from Mandi district, Mahadev and Borhkadi villages were selected for the study. From Barmer district 153 respondents (75 males and 78female); from Tonk district 186 respondents (99 males and 87female); from Bhadrak district 203 respondents (106 males and 97female); from Kendrapara district 225 respondents (131 males and 94female); from Kullu district 199 respondents (105 males and 94 female) and from Mandi district 195 respondents (100 males and 95female) were selected randomly. Thus, total

1161 respondents were interviewed for the present study. From one household both male and females were selected as respondents and interviewed separately. However, when either male or female is not available from the same household (migration, death, outside visit etc. reasons), then male or females from other households were selected to complete the required number of samples of respondents. Thus, the difference between material possessions of male and females was because of this reason.

Table 2.2. Sampling procedure for selection of respondents for the study.

India State Rajasthan Odisha Himachal Pradesh District Barmer Tonk Bhadrak Kendrapara Kullu Mandi

Village

Soda

Jagar

Dholi

Narnio Gadori

Kalheli

Bhotiya

Ki Ki Dhani

Solagaon Mahadev Borhkadi

Andrapra

Salam Pur Salam

Berhampur Male 43 32 54 45 56 50 65 66 51 54 58 42 Female 46 32 44 43 50 47 50 44 49 46 50 45 Total 153 186 203 225 199 195 respondents

Description of the study area State 1-Rajasthan Two districts viz. Barmer and Tonk were selected from Rajasthan Barmer district The district is the third largest district in the state and fifth largest district in the country with an area of 28,387 sq km. It is one of the most backward districts in the country. It is located in western part of the state between 24058’ and 260 32’ N and 70°05’ and 72°52’ E. The district is also part of the Thar Desert sharing borders with Pakistan to west, Jaisalmer in the north and Jodhpur to east and Jalore to south. District consists of 14 tehsils and 2460 villages.

Climate and weather

The district is very close to the Thar Desert, it has a dry and hot climate throughout the year. Summers are too hot while the winters are too cold. The district belongs to Arid Western Plain zone 1-an of agro climatic zone. The district is characterized by low rainfall with an erratic distribution, resulting in frequent drought and crop failures. The average

13 rainfall of state is 578.2 mm and the average annual rainfall of district is low as 263 mm, which is lower than the state average and national average. In summers the mercury level touches to 46 °C to 51 °C. And in winters it drops to 0 °C (41 °F). Therefore, district exhibits a variable temperature thought the year.

Demography

As per Census 2011, the total population of Barmer is 2603751. The percentage of urban population in Barmer is 6.98 percent, which is lower than the state average of 27.63 percent, indicating more people’s livelihood in village. Out of the total population there are 1256257 males and 1122201 females in the district. This gives a sex ratio of 902 females per 1000 males, which is lower than national average (928). The district population density is 92 in 2011. The overall literacy rate of district is 56.53 percent while the male & female literacy rate is 70.86 and 40.63 percent, respectively. Compared to other blocks Barmer block has the highest male literacy rate of 78.23 percent and female literacy rate of 48.86 percent. Rural Barmer has a literacy rate of 54.79 percent while the same in urban areas is 78.22 percent (Census, 2011). Population density of the district more than threefold and twofold, lower than the national, and state level, respectively. MMR, CBR, IMR, NMR, and under five mortalities is highest in the district compared to state and national averages. But the CDR is lower as compared to state and national level.

Table 2.3: Comparison of various population indicators in Barmer district Population indicators All India Rajasthan Barmer Population density 382 200 92 MMR ( per 100,000 live births) 167 244 322 CBR ( per 1000 population) 20.4 24.7 33 CDR ( per 1000 population) 7.3 6.6 6 IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) 41 60 72 Neo- natal Mortality Rate 25.4 40 54 Under Five Mortality Rate 29 79 86 Source: Census 2011, NITI Ayog, Annual Health Survey 2011-12

Work force

The percentage of main workers in the total workforce in Barmer is 61.65 per-cents which is less than the State main workers (70.46 percent). The workers are of the district can be classified as cultivators; agriculture labours household workers and other workers and population of the same in the above four categories is 62.73, 11.04, 2.54 and 23.70 percent,

14 respectively. Thus, the majority of workers in the district are engaged in agriculture that is 73.70 percent which is higher than state average (Census 2011). In terms of work participation rate (WPR) in the district, the male WPR is 50.86 percent whereas for female it is 41.00 percent.

GDP contribution

The total GSDP of the state from the entire three sectors is Rs. 2,30,85,925 lakh and of GDDP of the state is Rs. 10,66,494 lakh. Tertiary sector is the largest contributor both state and district GDP. Agriculture constitute the second highest contribution to primary GDDP with 1,64,158 lakhs, however it is the highest contributor to state GDP among the primary sectors.

Table 2.4: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of state and Barmer district (Rs. in Lakh) Sector Barmer (Rs. Lakh) Rajasthan (Rs. Lakh) Primary Agriculture and Allied 164158 4908855 (a) Agriculture Including Live-Stock 157980 4368803 (b) Forestry and Logging 6120 524771 (c) Fishing 58 15281 Mining and Quarrying 426354 981535 Total Primary 590512 5890390 Secondary 141951 6592343 Tertiary/Services 334032 10603192 Total Gross District Domestic Product (GDDP) 1066494 23085925 Population (In Hundred) 23802 684680 Per Capita Gross Income (In Rs.) 44807 33718 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Rajasthan; At Constant (2004-2005) Prices, 2011-2012)

Agriculture

Rajasthan soils have been classified into 5 orders, 8 suborders, 16 main groups and 32 subgroups. The soils of the district are mostly dominated by sandy soil and in some parts; red desert soils are also found in some isolated parts of the district. Qualitatively the soils are very poor and devoid of humus content. The soil texture varies from sandy loam to sandy clay loam, becoming slightly heavier with depth. Net area sown in the district is 17,12,254 ha constituting about 60.78 percent of agriculture area. Average land holding of the district is 5.00 ha and percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area is about 11.60% and the percentage of gross irrigated area to gross area sown is about 15.60%. The district is third highest in terms of area under land degradation in the state (1,922 thousand ha). The major crops of the district for kharif season are pearl millet, Moong and moth etc. and for rabi

15 season wheat, barley, cumin and mustard. In zaid season farmer cultivate summer bajra. Among vegetables brinjal, ridge guard, tinda and bottle guard etc. and among fruits such as anloa, ber, gonda etc. the major production system of the district consists of bajra, moong bean and moth bean.

Water resource and Irrigation

River Luni flows through the district with length of 480km in the district. As the river flow depends on heavy rainfall for most part of a year, and in a year of drought, the Luni is dry. Therefore, the district is devoid of any lake. However, there are numerous small ponds called ‘pars’ which are used for bed cultivation of wheat during the years of heavy rains. Further, the surface-water availability in the district is highly restricted by area and season. The 74-km canal arising from the Sardar Sarovar dam, and passing through Barmer and Jalore districts is source for augmenting the surface water availability. Groundwater potential in the district is limited and generally overexploited. The depth of dug wells ranges from 20 to 80m. The few bore wells in the district are over 200m deep. Groundwater is mostly brackish, with pockets of sweet water in areas. Therefore, in general, groundwater in the district has limited use for drinking or agricultural purposes.

Livestock and Forest Goats have the largest population among the livestock followed by sheep and cattle. Others animals raring in the district include buffalo, camels and horse etc. (Livestock census, 2012, NDDB, 2016). The natural vegetation of the area comprises small shrubs, salt-tolerant trees and hard grass varieties. Among the other tree species, the tree population in common lands is dominated by Salvadora oleoides, Acacia varieties, neem and Calotropis procera. They also found to thrive in singly or in groups. The trees thrive in or been planted in farm land are different from forest species. The most common tree species in farm land are Prosopis cinerara and Tecomella unduleta. The common weed to be found in farm land is Crotolaria burhia. India state of forest report 2017 classified the forest of the district into three classes’ very dense, moderately dense and open forest. Among the three the district has 269 km2 of open forest and 4 km2 of moderately dense and absence of very dense forest. District share of forest area to the total area of forest in the state is only about 0.96 percent. However, area under the forest is increased as compared to 2015 (India State of Forest Report 2017).

Table 2.5: General livestock statistics of Barmer district Area Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Camel Poultry Exotic Indigenous Total cattle India(in 1,35, 7,29,20 37,732 1,51,172 1,90,904 1,08,702 65,069 400 thousands) 173 9 2,16, Rajasthan 17,35,07 1,15,89,39 1,33,24, 1,29,76, 90,79, 3,25,7 80,24,4 65,93 (No’s) 2 0 462 095 702 13 24 9 Barmer 14,04, 28,96 2301 7,86,065 7,88,366 2,14,168 43172 17,358 (No’s) 031 ,620 (Source: Livestock census, 2012)

Fig 2.2. Map of Rahasthan State highlighting the Barmer and Tonk districts

Tonk district

Tonk is one of the well-renowned districts of Rajasthan. Total geographical area of Tonk district is 7194 sq. km., (the rural area is 6952.13 sq. km. and urban area is 241.87 sq. km). The shape of Tonk district is much similar to kite or rhombus with its eastern and western sides bending somewhat inward and the south-eastern portion protruding between Sawai Madhopur and Bundi districts. The district has as flat elevation of about 214.32 meters above the Mean Sea Level (MSL) with rocky but scrubby hills. Presence of Aravali system is the main distinguishing feature of Tonk district, which starts from Bhilwara district and running along the boundaries of Bhilwara and Bundi districts, enters Tonk district in the south near

Rajkot and continues in a north eastern direction until it leaves the district near Banetha (Source: Official website of Tonk district of Rahasthan).

Climate

Climate of Tonk district forms the two phase during south west monsoon. The pre monsoon which starts in June and continues till middle of September is dry and from September to November the post-monsoon season commences and between December and February is winter. Summer generally commences in March and extends till the middle of June. A metrological observatory was established very late at Tonk and according to the observation, the maximum temperature of 22 °C and minimum temperature of 8 °C remains in winter, whereas in summer the maximum and minimum temperature is 45 °C and 30 °C respectively. The district is characterized by low rain fall and the frequent drought and crop failures. In the years 1971-1973 rain fall was lowest and in 1997 rain fall was highest.

90 80 70 60 50 40

Rainfall (C.M.) Rainfall 30 20 10 0

Year

Fig 2.3. Rainfall pattern of Tonk district since 1969 to 2015. (Source IMD dataset)

Demography

Tonk district ranks 23rd in terms of population, 18th in terms of area and 19th in terms of population density. As per Census 2011, the total population of Tonk is 14,21,326. Out of the total population there are 728136 males and 693190 females in the district. This gives a sex ratio of 952 females per 1000 males, which is more than national average (928). The district population density is 198 in 2011 (Census, 2011). Average literacy rate of Tonk in

2011 was 61.58; male and female literacy was 77.12 and 45.45 respectively. Around 21 percent and 12 percent population spreading in 1089 villages belongs to SC and ST categories respectively.

Workforce

The economy of Tonk district is mainly dependent on agriculture as 67.7% workers in the district are either cultivators or agriculture labours. However, the percentage of such workers is higher than the state average 62.1% in district. Labour Force Participation Rate of the distrct (2011-2012) was 37.36% for Rural and 30.64% for urban (Rajasthan district factbook- Tonk).

Table 2.6. Distribution of workforce in the Tonk district. Rajasthan Tonk Particulars Number Percentage Number Percentage Persons 13618870 45.57 326083 50.23 i. Cultivators Male 7518486 41.09 172872 46.49 Female 6100384 52.64 153211 55.25 Persons 4939664 16.53 113426 17.47 ii. Agri. labour Male 2132669 11.66 42334 11.38 Workers Female 2806995 24.22 71092 25.64 category iii. Workers in Persons 720573 2.41 16004 2.47 household Male 435561 2.38 8828 2.37 industries Female 285012 2.46 7176 2.59 Persons 10607148 35.49 193648 29.83 iv. Other Male 8210360 44.87 147814 39.75 workers Female 2396788 20.68 45834 16.53 (Source Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Rajasthan)

Agriculture

The Tonk district has total geographical area of 7.16 lac hectares. But for land utilization purpose, the area is reported to be 7.19 lac hectares in the year 2002-03 (According to available land records). Net area sown in the district is 476480 ha which is 67.84% of the total cropped area of the district (624154 ha). Area under non agriculture uses is 51926 ha. Rabi season is more productive season as compare to Kharif season. Semi-Arid Eastern Plain zone III A of Rajasthan have alluvial as well as black soils in Districts including Tonk. Only 28% area is irrigated. The soils are fertile but somewhat sandy and the subsoil water is limited. The soil in the district varies from sandy loam to loam in Niwai block and parts of Tonk block and from clayey loam to loam in the remaining area. The National Council of

Applied Economic Research regards the district as having undifferentiated soil. The soils of the district are broadly desertic type. Qualitatively the soil is very poor and devoid of humus content. The soil texture varies from sandy loam to clayey loam, becoming slightly heavier with depth (KVK Banasthali database). Groundnut, jowar, mung, Bajara, maize etc. are the important Kharif crops taken in district while mustard, wheat and gram are the important Rabi crops of the district.

Water

As the district face scanty and low rain fall, wells tube -wells are the main source of irrigation in the district. The total net area irrigated in the district is 191126 hectares out of which 157947 ha is irrigated by wells and tube wells. With both the types of wells, most of the crops can be grown in Kharif and Rabi season in the district. Among irrigation projects, Bisalpur project is one of the major projects in the Rajasthan constructed on the river Banas. Apart from providing water to major cities, this dam provides irrigation facilities to Deoli, Tonk & Uniara tehsils. Due to this dam, subsoil water level has risen in Deoli, Tonk, Malpura and Todaraisingh which resulted in increasing the fertility of soil and yield of crops (KVK Banasthali database).

Livestock and Forest

Total animal population in Tonk is 1230706 and total animal population in Rajasthan is 57609585. Percentage of Tonk district of domestic animals is 2.13 per cent. India state of forest report 2017 classified the district into three classes, very dense, moderately dense and open forest. About 2.3% of the total area of the district is under forest. In the Tonk district very dense forest is not available and moderately dense forest is 27 km² and open dense is 138 km² (India State of Forest Report 2017). Area under the forest has declined by 4 per cent as compare to 2015.

Table 2.7. Livestock population in Tonk district of Rajasthan Tonk Rajasthan Cattel 404726 13324462 Buffalo 438804 12976095 sheep 365108 9079702 Goat 730758 21665939 Camel 1516 325713 Pig 20552 237674

Total 1230706 57609585 Poultry 49122 8024424 (Source: Dairy Development Board Tonk District Rajsthan (2011)

Himachal Pradesh Mandi and Kullu districts are selected from HP Mandi Mandi is densely populated and centrally located district of Himachal Pradesh, situated in Western Himalayas between 31o-13ʹ -20″ to 32o -04ʹ-30″ latitude north and 76o-37ʹ-20″ to 77o-23ʹ-15″ East longitude. It is bounded by six districts and is almost in the center of the state. In North-west side Kangra and in the west Hamirpur and Bilaspur, Solan and Shimla districts are on the Southern and Kullu district on the Eastern side. The total geographical area of the district is 3950 square kilometers and constitutes 7.09 per cent of the total geographical area of the state. The district is entirely hilly except Balh area in Sundernagar/Sadar blocks and Chauntra area in Chauntra block which are fertile valleys. There are 10 blocks in the district with 483 villages (KVK Mandi database).

Climate

The hilly terrain has significant influence on the climate of the Mandi district. It falls in the mid-hills-sub-humid zone and high hills temperate wet agro climatic zone of Himachal Pradesh. The district receives the highest rainfall in the state and the annual average rainfall over the last 15 years is 1239.98 mm. Rainfall peaks in the month of June to September followed by January to March. About 63 per cent rainfall occurs in monsoon season i.e. from June to September. Rainfall beyond September is a result of western disturbances. Though region is at high elevation in terms of MSL there is difference in overall climate perception with the lower areas of the district experience hot summer (up to 40o C temp.) and cold winter with frost and fog. Hilly area experiences mild summer and cold winter with low to high snowfall and mist in rainy season (Source: KVK Mandi database).

Demography

Demographic characteristics of the districts are given in the following table. Scheduled cast population in the state is 29 per cent while scheduled tribe constitute 1.3 per cent of total population.

Table 2.8. Demographic characteristics of the Mandi district Particulars Figures as per 2011 census Actual Population 999,777 Male 498,065 Female 501,712 Area Sq. Km 3,950 Density/km2 253 Sex Ratio (Per 1000) 1007 Child Sex Ratio (0-6 Age) 916 Average Literacy (%) 81.53 Male Literacy (%) 89.56 Female Literacy (%) 73.66

Agriculture

Net cultivated area of the district is 95390 ha, gross cultivated area 160419 ha and net irrigated area 17291 ha. Out of total geographical area of the district only 18.6 % is cultivable. Irrigation facility is available only for 18.2 % of the net cultivable area. The major crops of the district are maize, paddy and mash in Kharif and wheat, barley, gram and lentil in Rabi. In recent times, vegetable growing is becoming popular amongst the farmers because of its high returns. Vegetables like peas, tomato, beans, onion, garlic, cabbage, cauliflower etc. are also cultivated in the district. The district is also famous for growing Apples with significant area under its production. The area under fruit in Mandi is about 15 per cent of the total area under fruits in Himachal Pradesh. The raw silk of Mandi is famous across the region, while salt mines at Drang and Guma are the special features of the economy. Mandi also has fish markets where brown trout is one of the most demanded fish species (Source: hpmandi.nic.in).

Water

As district receives sufficient rainfall throughout the year. The major sources of irrigation are small water channels or the Kuhls. Close to an area of 12608 ha is brought under irrigation by various sources like canals, tanks, wells and other sources. However still a sizeable part of the cultivated area of the district is not having any assured irrigation facilities. Invariably the farmers have to depend on the vagaries of weather. The government has brought various plans for the construction of Kuhls and lift irrigation systems and schemes in the district. The drainage system of the district is mainly formed by Beas and Satluj. About 70 per cent of the area in the north of the district is drained by Beas while rest of the area in southern part is drained by the river Satluj. (Source: Central Ground Water Board).

Livestock and Forest

Cows both crossbreed and indigenous, buffalo, goat, and sheep are the important source of milk in the district. About 4,39 lakh cattles (2.23 lakh exotic/crossbreed), 1.95 lakh goat, 1.13 lakh sheep, 69,000 buffalo and few yak and Mithun are found in the district. Milk from crossbreed cows is more compared to indigenous cows and buffalo. Of the total geographical area, 43.8 per cent is covered under forests, 24.2 per cent under permanent pasture and 18.6 per cent is cultivable. Forest area in the state is around 175200 ha (Central groundwater Board). Out of total 3950 sq.km total geographical area of the district, 373 sq.km is covered by very dense forest, 735 sq.km by moderately dense forest and 568 sq.km with open forest, totalling 1676 sq.km area under the forest in the district (Source-Govt of Himachal Pradesh).

Fig 2.4. Map of Himachal Pradesh highlighting selected districts of the state (Red and blue)

Kullu Kullu district is situated in the inner Himalayas between 310 20’ 25” to 320 25’ 0” North latitude and 760 56’ 30” to 770 52’ 20” East longitude and has altitudes ranging from 900 m to 4020 m above mean sea level. Total geographical area of the district is 5503 sq.km. Shimla, the state headquarter is on the South, whereas Mandi and parts of Kangra district are on the West of Kullu. Since the district has hilly terrain and valleys, tourism and hotel units

23 are mainstay for economy apart from agriculture. The district also is known for its rich art and cultural heritage, lush green deep meadows, dazzling rivers, white-capped snowy peaks and high mountains (Source: Central Ground Water Board).

Climate

The district has cool and dry climate which has been classified into three broad seasons viz. cold season from October to February, hot season from March to June and rainy season from July to September. In the higher elevation the Snowfall generally occurs in December and January which leads to cut off from the district headquarter resulted from closing of mountain passes. The district receives moderate rainfall and bulk of it is generally received during June to September and January-February. August is the wettest month throughout the district. The average annual rainfall of the district is 1405.7 mm, out of which 57 per cent occurs during June to September (Source: Central Ground Water Board).

Demography

In 2011, Kullu had population of 437,903 of which male and female were 225,452 and 212,451 respectively. Kullu District population constituted 6.38 percent of total Himachal Pradesh population.

Table 2.9: Demographic characteristics of the Kullu district Description Census 2011 Actual Population 437,903 Male 225,452 Female 212,451 Population Growth 14.76% Area Sq. Km 5,503 Density/km2 80 Sex Ratio (Per 1000) 942 Average Literacy 79.40 Male Literacy 87.39 Female Literacy 70.91

Agriculture

Major food crops in the district are rice, wheat, maize, barley and pulses which are generally grown in the district. Among the other, the cultivation of barley and millets is known for centuries, their heritage of growing is slowly disappearing from the area for economic reasons. For higher income of farmers in recent times the cultivation of vegetables such as

24 potato, beans, peas, cauliflower and cabbage has been recommended. Cash crops also include garlic. The main horticultural crop is apple, which requires the climatic conditions of the higher altitudes; yet some farmers have started to experiment with pears, cherries and plums and more recently pomegranate. The river Beas and its tributaries mainly drain more than 80 per cent of the district. This river originates in the Pir-Panjal range near Rohtang, at an elevation of about 4000m and is joined by number of tributaries viz. Parbati, Hurla, Sainj etc. (Source-Central Ground Water Board)

Livestock and Forest

About 1.74 lakh cattle, 720 buffaloes, 1.23 lakh sheep, 68000 goats and 535 mithun are found in the district. Out of total 5503 sq km area, 586 sq.km area is covered by very dense forest, 785 sq.km area by moderately dense, 588 sq.km open forest, totalling 1959 sq.km area under the forest in the district (Source-Govt of Himachal Pradesh).

Odisha

Two districts namely Bhadrak and Kendrapara have been selected from the Odisha state

Bhadrak The name of the district is derived from the Goddess Bhadrakali, whose temple stands on the banks of the river Salandi. This District is bounded by Balasore district on the north, Jajpur district and river Baitarani on the south, Keonjhar district on the west and Bay of Bengal and Kendrapada district are on the east. It is located at 21.0667 Latitude and 86.5000 Longitude. The Bhadrak District covers an area of 2505 Sq. Km. with geographical area of 2,46,529 Hectare. There are 7 tahasils and 7 blocks, 218 Gram Panchayats functioning in the Bhadrak District.

Climate

The climate of this District is generally hot and humid with May being the hottest month. December is the coldest month with monsoon generally arriving during the month of June. The district receives about 75 per cent of the actual rainfall during June to October. Among the other areas Dhamnagr and Tihidi blocks are vulnerable to flood and cyclone.

Demography

The total population of the District is 1,506,522 with total male population as 760591 and female population as 745931. Total SC Population of the District is 286723 whereas the total ST population is 25141. Total OBC Population is 15142 (Govt of Odisha). Sex ration of the district as per 2011 census is 981 females per 1000 male population.

Table 2.10. Demographic characteristics of Bhadrak district of Odisha Category Population Percentage Male 760260 50.47 Female 746077 49.53 Rural 1320499 87.7 Urban 185838 12.3 Scheduled cast 334896 22.2 Scheduled Tribe 30428 2.00

(Source: Census 2011)

Agriculture

Agriculture is the main source of income of the District. The main crop Paddy is in Kharif, covering approximately 94 Per cent of the total cultivable area. The area adjacent to sea coast (Dhamara, Chudamani of Basudevpur and Chandabali area of Chandabali Block) people is also depending upon fishing for their livelihood. Out of total geographical area of 2,46,529 ha. 1,76000 ha comes under cultivable area. During Kharif season about 47 per cent of cultivable area is rain fed and likely to remain exposed to the gambling monsoon and natural calamity. 9% of the cultivable area is up-land, 36% is medium land and 55% is low land. Major crops grown in the district are Rice, black gram, green gram, mustard, sunflower, sesame, jute, vegetable crops and fruit crops. Major drainage river in the district is the Baitarini. Salandi project meets out majority of irrigation demands of the districts followed by high level canals, tanks/ ponds, river lifts and shallow tube wells etc. About 46 per cent of the district is affected by Ground Water salinity problem.

