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Self-Healing Polymeric Materials: a Review of Recent Developments

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Self-Healing Polymeric Materials: a Review of Recent Developments ARTICLE IN PRESS Prog. Polym. Sci. 33 (2008) 479–522 www.elsevier.com/locate/ppolysci Self-healing polymeric materials: A review of recent developments Dong Yang WuÃ, Sam Meure, David Solomon CSIRO Manufacturing and Materials Technology, Gate 5, Normanby Road, Clayton South, Victoria 3168, Melbourne, Australia Received 17 June 2007; received in revised form 30 January 2008; accepted 18 February 2008 Available online 4 March 2008 Abstract The development and characterization of self-healing synthetic polymeric materials have been inspired by biological systems in which damage triggers an autonomic healing response. This is an emerging and fascinating area of research that could significantly extend the working life and safety of the polymeric components for a broad range of applications. An overview of various self-healing concepts for polymeric materials published over the last 15 years is presented in this paper. Fracture mechanics of polymeric materials and traditional methods of repairing damages in these materials are described to provide context for the topic. This paper also examines the different approaches proposed to prepare and