Livestock and Forest

District has 4.8 lakh indigenous cattle, 28 000 cross breed and 5000 population of buffalo. District possess the moderately dense forest 9 sq. km, open forest 66 sq. km total of 75 sq.km which accounts for 2.99 percent of geographical area of the district.

Fig 2.5. Map of Odisha state showing Bhadrak and Kendrapara district

Kendrapara

Kendrapara was carved out of the erstwhile District of Cuttack in 1993 and is situated in Central Coastal plain zone of Odisha. The District is bounded by Bhadrak District at its North, Jajpur at its North West, Jagatsinghpur District at its South, Cuttack District at its West and Bay of Bengal at its East. Kendrapad District lies in 20 degrees 20’ N to 20 degree37’ N Latitude and 86 degrees 14’ E to 87 degrees 01’ E Longitude. The Coastline of Kendrapara District covers 48 Km stretching from Dhamra Muhan to Batighar (Odisha government data). The District covers an area of 2, 644 sq km. There are total 1592 villages, 9 blocks, 9 tehsils 1 subdivision in the District. The district directly in the belt of the cyclonic storm which frequently cross the district during the Manson Seasons

Climate

Kendrapara District has a moderate climate. The southwest monsoon is the principal source of rainfall in the district. The Bay of Bengal, which forms the eastern boundary of the district, plays a vital role in controlling the climate of the district. The normal rainfall of the district is 1501.3 mm. About 75 per cent of the total rainfall occurs during the period from June to September. In the period between April and May, 3 to 4 cyclonic rains generally occur in the district that causes a drop in the temperature (Central Ground Water Board).

Demography

The total population of the District is 1,440,361 populations as per 2011 census. Other details of the demographic information are given in table.

Table 2.11. Demographic characteristics of the Kendrapara district Particulars Numbers Population 14,40,361 Male 7,17,814 Female 7,22,547 Area(Sq,Km) 2644 Density/km 545 Proportion to Odisha Population (%) 3.43 Sex Ratio(per 1000) 1007 Average Literacy (%) 85.15 Literates 1,089,265 Male Literates 5,79,970 Female Literates 5,09,298

Workforce

The farm operation is the mainstay of the economy of the district. 68 out of 100 workers are engaged in agricultural sector. The economy of the District is primarily rural and based on agriculture and allied activities. Primary sector is the livelihood option for more than 75 per cent of the total population. In terms of developmental aspect, the district is one of the relatively developed districts particularly in the field of education.

Agriculture

Agriculture is the prime source of income for majority of the population of the district. More than 70 per cent people dependent directly/ indirectly on agriculture for their livelihood. The main crops grown in the district are rice, groundnut, green gram, black gram and jute. However, frequent occurrence of natural calamities viz cyclone, flood and drought has broken the backbone of the people. Therefore, in order to survive under these conditions, people are slowly moving for cultivation of their staple food crop rice during Rabi in the assured irrigated areas. Jute is the main cash crop of the District, grown since long. Groundnut is an important oil seed crop of the District. Coconut is the important horticulture crop in Kendrapara District.

Water

Major drainage system in the district is comprised of the rivers Mahanadi, Brahmani and Baitarani. In ground water there is problem of presence of chemical constituents more than permissible limits (e.g. EC,F,As,Fe) in the district. The stage of ground water development is well within safe category and there is no over exploitation and major threat of Ground water pollution and Depletion. Hence no area has been notified by CGWA.

Livestock and Forest

District has 2.97 lakh of indigenous cattle, 48000 cross breeds and 14000 buffalo population. District has 84 sq. km dense forest, 88 sq. km moderately dense forest and 133 sq.km area as open forest totalling 305sq.km which account for 11.54 per cent of total geographical area of the district. Out of the total geographical area of 2644.00 hectors of the district, the forest area of 2414.00 hector are covered with miscellaneous crops and groves.

Method of data collection

Both primary and secondary data have been used for the study. Quantitative survey of persons from selected districts, qualitative interviews, and qualitative data using focused group discussions (FGD) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were the sources of the primary data used for the study. Government of India official websites, Reports of national and international bodies on climate change, academic journals, books, newspaper accounts, NGO publications, IMD reports etc. are secondary sources of information used for identifying the districts in the selected states. For survey of respondents, a well-structured interview schedule was constructed, which was pre-tested to remove ambiguity in the response. Two field investigators were hired in each selected state for field survey and interview of the men and women. Information related to socio economic aspects, climate change perception, impact, vulnerability, adaptive strategies etc. was elicited using interview schedule.

Analytical Tools To study the gender differences in impact and vulnerability to climate change in agriculture and allied sectors, Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) approach was followed. Key components of the framework are assets comprised of five capital (natural capital, physical

29 capital, human capital, social-political capital and financial capital), livelihood activities (on farm off farm activities), Outcomes (good health, more income, food security etc.), External influence (Government policies, formal organizations, informal organizations etc.), Vulnerability Context (natural, demographic, economic, trends & shocks etc.) and Peoples strategies, priorities (investment in education, social expenditure etc.). Data about these components were collected from various sources viz. personal interview of male and female of the selected districts, Focused Group Discussion, Participatory Rural Appraisal method like transect walk in the village, reports of government, NGO and international organizations, Government policies and programs etc. Collected data was synthesized and interpretation about impact and vulnerability was drawn. The framework of the Sustainable livelihood approach is given in fig. 1 which is adopted from DFID (the Department for International Development, 2001).

Fig. 2.6 DFID Sustainable livelihood framework (Adapted from: Carney et al. 1999)

Vulnerability livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) is calculated on the basis of five components of Sustainable livelihood approach viz. natural capital, physical capital, human capital, social- political capital and financial capital. The components and subcomponents were developed using methodology adopted by Lamichhane (2010) with suitable modifications for present study. The statement in these groups were categorized in IPCC‘s dimensions of vulnerability

30 to climate change i.e. exposure, adaptive capacity, and sensitivity. Vulnerability to climate change was then calculated using IPCC formula.

Vulnerability Index = (exposure index-adaptive capacity index) × sensitivity index As per the SLA approach, various components and subcomponents of the five capital were identified that are logically related with the vulnerability of male and female in the study area. These components are described in the following table.

Table 2.12. Five capitals, components and sub-components of Vulnerability index Capital Component Subcomponent Percent of respondents fallen ill in last one year Percent of respondents missed work because of illness in last one year Health Percent of respondents use toilet facility in your house Percent of respondents having anyone in family injured due to the climate related disasters in the past 30 year. Number of days of insufficient food in last one year Human Percent of respondents follow diversification on your farm to meet out Food food requirement Percent of respondents follow proper nutritious diet Inverse of education level Knowledge and Percent of respondents have not received any vocational training skills Percent of respondents do not watch TV. Percent of respondents think that there is degradation of land because of Land climate change. Percent of respondents use traditional cooking stove for cooking. Percent of respondents use forest based energy for cooking purpose. Forest Percent of respondents fetch firewood from forest. Natural Percent of respondents think that firewood have decreased in comparison to 30 year bac. Percent of respondents experience difficulty in fetching water. Water Percent of respondents get water from the source daily. Climate Percent of respondents feel increase in drudgery because of extreme variability and event. natural disasters Percent of respondents experience stress because of extreme events Percent of respondents dependent upon others in decision making. Percent of respondents did not get any support and help from the neighbours when needed. Network and Percent of respondents did not give any support and help to the Social social neighbours when demanded. relationship Percent of respondents did not get any help and assistance from local government. Percent of respondents received training related to climate. Percent of respondents exposed to social conflict. Financial Percent of respondents did not own property on their name. Assets Percent of respondents did not follow diversified agriculture to get more income. Finance Percent of respondents borrowed money from anyone. Percent of respondents think your income is not sufficient to meet family expenses

Percent of respondents have easy access to credit source. Percent of respondents not having anyone your lives outside village and send remittance to the family. Average distance to reach nearest vehicle station Per cent of respondents suffer because local health centres are closed Physical and no doctors available during climatic events Percent of respondents did not use mobile/landline phone.

To calculate the vulnerability index as identified by the IPCC, the above mentioned subcomponents as the indicators of community ‘s livelihood vulnerability to climate change impacts were re-categorized in to three major aspects of vulnerability viz. exposure, adaptive capacity and sensitivity.

Table.2.13 Categorizations of subcomponents into exposure, adaptive capacity and sensitivity IPCC Redistribution of statement into exposure, sensitivity and adaptive contributing capacity factors Do you feel increase in drudgery because of extreme events Do you feel stressed because of extreme events did you get injure anytime because of disaster Do you think that there is degradation of your land because of climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in comparison to 30 year Exposure back? During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during extreme events Migration of family member makes us work harder for longer time My ability to provide resources for myself and family decreased During extreme events local health centres are closed and there are no female doctors in the area How many times you have fallen ill last one year How many times you missed work because of illness in last one year Number of days of insufficient food in last one year Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose Do you fetch firewood from forest Sensitivity Do you experience difficulty in fetching water Do you get water from the source daily? are you dependent upon others in decision making? Have you borrowed money from anyone? Do you think your income is sufficient to meet family expenses Distance to reach nearest vehicle station(IN KM) Do you use toilet facility in your house Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet out food requirement Adaptive Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet capacity Do you get any support and help from the neighbours when needed? Do you give any support and help to the neighbours? When demanded?

Do you get any help and assistance from local government? Have you received any training related to climate? Do you own property on your name? Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more income? Do you have easy access to credit source? Does anyone from your family live outside village and send remittance to the family? Do you use mobile/landline phone? Education level Television

Impact of climate change Impact of climate change on the male and female was studied using the Sustainable Livelihood Approach consisting natural capital, physical capital, human capital, social- political capital and financial capital. Respondents were asked statement related to impact of climate change and response was elicited in terms of yes or no. When the response is yes, respondents were asked to rate the impact on the scale 1 to 5 (Likert type scale), where 5 stands for very strong impact, 4 string impact, 3 for undecided, 2 for not strong, and 1 for not so strong. About 15 statements were asked from natural capital, 6 statements were from social capital, 4 statements were from financial capital, 9 were from human capital and 4 were from physical capital and statements also varied depending upon the agro-ecological situation of the state. Statements with highest number of average score was considered as having high impact of climate.

Table 2.14. Statements showing impact of climate change Component Statements Yes/ score No) (1-5 scale) Deforestation caused me to work hard than before to secure resources for the family Land degradation/ deforestation decreases my family income Desertification decreases crop production and ultimately my family income Increase in temperature causes reduction in productivity Natural Loss of trees and biodiversity reduced my ability to feed the family Decreased production from agriculture forced me to seek alternative like gathering food resources from forest. Extreme weather events makes me physically weak and reduce my productivity Loss of biodiversity decreases access to natural resources

salinity of soil and water degrade my land and decrease production I am unable to irrigate my land properly due to decrease in ground water level, which decrease production High wind speed and sand storm destroy our fields and we have to work more on fields Pest and Disease outbreak took place due to climate change which destroy productivity and increase workload I am unable to send my children school due to low income tradition of taking early responsibility by boys has been started due to adverse climate Social During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during extreme events Migration of family member makes us work harder for longer time Burden of family work increases during extreme events My ability to provide resources for myself and family decreased I feel more poorer than before 30 years ago Financial Increase in daily wages make it difficult to hire Labour for agricultural activities so we have to work more on our lands Involvement of middleman increase so we don’t get fair price of our product Increasing in temperature often makes me sick Floods increases the risk of diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid etc. In case of extreme events I find it difficult to get the work(employment) In the situation of extreme events I have to leave the normal dwelling In extreme events sanitation facilities are not available. Human I find the paucity of resources like cloths in extreme weather conditions like flood, drought etc. During extreme events chances of my harassment, abuse and violence increases I fell more stressed during extreme events During extreme climate events accessing health facilities become difficult During extreme events like flood/landslide, other Road connectivity break, making it difficult to reach market During extreme events local health centres are closed and there are no doctors in the area Physical During extreme events electricity connectivity break, making it difficult to do household chores We are unable to send our girl child to school due to long distance and low income, because of extreme events

To identify gender differential adaptive strategies to cope with impact of climate change in agriculture a well-structured interview schedule was constructed based on pilot study in the selected study area to elicit the information from the selected respondents. PRA

methods like transect walk, historical timelines, seasonal calendars, resource map etc. along with focused group discussion with the elderly persons from the selected area was used for revealing the strategies used by men and women to cope with the effect of climate change and their application and effectiveness in the present climate change situation. Statements related to socio economic and cultural strategies, agro eco system strategies, technological, indigenous technological knowledge based strategies were enlisted and respondents were asked to give response in terms of fully adopt, adopted to a great extent, adopted to some extent and final response not at all adopted.

Table 2.15: Adaptation strategies adopted by the respondents to climate change S.N. particulars Fully To a great To some Not at adopt extent extent all Socio economic and cultural strategies: 1 Renting land and exchanging 2 Sharing land and labor batai system 3 Out migration 4 Doing more work, on and off farm 5 Income diversification 6 Change food habits 7 Changing role and activities within the family 8 Taking Loan 9 Selling Land and animals 10 Any other………………………………………………. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies: 1 Planting crop and varieties as per markets demand 2 Conserving seed and buy grain to eat 3 Introducing new varieties and crop resistant to climate change 4 Planting more or diverse varieties of crop 5 Rotating the landrace varieties 6 planting varieties tolerant to floods/ droughts 7 planting varieties resistant to pest and disease 8 planting varieties suitable to storage 9 intercropping and crop rotation 10 planting short cycle crop Technological strategies: 1 Intensive land management (sustainable) 2 Using more or less irrigation 3 Using high yield seeds 4 Crop Insurance Indigenous Technology Knowledge 1 Using traditional varieties 2 Using tradition methods to tackle pest and diseases 3 Using traditional method of storage

For analysis purpose code was given such that 3 for fully adopted, 2 for to a great extent, 1for to some extent and 0 for not at all response. Statement with highest average score is adjudged as the most commonly followed adoption strategies by the respondents.

Mitigation strategies

Statements related to different mitigation strategies adopted by the respondents were enlisted and respondents were asked to give response in terms of fully adopt, adopted to a great extent, adopted to some extent and final response not at all adopted. For analysis purpose code was given such that 3 for fully adopted, 2 for to a great extent, 1for to some extent and 0 for not at all response. Statement with highest average score is adjudged as the most commonly followed adoption strategies by the respondents.

To evaluate policies and programs on climate change and suggest suitable policy options/ interventions for farm women data about government programs and policies was collected from government publications, NGO, and newspaper accounts. Feedback from experts in climate change and gender studies was collected using mails. Using FGD these policies and programs were discussed with the various stakeholders at village level and suggestions were sought from them for better formulation, implementation and effectiveness of the climate related policies (adaptation & mitigation) and programs. Based on inputs of above exercise, suitable policy options/ interventions for farm women are recommended

Table.2.16: Mitigation strategies adopted by the respondents

Measures Fully To a To some Not at adopt great extent all extent 1 Afforestation 2 Zero tillage 3 Water conservation 4 Organic manuring 5 Improving quality of Livestock feeding 6 Nutrient management 7 Regular Soil testing 8 Herd Management 9 Conserving natural resources 10 Any other…………………………………

Plate No. 1. Researchers interacting with the farmers from Narnio ki Dhani village in Barmer district of Rajasthan

Plate No. 2. Researchers interacting with the farmers from Bhotiya Jagar village of Barmer district of Rajasthan

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Rajasthan

Results and discussion are presented covering various sub-topics like socioeconomic characteristics of respondents, material possession, social participation, perceived reasons behind climate change, vulnerability and impact using SLA approch, vulnerability using IPCC formula, adaptation and mitigation strategies used by respondents to changing climate.

Socio economic characteristics of the respondents Age

Age stands out to be an important element in deciphering the socio economic condition of the settled population. Data from the respondents of Tonk district shows that middle age group (between 40-60) persons constitute major share among age groups followed by the age group of 50-60 and others. Male and female population segment of sampled household has increased till the middle age group (40-50) and from there the percentage population is decreasing. Among the age ladder presented, young female aged below 30 were more than male, elderly male population is more than elderly female constituting 17.35 and 12.64 percent, respectively. In the sampled areas of Barmer district, 43.59 percent female population was aged between 40 and 50, followed by 30-40 age groups (Table 1). Majority of the male population (31.94%) also distributed in the age group of 40-50, thereby making the largest group among the others. The least percentage of population among both genders was in the age group of above 60 years. Thus, the key analysis with respect to sampled households of Tonk and Barmer shows that 40-50 age group constitute bulk of the selected sample. Education Education is important aspect of human wellbeing and plays crucial role in understanding, mitigating and adoption pertaining climate change events. In sampled households of Tonk district, 25 per cent of the female respondents were illiterate as compared to 14 per cent of the male. However, the enrolment to primary education found to be more among the female (42.86%) than male (31.63). There exists less enrolment percentage of population among both the genders above the primary education. In Barmer district, illiteracy

38 was more among female respondents (82.05%) as compared to male (55.56 %). The respondents had lower enrolment percentage across the genders above the primary education compared to respondents from Tonk district. Above primary education the female population segment has decreasing enrolment percentage across the sampled households of both district with no female graduates among respondents of Barmer. This clearly indicates that the penetration level of female education above primary school was lower among the respondents of both the district even though the Tonk with 10.71 percent of female graduates.

Table 3.1.1: Socio economic characteristics of respondents of Tonk and Barmer districts

Socio economic characteristics Tonk (n=186) Barmer(n=150) Age* Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=72) Female (n=78) Above 60 17.35 12.64 12.50 8.97 50-60 22.45 22.99 16.67 16.67 40-50 39.80 25.29 31.94 43.59 30-40 12.24 19.54 25.00 20.51 Below 30 8.16 19.54 13.89 10.26 Education* Graduate 4.08 10.71 6.94 0.00 Higher Secondary (11-12) 15.31 4.76 1.39 1.28 Secondary (9-10) 22.45 8.33 1.39 3.85 Middle (6-8) 12.24 8.33 18.06 1.28 Primary (1-5) 31.63 42.86 16.67 11.54 Illiterate 14.29 25.00 55.56 82.05 Land holding* Landless labour 4.04 2.30 0.00 1.28 Marginal Farmer (<1 ha) 18.18 17.24 22.22 23.08 Small Farmer (1-2 ha) 31.31 45.98 15.28 14.10 Semi Medium (2-4 ha) 28.28 24.14 41.67 41.03 Medium Farmer(4-10 ha) 17.17 10.34 16.67 16.67 Large Farmer (>10 ha) 1.01 0.00 4.17 3.85 Average annual income of the family ** Agriculture 76969.39 66702.38 54275 48682.05 Livestock 11847.22 26650.00 11847.22 12000 Total 88816.61 93352.38 66122.22 60682.05 *The figures are in percentage ** represents mean values Land holding

Land holding plays significant role in leveraging individual expertise in farm management to keep content flow of income in adverse climatic events. This further helps in augmenting the family income and social position. Land holding among the female is key enabler of women empowerment. About 45.98 percent of female respondents of the Tonk district are small farmers, followed by semi medium (24.14%) and marginal farmer (17.24%). The percentage of landless labour among the sampled households was less than 4.04%.

Among the male respondents, small farmer constitute majority (31.31%), though their percentage was less than that of the female. The position of land holding of respondents from Barmer district shows that, semi medium size land holding category constitute majority and the percentage was almost equal among both the genders with male (41.67%) and female (41.03%). Medium farmer category among both the genders is 16.67 percent. There was no landless labour among the male respondents whereas among female it was1.28 per cent.

Annual Income of the family Income plays a correlative role; increase in farmer income tends to increased coping capacity and access to more adoptive technologies among the farmers. The farmers can secure their livelihood by investing part of their income to starting climate change effect resilient enterprises. The result of sampled households of Tonk district revealed that total annual income of studied female respondents (Rs. 93352) was more than that of the male (Rs. 88816) mainly because of more livestock income of the families. Whereas, in Barmer annual income of female respondents (Rs. 60682) is slightly less than that of the male respondents (Rs. 66122). Male and female respondents of both the district depend on agriculture as the major source of income, followed by livestock.

Material Possession

Material possession is one of the vital factors in determine the vulnerability of peoples to climate change. Those people who possess more material there is more chance of diversifying their income when compare to those who possess less materials, there by less vulnerable to climate change effect than later category. These materials also play an important role in the mitigating the effect of adverse climatic condition, reduce their drudgery in the farming activity and also in securing alternate source of livelihood in the situation of extreme climatic condition like drought. It also plays a role in getting current and future information about the climatic factors affecting the farming activities and prepare them to adopt and mitigate the effect of those varying factors.

Tonk district data about material possession shows that more number of respondents possessed the livestock like cattle and sheep/goat, as these serve as important source of alternate income to the farmers. Tonk district data about material possession shows that more number of respondents possessed the livestock like cattle and sheep/goat, as these serve as important source of alternate income to the farmers.

Table 3.1.2: possession of materials by respondents of the Rajasthan

Tonk Barmer Material Possession Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=72) Female (n=78)

Cattle 76.39 87.36 77.78 75.64 Sheep/goat 84.72 21.84 84.72 84.62 Poultry 1.39 2.30 1.39 1.28 Any other animal 9.72 0.00 9.72 10.26 Plough 28.28 24.14 9.72 3.85 Seed drill 21.21 24.14 0.00 0.00 Power tiller 20.20 24.14 0.00 0.00 Tractors 26.26 24.14 6.94 5.13 Pump set 25.25 27.59 1.39 0.00 Sprayer/duster 15.15 19.54 0.00 0.00 House 98.61 98.85 98.61 98.72 Television 62.63 67.81 73.61 60.25 Mobile 80.81 68.97 95.83 88.46 Bicycle 30.30 31.03 13.89 14.10 Car/jeep 3.03 1.15 1.39 0.00 Scooter/bike 40.40 40.23 40.28 30.77 * figure represents the percentage of respondents possessing given asset

Similar situation was observed in Barmer district also, where these formed the important alternate source of income to the farmers, however buffalo were not available in selected villages and more goat were reared by the respondents. Almost all (98 %) respondents had their own house, while many respondents in both districts had mobile in their household. Many respondents (60-73 %) had Television in their household, while less than half of the population (about 40 %) had scooter/bike in the household. Sprayers and dusters were not present with any of the respondents from Barmer district while very few (1.39 % male) possessed the pump set for irrigating the field, however in Tonk district these figures were more. When compared to the respondents of Barmer the owners of modern time and labour saving equipment like tractor, power tiller, seed drill and sprayer/duster were found to be more among the respondents of Tonk, which indicates more adaptive capacity of the respondents from Tonk district. Less possession of these in Barmer district indicates more vulnerability of the population of Barmer to climatic related events. Also in Tonk district almost female households have close to their male counterparts in terms of asset ownership. This perhaps indicates the similar extent of vulnerability to climate change. Further this also shows the same level of backup to adaptive capacities with positive returns from these assets

Social Participation Social participation of people helps in acquiring and updating their knowledge regarding climate change. It helps in getting information about the adoptive and mitigation strategies to overcome the effect of climate change. Social participation also helps in getting benefits of government schemes, fetching good price for their produce and also promote saving thereby reduces their vulnerability to the greater extent. The regular and occasional participation of female was more in village panchayat (10%) and cooperative society (31.03) respectively, whereas their percentage of participation was less than that of the male. Participation of both the genders was very less in case of self-help group and school committee. In Barmer district, occasional participation of female was more in self-help group (33.33), followed by school committee (6.41%). Same was the case for male. Although the state has 50 per cent women representation in village panchayat none of the female visit above mentioned social groupings regularly and their participation in village panchayat and cooperative society was zero (in both regular and occasional basis). This may be attributed to social settings of the district that prevent women’s actual participation in panchayats despite being elected on paper.

Table 3.1.3: Gender differences in social participation in Rajasthan Social Tonk Barmer Participation Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=72) Female (n=78)

Regular Occasion ally Never Regular Occasion ally Never Regular Occasion ally Never Regular Occasion ally Never Village 20.20 63.64 16.16 10 25 35 0.00 2.78 97.22 0.00 0.00 100 Panchayat Co- operative 8.08 35.35 56.57 0.00 31.03 68.97 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100 Society Self-Help 2.02 6.06 91.92 0.00 2.30 97.70 0.00 20.83 79.17 0.00 34.62 65.38 Group School 3.03 5.05 91.92 0.00 2.30 97.70 0.00 20.83 79.17 0.00 6.41 93.59 Committee Other 0.00 1.01 98.99 0.00 0.00 100.00 2.78 13.89 83.33 0.00 3.85 96.15 * Figures are in percentages Further, participation of respondents in Tonk was more in panchayat and cooperative society whereas in case of Barmer it was self-help group and school committee. In Barmer district, NGOs were working in agriculture field using CSR funds, were the important source of information to the large number of farmers. Most of the farmers were in contact with the input dealers for getting agricultural information. In Tonk district people relied on Krishi

Sahayak (Village Extension Worker), agriculture officers of state department to get agriculture related information.

Participation in Farm Activities The participation of male and female in different levels of farm operation depends on their physical capability, skill etc. Generally male indulge in land preparation, inter cultivation, irrigation, spraying pesticide and marketing of produce whereas female involved in activities like sowing, weeding, transplanting and other harvesting and post harvesting operations. The results of Tonk district respondents indicate that the overall participation of female in pre- harvest operation was very less, while their dominance seen in almost all post-harvest operation, except in marketing. Participation of both genders approximately same in some of harvesting and post harvesting operation like harvesting, threshing and winnowing. In animal husbandry the involvement of women was found to be more in feeding and milking. The role of women particularly in marketing of animal (only 8.27%) and crop produce (only 4.88%) was very low.

Table 3.1.4: Different farm activity performed by male and female in Rajasthan

Tonk Barmer A) Pre Harvest operation Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=75) Female (n=78) Land preparation (ploughing) 80 20 60 40 Application of fertilizers 80 20 90 10 Dibbling and sowing of seed 100 0 100 0 Irrigation 75 25 100 0 Hoeing and weeding 20 80 40 60 Pesticide and weedicide 100 0 100 0 application B) Harvesting and post harvesting operation Harvesting 50 50 50 50 Threshing 48.31 50.75 55.93 44.07 Winnowing 49.28 50.50 44.67 56.93 Marketing 94.53 4.88 90 10 C) Animal husbandry Feeding 53.38 51.81 43.36 56.64 Grazing 82.70 19.24 49.66 50.34 Milking 40 60 20 80 Selling of animal products 94.22 8.27 57.19 43.84  Figures are in percentage of work done

The result of sampled households of Barmer district shows that in pre harvesting operations the percentage of participation of male was more than the female except in hoeing and weeding where the female share is 60 per cent. In case of harvesting and post harvesting operations, the percentage of participation of male and female was equal, whereas in threshing and marketing the taking part of male was found to be more. When compare to male, the involvement of female was more in the animal husbandry activities like feeding (56.64%), grazing (50.34%) and milking (80%). In both the district the share of work by the female respondent in pre harvesting farm activities like dibbling and sowing of seed and in pesticide application was zero. Hoeing and weeding was the only pre harvesting activity where the dominance of women was seen.

Plate No 3. Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Bhotiya Jagar village of Barmer district of Rajasthan

Plate No. 4. Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Soda village of Tonk district of Rajasthan

Plate No. 5. Researchers interacting with the farmers from Soda village of Tonk district of Rajasthan

Reasons behind climate change as perceived by the respondents Though as concept of climate change, most of the farmers were not aware. But when explained the phenomenon in terms of increasing temperature, changes in rainfall pattern, etc. they could identify some of the reasons behind the climate change. Generally, the farmers having traditional knowledge i.e. knowledge and practices of farmers gained over time through experience and orally passed on from one generation to other generation played a significant part in solving problems, including problems related to climate change and variability. The native peoples, who live close to natural resources often observe the activities around them and they are the first to identify and adapt to any climate changes related events. Respondents from the Tonk district observed that as compared to previous period rainfall and ground water table has decreased in the area.

Table 3.1.5: Perception of male and female on reasons behind climate change in Rajasthan

Tonk Barmer

Reasons behind climate change Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78)

Domestic activities 94.95 75.00 0.00 0.00

Deforestation 96.97 83.00 100.00 100.00 Emission of greenhouse gasses 23.23 14.94 22.00 12.00 Industrial activities 95.96 80.45 100.00 98.72 Natural process destined by God 25.00 28.00 35.00 40.00 Land use changes 98.99 82.75 100.00 100.00 * The figures are in percentage With respect to sampled households of Tonk district more than 75% of female respondent perceived that the domestic activities, deforestation, industrial activities and changes in land use planning accelerated the process of climate change. In Barmer district, none of the respondents perceived the role of domestic activities in climate change. About 100 per cent of both the genders perceived that deforestation and changes in land use patterns were the major contributors to the climate change. The awareness about the role of greenhouse gases in climate change was less among the respondents of both the district as evident from the fact that very less respondents perceived it as reason behind climate change; while it was slightly better among the male respondents when compare to female. Perception that the climate change is a natural process destine by God was more among the female respondents. Some respondents wittingly said that as sin is increasing in the world so climate change in

46 intensifying. Overall when compare to female respondents the understanding of reasons behind the climate change was slightly more among the male respondents of both district.

Vulnerability and impact of climate change

Vulnerability and impact of climate change with respect to male and female was analysed using the Sustainability Livelihood Approach. Vulnerability and impact is explained with respect to five capitals mentioned in the SLA approach viz. human, natural capital, physical capital, social capital and financial capital.

1. Human capital Climate change impedes the development of human beings through death, disease, food insecurity, setbacks in access to and utilisation of socioeconomic capabilities like health, education etc. In case of a climate related disaster like drought, flood the livelihood opportunities are washed away, leading to further deprivation, unemployment, spread of disease and which could eventually lead to extreme poverty.

Vulnerability The result for the statements related to the vulnerability shows that Tonk district respondents were slightly more vulnerable to human capital than the Barmer district. The overall vulnerability in terms of human capital on male and female respondents of Tonk district was 0.45 and 0.44 respectively. The major contributing factors for the vulnerability of respondents are increase in drudgery and stress during extreme events of climate change and their mean value is 1.00 same for both male and female. As for as respondents of Barmer are concerned vulnerability value of human capital on male and female was same i.e. 0.43 (in mean). Here also factors like increase in drudgery and stress during extreme events made the respondents more vulnerable to climate change. Here respondents reported that drought led to more drudgery for men while more rainfall will lead to more drudgery for the women. Women reported that they were fell ill more as compared to males. For most of the household food was available for 8 months of the year and for remaining period they were purchasing/borrowing it from the market or friends.

Table 3.1.6: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human capital in Rajasthan

Index Tonk Barmer Subcomponents Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78)

How many times you have fallen ill last one year 0.30 0.33 0.26 0.29 How many times you missed work because of illness in last 0.29 0.31 0.10 0.13 one year Number of days of insufficient food in last one year 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.13 Do you feel increase in drudgery because of extreme events 1.00 1.00 0.70 0.83 Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 1.00 1.00 0.85 0.92 did you get injure anytime because of disaster 0.18 0.13 0.54 0.58 Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.54 0.56 0.51 0.50 Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet out food 0.29 0.17 0.53 0.42 requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.13 0.14 0.38 0.27 Education level 0.42 0.29 0.19 0.06 Television 0.76 0.77 0.59 0.58 Total score of Human capital 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.43

Impact In both the district majority of respondent male and female fallen sick because of increase in atmospheric temperature. Facing harassment, violence, abuse and mental stress during extreme events was more among the female respondents (Tonk 3.15 and Barmer 3.09 mean score on the scale of 5). Female households of Tonk (3.21) and Barmer (3.62) were facing more unemployment problem than the male, and most of them were confronted with the problem of shortage of basic needs and amenities like food, cloth, shelter and sanitation facilities during the extreme events related to climate change. During the extreme events lack of access to health facility was found to be one of the significant problem reported by female respondents of Tonk (3.32) and Barmer (3.66) district.

Table 3.1.7: Gender differential impact of climate change on human capital in Rajasthan

Tonk Barmer Statement Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) Increasing in temperature often makes me sick 3.68 3.8 3.7 3.98 In case of extreme events I find it difficult to get 3.08 3.21 3.33 3.62 the work(employment) In the situation of extreme events I have to leave 3.56 3.60 3.74 3.12 the normal dwelling

In extreme events sanitation facilities are not 3.25 3.48 3.10 3.26 available I find the paucity of resources like cloths in 2.98 3.56 3.29 3.63 extreme weather conditions like flood, drought etc. During extreme events chances of my harassment 2.95 3.15 2.76 3.09 ,abuse and violence increases I feel more stressed during extreme events 3.09 3.10 3.10 3.45 During extreme climate events accessing health 2.90 3.32 3.44 3.66 facilities become difficult * Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 The key observation with respect to impact of climate change on human capital shows that irrespective of genders sampled households of both the district were effected by climate change however the impact was slightly more among female.

2. Natural capital

Climate change affect agricultural productivity by increases the intensity of outbreak of pest and disease, forest fire, loss of biodiversity, water availability (both too much and too little), delay seasonal patterns and trends, and intensify weather events. All these leads to increase in the cost of production of crop there by reduces the profit margins of the farmers. Which affect the farmers in securing their livelihood because agriculture is completely dependent on natural process and natural resources.

Vulnerability Majority of the respondents were using forest based energy for cooking purpose, in addition to gas, more from the Tonk district. This may be because of less forest fuel available in the Barmer district. Women dominated the forest fuel fetching activities in the village. Almost all respondents from Tonk and majority from the Barmer perceived that firewood have decreased in comparison to 30 years back. From the both the district, respondents faced difficulty in fetching water for household activities. Fragmentation of land along with the effect of climate change is leading to degradation of land. When asked whether they get water from the source daily, very few responded positively. Sometimes they had to fetch the water from nearby village. However, it was not for women who fetch water always, tractor and other machines were used for the purpose. In that sense increased machineries has reduced the drudgery of the women in villages.

Table 3.1.8: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital in Rajasthan

Index Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female Subcomponents (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78)

Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose 0.98 0.98 0.78 0.81 Do you fetch firewood from forest 0.80 0.82 0.75 0.85 Do you experience difficulty in fetching water 0.82 0.91 0.83 0.85 Do you get water from the source daily? 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 Do you think that there is degradation of your land because of climate change 0.80 0.47 0.81 0.83 Do you think that firewood have decreased in comparison to 30 year back? 1.00 1.00 0.92 0.96 Total score of Natural capital 0.74 0.70 0.69 0.72

Impact The result of above Table reveal that both the gender more or less equally affected by the climate change events. The foremost impact of climate change faced by the sampled households of both the district was the reduction in productivity caused by the increase in atmospheric temperature (mean score in the range of 4.53 to 4.14). Because of reduction in agricultural production most of the respondents are seeking alternative sources of livelihood to compensate loss, however because of social setting in state this option is not much available with the females. Majority of male and female respondents of Tonk district noticed that deforestation, desertification and land degradation caused them to work hard than before to secure basic resource for the subsistence of family. Some respondents did not agree that desertification decreases crop production, arguing that it was before 30-50 ago, now it is not affecting the yield. Availability of water in recent days may be reason behind this.

Table 3.1.9: Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital in Rajasthan

Statements Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) Deforestation caused me to work hard than before to secure 3.57 3.90 3.44 3.32 resources for the family Land degradation/deforestation decreases my family income 3.30 3.37 3.25 3.25 Desertification decreases crop production and ultimately my 3.25 3.37 3.35 3.45 family income Increase in temperature causes reduction in productivity 4.29 4.14 4.29 4.53 Loss of trees and biodiversity reduced my ability to feed the 3.05 3.16 3.32 3.13

50 family Decreased production from agriculture forced me to seek 4.25 4.16 4.28 4.13 different alternative Extreme weather events makes me physically weak and 2.98 3.01 3.08 3.08 reduce my productivity Loss of biodiversity decreases access to natural resources 3.20 3.29 3.39 3.40 Salinity of soil and water degrade my land and decrease 3.28 3.15 3.08 3.12 production I am unable to irrigate my land properly due to Decrease in 3.39 3.35 3.10 3.31 ground water level, which decrease production High wind speed and sand storm destroy our fields and we 3.38 3.39 4.01 4.05 have to work more on fields Pest and Disease outbreak took place due to climate change 4.12 4.13 3.90 3.88 which destroy productivity and increase workload *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 In case of Barmer high wind speed and storms were the utmost important factors in increasing the drudgery of farm activity and reducing their family income and the mean score value was 4.01 and 4.05 respectively for male and female. Though respondents told that dust storms used to come earlier before 25-30 years ago are rare now. Respondents perceived that these storms were acting as disinfectant and would protect them from mosquitos, pests, soil bacteria etc. Sampled households of both the districts were unable to irrigate their crop time to time because of lower ground water level caused by reduction in frequency and intensity of rainfall, though some respondents from Badmer said no difference in irrigating the fields and many had no irrigation facilities available with them. Due to the climate change majority of the Tonk respondents were affected by the outbreak of pest and diseases which finally reduces productivity and increase workload of the farmer. They perceive it as major problems now days.

3. Social capital

Individuals relations with the other persons in community are crucial to provide and get help from the community, assistance he gets from the government during vagaries of climate, his dependence upon the others in decision making etc. are some important aspects of the social capital of the individual at village level.

Vulnerability

Exposure to social conflict was perceived more by the respondent of both the districts, for extreme events because of strict social norms. In the state, women need to follow more mores, norms and traditions as compared to other states and also compared to male. Because of the limited resources and extreme climatic events, many families in the two district (More

51 trend was observed in Barmer district) had at least one male member migrated to the other states for the employment. About 23 to 43 per cent respondents reported that they had received help from the government during extreme climatic events. Very few respondents had received any training related to climate pertaining to agriculture. Training related to use of bio fertilisers, fertilisers etc. were received from the agricultural officers while for water conservation purpose NGOs were creating awareness and providing training to the farmers from Badmer district.

Table 3.1.10: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital in Rajasthan

Index Tonk Barmer Subcomponents Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78)

Are you dependent upon others in decision making? 0.77 0.97 0.56 0.72 During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts 0.94 0.97 0.92 0.95 Strict social norms worsen my situation during extreme events 0.55 0.76 0.67 0.95 Migration of family member makes us work harder for longer time 0.81 0.94 0.95 0.95 Do you get any support and help from the neighbours when needed? 0.75 0.53 0.38 0.40 Do you give any support and help to the neighbours? When demanded? 0.81 0.52 0.42 0.38 Do you get any help and assistance from local government? 0.26 0.23 0.42 0.37 Have you received any training related to climate? 0.29 0.07 0.07 0.03 Total score of Social capital 0.65 0.62 0.55 0.59

Impact Due to extreme events of climate change, output in farming has reduced, leading to lower income of farmer which in turn affected many aspects of the farmer’s family. The farmer had to compensate the reduction in income by doing extra work, or by migrating to different place in search of good income earning occupation, or by sending their children to work by discontinuing the study.

Table 3.1.11: Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital

Statements Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) I am unable to send my children to school due to low 2.43 2.60 3.41 3.23 income. Tradition of taking early responsibility by boys has been 2.40 2.31 3.86 3.97

52 started due to adverse climate During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts 3.19 3.27 2.19 2.21 Strict social norms worsen my situation during extreme 3.13 3.95 3.39 3.96 events Migration of family member makes us work harder for 3.13 3.85 3.85 2.97 longer time Burden of family work increases during extreme events 3.19 3.28 3.28 3.33 *Figures represents mean score values on the scale of 1 to 5 The foremost impact of climate change faced by the female responded of Tonk and Barmer was the strict social norms worsen their condition during extreme events with mean score value of 3.95 and 3.96 respectively. In both district, migration of male respondents was more which compels the female to work harder for long time. However, females from Barmer district did not perceived migration of male member makes them work hard as they were receiving much needed remittance for securing livelihood. The tradition of taking early responsibility by boys was also one of the impact of extreme events of climate change. Many of respondents of Barmer were not able to send their children to school because of their low income status, whereas this impact was slightly less among the respondents of Tonk district, though some respondents did not face this problem as education in government school was free of cost. Sometimes to help in domestic and agricultural activities parents would not send their child to school (again because of low economic situation).

4. Financial capital Borrowing of money from others, sufficiency of money to meet family expensed, ownership of property, and external source of income to the family etc. were the important aspects analysed in vulnerability and impact related to financial capital.

Vulnerability

All of the respondents from Tonk district had borrowed money from either informal or formal sources, while this trend was slightly less in Barmer district. Most of the them borrowed from the bank, while few (10-15%) borrowed from moneylenders in the area. Very few respondents from the Barmer district expressed that their income was sufficient to meet the family expenses, and most of them were dependent upon the remittance sent by the family members migrated to other parts of the countries (about 50 % families depend from remittance in Barmer). This was serving lifeline to the persons remaining in the village as there are no other resources available to them to sustain their family. Diversified agriculture was more in Tonk district as compare to Barmer district as more water resources available in

53 the Tonk district. Access to credit sources was less in Barmer district, increasing their vulnerability to climate change.

Table 3.1.12: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial capital in Rajasthan Statements Index Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) Have you borrowed money from anyone? 1.00 1.00 0.92 0.86 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet family 0.44 0.38 0.04 0.08 expenses My ability to provide resources for myself and family 0.87 0.95 0.87 0.83 decreased Do you own property on your name? 1.00 0.79 0.77 0.56 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more 0.94 0.91 0.74 0.71 income? Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.87 0.94 0.24 0.24 Does anyone from your family live outside village and 0.36 0.29 0.42 0.44 send remittance to the family? Total score of Financial capital 0.78 0.75 0.57 0.53

Impact In both the district male and female respondents perceived that their ability to provide resources for themselves and to their family decreased due to impact of climate change. The statement, “I feel poorer than before 30 years ago” was not rated high by the respondents. More than average persons reported that because of increase in the wages of labour, hiring of labour has become difficult and they have to work more on the field.

Table 3.1.13: Gender differential impact on climate change on financial capital in Rajasthan

Statements Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) My ability to provide resources for myself and family 3.47 3.34 3.47 3.34 decreased I feel more poorer than before 30 years ago 2.41 2.30 2.41 2.30 Increase in Daily wages make it difficult to hire Labour for 3.30 3.11 3.30 3.11 agricultural activities and we have to work more on our lands *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

5. Physical Capital Physical capital was studied using some of the sub components like distance to local health centre, nearest vehicle station, and access to landline and mobile phone to study the impact and vulnerability to climate change.

Vulnerability Respondents were more vulnerable in terms of accessibility of local health centres and doctors during extreme events of climate, respondents from Barmer were more vulnerable than Tonk district in this regard. Very few respondents had mobile or landline number accessibility to them, making them more vulnerable to the climatic related events. Distance to reach nearest vehicle station was not much constraints reported by the respondents from both districts.

Table 3.1.14: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical capital in Rajasthan

Subcomponents Index Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) Distance to reach nearest vehicle station(IN KM) 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.44 During extreme events local health centres are closed 0.92 0.90 0.94 0.97 and there are no doctors in the area Do you use mobile/landline phone? 0.74 0.71 0.73 0.62 Total score of Physical capital 0.71 0.68 0.69 0.68 * The figures are in percentage Impact

During extreme events normal life of people got disturbed and many of them have to face the problems of lack of access to health facility, electricity supply, and road connectivity. Cut down of road connective and electricity supply during extreme events disturbs the economic activity of the region which in turn affect the income of farmer.

Table 3.1.15: Gender differentiated impact of climate change on the physical capital in Rajasthan

Statements Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78) During extreme events, road connectivity break, making it 2.78 2.56 2.42 2.71 difficult to reach market During extreme events local health centres are closed and 2.52 3.63 3.06 3.95 there are no female doctors in the area During extreme events electricity connectivity break, making 3.19 3.19 3.43 3.42 it difficult to do household chores We are unable to send our girl child to school due to long 2.37 2.29 2.96 2.88

55 distance and low income, because of extreme events * Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 Impact faced by the sampled households of both the district was break down of electricity connection, which makes respondents difficult to do routine work of household. Other impacts like difficulty in reaching the market, difficulty in access to health facilities and educating the girl child in poor economic situation were not so severe impact perceived by the respondents from both districts. When compare to Tonk most of Barmer district respondents are unable to send their girl child to school because of reasons like school is situated far away from home, low income status of their family and threat of extreme events.

Fig 3.1. Overall impact on five capitals of SLA in Rajasthan

Vulnerability Index using IPCC-VI formula

Vulnerability index was calculated using IPCC-VI formula mentioned in the methodology section. All the subcomponents of the five capitals were categories into sensitivity, exposure and adoptive capacity as mentioned in the following table. Vulnerability was calculated using following formula.

Vulnerability Index = (exposure index-adaptive capacity index) × sensitivity index

Table 3.1.16. Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts of Rajasthan Tonk Barmer Male Female Male Female (n=99) (n=87) (n=75) (n=78)

Sensitivity How many times you have fallen ill last one year 0.30 0.33 0.26 0.29 How many times you missed work because of illness in last one 0.29 0.31 0.10 0.13 year Number of days of insufficient food in last one year 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.13 Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose 0.98 0.98 0.78 0.81 Do you fetch firewood from forest 0.80 0.82 0.75 0.85 Do you experience difficulty in fetching water 0.82 0.91 0.83 0.85 Do you get water from the source daily? 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 Are you dependent upon others in decision making? 0.77 0.97 0.56 0.72 Have you borrowed money from anyone? 1.00 1.00 0.92 0.86 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet family expenses 0.44 0.38 0.04 0.08 Distance to reach nearest vehicle station(IN KM) 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.44 Sensitivity index 0.54 0.57 0.43 0.47 Exposure Do you feel increase in drudgery because of extreme events 1.00 1.00 0.70 0.83 Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 1.00 1.00 0.85 0.92 did you get injure anytime because of disaster 0.18 0.13 0.54 0.58 Do you think that there is degradation of your land because of 0.80 0.47 0.81 0.83 climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in comparison to 30 1.00 1.00 0.92 0.96 year back? During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts 0.94 0.97 0.92 0.95 Strict social norms worsen my situation during extreme events 0.55 0.76 0.67 0.95 Migration of family member makes us work harder for longer time 0.81 0.94 0.95 0.95 My ability to provide resources for myself and family decreased 0.87 0.95 0.87 0.83 During extreme events local health centres are closed and there are 0.92 0.90 0.94 0.97 no female doctors in the area Exposure Index 0.81 0.81 0.86 0.87 Adaptive Capacity Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.54 0.56 0.51 0.50 Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet out food 0.29 0.17 0.53 0.42 requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.13 0.14 0.38 0.27 Do you get any support and help from the neighbours when 0.75 0.53 0.38 0.40 needed? Do you give any support and help to the neighbours? When 0.81 0.52 0.42 0.38 demanded? Do you get any help and assistance from local government? 0.26 0.23 0.42 0.37 Have you received any training related to climate? 0.29 0.07 0.07 0.03 Do you own property on your name? 1.00 0.79 0.77 0.56 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more income? 0.94 0.91 0.74 0.71 Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.87 0.94 0.24 0.24

Does anyone from your family live outside village and send 0.36 0.29 0.42 0.44 remittance to the family? Do you use mobile/landline phone? 0.74 0.71 0.73 0.62 education level 0.42 0.29 0.19 0.06 Television 0.76 0.77 0.59 0.58 Adaptive Index 0.58 0.49 0.46 0.40 Overall Vulnerability 0.12 0.18 0.16 0.23

Vulnerability index of male and female respondents from two districts shows that in Tonk district females were more vulnerable than male to extreme climatic situation, similar situation was found in Barmer district also. Males and females from Barmer were more vulnerable to extreme climatic situation than the male and female of Tonk. In overall, females of Barmer district were more vulnerable to climate change than rest of the respondents of the survey.

Potential impact of climate change

Potential impact of climate change (adding sensitivity and exposure) was more on women than men in both districts. All these conditions made women marginally more vulnerable than males.

Potential impact and adaptive capacity

Female

Barmer Male

Female Tonk Male

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Adaptive capacity Potential impact

Fig 3.2. Gender difference in potential impact and adaptive capacity in Rajasthan

Impact of climate change on Agriculture Climate change and agriculture are inter-related processes and are affected by each other. Agricultural activity is carried out through the selection of crops suitable for the climate of a specific region and application of appropriate farming methods. Therefore, agriculture is a climate dependent bio-industry. Changes in the climate disturbs the agricultural ecosystem, by making changes in agricultural climatic elements such as temperature, sunlight and precipitation, which further influences the livestock, and hydrology.

Table 3.1.17: Challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change in Rajasthan

Agriculture challenges Tonk Barmer Agricultural yield reduced during drought 90 100.00 Expenditure in Re-sowing increased 60 100.00 pest and Disease outbreak took place 96.97 73.61 Shift in cropping pattern 96.97 55.56 Crop failure happened 40 44.44 Shifting of seasons 32 36.11 Soil fertility is declining 97.98 97.22 Reduction in frequency of irrigation 88 60 *The figures represent the percentages of the respondents. Majority of the male and female respondents of both the districts depend on agriculture as the major source of income, the impact of climate change on the agriculture poses a greater threat in securing their livelihood. From the above table it was found that more than 96 per cent of the respondents of the Tonk district faces the effect of climate change in the form of frequent outbreak of pest and disease and soil fertility declining whereas this effect was seen less among respondents of Barmer district. In order to overcome the effect of climate change more than 96% of the respondents reported changes in their cropping pattern in Tonk district.

In the sampled household of Barmer district, about 100 per cent respondents affected by the reduction in yield of the crop due to decrease in soil fertility. Though overall yield of the crops as compared to 25-30 years has increased because of technological progress, bur cost of cultivation has gone up and yield gets reduces because of drought and land degradation. Some farmers also said that yield of major crop like Bajara is decreasing because less attention given to the crop in area, as now focus more on cash crops. Increased in the re- sowing expenditure was one of the major impact of climate change encountered by the farmers. The pest and disease outbreak and shift in cropping pattern effect was seen less among the respondents of Barmer compare to that of Tonk. The respondents of Tonk district

59 faces one of the serious problem of reduction in water available for irrigation (88%) whereas this impact was slightly less among the respondents of Barmer (60 %), as sources of irrigation are very less in Barmer district. About 32 per cent of respondents of Tonk and Barmer perceived that shifting in season is major threat to agriculture.

Adaptive Strategies used by respondents Adaptation aims at reducing the vulnerability of agricultural systems to the impacts of climate change and climate related risks, by maintaining or adaptive capacity and increasing resilience. Adoption builds capacity to cope up with sudden changes in climatic events and act as supporting tool to avoid calamity. Climate resilient adoption is vital for rural areas to ease the burden of negative effects of climate variability. It establishes protective grill to withheld rural mass to fall into vicious cycle of poverty. Further, enhances the livelihood of rural households and food security for the country. Adaptation to climate change is an effective measure at the level of farms, which can reduce the climate vulnerability by making communities and rural households better able to prepare themselves and their farming to changes and variability in climate, avoiding estimated damages and supporting them in dealing with adverse events. Adaptive strategies followed by individuals have been analysed using four broad categories. Statements related to these categories were provided to them and they were asked to rate each strategy on four-point continuum. These four broad categories are as follows. i. Socio economic and cultural strategies ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies iii. Technological strategies iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge i. Socio economic and cultural strategies Strategies under this heading are the most common measures employed to withstand the climate variability. In fact, these measures are generally known to individual and these may have distortions in adopting across the genders. In order to understand the ground reality of perception, set of statements were framed to occupy different response from the farmers. Moreover, set of statements were further enriched with the frequency of adoption to know the most important strategy among them.

Among the several statements tested, most of the respondents across the gender fully adopted the strategy of changing gender role and activities. This may be attributed to the migration of male members to outside for employment, leading to most of male’s role performed by the females. The next important strategy adopted by the respondents of the Tonk district was the doing more work on and off the field, taking loan and income diversification. As the climate

60 change increases the risk in agriculture, sometimes it leads to crop failures also. For this they diversify their income by including livestock along with agriculture, working as labour outside the agriculture and borrowing/taking loans to reduce the risk.

In addition, most of the respondents also fully adopted the strategy of changing food habit as per the changing pattern of crop in region and food availability through public distribution system. However, the other strategies were least chosen by the respondent without migration being the last. Though male migrate to the other places for employment to other cities like Surat, Mumbai etc., it is mostly seasonal and not permanent. However, it is pertinent to note that about few respondents from both the district have adopted selling of land and animals as adoptive strategy to some extent. The key observation illustrated from above analysis is that farmers of both the district have adopted different strategies to combat the climate change events. Other adaptation strategies adopted by the respondents from Barmer are more or less similar to Tonk, except the strategy of receiving subsidised food and seed to feed their families and for the use of sowing in agriculture. Though the difference across the gender in climate adoption strategies is thin among both the district. Nevertheless, the difference as such is not negligible or ignorant.

ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies Ago-ecosystem strategies are basically the farm operation strategies adopted to mitigate the climate change and build resilience. These operations consist of use of inputs and methods employed. Earlier in Tonk district farmers used to grow crops like tobacco, cotton, jute and maize which are now been replaced by the mustard, groundnut, green gram, lentil etc.

Although the strategies followed by the farmer of the Tonk district are same as that of Barmer, there is difference in the percentage of farmers adopted these strategies. Most of the respondents in both the district have fully adopted the strategy of planting plant varieties as per market demand. Most of the strategies were related to adoption of tolerant plant varieties viz. varieties resistant to plant and diseases. In terms of per cent difference across the district, farm women of Tonk district have greater number in terms of strategies adoption than Barmer district. However, in Barmer district about 50 percent of male farmers and 47.40 per cent of female farmers of have chosen to adapt to some greater the strategy of intercropping and crop rotation, though more number of farmers said that it is reducing nowadays. Therefore, there exists a huge difference across the strategies adopted to combat climate change. The extent of difference among adoptive strategies among genders is small in Tonk compared to Barmer.

Table 3.1.18: Different adoption strategies adopted by the respondents in Rajasthan

Adapt Tonk Barmer ive Particulars Strate Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=75) Female (n=78) gies F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Socio Renting land and 57.6 13.1 0 29.3 2.99 66.7 11.5 0 21.8 3.23 44.4 23.6 15.3 16.7 3.11 47.4 16.7 19.2 16.7 3.14 econo exchanging mic Sharing land and labour 29.3 37.4 3 30.3 2.69 17.2 42.5 18.4 21.9 2.73 12.5 70.8 2.8 13.9 2.85 3.8 79.5 1.3 15.4 2.73 and batai system cultur Out migration 2 4 22.2 71.8 1.58 1.1 4.6 48.3 46 2.09 12.5 35 6.9 45.6 2.21 17.9 21.8 10.3 50 2.18 al Doing more work, on 63.6 31.3 0 5.1 3.53 54 25.3 2.3 18.4 3.17 34.7 55.6 8.3 1.4 3.32 35.9 56.4 6.4 1.3 3.33 strate and off farm gies: Income diversification 60.6 14.1 17.2 8.1 3.44 55.2 9.2 34.5 1.1 3.53 61.1 25 6.9 7 3.47 53.8 26.9 9 10.3 3.33 Receiving subsidized 54.5 22.2 0 23.3 3.08 67.8 4.6 8 19.6 3.29 69.4 23.6 1.4 5.6 3.58 59 28.2 6.4 6.4 3.46 food and seed Change food habits 46.6 37.4 10 6 3.35 46.3 40.2 12.3 1.2 3.44 49.7 22.2 22.5 5.6 3.39 44.9 34.6 17.9 2.6 3.40 Changing role and activities within the 74.7 4 16.2 5.1 3.65 85.1 4.6 6.9 3.4 3.78 52.8 27.8 16.7 2.7 3.47 47.4 21.8 23.1 7.7 3.32 family Taking Loan 55.6 30.3 10.1 4 3.48 48.3 29.9 18.4 3.4 3.42 45.8 38.9 11.1 4.2 3.37 34.6 50 12.8 2.6 3.29 Selling Land and 15.2 12.1 66.7 6 3.03 9.2 8 79.3 3.5 3.02 11.1 18.1 69.4 1.4 3.08 7.7 25.6 61.5 5.2 2.97 animals Agro- Conserving seed and 30.6 22.2 36.1 11.1 3.08 35 26.4 31.1 7.5 3.20 41.7 23.6 31.9 2.8 3.36 29.5 33.3 34.6 2.6 3.24 Ecosy buy grain to eat stem Planting crop and based varieties as per markets 81.8 4 8.1 6.1 3.70 82.8 10.3 4.6 2.3 3.78 55.6 20.8 19.4 4.2 3.47 46.2 28.2 19.2 6.4 3.33 strate demand gies: Introducing new varieties and crop 46.6 23.2 24.1 6.1 3.34 47.8 24.9 24.9 2.4 3.43 46.9 27.8 21.1 4.2 3.39 43.6 32.1 21.8 2.5 3.39 resistant to climate change Planting more or diverse 45.7 25.2 23.1 6 3.34 45.9 22.6 30.3 1.2 3.44 22.2 19.4 35.6 22.8 2.77 20.3 24.4 22.8 32.5 2.55 varieties of crop Rotating the landrace 48.6 25.3 20.1 6 3.37 44.4 29.5 24.9 1.2 3.42 46.9 30.6 18.3 4.2 3.39 37 41 14.1 7.9 3.21 varieties Planting varieties resistant to pest and 46.7 25.3 23 5 3.37 46.7 23 29.2 1.1 3.45 41.4 25 17.5 16.1 3.09 40 32.1 14 13.9 3.12 disease Intercropping and crop 13.1 26.3 49.5 11.1 2.91 24.1 25.3 42.5 8.1 3.08 1.4 50 36.1 12.5 2.76 5.1 47.4 38.5 9 2.87

rotation planting short cycle crop 36.4 25.3 33.3 5 3.26 34.5 19.5 36.8 9.2 3.16 13.9 19.4 59.7 7 3.00 21.8 19.2 55.1 3.9 3.14 Techn Intensive land ologic management 25.3 20.2 33.3 21.2 2.83 31 19.5 26.4 23.1 2.85 20.8 27.8 20.8 30.6 2.60 20.5 38.5 17.9 23.1 2.74 al sustainable) strate Using more or less 69.7 26.3 1 3 3.64 65.5 19.5 9.2 5.8 3.54 55.6 20.8 16.7 6.9 3.42 50 37.2 10.3 2.5 3.45 gies: irrigation Using high yield seeds 86.9 6.1 3 4 3.79 80.5 10.3 3.4 5.8 3.69 72.2 19.4 5.6 2.8 3.67 59 25.6 14.1 1.3 3.56 Crop Insurance 26.3 31.3 11.1 31.3 2.64 21.8 39.1 3.4 35.7 2.50 16.7 50 22.2 11.1 2.95 14.1 47.4 23.1 15.4 2.83 Indige Using traditional 27.3 32.5 22.1 18.1 2.91 40.2 34.8 17.6 7.4 3.25 34.7 41.7 18.1 5.5 3.24 24.4 48.7 21.8 5.1 3.14 nous varieties Techn Using tradition methods ology to tackle pest and 31.3 35.4 28.3 5 3.21 57.5 14.9 26.4 1.2 3.55 19.4 45.8 33.3 1.5 3.16 17.9 47.4 34.6 0.1 3.18 Know diseases ledge Using traditional method 38.4 26.3 31.3 4 3.30 56.3 18.4 25.3 0 3.56 26.4 50 20.8 2.8 3.21 30.8 48.7 19.2 1.3 3.28 of storage *Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

63 iii. Technological strategies Technological strategies are specific and require pro-activeness in adoption and expertise in operation. Technological aspects are interlinked to mode and method of farm operation using precise package.

The technologies adopted as strategy to distance themselves out of the erratic climate change events by the farmers of both the district are similar. Farmers of both the district have fully adopted the use of high yielding verities as the top most strategy to enhance the climate resilience followed by use of more or less irrigation. Insofar the gender division was witnessed with more percentage male farmers have adopted the technical strategy than female across both the district. Further, the percentage of farmers adopted both the strategies were more in Tank than Barmer. It is also observed that the crop insurance was comparatively less adopted strategies by the respondents to combat the risk emanating from climate change. iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge Indigenous knowledge is the traditional methods employed as key strategy to withstand the climate change. These are cost effective and environment friendly and readily available within the farm or in and around the region.

Relating to use of ITKs the mixed response was witnessed among the adoptive strategies as well the extent of its adoption. Traditional method of storage was common adoption strategy most of being female of both the district have fully adopted. However male farmers Barmer district have adopted the traditional method of storage to some extent followed by pest tackling and traditional verities. Percentage female farmers of Tonk district were more in terms of ITKs compared to female farmers of Barmer. To some extent farmers were also using traditional varieties of crops to cope with the changing climatic pattern.

Potable water scenario and adaptation measures

As compared to earlier period of 20-25 years, drinking water is available to every village and most of the households also (government trying to provide to each household). This has helped in reducing the drudgery of the women as well as building their adaptive capacity to cope with the changing climate scenario in the region. At some places big RO plants were also established and water was provided to people at nominal charges, however because of lack of awareness among the community they were not as effectively as should have been. Government also have provided drinking water to all villages, in remote areas they have

64 constructed well with cement cover for storage of water which would be used by villagers as per convenience (photograph attached).

NGOs are playing key role in maintaining the continuous supply of drinking water to the rural hamlets. Jal Bhagirati Foundation and NGO funded by CAIRNS India are encouraging people to adopt traditional rainwater harvesting methods, provide communities with the resources necessary to improve their decentralized water provision sources and are building bunds and other structures in the areas to prevent runoff and further degradation of land. NGOs from CAIRNS India were also helping in desilting of the water bodies in the region to increase water storage capacity. CAIRNS India NGO also encouraged farmers to plant fruits and vegetables with availability of water in the area (called Badi in local language). Various sanitation projects have also been initiated along with villagers’ participation.

Plate no. 6 Photograph showing water harvesting structures build by NGO in Barmer district

Mitigation strategies Mitigation is essentially preparedness to address the climate change events and strengthen the capacity to deal with it. Mitigation strategies consist of actions both off and on the platform of climate change events. Water conservation was the highest chosen strategy adopted fully by farmers of both the district to mitigate the climate change then followed by organic farming. They were conserving the water through ponds, broad furrows in the field etc. However, adoption of micro irrigation systems like drip and sprinkler was very low. Female respondents of both the district have adopted the strategy of water conservation more than male corresponding male respondents. The least percentage of fully adopted climate strategy among both districts was zero tillage (0 to 8.1 per cent). In percentage wise the conservation of natural resources was found to be more among Tonk farmers than Barmer (74-77 per cent fully adopted). Afforestation was also adopted by most of the farmers, but they said that success rate is very low as less and erratic rainfall will cause trees to dry out.

Overall, the farmers of the both districts have fully adopted the strategy to mitigate the climate change effects viz., water conservation, organic farming, conserving natural resources, improving the quality of livestock etc. Therefore, the adoption of the standard strategies shows the active involvement of people to insulate themselves from the climate change effects. This also indicates the effective utilization allotted of resources for adoption of strategies and hence it is concluded for policy establishments to sustain same.

Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies by respondentsPlate No. from 8 Water Badmer bottles district modified to keep water cool during summer season

Plate No. 9 Dried food stuffs to increase shelf life which can be consumed throughout the year

Plate no. 10 Thatched roof house to resist from heat intensity in Barmer district

Table 3.1.19: Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents in Rajasthan Tonk Barmer Measures Male (n=99) Female (n=87) Male (n=75) Female (n=78) F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Afforestation 60.7 14.1 12.1 13.1 3.35 61.6 15.7 11.1 11.6 3.38 53.9 8.4 7.2 30.5 2.93 51.3 3.8 3.8 41.1 2.69 Zero tillage 8.1 13.1 24.2 54.6 1.99 1.1 6.9 27.6 64.4 1.72 2.8 15.3 34.7 47.2 2.08 0 15.4 25.6 59 1.82 Water conservation 87.9 4 2 6.1 3.76 88.5 10.3 0 1.2 3.86 77.8 19.4 5.6 -2.8 3.83 70.5 9 7.7 12.8 3.45 Organic maturing 76.8 16.2 2 5 3.67 81.6 12.6 4.6 1.2 3.79 75 25 6.9 -6.9 3.89 66.7 15.4 9 8.9 3.49 Improving quality of Livestock 72.8 18.1 4 5.1 3.63 69 23 6.9 1.1 3.67 61.1 33.3 11.1 -5.5 3.72 50 29.5 11.5 9 3.32 feeding for more immunity Nutrient 41.8 30.1 13 15.1 3.12 47.4 31.5 10 11.1 3.25 41.9 33.6 16.4 8.1 3.26 41.8 26.7 12.6 18.9 3.04 management Regular Soil testing 14.1 27.3 51.5 7.1 3.00 14.9 16.1 60.9 8.1 2.99 23.6 18.1 45.8 12.5 2.99 10.3 15.4 46.2 28.1 2.54 Herd Management 25.3 26.3 19.2 29.2 2.67 31 29.9 12.6 26.5 2.78 37.5 47.2 8.3 7 3.24 30.8 39.7 5.1 24.4 2.82 Conserving natural 74.7 5.1 15.2 5 3.65 77 8 12.6 2.4 3.72 58.3 13.9 25.3 2.5 3.53 56.4 17.9 16.7 9 3.38 resources

*Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

(3.2) Himachal Pradesh Results and discussion of the Himachal Pradesh are presented under the following various sub-headings. Socio economic characteristics Age

Age plays an important role in decisions making, adopting innovative new technology, taking up new enterprises as well as risk taking ability. Thus, age is considered as one of the factors in this study and the relevant data is presented in Table 3.2.1. Data from the respondents of Mandi district shows that about 29 per cent of the male are in the age group 40-50 constitute major share among male population, followed by the age group of above 60 (23%). In female elderly persons (above 60) constitute majority i.e., 27.37 per cent followed by middle age group (40-50). Among the different age category presented, below 30 age young male and female population is least constituting 7 and 8.42 per cent respectively. With respect to sampled household of Kullu district, more respondents were from age group 30-50. Age group in Kullu district is more tilted towards the young population than the Mandi district.

Table 3.2.1: Socio economic characteristics of respondents of Mandi and Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh Particulars Mandi Kullu Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94) Age* Above 60 23.00 27.37 12.38 6.38 50-60 20.00 16.84 16.19 9.57 40-50 29.00 25.26 26.67 31.91 30-40 21.00 22.11 29.52 29.79 Below 30 7.00 8.42 13.33 19.15 Education* Graduate 10.10 7.45 19.05 10.64 Higher Secondary (11-12) 22.22 9.57 22.86 22.34 Secondary (9-10) 34.34 25.53 20.00 19.15 Middle (6-8) 17.17 5.32 18.10 9.57 Primary (1-5) 11.11 17.02 15.24 13.83 Illiterate 5.05 35.11 4.76 24.47 Landholding* Landless Farmer 0.00 0.00 0.95 0.00 Marginal Farmer (<1 ha) 93.00 93.68 91.43 89.36 Small Farmer (1-2 ha) 7.00 6.32 1.90 5.32 Semi Medium (2-4 ha) 0.00 0.00 5.71 7.45 Medium and large Farmer(4-10 ha) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Average annual income of the household** Agriculture 19410.00 20148 99619 97258 Livestock 27829 25952 70000 70000 Service 145357 192857 224800 274705 Business 95333 114750 89836 96034 Total 287930 353708 484255 537997 *The figures are in percentage ** represents mean Education

The penetration of education was very poor among female when compare to male population of sampled household of both the districts which was proved from the prevalence of high rate of illiteracy among female respondents (Mandi-35.11% and kullu-24.47%) compare to male (Mandi-5.05% and Kullu-4.76%). Among the different stages of education in Mandi majority of male (34.34%) and female (25.53%) respondents reached up to secondary level later their enrollment to higher and graduation level is went on decreasing. In Kullu majority of male (22.86%) and female (22.34%) obtain education up to higher secondary. Which is followed by secondary and middle school education. Over all the percentage of female enrollment in different levels of education was less than that of the male enrollment among both sampled households of Mandi and Kullu.

Land holding

Among different categories of land holding, in Mandi district most of the respondent male and female possess small and marginal type of land holding. As it is hilly region, land holding remained low as compared to the other states viz. Odisha and Rajasthan. When compared to national level classifications of small, marginal, medium and large landholding, none of the respondents were found to possess medium to large land holding in both the district. Similar situation was also prevalent in Kullu, except that more number of farmers having Semi Medium (2-4 ha) type of landholding.

Income of the family

In Mandi, share of service sector to the total income was more among both the gender, which is followed by the business sector and livestock. Among both male (194100) and female (20148) contribution by agriculture to their total income was less, same situation was observed in Kullu district. Income from service and livestock forms major portion of their annual income. This itself indicated that they are not totally dependent on agriculture for their livelihood when compared to their counterparts in Odisha and Rajasthan states. They have

70 diversified the income as an adaptation to living with small landholding and among many natural constraints. The key observation with respect to income from different source was that respondents of Mandi and Kullu districts earn their major portion of their total income from the service oriented activity. The share of agriculture to their total income was found to be less among the respondents of Mandi district whereas it was better in case of Kullu district respondents.

Material Possession

The materials possession plays an important role in the mitigating the effect of adverse climatic condition, reduce their drudgery in the farming activity and also in securing alternate source of livelihood in the situation of extreme climatic condition like drought, landslide etc. The possession of different type of material by the respondents of Mandi district shows that the overall ownership of above mentioned material is slightly more in case of male compare to that of female except in the possession of animals like cattle, sheep/goat, and poultry where the ownership of female percentage constitute majority than the male. Both the genders possess the materials like house, television, mobile and bicycle in the range of 93%- 99%. Use of tractor and seed drill was low in both districts compare to their counterparts from Rajasthan and Odisha. However, in Kullu district, power tiller found to be more as compared to the Mandi, this indicates that they are moving towards modernisation of farming. Cattle were possessed by most of the respondents studied. Use of modern time saving equipment like power tiller, seed drill and tractors was very less among respondents of Mandi district than the Kullu district.

Table 3.2.2: Possession of materials by respondents from Himachal Pradesh Particulars Mandi Kullu

Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94) Cattle 87 85 89 83 Sheep/goat 24 30 04 05 Poultry 7 00 06 06 Any other animal 0 00 02 01 Plough 61 60 04 02 Seed drill 1 00 04 03 Power tiller 2 01 21 22 Tractors 2 00 08 9 Pump set 56 47 17 18 Sprayer/duster 70 70 70 70 House 99 94 100 99 Television 96 94 99 99 Mobile 96 93 100 88

Bicycle 26 18 33 14 Car/jeep 21 21 40 40 Scooter/bike 38 30 48 31 *Figures are in percentage

Social Participation In Mandi, participation of male in different types of organisation in the society was least when compare to that of female. About 62.1 per cent of female respondents actively participated in the self-help group on regular basis whereas in male it is only 4 per cent. Which is followed by school committee (5.3%). This may be due to more male migration to other places for employment, leaving most of the responsibility to the females. None of the female respondent participated in village panchayat and cooperative society (only 4.2 per cent), whereas participation of male respondents in these two organisation is 5% on regular basis. In Kullu district the participation of both male and female in different organisation of society was very less. Their participation was seen only in self-help group and other groupings. Participation of studied respondents in village panchayat and in school committee was zero. Only 8.5 per cent of female and 4.8 per cent of male take part in self-help group on regular basis.

Table 3.2.3: Gender differences in social participation in Himachal Pradesh Participation Mandi Kullu Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94)

Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Village 5.0 2.0 93.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 3.8 7.6 88.6 0.0 6.4 93.6 Panchayat Co-operative 5.0 0.0 95.0 4.2 0.0 37.9 0.0 13.3 86.7 0.0 4.3 95.7 Society Self-Help 4.0 0.0 96.0 62.1 0.0 95.8 4.8 8.6 86.7 8.5 24.5 67.0 Group School 0.0 2.0 98.0 5.3 0.0 94.7 0.0 5.7 94.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 Committee Other 2.0 0.0 98.0 1.1 0.0 98.9 4.8 0.0 95.2 1.1 6.4 92.6 *Figures are in percentages

Plate No. 11. Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh

Plate No. 12. Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh

Participation in Farm Activities

The results from the sampled households of Mandi district shows that burden of work in some of the pre harvesting operations like fertilizer application, sowing of seed, transplanting and in raising of vegetable nursery shared equally by male (50%) and female (50%) respondents. Land preparation activities such as ploughing and harrowing was dominated by the male (90% of work). The involvement of women was found to be least (10%) in ploughing and harrowing activity which is followed by pesticide and weedicide application. In harvesting and post harvesting operations engagement of women was seen more in the harvesting of crop (62.24) and in case of male participation was more in threshing (68 %) and marketing (100%). More or less similar situation was found in the Kullu district. The key analysis is that in marketing of crop produce the participation of women respondents was found to be zero in both Kullu and Mandi district whereas their participation in selling of animal produce was in the range of 10-35 per cent. This shows the dominance of male in the marketing decisions in these families.

Table 3.2.4: Different levels of farm activity performed by both the gender in Himachal Pradesh Operations Mandi Kullu Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94) A) Pre harvest operations Land preparation (ploughing 90 10 90 10 and harrowing) Application of fertilizers 50 50 50 50 Dibbling and sowing of seed 50 50 50 50 Raising vegetable nursery 50 50 50 50 Irrigation 51 49 50 50 Transplanting 50 50 50 50 Hoeing and weeding 30 70 50 50 Pesticide and weedicide 65 35 50 50 application B) Harvesting and post harvesting operation Harvesting 38 62 30 70 Threshing 68 32 50 50 Marketing 100 0 100 0 C) Dairying and animal husbandry Feeding 46 54 40 60 Grazing 35 65 30 70 Milking 30 70 20 80 Selling of animal products 65 35 90 10 *Figures are in percentage

Perception of respondents about reasons behind climate change The understanding reasons behind the climate change are crucial as it play a correlative role in reducing vulnerability and adopting the mitigating strategies to the climate change. Respondents from both districts reported that because of climate change, temperature has increased in the reason and rainfall has decreased. Respondents from Kullu reported that snowfall used to occur regularly till 1990, which is absent now. Because of this, apple production has also shifting towards Manali side, towards more altitude. They also reported dry winter in recent times. Since 4-5 years, droughts during winter occurred. Though droughts like situation used to be earlier, but frequency has increased now days. The results from the sampled households of Mandi district shows that more than 78 per cent of both the gender perceived that domestic activity and deforestation as the major reasons behind the climate change, however some respondents believed that there was no change in the forest cover. This was followed by the activities like changes in land use planning and industrial activities are the reasons behind climate change. Respondents also reported the changes in agricultural practices like earlier they were used broadcasting for crops which is now replaced by the dibbling.

In Kullu district 100 per cent of both the gender knew that impact of deforestation in increasing climate change. Very less respondents (18% male and 14 % females) from Mandi district believed that climate change is natural process as destined by God whereas this belief is high among Kullu district respondents (male-25% and female-28%). Only less than 5 per cent of the respondents of both the district knew the role of greenhouse gas emission and storage of carbon in soil in the climate change phenomenon. Some respondents observed that forest fire that destroys forest also contribute to climate change. Increasing population was also reason cited by some respondents from Kullu district.

Table 3.2.5: Perception of male and female on reasons behind climate change from Himachal Pradesh Mandi Kullu Reasons behind climate change Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Domestic activities 80 78 48 57 Deforestation 85 83 100 100 Emission of greenhouse gasses 05 05 03 01 Carbon sequestration in soils 04 03 03 03

Industrial activities 70 71 30 31 Natural process destined by God 18 14 25 28 Land use changes 77 76 63 63

*The figures are in multiple percentages

Vulnerability and impact of climate change

Vulnerability and impact is explained with respect to five capitals mentioned in the SLA approach viz. human, natural capital, physical capital, social capital and financial capital.

1. Human capital Vulnerability Extreme events in case of the selected district were the snowfall, landslide and sometimes droughts. Among the various statements presented to them, respondents showed more response for the increase in stress and drudgery because of extreme events. After the landslides, they need intensive land management practices. Some respondents from Mandi districts had to go outside for washing the cloths and fetching the drinking water. As ladies were involved in dual work of household and field they were facing more problem of drudgery as compared to male. Most of the respondents in both district (78 to 87 %) had toilet facility in their house which helps in reducing their vulnerability.

Many household (88-91 %) had TV in their home, which helps in reducing the vulnerability by giving proper information regarding climatic events on proper time. About 54-76 per cent of respondents said they follow diversification on their farm, which in turn increases their adaptive capacity to cope with the adverse effect of the climate change. Though more focus now days given to the cash crops (Pomegranate, tomato. Broccoli etc.) in agriculture. Also livestock has decreased as compared to earlier period. More than half of the respondents had good education level, which also act as adaptive capacity in the events of extreme climatic situation. Some families also reported that whole year food is not sufficient to them and they had to work as labour in others field to feed the family.

Table 3.2.6: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human component HP in Himachal Pradesh

Subcomponents Index Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94)

How many times you have fallen in last one year 0.12 0.18 0.22 0.27 How many times you missed work because of illness 0.07 0.08 0.20 0.25 in last one year Do you feel increase in drudgery because of extreme 0.87 0.94 0.82 0.93 events Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 0.93 0.96 0.92 0.96 Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.78 0.78 0.87 0.87 Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet 0.54 0.56 0.76 0.72 out food requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.30 0.27 0.59 0.47 Education level 0.60 0.47 0.60 0.47 Television 0.88 0.88 0.91 0.91 Total score of Human capital 0.57 0.54 0.65 0.65 *The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact of climate change on human capital Result shows that in the sampled households of Mandi district irrespective of genders both male and female more or less equally affected by the different events of climate change. During the extreme events of climate change majority of Mandi district male respondents found that increase in temperature (3.80) as the major problem whereas for female respondents of both the Mandi and Kullu district major problem was lack of accessing health facilities (Mandi-3.86 and Kullu-3.6). Because of increase in greenhouse gases in atmosphere the temperature of atmosphere is also increase which in turn effects on the health of the people this impact seen more among respondents of Mandi district. During extreme events the most of male and female respondents of Mandi district found that it was difficult to get employment opportunity whereas this impact was comparatively less among the Kullu district respondents, may be because of more tourism activity in the district. Respondents also reported in migration in Kullu district more than out migration.

Table 3.2.7: Gender differential Impact of climate change on human capital in Himachal Pradesh Statements Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Increasing in temperature often makes me sick 3.80 3.79 2.36 2.64 Floods increases the risk of diseases like cholera, 2.78 2.78 2.20 2.7 diarrhoea, typhoid etc. In case of extreme events I find it difficult to get the 3.62 3.70 2.58 2.7 work(employment) In the situation of extreme events I have to leave the 2.82 2.70 1.80 2.0 normal dwelling In extreme events sanitation facilities are not 2.74 2.91 2.41 2.7 available I find the paucity of resources like cloths in extreme 2.82 2.64 2.10 2.11 weather conditions like flood, drought etc. During extreme events chances of my harassment 2.20 3.38 2.30 3.06 ,abuse and violence increases I feel more stressed during extreme events 3.27 3.37 3.22 3.32 During extreme climate events accessing health 3.76 3.86 3.50 3.6 facilities become difficult *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 2. Natural capital

Vulnerability Most of the respondents agreed that firewood have decreased in comparison to last 30 years which is making them more vulnerable as they are now totally dependent on the LPG. In Mandi district more number of respondents (86-87%) were using forest based energy for cooking purpose. The use of forest fuel increased during winter season than rest of the year. More respondents from the Kullu feel that there is degradation of their land, making them more vulnerable to climatic related events. Getting water daily from the source was not much problem for the responders from Kullu district.

Table 3.2.8: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital in Himachal Pradesh

Subcomponents Index Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94)

Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose 0.86 0.87 0.46 0.52 Do you get water from the source daily? 0.41 0.43 0.10 0.22

Do you think that there is degradation of your land 0.80 0.57 0.93 0.84 because of climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in 0.94 0.96 0.95 0.96 comparison to 30 year back? Total score of Natural capital 0.75 0.71 0.62 0.64 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact of climate change on natural capital In Mandi district the overall impact of climate change on natural capital was seen much more on the female respondents than the male respondents. Major problem faced by the respondents of Mandi district was decrease in ground water lever (male-4.22 and female-4.38) leads to reduction in water available for irrigation which intern effects on the crop production, whereas impact of this factor was seen less in Kullu district (male-2.73 and female-2.7). The ground water table in the Kullu was in the range of 40-150 feet below the surface. The respondents of Mandi district faces other major problems like increase in temperature, pest and disease outbreak, all these factors impact on the yield and cost of cultivation of the crop which intern leads to reduction in income of the farmers and also their investment in farming. In order to compensate reduction in the income majority of women work more on the fields and started diversifying the source of income. Respondents reported that because of degradation of land, productivity of major crops has decreased.

When compared to respondents of Mandi district the impact of climate change on natural capital was seen less among the respondents of Kullu district. The severe problem faced by the male respondents of Kullu was the pest and disease outbreak (3.77). This event caused reduction in productivity of crop and make them to work harder than before to secure resources for the family. Problem of salinity of soil was observed in Kullu district though not severe while it was not reported by respondents from Mandi district. Increase in temperature in Kullu causing decreasing in yield of crop and changing cropping pattern in the district. This is the reason behind shift in Apple belt from the Kullu towards Manali.

Table 3.2.9: Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital in Himachal Pradesh Statements Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Deforestation caused me to work hard than before to secure 3.96 4.16 3.07 3.09 resources for the family Land degradation/deforestation decreases my family income 3.84 3.96 2.75 2.96 Increase in temperature causes reduction in productivity 4.21 4.06 2.78 3.02 Loss of trees and biodiversity reduced my ability to feed the 3.78 3.57 3.00 3.17

79 family Decreased production from agriculture forced me to seek 3.76 3.77 2.50 3.80 different alternatives Extreme weather events makes me physically weak and 3.68 3.70 3.06 3.70 reduce my productivity Loss of biodiversity decreases access to natural resources 3.68 3.46 3.62 3.64 Livelihood diversification due to climate change 3.59 4.08 3.71 3.60 Salinity of soil and water degrade my land and decrease 1.00 1.20 0.00 0.00 production I am unable to irrigate my land properly due to Decrease in 4.22 4.38 2.73 2.70 ground water level, which decrease production Increase in cultivation cost and other expenses compel me to 2.90 3.18 2.91 3.40 use low quality seed and fertilizer Pest and Disease outbreak took place due to climate change 3.93 4.05 3.77 3.84 which destroy productivity and increase workload *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 3. Social capital Vulnerability In case of Himachal Pradesh, women were more educated and more empowered than their counterpart in Rajasthan and Odisha state, therefore strict social norms were not making women more vulnerable to climatic related events in more extent. Because of more social capital, they were getting more help from the neighbours when needed (69-71 %), which builds their adaptive capacity to cope with the extreme events of climate change. They were also getting more help from government (77 % female in Mandi), which also decreased their vulnerability. However, most of the respondents had not undergone any training related to climate change or agriculture, which increases their vulnerability. Migration of male members in search of job makes women to work more on the field as well as in household, making them more sensitive to the extreme events of climate change. This problem was less in Kullu district as very few persons would migrate for the job.

Table 3.2.10: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital in Himachal Pradesh Subcomponents Index Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Are you dependent upon others in decision making? 0.48 0.77 0.45 0.56 During extreme events I get exposed to social conflicts 0.52 0.58 0.47 0.50 Strict social norms worsen my situation during 0.50 0.63 0.36 0.39 extreme events Migration of family member makes us work harder for 0.79 0.80 0.29 0.46

80 longer time Do you get any support and help from the neighbours 0.72 0.70 0.71 0.69 when needed? Do you give any support and help to the neighbours? 0.59 0.40 0.57 0.39 When demanded? Do you get any help and assistance from local 0.66 0.77 0.47 0.55 government? Have you received any training related to climate? 0.14 0.13 0.20 0.17 Total score of Social capital 0.55 0.60 0.44 0.46 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact The result shows that impact of climate change on social capital was approximately same for both the genders of Mandi district. During extreme events stringent social norms worsen the situation of both the genders, though situation was not worse than Rajasthan and Odisha district females’ counterpart. In case of Kullu district, during extreme events there was an increase in the burden of family work was seen more among the female respondents (3.75) than the male respondents (3.0). When compare to male more number of female of both the Mandi (2.61) and Kullu (2.75) district get exposed to social conflicts during extreme events, though it is less when compared to their counterparts from Rajasthan and Odisha. The tradition of taking early responsibility by boys due to adverse climate was seen more among respondent female family of Mandi (3.76) and Kullu (3.8).

Table 3.2.11: Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital in Himachal Pradesh Mandi Kullu Statements Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) I am unable to send my children to school due 2.80 3.03 3.1 3.12 to low income. Tradition of taking early responsibility by 3.68 3.76 2.9 3.8 boys has been started due to adverse climate During extreme events I get exposed to social 2.60 2.61 2.7 2.75 conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation 3.51 3.80 2.8 3.05 during extreme events Migration of family member makes us work 3.67 3.55 3.0 3.72 harder for longer time Burden of family work increases during 3.67 3.67 3.0 3.75 extreme events *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

4. Financial capital Vulnerability Respondents from the Kullu district followed more diversified agriculture than their counterpart from Mandi district, which helps in increasing their adaptive capacity to cope with the risk emanating from the climatic events. As tourism sector has provided them opportunities to sell most of the produce locally, while market channels were established up to Delhi for some produce. More male from both the district felt decline in their capacity to feed the family in the context of climate change, making them more vulnerable to the climatic events. More number of respondents from Mandi district were receiving the remittance from outside which helped them in increasing adaptive capacity and making less vulnerable to climate change. Half of the respondents had access to credit source, again increase their adaptive capacity.

Table 3.2.12: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial capital

Subcomponents Index Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Have you borrowed money from anyone? 0.75 0.66 0.36 0.34 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet family 0.67 0.59 0.66 0.66 expenses My ability to provide resources for myself and family 0.80 0.61 0.85 0.59 decreased Do you own property on your name? 0.83 0.46 0.80 0.48 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more 0.75 0.73 0.95 0.93 income? Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.54 0.48 0.54 0.51 Does anyone from your family live outside village and 0.50 0.55 0.20 0.13 send remittance to the family? Total score of Financial capital 0.69 0.58 0.62 0.52 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact Respondents of Mandi district were more affected by the impact of climate change on financial capital than the Kullu district. In Mandi district because of involvement of middleman in marketing activities both male (4.01) and female (3.88) are not getting appropriate price for their produce. This leads to reduction in income of the family which in turn affected the farmer’s ability to meet the basic need of the family. Among the Kullu

82 district respondents, increase in daily wages constitute major problem, which made them difficult to hire labours for agriculture activities. Labour coming from Bihar state would prefer construction activities as more wages were available to them, making it difficult to get labour for farming activities. This makes the respondents to work harder in their field. The involvement of middleman was less in Kullu district when compared to Mandi district.

Table 3.2.13: Gender differential impact of climate change on financial capital Mandi Kullu Statements Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) My ability to provide resources for myself and 3.20 3.25 2.5 2.78 family decreased I feel more poorer than before 30 years ago 2.42 2.64 2.1 2.11 Increase in daily wages make it difficult to hire Labour for agricultural activities and we have to 3.94 3.88 3.7 3.8 work more on our fields Involvement of middleman increase so we don’t 4.01 3.88 3.7 3.60 get fair price of our product *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5 5. Physical capital Vulnerability Landslide was the major environmental problem faced by the respondents from both the districts, which often would make difficult to reach market or even would make difficult agriculture operations. Most of the respondents had mobile phone (91-95%), which helps in increasing their adaptive capacity by connecting with the near ones and giving information during extreme climatic events. Some respondents also reported the problem of closing of health centre during extreme events and no doctor in the health centre etc. which makes them more vulnerable to the climatic events.

Table 3.2.14: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical capital Subcomponents Index Mandi Kullu Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) During extreme events like flood/landslide, Road 0.91 0.97 0.91 0.96 connectivity break, making it difficult to reach market During extreme events local health centres are closed and 0.67 0.75 0.69 0.74 there are no doctors in the area

Do you use mobile/landline phone? 0.95 0.91 0.95 0.90 Total score of Physical capital 0.84 0.87 0.85 0.87 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact

From the below table it can be seen that the impact of climate change on physical capital was more among the respondents of the Mandi district, particularly on female than the Kullu district. In Mandi district, one of the major impact faced by respondents was cut off of electricity supply which make them difficult to do household chores (4.08). During extreme events like flood/landslide the respondents of both the district faced the major problems such as inability to reach market because cut off of road transportation and closing of health centre make them difficult to avail the health facility in time affecting their income and health. Some respondents reported the issue of low quality of service in Primary Health Service (PHCs).

Table 3.2.15: Gender differential impact of climate change on the physical capital Mandi Kullu Statements Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) During extreme events like flood/landslide, 3.91 other Road connectivity break, making it 4.06 3.70 3.5 difficult to reach market causing loss to us. During extreme events local health centres are closed and there are no doctors in the area 3.94 4.04 1.90 2.1 affecting the health During extreme events electricity connectivity break, making it difficult to do household 3.79 4.08 2.80 2.78 chores *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

Fig 3.3. Impact on five capital of SLA in Himachal Pradesh

Overall impact of climate change on five capital of SLA approch shows that women perceived marginally more impact of climate and related events on them than the men.

Vulnerability Index using IPCC-VI formula

Vulnerability Index = (exposure index-adaptive capacity index) × sensitivity index

Table.3.2.16 Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts Kullu Mandi Statements Male Female Male Female (n=105) (n=94) (n=100) (n=95) Sensitivity How many times you have fallen in last one year 0.22 0.26 0.12 0.18 How many times you missed work because of 0.20 0.25 0.07 0.08 illness in last one year Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose 0.51 0.53 0.86 0.87 Do you get water from the source daily? 0.10 0.22 0.41 0.43 are you dependent upon others in decision making? 0.45 0.56 0.48 0.77 Have you borrowed money from anyone? 0.36 0.34 0.75 0.66 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.59 family expenses Sensitivity index 0.36 0.40 0.48 0.51 Exposure Do you feel increase in drudgery because of 0.82 0.93 0.87 0.94 extreme events Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 0.92 0.96 0.93 0.96 Do you think that there is degradation of your land 0.93 0.84 0.80 0.57 because of climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in 0.95 0.96 0.94 0.96 comparison to 30 year back? During extreme events I get exposed to social 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.58 conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during 0.36 0.39 0.50 0.63 extreme events Migration of family member makes us work harder 0.29 0.46 0.79 0.80 for longer time My ability to provide resources for myself and 0.85 0.59 0.80 0.61 family decreased During extreme events like flood/landslide, other Road connectivity breaks, making it difficult to 0.91 0.96 0.91 0.97 reach market

During extreme events local health centres are 0.69 0.74 0.67 0.75 closed and there are no female doctors in the area Exposure index 0.72 0.73 0.77 0.78 Adaptive capacity Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.87 0.87 0.78 0.56 Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet 0.76 0.72 0.54 0.56 out food requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.59 0.47 0.30 0.27 Do you get any support and help from the 0.71 0.69 0.72 0.70 neighbours when needed? Do you give any support and help to the 0.57 0.39 0.59 0.40 neighbours? When demanded? Do you get any help and assistance from local 0.47 0.55 0.66 0.77 government? Have you received any training related to climate? 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.13 Do you own property on your name? 0.80 0.48 0.83 0.46 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more 0.95 0.93 0.75 0.73 income? Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.54 0.51 0.54 0.48 Does anyone from your family live outside village 0.20 0.13 0.50 0.55 and send remittance to the family? Do you use mobile/landline phone? 0.95 0.90 0.95 0.91 education level code 0.60 0.47 0.60 0.47 television 0.91 0.96 0.88 0.88 Adaptive capacity index 0.65 0.59 0.63 0.56 Overall Vulnerability 0.02 0.06 0.07 0.11

Vulnerability index of male and female respondents from two districts shows that in Mandi district females were more vulnerable than male to extreme climatic situation, similar situation was found in Kullu district also. Males and females from Mandi were more vulnerable to extreme climatic situation than the male and female of Kullu. In overall, females of Mandi district were more vulnerable to climate change than rest of the respondents of the survey.

Potential impact and adaptive capacity of the respondents Adaptive capacity of the women was more in Himachal Pradesh as compared to two other states, however it was slightly less than the males. Potential impact (addition of exposure and sensitivity) of climate change on women was more as compared to men also level of adaptive capacity in case of females was less.

Potential impact and adaptive capacity

Female Mandi Male

Female Kullu Male

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Adaptive capacity Potential impact

Fig 3.4. Gender differential potential impact and adaptive capacity in Himachal Pradesh Impact of climate change on Agriculture Agriculture and climate change are deeply intertwined. Due to climate change agriculture faces many challenges which intern effects on the food security and livelihood of peoples. The results show that irrespective of gender, respondents of both the district confront with the effect of climate change. More than 91 per cent of people of Mandi district and 100 per cent peoples of Kullu district faces the major effects of climate change on agriculture like increases in pest and disease outbreak, reduction in frequency of irrigation, declining in soil fertility, shifting of season and cropping pattern, failure of crop and reduction in yield of crop. In Mandi district the only12 per cent of male and 16.7 per cent of female reported that because of failure of crop there was an increased in expenditure on re-sowing whereas this impact was nil in case of Kullu district. Earlier water from the natural streams was only source of irrigation for agriculture. However, it has reduced now, even not available for drinking in summer season.

Some respondents from Mandi district reported that there was reduction in size of grains of rice and wheat because of extreme climatic events. Shift in cropping pattern towards more commercialisation was evident in both the district. Earlier farmers were used to grow rice and wheat etc crops, now days more vegetables and fruits (tomato, pomegranate) were grown by the farmers. Even shift in cropping pattern because of climate change (shift in apple production towards Manali) was evident in Kullu district. Since 10 years no apple are being produced in Kullu district and farmers have started cultivation of pomegranate. Less chilling during winter affects the production of apple, pear etc. Late snowfall during March-April

87 destroys the standing agricultural crops. Earlier time farmers were using the water from streams and rivers. Now the water from the streams not sufficient for agriculture and farmers reported that river flow also reduced to half the capacity as compared to earlier time (20-25 years).

Table 3.2.17: Challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change Mandi Kullu Agriculture Male Female Male Female (n=100) (n=95) (n=105) (n=94) Agricultural yield has reduced 94 91.7 100 100 because of increase in temperature expenditure in Re-sowing increased 12 16.7 0 0 pest and Disease outbreak took place 100 100.0 100 100 Shift in cropping pattern 99 100.0 100 100 Crop failure happened 98 96.9 100 100 Shifting of seasons 98 99.0 100 100 soil fertility is declining 99 99.0 95 96 Reduction in frequency of irrigation 99 100.0 100 100  The figures are in percentage

Adaptive Strategies Adaptation means anticipating adverse effects of the climate change and taking appropriate measures to prevent or minimise the damage they can cause, or taking advantage of opportunities that may arise. Adoption seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of climate change. It has been shown that well planned, early adaptation action saves money and prevent the reduction in the productivity of crop. It establishes protective grill to withheld rural mass to fall into vicious cycle of poverty.

The adoptive strategy followed by individuals were analysed using four broad categories and presented und presented various statements related to them and respondents were asked to rate them on four-point continuum. The four broad categories are as follows. i. Socio economic and cultural strategies ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies iii. Technological strategies iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge

88 i. Socio economic and cultural strategies Socio economic and cultural strategies are generally known to the every individual and these are the most common measures employed by the rural household to withstand the climate variability. Income diversification was the most followed adaptation strategy by the respondents from Mandi district. As the risk from agriculture increased in the events of climate change, respondents are diversifying the avenues of income by outside the farm, starting enterprise or migrating to other region.

Related to this is the strategy of working more on and off the farm for the income generation and changing role within the family. Receiving the subsidised food and seed was also seen as major adaptive strategy followed by the respondents. Strategy like taking loan and selling land and animals were not generally adopted by the respondents from Mandi district. However most respondents adopted the strategy of leasing rather than complete selling of the land. Similar strategies were adopted by the respondents from Kullu district also, with exception that out migration was very less in Kullu as compared to Mandi district. This may be due to more employment opportunities available in the district because of tourism sector. ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies These are the strategies adopted by the farmers at farm level to reduce their vulnerability and to build resilient to climate change. The strategies followed by the respondents of the Mandi district are same but there is difference in the percentage of farmers adopted these strategies. Practice of planting crops and varieties as per market demand, planting more/diverse varieties of plants, introduction of varieties resistant to climate change and pests and diseases, and rotating landrace varieties etc. were important agro ecosystem based strategies followed by the respondents of both Mandi and Kullu district. The strategy of rotating landraces and crop rotation were more adopted by the respondents from Mandi district than the respondents form Kullu. When compare to Mandi district the percentage of respondents adopting the different strategies to climate change was found to be less among the Kullu district.

Plate no. 13 Photographs showing diversification of crops and intercropping in Kullu districts of Table 3.2.18: Adoption strategies adopted by respondents from Himachal Pradesh

Mandi Kullu

Particulars Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94) F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Ge Se N A A** Socio economic and cultural strategies: Renting land and exchanging 20 28 47 5 3.10 20 23 49 8 3.04 7 29 56 8 2.91 7 11 58 24 2.59 Sharing land and labour batai 20 27 49 4 3.12 15 20 57 8 2.99 4 32 53 11 3.02 7 11 54 28 2.99 system Out migration 0 0 74 26 2.48 0 0 60 40 2.20 0 10 67 23 2.54 0 17 27 56 1.88 Doing more work, on and off 78 11 8 3 3.72 63 10 21 6 3.51 68 3 30 -1 3.70 29 6 39 26 2.77 farm Income diversification 85 11 3 1 3.83 75 10 9 6 3.63 78 13 6 3 3.72 40 26 16 18 3.04 Receiving subsidized food and 77 11 10 2 3.73 77 10 7 6 3.65 81 11 6 2 3.77 50 7 32 11 3.28 seed Change food habits 45 20 33 2 3.41 41 20 32 7 3.27 43 13 24 20 3.03 42 20 22 16 3.10 Changing role and activities 71 15 11 3 3.65 72 10 11 7 3.58 73 7 14 6 3.61 52 21 11 16 3.20 within the family Taking Loan 12 0 80 8 2.96 12 0 77 11 2.90 7 8 74 11 2.85 6 15 47 32 2.42 Selling Land and animals 0 11 87 2 2.96 1 11 70 18 2.65 5 20 74 1 3.03 11 24 43 22 2.67 B) Agro ecosystem based strategies Conserving seed and buy grain 60 11 17 12 3.36 67 16 11 6 3.55 63 22 15 0 3.63 52 34 7 7 3.38 to eat Planting crop and varieties as 96 0 2 1 3.93 86 0 8 0 3.83 80 10 14 0 3.64 53 8 28 4 3.31 per markets demand Introducing new varieties and 71 11 18 0 3.71 77 16 1 6 3.65 69 21 10 0 3.69 75 20 5 0 3.75 crop resistant to climate change Planting more or diverse 74 12 14 0 3.74 75 11 5 3 3.51 73 14 13 0 3.48 72 20 8 0 3.73 varieties of crop Rotating the landrace varieties 71 12 16 1 3.69 72 11 11 6 3.6 73 17 10 0 3.73 72 22 6 0 3.72 planting varieties resistant to 70 12 18 0 3.70 72 11 10 7 3.58 73 18 9 0 3.73 74 15 10 1 3.72 pest and disease

90 planting varieties suitable to 54 22 24 0 3.54 59 20 15 3 3.44 55 32 13 0 3.41 61 19 10 10 3.65 storage intercropping and crop rotation 65 20 14 1 3.63 60 20 13 7 3.46 65 28 7 0 3.65 50 21 8 21 3.08 planting short cycle crop 54 30 14 2 3.50 50 30 14 6 3.38 52 35 13 0 3.52 52 15 17 16 3.20 C) Technological strategies Intensive land management 62 10 28 0 3.62 62 10 22 6 3.50 34 14 48 4 3.26 17 28 44 11 2.95 (sustainable) Using more or less irrigation 70 11 17 2 3.66 71 10 13 6 3.59 78 14 8 0 3.78 70 22 8 0 3.70 Contacting seed experts to 63 10 16 11 3.41 62 10 12 16 3.30 68 19 13 0 3.68 56 21 13 10 3.36 assure quality Using high yield seeds 83 10 5 2 3.79 80 10 4 6 3.68 80 9 11 0 3.80 74 15 11 0 3.74 Crop Insurance 5 0 61 34 2.37 9 0 43 48 2.13 10 12 62 16 2.78 6 19 36 39 2.28 Using traditional varieties 71 11 16 2 3.67 70 10 13 7 3.56 71 14 15 0 3.71 71 19 10 0 3.71 D) Indigenous technical knowledge Using tradition methods to 62 20 15 3 3.56 62 20 12 6 3.50 69 14 17 0 3.69 60 21 18 1 3.58 tackle pest and diseases Using traditional method of 73 10 16 1 3.71 72 10 12 6 3.60 69 15 16 0 3.69 70 15 15 0 3.70 storage *Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

91 iii. Technological strategies The adoption of these strategies require pro-activeness and expertise in operation. Technological aspects are interlinked to mode and method of farm operation using precise package. Use of high yielding seed, use of traditional seed, use of more/less irrigation, intensive land management etc. are some of the important strategies mostly followed by the respondents from Mandi district. Similar strategies were adopted by the respondents from Kullu district with exception of contacting seed experts to assure quality of seed. Noticeably, crop insurance was adopted as strategy by less number of respondents from both the district. iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge

These are the cost effective and environment friendly methods and are readily available within the farm or in and around the region. In both the district about 69-71 per cent of the respondents were using the indigenous knowledge for control of pest and diseases in their field and for control of pest during the storage of the grain.

Mitigation strategies A mitigation strategy is any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce the long term risk and hazards of climate change. The mitigation strategies followed by the both the genders are conserving natural resources, improving quality of livestock feeding and nutrient management. Among the different mitigation strategies, the respondents of the both district includes afforestation, improving the quality of livestock feeding, conservation of natural resources. In afforestation, respondents reported that most of the trees they plant were fruit trees which gives double benefits like fruits to family and environment sustainability. Other important mitigation strategies adopted by the respondents included water conservation, organic manuring, nutrient management etc. in both the district. Strategies like soil testing, zero tillage, residue burning were less adopted by the respondent of Mandi and Kullu district.

From the above analysis it’s held that most of the basic strategies advocated were adopted by the farmers to cope with climate change effects. However, it as also found that some of the contemporary methods have not adapted to the desired level. Hence the genuine efforts must be made to increase the adaptation of the other measure as indicated above.

Table 3.2.19: Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents from Himachal Pradesh Mandi Kullu Measures Male (n=100) Female (n=95) Male (n=105) Female (n=94) F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Afforestation 51 1 45 3 3.45 45 0 48 7 3.31 76 22 2 0 3.76 71 20 3 6 3.59 Zero tillage 2 5 66 27 2.48 7 10 61 22 2.63 3 10 60 27 2.49 7 2 66 25 2.57 Water 7 10 83 0 3.07 0 0 88 12 2.76 41 34 25 0 3.41 42 31 21 6 3.30 conservation Residual burning 3 1 6 90 1.23 4 0 9 87 1.30 0 0 36 64 1.72 0 0 31 69 1.62 Organic manuring 24 11 60 5 3.14 19 10 59 12 2.95 43 42 15 0 3.43 46 28 20 6 3.34 Improving quality of Livestock 79 2 19 0 3.79 68 0 26 6 3.56 56 44 0 0 3.56 55 39 0 6 3.43 feeding Nutrient 47 22 25 6 3.35 46 20 20 14 3.18 47 38 15 0 3.47 49 25 15 11 3.27 management Regular Soil 9 0 91 0 3.09 14 0 80 6 3.02 39 35 20 6 3.27 39 32 23 6 3.27 testing Conserving 71 20 7 2 3.67 72 10 8 10 3.52 71 29 0 0 3.71 70 23 1 6 3.58 natural resources

*Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

3.3 Odisha Results and discussion of the Odisha are presented under the following various sub-headings. Socio economic characteristics Age Age stands out to be a vital factor in determining the socio economic condition of the people and their ability in adopting the climate change mitigation strategies. Results of the Kendrapara district shows that above 60 age group (30.53%) person constitute majority among the male respondents and 30-40 age group constitute majority among the female respondents (42.55%). In both male (3.05%) and female (6.38%) below 30 aged populations was least. In Bhadrak district, most of the respondents were from the age group 50-60 in male and age group 40-50 in case of female. Very less per cent of the respondents were from the below 30 of age.

Education

Education helps people to understand and address the impact of climate change, encourages changes in their attitude and behaviour and helps them to adapt climate change-related trends. In Kendrapara district about 51.15% male respondents and 25.9% of female respondents had education up to secondary. None of both the genders obtain education up to graduation level. About 28 % female respondents from the district were illiterate and among male it was just 1.53 per cent. In Bhadrak district, the illiteracy was more among the both the gender, 11 per cent in male and 26 per cent among the female. Most of the respondents had obtained primary education followed by secondary education and middle level education.

Table 3.3.1: Socio economic characteristics of respondents from Odisha Particulars Kendrapara Bhadrak Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) A) Age* Above 60 years 30.53 12.77 21.70 10.31 50-60 25.95 17.02 40.57 30.93 40-50 26.72 42.55 29.25 41.24 30-40 13.74 21.28 7.55 15.46 Below 30 3.05 6.38 0.94 2.06 B) Education* Graduate 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Higher Secondary (11-12) 6.11 3.05 20.75 2.06 Secondary (9-10) 51.15 25.95 25.47 19.59 Middle (6-8) 7.63 4.58 11.32 13.40

Primary (1-5) 33.59 38.17 31.13 38.14 Illiterate 1.53 28 11.32 26.80 C) Landholding* Landless Farmer 0.0 0.0 23.58 28.87 Marginal Farmer (<1 ha) 27.5 34.0 54.72 54.64 Small Farmer (1-2 ha) 35.9 34.0 17.92 15.46 Semi Medium (2-4 ha) 25.2 27.7 3.77 1.03 Medium Farmer(4-10 ha) 11.5 4.3 - - Large Farmer (>10 ha) - - - - D) Annual income** Agriculture 30435 28894 21920 22484 Livestock 6118 5564 13516 14000 Service 36363 31717 162428 55333 Business 21244 17858 32382 28812 Total 94162 84034 230247 146769 *The figures are in percentage **represents mean score

Land holding

Land holding is taken as one of the vital factor in the study because it helps in determine the vulnerability of respondents to climate change related trend. Land holding among the female is key enabler of women empowerment. Majority of both male (35.9%) and female (34%) respondents of the Kendrapara district belongs to small farmer’s category, followed by marginal, semi medium and medium farmers among both the genders. Interestingly there was no landless farmers. In case of Bhadrak district, most of the respondents were marginal farmers (About 56 %), followed by landless farmers, small and semi medium farmers. As land holding in the study area was less, no medium and large farmers were found in the sampled population.

Annual income

In Kendrapara district both male (36363.6) and female (31717.5) obtain major share of their total income from the service sector. Which was followed by the agriculture, business and livestock among both the genders. This shows that income from the agriculture is very less as compared to services and business, which may be attributed to the climatic factors like more risk of flood, cyclones which prevents farmers to investing more in to agriculture as there is no guarantee that whatever they are investing cannot be recovered back by agricultural income. Most of the agriculture was for subsistence purpose and still lack the commercialisation. Similar trends were seen in Bhadrak district also. Contribution of livestock in total income remained lowest in both the district. In addition to this, most of the

96 respondents from both district reported that remittance sent by family members from other state was major source of income for their family.

Material Possession

Material possession play a significant role in reducing the vulnerability to climate change by diversifying source of income like by taking up animal husbandry along with farming and is also essential in securing the crop at the time of failure of monsoon and pest and decease outbreak. In Kendrapara district, most of the respondents possessed the cattle (70-80 %), which was less (63-66 %) in Bhadrak district. Buffalo were not observed in selected villages of Bhadrak. However, more number of respondents were having goat and poultry in Bhadrak district as compared to Kendrapara. None of the respondents from both the district possessed modern time and labour saving equipment’s like tractor, power tiller and seed drill. Many would hire power tillers and tractors for agricultural operations. Very few respondents from Bhadrak district had sprayer and pump set with them. Respondents from Kendrapara had more avenues of communication and entertainment like TV, mobile, bicycle when compare with the respondents from Bhadrak district.

Table 3.3.2: Possession of materials by respondents from Odisha Particulars Kendrapara Bhadrak Male (n=131) Female (n=94) Male (n=106) Female (n=97) Cattle 71.76 82.98 66.04 63.92 Goat 12.21 14.89 43.40 42.27 Poultry 1.53 0.00 35.85 39.18 Plough 48.85 43.62 44.34 49.48 Seed drill 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Power tiller 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Tractors 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Pump set 0.80 0.00 9.43 8.25 Sprayer/duster 0.00 0.00 12.26 8.25 Television 80.2 80.1 28.30 28.97 Mobile 100.0 97.9 67.92 64.74 Bicycle 89.3 87.2 63.92 54.72 Car/jeep 0.00 0.00 0.94 1.03 Scooter/bike 26.0 12.8 23.58 15.46 * Figures are in percentage

Social Participation Social participation is taken as one of the factor in the study because it assists people in getting information about the climate change, government benefits and also in obtaining the

97 remunerative price for their produce. In Kendrapara district, the participation of the respondent male and female was nil in Village Panchayat and School committee. Males were involved in Cooperatives and Self Help Group while 48 per cent women had participated in Self Help Group activities. Similar situation was also found in Bhadrak district, where Village Panchayat and School Committee participation was nil. More male participation was found in Cooperative Society and more female participation in Self Help Group activities.

Table 3.3.3: Gender differences in social participation in Odisha Participation Kendrapara Bhadrak Male (n=131) Female (n=94) Male (n=106) Female (n=97)

Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Regular Occasionally Never Village 0 0 100 0 0 100 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 Panchayat Co-operative 15 35 50 0 0 100 37.7 47.1 15.09 10.31 17.53 72.16 Society Self-Help 35.7 0 64.3 48.9 0 51.1 9.4 18.8 71.70 36.08 32.99 30.93 Group School 0 0 100 0 0 100 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 Committee *Figures are in percentages In Bhadrak district, input dealers, mobile, KVK, Village level worker (agricultural assistance), fellow farmers, Radio, TV etc. were important sources of information used by the respondents for agriculture and climatic related events. In Kendrapara, important sources reported by the farmers were Village level worker, NGOs, fellow farmers, input dealers etc.

Participation in Farm Activities

Farm activities are not complete without active participation of women. As agriculture is a multi-activity venture and comprises of large no of diverse farm operation, each one of which has equally important and has a direct impact on the net productivity of the agriculture produce. The women play a fundamental role in every agricultural activity. The relevant data of participation of both genders in different levels of farm activity by the respondents of Kendrapara district shows that there were not much significant differences seen in the participation of male and female in the pre and post harvesting operations except in the work like irrigation (85-95%), where the participation of female was more than the male. Even though in some of the work the participation of male was found to be slightly more in ploughing and harrowing, application of fertilizers, dibbling & seed sowing and hoeing and

weeding. In animal husbandry the participation of female was seems to be more in feeding (80%) and milking (82.3) and male in grazing (81.5%). The dominance of male was seen in marketing of both crop produce (82%) and animal produce (73.2%). Similar trends were found in the Bhadrak district also, however in certain operations like marketing of agricultural produce and livestock product and grazing participation of females was more when compared to Kendrapara district.

Table 3.3.4: Different levels of farm activity performed by both the gender in Odisha Kendrapara Bhadrak A) Pre Harvest operation Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Land preparation 56.5 43.5 77.6 22.4 Application of fertilizers 55.2 44.8 87.0 13.0 Dibbling and sowing of seed 57.6 42.4 88.7 11.3 Raising vegetable nursery 44.1 55.9 49.5 50.5 Irrigation 15.0 85.0 4.6 95.4 Transplanting 43.5 56.5 54.7 45.3 Hoeing and weeding 51.6 48.4 52.2 47.8 Pesticide and weedicide application 95.6 4.4 97.8 2.2 B) Harvesting and post harvesting operation Reaping the crop 47.8 52.2 49.8 50.2 Threshing 49.2 50.8 58.4 41.6 Marketing 82.0 18.0 51.2 48.8 C) Animal husbandry Feeding 20.0 80.0 1.9 98.1 Grazing 81.5 18.5 50.0 50.0 Milking 17.7 82.3 51.2 48.8 Selling of animal products 73.2 26.8 50.7 49.3 * Figures shows percentage of work done Perception of respondents about reasons behind climate change

Respondents from Kendrapara district reported that irregular rainfall, not in particular season etc. changes took place in rainfall pattern. Temperature also increasing since 2000. Though they reported that forest area around them increased. They perceived that more floods during earlier period would bring good quality soil with it, was good for cultivation as less tilling was needed and it was rich in manure. Though flood comes now days also, it brings more of plastics and wastes. As this floods have decreased, no good quality soil is coming for agricultural production. Similar trend of increasing temperature and irregular rainfall reported by the respondents from Bhadrak also. Increase in temperature, reduction in rainfall

99 frequently leading to drought like situations in the area. Some respondents also reported beneficial effect of cyclone it terms of relief from scorching heat in the region. No severe drought is reported by the respondents in the region.

When asked about the phenomenon of climate change, no one knew it. But when explained the term, they identified some of the reasons behind climate change. In Kendrapara most of the respondents perceived that deforestation (100%) and industrial (93-97%) activities as major reason behind the climate change. Respondents perceived that the domestic activity (27-63 %) and changes in land use planning (9-32%) as the other major reasons behind climate change. When compare to male respondents the knowledge of reason behind climate change was found to be poor among female respondents. However most of the respondents were not aware about the carbon sequestration and emission of greenhouse gases as reason behind climate change. Very few believed that it is natural process destined by the god. Similar trends were found in the Bhadrak district. More per cent of the respondents believed that land use change was the major reason behind the climate change from Bhadrak district. They also reported that because of late rainfall, more land use changes are required. As during monsoon season, most of the area would remain under flood water in Bhadrak district, they needed to raise the level of some portion of land so that they can cultivate vegetables and other essentials on it.

Table 3.3.5: Perception of respondents about reasons behind climate change Kendrapara Bhadrak Reasons behind climate change Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97)

Domestic activities 63.4 27.7 90.57 73.20 Deforestation 100.0 100.0 95.85 79.07 Emission of greenhouse gasses 11.5 10.6 14.15 15.46 Carbon sequestration in soils 11.3 7.6 7.5 5.5 Industrial activities 97.7 93.6 83.02 73.92 Natural process destined by God 3.8 11.7 5.5 10.5 Land use changes 38.2 9.6 60.57 53.20 *The figures are in percentage

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Plate No 14. Researchers interacting with the women farmers from Kendrapara district of Odisha

Plate No 15. Researchers interacting with the Plate No 16. Researchers interacting with the farmers from Kendrapara district of Odisha farmers from Bhadrak district of Odisha

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Vulnerability and impact of climate change

Vulnerability and impact is explained with respect to five capitals mentioned in the SLA approach viz. human, natural capital, physical capital, social capital and financial capital.

1.Human capital

Vulnerability Among the various statements tested for the sample respondents of Kedrapara district majority of farmers feel vulnerable to drudgery because of extreme events i.e. 95 per cent of male and 69 per cent female. Drudgery work in household was more for female while on the filed it was more for the male. Again 87 per cent of male and 79 per cent of female follow diversification to meet out food requirement. And about 78 per cent of male and 72 percent of female feel stressed because of extreme climate events. TV in many households also played role in reducing their vulnerability, 74 per cent of male and 60 per cent of female used to watch TV. Respondents from both the district reported that females and children would fall ill more than the male counterparts. Bhadrak district farmer felt stressed because of extreme climate events had significant influence on vulnerability compared to other components. This was then followed by the drudgery because of extreme events and follow crop diversification to meet out the food requirement. However, in both the district male farmers are more vulnerable to above components than females. Insofar the other components viz., toilet facility, nutrition died paid more roles in increasing the vulnerability of the respondents in both the districts.

Table 3.3.6: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to human capital in Odisha

Subcomponents Index Kendrapara Bhadrak Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97)

How many times you have fallen last one year 0.38 0.52 0.40 0.62 How many times you missed work because of 0.21 0.36 0.24 0.44 illness in last one year Do you feel increase in drudgery because of 0.95 0.96 0.79 0.76 extreme events Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 0.78 0.72 0.81 0.78 Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.29 0.21 0.30 0.22 Do you follow diversification on your farm to 0.87 0.79 0.71 0.63

102 meet out food requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.24 0.13 0.16 0.11 education level 0.45 0.38 0.43 0.26 Television 0.74 0.60 0.31 0.31 Total score for Human capital 0.55 0.52 0.46 0.46 *The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Food produced in the field most of the time would not be sufficient to meet out the family requirement, which they fulfilled through Public Distribution System or by purchasing food from market. Diversification was in the form of rearing livestock, however respondents said that it is less than earlier.

Impact of climate change on human capital The sampled household of Kendrapara and Bhadrak district indicated that irrespective of genders both male and female more or less equally affected by the different events of climate change. In Kendrapara and Bhadrak district male and female respondents perceived that floods increased the risk of diseases like cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid etc. (Mean score 4.10 to 4.4) respectively, while females were more impacted in both the districts. This was followed by the accessing health facilities (3.97) in Kendrapara district and to leave the normal dwelling in Bhadrak district. Respondents from Bhadrak reported that when flood occurs, they would go to house of others which are not submerged or live at the top of their house. They had particular structures in house at the top where they can keep the essential things during the submergence of the house. Further the respondents have also indicated difficulty in finding employment and also making them sick due to climate change events, but it was less in Bhadrak district (3.4to 3.63). Furthermore, Bhadrak district female (4.25) also found paucity of resources like cloths in extreme weather condition. Notwithstanding, only few males (2.5 to 3) had chances of harassment, abuse and violence during the extreme events, which was more among female. During extreme events lack of sanitation facilities constitute one of the major difficulties faced by the women respondents of Kendrapara district than the male respondents. When under submerged condition, those not having toilet at home face difficulty. At some places in Bhadrak district, wooden structures covered with old saree (cloth) from three sides on the surface of water in the river/nala used for toilet purpose (picture somewhere else).

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Table 3.3.7: Gender differential impact of climate change on human capital

Kendrapara Bhadrak Statement Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Increasing in temperature often makes me 3.32 3.73 3.1 3.48 sick Floods increases the risk of diseases like 4.10 4.25 4.2 4.4 cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid etc. In case of extreme events I find it difficult to 3.79 3.70 3.4 3.63 get the work(employment) In the situation of extreme events I have to 3.33 3.45 3.9 4.10 leave the normal dwelling In extreme events sanitation facilities are not 3.62 3.72 3.9 3.96 available I find the paucity of resources like cloths in extreme weather conditions like flood, 3.35 3.28 3.8 4.25 drought etc. During extreme events chances of my 2.5 2.85 2.5 3.00 harassment ,abuse and violence increases I feel more stressed during extreme events 3.49 3.52 3.6 3.83 During extreme climate events accessing 3.97 3.97 3.9 4.16 health facilities become difficult *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

2. Natural capital

Vulnerability In Kendrapara district majority of male feel that land degradation was on set because of climate change while female respondents feel that use forest based energy for cooking (89 to 98 per cent) made them more vulnerable climate change events. However, in Bhadrak district both male and female farmers found forest based energy for cooking increasing their vulnerability. Though most of respondents were using gas also for cooking purpose. Although, a significant number of farmers of both the district agreed that firewood have decreased compared to 30 years back (59 to 71 per cent) and they are more prone to climate induced vulnerability. Very less percentages of respondents from Kendrapara were getting water from the source daily and women had difficulty to fetch water, while respondents from Bhadrak reported that difficulty reduced during recent time because of available of hand pumps nearby.

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Table 3.3.8: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to natural capital

Index Kendrapara Bhadrak Subcomponents Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Do you use forest based energy for cooking 0.81 0.91 0.74 0.96 purpose Do you get water from the source daily? 0.11 0.13 0.47 0.52 Do you think that there is degradation of your 0.98 0.89 0.41 0.31 land because of climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in 0.59 0.51 0.61 0.71 comparison to 30 year back? Total score for Natural capital 0.62 0.61 0.56 0.63 *The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact of climate change on natural capital

In Kendrapara and Bhadrak district one of the foremost impact of climate change faced by respondents was the Pest and disease outbreak taken place due to climate change. In both districts, the impact of climate change like deforestation, desertification, loss of trees and biodiversity and increase in average temperature was found to be affected more on female than the male, because women depend more on natural resources like land, water, forest etc. to earn livelihood and to meet their family needs. It was also found true in both the district that decreased production forced many farmers to seek alternative for their livelihood. The other common challenge faced by both the genders was land degradation, decrease in ground water level and increase in cultivation cost. All these impacts cause reduction in the productivity of crop which intern reduces their ability to meet the needs of the family.

Respondents reported that because of climate change, more and new pests and diseases have occurred, which are reducing the agricultural productivity. In order to compensate reduction in the income majority of women work more on the fields and started diversifying the source of income. Because of decline in production of the agriculture both male and female were seeking alternatives for livelihood. Some respondents from Kendrapara reported the problem of soil salinity and reduction in yield. In Bhadrak respondents reported the problem salinity in nearby villages and near coastal areas. Both district respondents reported that ground water level has declined in recent years. Earlier it used to be at 25-35 feet, which has now gone up to 60-120 feet.

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Table 3.3.9: Gender differential impact of climate change on natural capital Kendrapara Bhadrak Statements Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Deforestation caused me to work hard than 3.29 3.35 3.30 3.87 before to secure resources for the family Land degradation/deforestation decreases my 3.28 3.21 3.70 4.02 family income Loss of trees and biodiversity reduced my 3.09 3.13 3.80 3.97 ability to feed the family Decreased production from agriculture forced 3.94 3.92 4.10 4.16 me to seek different alternative Extreme weather events makes me physically 3.50 3.37 3.70 3.88 weak and reduce my productivity Loss of biodiversity decreases access to 3.48 3.70 3.50 3.68 natural resources Livelihood diversification due to climate 3.50 3.57 3.30 3.62 change Salinity of soil and water degrade my land 3.92 3.98 3.60 3.65 and decrease production I am unable to irrigate my land properly due to Decrease in ground water level, which 3.43 3.47 3.60 3.84 decrease production Increase in cultivation cost and other expenses compel me to use low quality seed 3.16 3.13 3.20 3.21 and fertilized Pest and Disease outbreak took place due to climate change which destroy productivity 4.10 4.20 4.20 4.25 and increase workload  Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

3. Social capital Vulnerability Social capital play significant role in mitigation of climate vulnerability. This capital was available in the form of help by neighbours. In the tested statements about the social capital almost 100 per cent of farmers of Kendrapara district expressed that migration of family member and extreme climate makes them to work harder as well as to get into social conflict, thus fall into vulnerability trap advanced by climate change. While in Bhadrak district female farmers were more vulnerable to climate induced family migration and social conflict compared to male correspondent. Further a significant percentage of farmers from both the district have also the fact of getting help from the neighbour when needed. However, only few respondents of both the district have indicated to receive any training related to

106 climate and also assistance from local government. Most of the training was given by KVKs and NGOs working in the area. Very few persons (14-18%) said that they got assistance from local government. This assistance was relating to mostly gas and water.

Table 3.3.10: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to social capital Subcomponents Index Kendrapara Bhadrak Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Are you dependent upon others in decision 0.55 0.56 0.49 0.61 making? During extreme events I get exposed to social 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.92 conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during 0.84 0.98 0.80 0.93 extreme events Migration of family member makes us work 1.00 1.00 0.81 0.93 harder for longer time Do you get any support and help from the 0.87 0.79 0.63 0.61 neighbours when needed? Do you give any support and help to the 0.73 0.71 0.67 0.61 neighbours? When demanded? Do you get any help and assistance from local 0.18 0.15 0.18 0.14 government? Have you received any training related to 0.05 0.04 0.15 0.13 climate? Total score for Social capital 0.65 0.65 0.58 0.61 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement

Impact Impact of climate change on social capital was found to be roughly same for both the genders of Kendrapara as well as Bhadrak district. One of the prime impact faced by the male and female respondent of both the district was increased in the burden of workload on family member during climate change events, though females reported the problem more serious for them than male. Their mean score value for Kendrapara is 3.89 and 3.73 and for Bhadrak was 4.1 and 4.30, respectively. Respondents from Kendrapara also cited more land fragmentation as one of the reason for increasing burden of workload. When compared to male majority of female felt that during extreme event of climate change, migration of family member makes them to work for longer time. The impact of migration of the respondent family member was found to be more on the female, which increases their workload and chore. Most of the

107 respondents did not face much problem in sending children to school because of low income, as most of them were going in government school which is free till the age of 14 years. Females reported worsening of situation because of social norms during extreme climatic events.

Table 3.3.11: Gender differential impact of climate change on social capital Kendrapara Bhadrak Statements Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) I am unable to send my children to school due 2.74 2.31 2.7 2.50 to low income. Tradition of taking early responsibility by boys 3.21 3.19 3.0 3.25 has been started due to adverse climate During extreme events I get exposed to social 2.8 3.31 2.9 3.25 conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during 3.16 3.53 3.0 3.08 extreme events Migration of family member makes us work 3.26 3.57 3.9 4.19 harder for longer time Burden of family work increases during 3.73 3.89 4.1 4.30 extreme events *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

4. Financial capital Vulnerability Impact of climate change on financial capital vulnerability is presented in table 3.3.12. More than 90 per cent of farmers of both the district have borrowed money to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. They were borrowing loans from banks, societies, Self Help Groups and from informal sources like relatives and moneylenders. The next strategy to abate climate change induced vulnerability found to be diversification of agriculture among male farmers (82%) of Kendrapara district and in case of Bhadrak district male farmers (79%) have decreased their vulnerability through remittances. However, it was noticed that a significant percentage of respondents of both the district have also stated that their present income is sufficient to meet the family expenditure and thus reduce their vulnerability to climate change. This was mainly because of remittance they were getting from migrated members of the family. Around 40 per cent families from Bhadrak district were receiving remittance from the outside which was serving as cushion for them during unfavourable natural conditions.

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Table 3.3.12: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to financial capital

Subcomponents Index Kendrapara Bhadrak

Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97)

Have you borrowed money from anyone? 0.90 0.93 0.93 0.93 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet family expenses 0.47 0.62 0.49 0.69 My ability to provide resources for myself and family decreased 0.80 0.91 0.75 0.87 Do you own property on your name? 0.61 0.24 0.55 0.37 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more income? 0.82 0.73 0.66 0.54 Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 Does anyone from your family live outside village and send remittance to the family? 0.79 0.72 0.79 0.72 Total score for Financial capital 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.60 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement Impact

The result of Kendrapara district reveal that due to the impact of climate change, majority of male feels that they became poorer than before and their ability to provide resources for family had also decreased. It has been stated by the farmers that they were less poor now as compared to 30 years before, but their ability to provide resources to family has reduced. Though some farmers perceived that because of state support like rice at Rs. 1 per person per month, has made their life easy. Increase in daily wages constitute one of the major problem faced by the female respondents, which made them difficult to hire labours for agriculture activities, so the female farmer themselves started to work harder on their farm field than before. In Kendrapara, though labour were available, because of more labour charges (around 350/day) they could not afford it. Many respondents from Bhadrak were not facing the labour problem, they used to work collectively. Most of the respondents were affected by the involvement of middleman in marketing and made them difficult in getting appropriate fair price for their produce. In case of Bhadrak district, farmers had faced increased involvement of middlemen with mean scores of 4 and 4.08, respectively. This was then followed by the ability to provide resources to cope up with the climate change induced vulnerability.

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Table 3.3.13: Gender differential impact of climate change on financial capital

Kendrapara Bhadrak Statements Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) My ability to provide resources for 3.44 3.30 3.8 4.00 myself and family decreased I feel more poorer than before 30 years 3.52 3.29 3.0 3.67 ago Increase in Daily wages make it difficult to hire Labour for agricultural activities 3.23 3.67 3.7 3.75 to we have to work more on our lands Involvement of middleman increase so 3.22 3.62 4.0 4.08 we don’t get fair price of our product  Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

5. Physical capital

Vulnerability In Kendrapara district, 100 per cent of male farmers and 98 per cent of female farmers used mobile phone to reduce climate change vulnerability. While male farmers of Bhadrak district opined that distance to reach nearest vehicle station as vulnerability factor to climate change and female farmers felt that lack of local health facilities increased their vulnerability to climate change. Interestingly, less than 50% of farmers of Kendrapara district had felt that nearest vehicle station made them less vulnerable to climate change. Although the study indicated that female of both the districts were more vulnerable to climate change induced vulnerability as compare to their male counterpart.

Table 3.3.14: Gender differential Vulnerability to climate change in relation to physical capital Subcomponents Index Kendrapara Bhadrak Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Distance to reach nearest vehicle station(IN 0.32 0.36 0.92 0.90 KM) During extreme events like flood other Road connectivity break, making it difficult to reach 0.85 0.93 0.81 0.84 market During extreme events local health centres are 0.83 0.94 0.91 0.93 closed and there are no doctors in the area Do you use mobile/landline phone? 1.00 0.98 0.81 0.79 Total score for Physical capital 0.75 0.80 0.86 0.87 * The figures represent the Livelihood index for each statement

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Impact

During extreme events like flood and cyclone, one of the foremost problem faced by majority of male and female of Kendrapara district was difficulties in reaching market with mean score of 3.91 and 4.10, respectively. Electricity connection was another vulnerability factor for both male and female farmers of Kendrapara district. However, in Bhadrak district female were more vulnerable because of floods that resulted in to connectivity breaking and difficulty in reaching market. The study also confirms that females were more vulnerable to climate induced vulnerability compared to male. Majority of female during extreme events viz. flood and cyclone confronted with one of the major problem of breakdown of road connectivity which made them difficult to reach market which intern effect on securing livelihood.

Table 3.3.15: Gender differentiated impact of climate change on the physical capital Kendrapara Bhadrak Statements Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) During extreme events like flood, other Road connectivity break, making it difficult to reach 3.91 4.10 4.25 4.45 market During extreme events local health centres are 3.08 4.06 3.85 4.2 closed and there are no doctors in the area During extreme events electricity connectivity break, making it difficult to do household 3.87 4.01 3.80 4.01 chores We are unable to send our girl child to school due to long distance and low income, because 3.03 3.10 3.6 3.87 of extreme events *Figures represents mean score value on the scale of 1 to 5

Fig 3.5 Gender wise Impact of climate change on five components of SLA

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Vulnerability Index using IPCC-VI formula

Vulnerability Index = (exposure index-adaptive capacity index) × sensitivity index

Table. 3.3.16 Gender differential vulnerability in selected districts Kendrapara Bhadrak Statements Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97) Sensitivity How many times you have fallen ill last one year 0.38 0.52 0.40 0.62 How many times you missed work because of 0.21 0.36 0.24 0.44 illness in last one year Do you use forest based energy for cooking purpose 0.81 0.91 0.74 0.96 Do you get water from the source daily? 0.11 0.13 0.47 0.52 Are you dependent upon others in decision making? 0.55 0.56 0.49 0.61 Have you borrowed money from anyone? 0.90 0.93 0.93 0.93 Do you think your income is sufficient to meet 0.47 0.62 0.49 0.69 family expenses Distance to reach nearest vehicle station(IN KM) 0.32 0.36 0.92 0.90 sensitivity index 0.47 0.55 0.59 0.71 Exposure Do you feel increase in drudgery because of 0.95 0.96 0.79 0.76 extreme events Do you feel stressed because of extreme events 0.78 0.72 0.81 0.78 Do you think that there is degradation of your land 0.98 0.89 0.41 0.31 because of climate change Do you think that firewood have decreased in 0.59 0.51 0.61 0.71 comparison to 30 year back? During extreme events I get exposed to social 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.92 conflicts Strict social norms worsen my situation during 0.84 0.98 0.80 0.93 extreme events Migration of family member makes us work harder 1.00 1.00 0.81 0.93 for longer time My ability to provide resources for myself and 0.80 0.91 0.75 0.87 family decreased During extreme events like flood/landslide, other Road connectivity break, making it difficult to 0.85 0.93 0.81 0.84 reach market During extreme events local health centres are 0.83 0.94 0.91 0.93 closed and there are no female doctors in the area exposure index 0.86 0.88 0.76 0.80

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Adaptive capacity Do you use toilet facility in your house 0.29 0.21 0.30 0.22 Do you follow diversification on your farm to meet 0.87 0.79 0.71 0.63 out food requirement Do you think you follow proper nutritious diet 0.24 0.13 0.16 0.11 Do you get any support and help from the 0.87 0.79 0.63 0.61 neighbours when needed? Do you give any support and help to the 0.73 0.71 0.67 0.61 neighbours? When demanded? Do you get any help and assistance from local 0.18 0.15 0.18 0.14 government? Have you received any training related to climate? 0.05 0.04 0.15 0.13 Do you own property on your name? 0.61 0.24 0.55 0.37 Do you follow diversified agriculture to get more 0.82 0.73 0.66 0.54 income? Do you have easy access to credit source? 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 Does anyone from your family live outside village 0.79 0.72 0.79 0.72 and send remittance to the family? Do you use mobile/landline phone? 1.00 0.98 0.81 0.79 Education level 0.45 0.38 0.43 0.26 Television 0.74 0.60 0.31 0.31 adaptive capacity index 0.55 0.47 0.46 0.39 Overall Vulnerability 0.15 0.23 0.18 0.29

Vulnerability index of male and female respondents from two districts shows that in both Kendrapara and Bhadrak district females were more vulnerable than male to extreme climatic situation. Males and females from Bhadrak were more vulnerable to extreme climatic situation than the male and female of Kendrapara. In overall, females of Bhadrak district were more vulnerable to climate change than rest of the respondents of the survey.

Potential impact of climate change

Potential impact (adding sensitivity and exposure) was more on female than male and adaptive capacity of the females was much lower than the males. Owing to all these factors vulnerability of females was considerably more than men in the state.

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Potential impact and adaptive capacity

Female

Bhadrak Male

Female

Kendrapara Male

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Adaptive capacity Potential impact

Fig 3.6. Gender differential potential impact and adaptive capacity in Odisha

Impact of climate change on Agriculture Climate and agriculture are intensely interrelated global processes and therefore changes in climate affects agricultural production and productivity. The result shows that in Kendrapara and Bhadrak district, irrespective of gender both male and female faces the consequence of climate change on agriculture. Respondents from Kendrapara reported that, earlier they were cultivating rice during kharif season, but because of late rainfall and flooding situation, they cultivate it in rabi season along with udad and other pulses. In terms of increase/decrease in yield of crops, respondents reported that yield of major crops had been increased, this mainly attributed to technological improvement in terms of high yielding and flood tolerant varieties. Respondents from Bhadrak district reported that flood tolerant varieties grown has been increased by around 50 per cent in the region.

Almost 100% of both male and female farmers experienced the effect of climate change on agriculture like frequent failure of crop, outbreak of pest and disease and declining soil fertility. About 95-96 per cent of respondents reported that expenditure on re-sowing has increased. About 40-55 per cent responders perceived shifting in cropping pattern because of climate change. Very few (20-22%) perceived that there is shifting in seasons because of climate change. Both district respondents reported that ground water level has declined in recent years. Earlier it used to be at 25-35 feet, which has now gone up to 60-120 feet. All these effects on the food productivity thereby finally impact on the food security of the farmers.

114 Table 3.3.17: challenges faced by the respondents due to climate change

Kendrapara Bhadrak

Agriculture Male Female Male Female (n=131) (n=94) (n=106) (n=97)

Agricultural yield has reduced because of 75 75 80 80 extreme climate events expenditure in Re-sowing increased 95 95 96 96 pest and Disease outbreak took place 100 100 100 100

Shift in cropping pattern 40 40 55 55

Crop failure happened 100 100 100 100

Shifting of seasons 20 20 22 22 soil fertility is declining 100 100 100 100 * The figures are in percentage

Adaptive Strategies Adaptive strategy is defined as activities that aim “to reduce the vulnerability of human or natural systems to the impacts of climate change and climate-related risks, by maintaining or increasing adaptive capacity and systems resilience”. Adaptation to climate change is an effective measure at the level of farms, which can reduce the climatic susceptibility of the communities and rural households to greater extent by preparing themselves and their farming to changes and variability in climate, avoiding damages and supporting them in dealing with adverse events. It was found that very less number of respondents had received training related to climate change. Whatever training they had received was related to agriculture and given by KVKs, state agricultural departments and NGOs. In order to assess the adoptive strategy followed by individuals four broad categories have been made with selective measures alongside to each strategy. i. Socio economic and cultural strategies ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies iii. Technological strategies iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge

i. Socio economic and cultural strategies Among different adoptive strategies adopted by farmers the socio economic and cultural strategies was one of the most preferred strategy of both genders. About 49% of male and

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40% of female oriented their approach towards changing food habit in response to the climate change and their mean score value was 3.01 and 3.08 respectively. Followed by next strategy adopted by both the genders was income diversification, changing role and activities within the family and taking loan. In income diversification, they more relied on non-farm sources of income as risk in agriculture was more. Migration also induced changing gender roles. When compare to female, majority of male prefers out migration, doing more work, on and off farm and selling land and animals in order to compensate the reduction income due to climate related events. Only small fraction of respondents was selling land to cope with the effects of climate change. Receiving subsidized food and seed was one of the preferred strategy of both male (28%) and female (24%) in response to climate change. ii. Agro-Ecosystem based strategies

Result of Kendrapara district shows that when compare to other adoptive strategies majority of male and female prefers to adopt agro ecosystem based strategies. Most of the respondents had adopted the strategy of planting more or diverse varieties of crop, planting varieties resistant to pest and disease. However, some respondents said that there was very less scope for the planting diverse varieties of crops because of flood situation. Next common strategy adopted by both the genders were introducing new varieties and crop resistant to climate change, conserving seed and buy grain to eat, planting varieties tolerant to floods/ droughts and rotating the landrace varieties. The responded reported that they were using less varieties dependent upon agro-chemicals as they involved more cost. iii. Technological strategies The technological strategies adopted by farmers to keep themselves out of the unpredictable climate change events thereby enhance the climate resilience ability. In Kendrapara district majority of respondent household had followed intensive land management (sustainable) as the top most strategy. This was to grow crops during flood situation, by raising level of some parts of land. Other most prefer strategy by male farmers was contacting seed expect to assure the quality of seed (24%) and by female farmers was using more or less irrigation strategy (22%). Very less percentages of respondents (4-5%) choose crop insurance strategy to develop their ability to withstand unexpected climate change events.

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iv. Indigenous Technology Knowledge In the study areas both male and female farmers were practicing different adaptive strategies that enabled them to reduce susceptibility to climate change. These ITKs were low cost, readily available within the farm and environment friendly also. About 24% of male farmer uses traditional methods to tackle pest and diseases and 28% of female farmer using traditional method of storage in response to climate change. For pests and diseases, respondents accepted that earlier they used to more ITKs to control pests and diseases, but now practice has been reduced with availability of chemicals in the market. For storage, they had structures in their house that was properly aerated and raised to prevent entry of water during flooding situation. The other strategies employed by the both the genders were adopting traditional method of farming and cultivating traditional variety.

Plate no.17 Photograph showing elevated portion (left side) for vegetable growing during time of flood.

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Plate no.18 Photograph showing adaptation strategies for movement during flood (left) and for storage of food grains (right) in house

Plate no.19 Vegetable cultivation by the farmers from Bhadrak district of Odisha

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Plate:20 Traditional methods of decorating and painting the house in Bhadrak district of Odisha

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Table 3.3.18: Adoption strategies adopted by respondents from Odisha

Adaptive Kendrapara Bhadrak Strategie Particulars Male (n=131) Female (n=94) Male (n=106) Female (n=97) s F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Socio Renting land and 36.4 5 20 45 30 2.45 8 20 42 30 2.48 0 0 58.6 41.35 2.17 0.00 0.00 63.51 1.36 economic exchanging 9 and Sharing land and 13 35 32 20 2.73 14 36 30 20 2.74 14.42 10 44.2 31.35 2.52 13.51 20 22.9 43.59 2.26 cultural labour batai system strategies Out migration 26 43 20 11 3.04 24 40 20 16 2.92 25 50 15.3 9.62 3.06 26 49 16 9 3.08 Doing more work, 36 41 18 5 3.26 32 48 18 2 3.28 18.27 43 38.4 0 3.18 17.57 59 22 1.43 3.15 on and off farm Income 13.5 24 48 24 4 3.16 22 48 26 4 3.14 23.27 41 17 18.93 2.85 22.97 41 22.52 2.78 diversification 1 Receiving subsidized food and 28 42 19 11 3.06 24 42 22 12 3.00 30 45 15 10 3.10 28 47 15 10 3.08 seed Change food habits 7 21 31 41 2.25 8 20 32 40 2.28 10 22 35 33 2.44 12 23 36 29 2.54 Changing role and activities within the 28 40 28 4 3.20 32 38 24 6 3.20 25 40 25 10 3.05 26 42 23 9 3.08 family Taking Loan 30 41 20 9 3.12 32 44 18 6 3.20 34 40 24 2 3.30 30 42 26 2 3.26 Selling Land and 13 17 33 37 2.39 12 22 30 36 2.40 10 18 35 37 2.36 12 17 36 35 2.42 animals Agro- Planting crop and Ecosyste varieties as per 20 30 28 22 2.76 22 28 30 20 2.82 15 20 35 30 2.55 16 22 22 40 2.36 m based markets demand strategies Conserving seed and 24 54 22 0 3.24 22 42 26 10 3.02 23 46 25 6 3.11 24 44 26 6 3.12 : buy grain to eat Introducing new varieties and crop 7 19 42 32 2.43 7 16 42 35 2.37 6 18 42 34 2.38 7 20 42 31 2.45 resistant to climate change Planting more or diverse varieties of 3 15 31 51 2.01 4 14 30 52 2.00 3 11 33 53 1.97 5 12 35 48 2.09 crop 120

Rotating the 5 15 32 48 2.09 6 15 35 44 2.18 5 16 32 47 2.11 6 15 36 43 2.20 landrace varieties planting varieties tolerant to floods/ 10 21 29 40 2.30 11 22 28 39 2.33 15 20 30 35 2.45 16 22 28 34 2.48 droughts planting varieties resistant to pest and 2 13 25 60 1.82 3 15 25 57 1.89 4 16 26 54 1.96 3 17 25 55 1.93 disease intercropping and 20 25 35 20 2.80 18 27 33 22 2.74 41.35 6.73 51.9 0.00 2.89 62.16 10.8 27.0 0.00 3.35 crop rotation planting short cycle 15 20 35 30 2.55 12 22 34 32 2.48 41.35 0.00 58.6 0.00 2.83 62.16 1.35 36.4 0.00 3.26 crop Technolo Intensive land gical management 17 20 28 35 2.47 18 20 30 32 2.54 0.96 40.38 58.6 0.00 2.42 0.00 63.5 36.4 0.00 2.64 strategies (sustainable) : Using more or less 19 32 20 29 2.61 22 34 30 14 2.94 3.85 40.38 55.7 0.00 2.48 1.35 62.1 36.4 0.00 2.65 irrigation Contacting seed experts to assure 24 33 25 18 2.88 22 36 24 18 2.86 46.15 42.31 11.5 0.00 3.35 31.08 63.5 5.41 0.00 3.26 quality Using high yield 14 44 28 14 2.86 16 48 20 16 2.84 19.23 5.77 75.0 0.00 2.44 14.86 16.2 68.9 0.00 2.46 seeds Crop Insurance 17 25 35 23 2.71 14 30 26 30 2.54 30.77 36.54 32.6 0.00 2.98 17.57 50.0 31.0 1.35 2.84 Using traditional 27 35 28 10 3.07 24 36 28 12 3.00 0.96 40.38 49.0 9.62 2.33 0.00 63.5 32.4 4.05 2.59 varieties Indigeno Using tradition us methods to tackle 24 57 49 0 2.81 24 48 22 0 2.90 6.73 40.38 20.1 32.69 2.21 4.05 63.5 5.41 27.03 2.45 Technolo pest and diseases gy Using traditional Knowled method of storage 23 73 34 0 2.92 28 46 20 0 3.00 0.96 40.38 48.0 10.58 2.32 0.00 63.5 35.1 1.35 2.62 ge *Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

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Mitigation strategies The mitigation strategies adopted by the Kendrapara district shows that almost all the respondents adopt one or the other above mentioned strategies to alleviate the process of climate change but the adoptive percentage varies from one strategies to other. Most of the respondents (96-98%) reported that they were doing afforestation. Though respondents from Kendrapara district did not know and follow about zero tillage, many respondents from Bhadrak district said that they were using it for rice-udid cropping system. After rice crop, they simply broadcast the udid seed in rice fields without any operations (ploughing, harrowing etc.). About 52% of male and 34% of female follow the strategy of improving quality of livestock feeding and reduce food wastage respectively, and the mean scores of respective strategies were 3.17 and 3.0. The next strategies followed by the male respondents was nutrient management (36%), reduce food wastage (35%) and regular soil testing (33%). As for as female household is concerned they give more preference for water conservation (32%), improving quality of livestock feeding (30%), nutrient management (30%) and organic manuring (22%). The percentage of female prefer to adopt strategies like use of technologically advanced fertilizers, herd management and conserving natural resources was found to slightly less than the male.

It was observed from the above analysis that respondents have propensity to adopt different strategies to cope with climate change effects. The most of the respondents found to adapt strategies pertaining to cropping system and resource conservations. On gender note males are found to adapt outdoor strategies and females mostly prefer indoor strategies. It was also found that most of the respondents have also stayed away from the advanced strategies and hence policy advocacy emanating from these findings establishes to create awareness in the modern strategies.

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Table 3.3.19: Mitigation strategies adopted by respondents from Odisha Kendrapara Bhadrak Measures Male (n=131) Female (n=94) Male (n=106) Female (n=97) F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** F Ge Se N A** Afforestation 14 44 38 4 3.06 16 42 40 2 3.12 24 43 32 1 3.22 17 63 19 1 3.15 Zero tillage 8 10 38 44 2.20 8 14 34 44 2.20 40 30 22 8 3.24 40 30 21 9 3.22 Water conservation 17 29 42 12 2.93 12 32 40 16 2.80 10 37 43 10 2.90 10 35 42 13 2.84 Organic manuring 15 50 30 5 3.05 22 48 24 6 3.10 32 50 16 2 3.28 26 51 20 3 3.20 Nutrient 9 33 28 30 2.49 10 36 28 26 2.58 2 18 57 23 2.56 2 20 56 22 2.58 management Regular Soil testing 5 16 44 35 2.35 6 16 42 36 2.34 14 28 44 14 2.86 14 30 44 12 2.90 Conserving natural 18 33 40 9 3.00 14 35 43 8 2.98 16 30 42 12 2.92 15 35 40 10 2.95 resources

*Figures are in percentage. ** Represents mean score on the scale of 1-4. F = Fully, Ge = To great Extent, Se = To some Extent, N = Not at all, A = Average (F to N)

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Chapter 4 Evaluation of Policies and programs Women play an active role in responding and adapting to the impacts of climate change. They are the main thread in the family to engage in mitigation strategies. Thus if technology, policy and action fail to address the varying impacts of climate change on women on par with men with possible affirmative action there would be a chance of increasing global gender inequalities (As noted by CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). The evaluation of policies and programs in this section is made from various sources viz., Vikaspedia, Reports of various ministries, research articles, newspaper editorials and others. Indeed, enough care has been taken to reflect the core concern and suggestion for further improvement of the existing policy, schemes and programs.

It was observed from numerous empirical studies and literature that the gender and climate change adaptation show gender differentials and are critical to the success of adaptation interventions. The unequal role and power held by men and women in society and the availability of equal opportunity for their representation is the main reason for this difference. On a positive side, several of India’s plans, policies, and programs have a bearing on agriculture-related livelihoods. For the past several years, the government has made considerable effort to mainstream the women through various livelihood programs and policies. Their role in various sectors of economy has been recognized over a period and now their social position is on move.

But the existing policies which aim for adoption hardly deliberate the gender perspective, on closer observation they are either gender blind or gender neutral far from being gender transformative or gender just. Also on broader analysis of India’s climate change related policies reveals that these policies and plans primarily address women’s economic needs and They tend to ignore the strategic needs of women to cope-up with climate change. This is one of the reasons that gender disparity persists on many fronts in India. They are actively involved in increasing the existing gender division of labour without balancing the wheel of human development.

On economic note, ignoring the role of women in adoption and mitigation efforts of climate change would further derail their socio-economic position. In addition, the cost of disregarding them on board for effective adaptation and mitigation is too high to estimate and

124 fill. Therefore, the existing policy paradigm must take confidence of women for their role in adoption and mitigation.

Programs and policies on combating climate change

1. National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

The National Action Plan on Climate change was the first comprehensive plan for combating climate change encompassing most of the sectors. It was formally launched on June 30th, 2008. It is a plan that outlines the number of steps to simultaneously balance the development and climate related objectives through various adoption and mitigation efforts. The plan has eight core national missions, which forms the basis for comprehensive actions.

Submissions under NAPCC are

National Solar Mission National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency National Mission on Sustainable Habitat National Water Mission National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem National Mission for a Green India National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change i. National Solar Mission: In the era of high-energy demand and use, it is less possible for us to rely on conventional sources. The cheaper reliable and continuous harvest of renewable energy is the need of the hour. Hence, under NAPCC solar mission was made to harvest the solar energy. The main objective of this is to increase the share of solar energy in the total energy mix of the country. ii. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: It envisages to encourage the energy savings and to establish a market based mechanism to trade the energy savings. It also makes provision for affordable energy efficient appliances and products. iii. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: The mission bound to make habitats more sustainable through three special approaches. First by improving the energy efficiency of buildings' residential and commercial sectors. Second by Municipal waste management and third by promoting urban public transport.

125 iv. National Water Mission: The basic premise of this mission is to conserve water, minimizing wastage and ensuring more equitable distribution through integrated water resource management. It also expresses to develop a framework to increase the water use efficiency by 20% and calls for strategies to tackle variability in rainfall, river flows such as enhancing surface and underground water storage, rainwater harvesting and more efficient irrigation systems like sprinklers or drip irrigation . v. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: The plan mainly stresses on empowering the local people by leveraging panchayat for managing ecological sources. It was also committed to the measures mentioned in the National Environmental Policy, 2006 Viz., land use planning and watershed management, adopting best infrastructure construction practice to avoid damage to ecology, Encouraging traditional varieties, sustainable tourism and others. vi. National Mission for a Green India: It primarily aims to enhance the ecosystem services such as carbon sync. This mission is implemented in degraded forest through land through Joint Forest Management Committees. These committees were set up under the state forest department and promote direct action by communities. vii. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: In recent years’, Indian agriculture is exposed to extreme weather induced by climate change effects. This mission aims to make Indian agriculture more resilient to climate change. Under these missions new varieties of crops, especially thermal resistant ones and alternative cropping patterns will be identified to build climate resilience by integration of traditional knowledge and practical systems, information technology and biotechnology. viii. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: This mission envisages working closely with the global community to augment own research system and technology development through collaboration. It also promotes private sector participation in developing innovative technologies for adoption and mitigation of climate change effects.

Though NAPCC's comprehensive mission to address the climate change effects failed to deliberate the gender issues, particularly women aspects. The NAPCC failed to include the diverse views of experts. Sub missions with diverse subjects have not dealt in deep to understand the real problems. First, the mission which affects the everyday lives of so many women like National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture has been developed without any consultations or inputs from gender experts; it has been developed by technical research

126 organizations and government functionaries lacking touch with the ground realities. Therefore, mission now must demand to include grass root level stakeholders to identify gender based mandates to deliver the fruits of development to all. Second, in National Water Mission there is no mention of the word ‘gender’ or even ‘women’. As water is a primary need of women for livelihood and domestic activities, but the document of this mission does not give any attention to gender perspective. Third, less attention was paid to gender in the National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem. Himalayan Mission lists the subjects like agriculture, forests and water; it is imperative to deliberate gender issues. The Mission statement follows as ‘The Himalayan ecosystem includes 51 million people who practice hill agriculture and remain vulnerable.” Furthermore, the section on Vulnerability Assessment does find a mention of social impacts of climate change which are critical for socio-economic development but the mission document fails to ascertain the of vulnerabilities of gender.

Fourth, Green India Mission mainly focuses on carbon sequestration through afforestation rather than the central focus being securing women. The mission itself cannot unlink from enabling women, when the women are living from the non-timber products like wild herbs/ fruits/food, fodder and firewood where no other fuel is available. The Mission document itself does not highlight the role of women in forest management and accords only a limited recognition to them as one of the stakeholders. Serious attempts to represent the women in each stage of forest conservation and joint management are needed for gender just transformation.

From the above analysis, it’s held that among the four adaptation-focused national missions there is no scope for additional focus on gender issues, especially the strategic needs of both the genders. As these missions framed to touch the grass root through the ongoing programs and schemes, they tend to ignore the central role of women. Moreover, these missions invariably the part of the vertical decision-making apparatus, having ownership and control over productive resources. They are less inclusive and conducive for sensitizing the gender issue and encouraging women for gender related mitigation strategies to lessen the effects of climate change and decrease the vulnerability.

Apart from polices and missions the planning process has also paid less attention to Women and the environment. Evidently, the in 11th Five Year Plan, which is the platform through which the NAPCC Missions is implemented, failed to include gender related impact on

127 climate change. In the Plan’s chapter on ‘Environment and Climate Change’ women are completely missing in the whole discussion. Thus, at one level, the 11th Five Year Plan (GOI 2008) does recognize that women are the principal stakeholders in natural resource use and management at another level, time spent on the above activities is not counted because these activities are part of the informal economy and not the market economy. In the wake of climate change impacts and more work hours added, it becomes critical to adopt statistical methodologies to value and include time-use statistics for this work into the country’s gross national income

Thus, a strong reason to believe that gender component is necessary for successful articulation and implementation of all the climate related commitments, specifically the State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs). SAPCC is the main stay in transmission of central responsibility to federal units in the state. Hence, the Central governments have issued guidelines for formulation of SAPCCs to state authorities to emphasize the importance of climate change. The aim of these guidelines is mainly to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (Now Sustainable Development Goals). Moreover, the efforts in factoring to address the gender concerns are vital to realize India’s national development priorities, including the MDG.

The adoption plan of all SAPCCs’ has primarily focused on agriculture and allied services, water resources, forestry and on coping with natural disasters. It has been found that in Official records and statistics gender concerns are dominant in these areas. India’s Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP) acknowledges that the climate-sensitive agriculture sector employs 80% of all economically active women. Moreover, most of the state governments in India have been “very positive” about incorporating the gender dimension in their climate change action plans. However, the policy to directly address the women's issues is yet to be formulated. The National Action Plan on Climate Change identifies poor women as the worst affected group, but it fails to address the gender dimensions in its eight missions, although four of which relate to agriculture-related adaptation. The approach was “techno- managerial in their orientation and gender-blind”, according to Alternative Futures. The draft state plans also lack gender analysis and scientific documentation of local adaptation practices.

2. India’s ambitious National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) has immense potential for being used for adaptation of various interventions. The Act itself envisages

128 providing for 33% reservation for women who by default are eligible to get 100 day work by the government during the agricultural lean season. However, in practice, this percentage is almost never reached and real figures are worrisome. Women are paid less than men for the same amount and nature of work and involving women for planning MGNREGA work is negligible. On the awareness front women are less aware about NREGA provisions. On the flip side the work site facilities (crèche, shade to rest, drinking water and toilets) were available (WNTA 2007). There was no gender-disaggregated work allocation, degrading the social position of women. In fact, in certain places women are asked to come with menfolk thereby preventing single women, widows, deserted women. (WNTA 2007 and Kapoor 2011).

3. Gender Budgeting

In India, women were often deprived of economic opportunities. In order to provide and deliberate the economic issues encompassing women the concept of gender budget was introduced in India in the year 2005-06 as a part of Union Budget. The scheme of gender budgeting has a list of government schemes that have 100% budget provisions for women and those where at least 30% of the budget provisions are earmarked for women. Together, this amounts to about 5-6% of the budget being allocated for women, a far cry from a more equitable 50% allocation that would be gender-just. When seen as per capita allocation, this amounts to less than Rs 1200 per year per woman which is too less at present context. Worse, several of the schemes included in the 100% allocation are not women specific (Mishra and Das, 2006).

In recent years, it was noticed that the magnitude of the gender budget as a proportion of the total expenditure of the Union Budget has seen a decreased trend. Also observed by Gender Budgeting Cells (GBC) there is still a lack of human resources to implement the interventions.

4. National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)

The program was carved mainly to reduce poverty by enabling the poor households to access gainful self- employment and skilled wage employment. Moreover, the mission enables individual women in the self-help groups for creating their own livelihood. However, the scheme as such does not have a special window for categorization of women vulnerable to climate change and does not have any special incentive as such to buffer their vulnerability.

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5. National Innovation for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)

New set of innovations in agriculture can speed up the process of adoption and mitigation efforts. NICRA is one such platform that has the potential to bring national level innovation for better adaptation and mitigation of climate change effects, especially for women. Although the studies under the project found women are more prone to climate change effects, there is no separate cadre/ sub project to estimate the impact on women. The project as a whole grossly ignored the gender effects. As NICRA has a huge network of scientific faculty from all subjects, it has a potential to bring new shape and space for vulnerable women.

6. Institutional mechanism

Institutions play key roles in combating climate change effects, they also serve as a stage for individual representation and legal enforcement. Major plank for deterring climate change activities and protecting and promoting green growth is the National Green Tribunal (NGT). It is the host for launching credible enforcements on any agency which violates the statute. It is evident that the majority of the programs are lacking in women representation which is serious concern. As climate change equally affects both men and women there is dire need to give more space for their representation to decrease vulnerability.

Other organizations where women can be effectively enabled and empowered are the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCB). These organizations have mandated the implementation of Air pollution act 1974, which provides special scope for empowering women. In recent years due to pollution and climate change water in rural areas started degrading to create an excess burden on women (as women most of the time responsible for household needs in most part). This was not recognized by any institutions to support women to increase the level of adoption and mitigation. Therefore, these institutions have the scope to make women more inclusive and climate resilient.

However, the National Institutional efforts were now visible in giving more representation for women to decrease her vulnerability to climate change. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, has initiated some measures to reduce the impact of climate factors on women. These include reducing drudgery by replacing labour with simple machines, crop diversification, fodder cultivation and seed procurement.

130 The research by Alternative Futures was mainly focused on how women could adapt to climate variability, while suggested 4 C’s where India’s adaptation missions must circumvent:

 Enable counting of women in planning and executing all schemes  Converging programs through District Rural Development Agencies and Panchayati Raj Institutions  Capacity development and empowerment of women at the grassroots level and  Collaborating with key stakeholders – adaptation scientists, government line agencies and departments, user groups and civil society groups – to build resilience among the most vulnerable sections, using traditional knowledge as well as scientific innovations.

7. Framework to incorporate Gender Concerns in SAPCC

As per Kapoor (2011), Incorporating gender-responsive language and gender-responsive outcomes in the national adaptation Missions and State adaptation plans is the starting point for gender equality Aditi Kapoor has given a Framework to incorporate Gender Concerns in SAPCCs. a. State-level Climate Change Action Plans: Should incorporate gender-responsive language for more serious and deep deliberation of gender issues. Also it should make socio-economic vulnerability assessment part of the overall vulnerability assessment in the SAPCCs. b. Information and actions for adaptation-related programs/schemes: should collect the gender disaggregated data and to incorporate the gender specific objectives in policies and programs. Apart from this set gender specific indicators and carry out gender focused monitoring and evaluation also capacity building of women to implement the participatory schemes. c. Encouraging ‘bottoms-up’ learning’s: Building the gender renders responsive communication strategy with active participation of women. Scale up efforts of ongoing schemes with active involvement of women for adoption specific initiatives. Capacity building and handholding to vulnerable people especially women and marginal sections. Also promote women as drivers of change by building on women’s agency to realize their potential.

131 d. Gender budgeting: ensure a dedicated budget for empowering and enabling women for adoption of various initiatives. It would provide economic opportunities to cope up with the climate change effects.

Suggested reforms

Major reforms emanating from the study are explained briefly under three broad sections viz., Research, Implementing agency and mechanism and Property and policy. Reforms suggested here are purely recommendatory nature and are emanating from the study.

1. Research

Research plays a key role in expressing the climate related vulnerability. As research relies on empirical evidence and theoretical facts, it is more appropriate to portray contemporary pictures of climate perception and asses’ vulnerability status in a more appealing manner. Therefore, it’s regarded as one of the main pillars that helps in understanding and addressing climate change related effects.

First, there is dire need to establish a clear all India vulnerability assessment of rural women in a holistic manner. This would help in better understanding of women issues and complications facing in adoption and mitigation efforts.

Second, the present set of adoption strategies favor men more than women and there are no special strategies dedicated to women. Moreover, standardization of these strategies is presently lacking. Hence, the scope needs to be extended to include and overhaul adoption strategies in a comprehensive manner.

Third, national level strategic and network programs must deliberate the gender issues in a more realistic and practical manner. Specifically, in NICRA where climate change effects are studied in a more inclusive manner should include the gender sensitive aspects highlighting women issues both at adoption and mitigation level.

Fourth, there is immense need to establish gender-disaggregated baseline data. This baseline is vital for the Government to analyze gender‐specific impacts and protection measures related to numerous climatic hazards viz. floods, droughts, cyclones, and other environmental changes and disasters and identify gender differential needs.

Last, there is a need to establish a gender sensitive cell at all India levels to clearly demonstrate the climate change effects on women and their adoption and mitigation levels to

132 the government. It may also mandate to be coordinating agencies across the research institution dealing with gender issues.

2. Implementing agency and Mechanism

Institution and implementing agencies play a vital role in adoption of climate related practices and packages. They mainly engage in information service to enhance individual adoption level. Often these agencies ignore/ favor men over women in providing information. Hence there is a need to balance this with active participation of both the genders in adoption related programs and policy.

First, there is a need to build a capacity and skill sets among the agencies involved in empowering the rural women for adoption and mitigation. They would be provided with gender sensitive information aid to demonstrate adoption efforts to bring more women under adoption related agencies. This would also help to feel their needs in a more collective and practical manner.

Second, adoption of participatory and bottom up approach for inclusion for more women to deal with the issue of hesitation, social conflict, class status, unwillingness and reluctance to gender based programs

Third, mechanisms adopted at various levels need small tweaks to involve rural women with more friendly procedure and process, while also making it more representative and accommodative across the genders.

3. Property and policy

One of the main hindrances noticed by the body of literature across the journals is the issue of property, where women have always been ignored/ less equipped to cope-up with climate change effects. The policy is concerned it poorly establishes the role of women in adoption and mitigation effects of climate change. Therefore, the set of reforms needed in this aspect are below.

First, we need a dedicated strategy to enhance the women’s access and control to natural resources in order to leverage them for adoption efforts to lower their climate change related vulnerability.

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Second, most of the programs as noticed from the study have poorly deliberated on the gender related vulnerability and vaguely defined the gender related adaptive capacities. Therefore, a clear definition and deliberation is needed to make the program gender representative.

Third, Programs and policy must try to ensure the strategic needs and enhance the asset position and property rights of the women to better tackle climate change effects for generations.

Last, there is immense need to include the programs where gender issues are included for social audit. This would give larger scope and space for women to assess the impact of their own scheme in a more participatory manner.

134 Chapter 5

Summary and Conclusion

It has been found in our study as well as established in literature that women are affected differently by climate change. Assessment of gender differential vulnerability has been done by computing vulnerability index for males and females separately. On the basis of the results of the of vulnerability index and its components it can be concluded that in Rajasthan, exposure of both men and women to the situation like high temperature, droughts were same. Sensitivity index for females was more in both Barmer and Tonk district inferring there by that they are more sensitive to these climatic threats. Among mitigation strategies, most male members migrated to other cities for employment, less access to information and physical resources, constraints in fetching water etc. were found to be important factors that contributed to increase in sensitivity of women. Insofar, the adaptive capacity of the females was less when compared with the men attributed to low level of literacy, less access to credit in rural settings, lack of (or not use of) toilet facilities and improper nutritious diet. It can be said that in wholesome manner Potential impact of climate change (adding sensitivity and exposure) was more on women than men in both districts. All these conditions made women marginally more vulnerable than males. It has been further observed that the impact of climate change on human capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital is more for women as compared to men. However, the impact on natural capital stands out to be almost the same for both men and women. Regarding the different strategies to withstand the climate variability, it has been observed that respondents from the selected districts of the state had adopted the strategy of migration of male members due to the absence of less employment opportunities during the climatic hazards, which lead to changing of gender roles and activities. Diversification of agriculture, more borrowing, more work on field, planting drought resistant and short duration varieties of crops, selection of crop/varieties as per market demand, intercropping and crop rotation etc. were some of the other strategies adopted by the respondents Mitigation strategies involve action taken to eliminate or reduce the long-term risk and hazards of climate change. In Rajasthan, water conservation in the field was the most common mitigation strategy used by the respondents using different structures/tools in

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the field. Even many companies are using their CSR funds for constructing the structures to conserve the water, and prevent run-off of rainwater

In the state of Himachal Pradesh, both men and women were exposed equally to rising temperature, landslides and irregular snowfall; though exposure index score was less as compared to Rajasthan and Odisha. Accordingly, the sensitivity of women was found to be more, but the difference compared to other states was negligible. This is mainly because more participation of women in decision making and more access to information as male members seek jobs outside the village leaving all agricultural activities in the hands of women. Though the adaptive capacity of females from the state was slightly lower than men, it is better than the Rajasthan and Odisha states. The major reason behind the more adaptive capacity of the females of Himachal Pradesh were more education level, diversification of agriculture, availability and use of toilet facilities etc. The true representation of these factors resulted in a more adaptive capacity of the women in Himachal Pradesh as compared to two other states; however, it was slightly less than the male counterparts. Analogous case for potential impact of climate change on both gender was also true when added sensitivity and exposure to it. As study reported women have more bearing effects of climate change on all components of SLA viz. human capital, natural capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital however the difference was found less apparent in financial capital in Kullu and physical capital in Mandi district, respectively.

In Himachal Pradesh, crop shifting to other parts and resultant decrease in yield was observed in an event of increased temperature. For these farmers had adopted strategies like planting diverse varieties of crops, rotation of crops, use of high yielding seeds and use of indigenous knowledge to control pests and diseases. The most common mitigation strategies adopted in Himachal Pradesh were afforestation, improving quality of livestock feeding, conservation of natural resources like soil and water.

In Odisha state, both men and women were exposed to two vagaries of climate change i.e. cyclone and floods. Though, there was not considerable difference between male and female exposure index in Kendrapara district, in Bhadrak district women were more exposed to climate change events than men, attributed to increased drudgery. Because of these events, migration of male members forced them to work more in the field. The frequent incidences of illness, more borrowing, long distance to reach vehicle station, more dependence upon forest

136 based energy for cooking purposes etc. has made the Sensitivity index of females more in Bhadrak district as compared to male.

Adaptive capacity of females in both districts was significantly lower than men because of improper nutritious diet, no training related adaptation techniques on climate change events, lack of toilet facilities at home, less assistance from local government during climatic events. While adding sensitivity and exposure to climate events the potential impact was more on females than male. Owing to all these factors vulnerability of females was considerably more than men in the state, Vulnerability of women was highest. The visible impact of climate change on all components of SLA viz. human capital, natural capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital was more on women than men except for natural capital in case of Kendrapara difference was less. Regarding adaptive strategies, changing food habits, income diversification, out migration by makes, receiving subsidized food, planting diverse varieties of crops, crops resistant to floods, intensive land management, traditional methods of storage etc. were the strategies adopted by the respondents to reduce the effect of climatic threats. As far as mitigation is concerned, it has been found that improving the quality of livestock feeding, water conservation, nutrient management etc. mitigation strategies were adopted by the respondents.

Many of the programs evaluated in the proceeding section have bearing on the livelihood of women. They are important to ease the life of women in the era of climate uncertainties. On the one hand, most of the policies fail to acknowledge the role of women though her role has been clearly demarcated, on the other have not paid attention though they have potential to empower women and promote gender parity. Therefore, the comprehensive overhaul of the existing policy is needed to make them more gender sensitive and gender friendly.

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139 NABARD Research Series

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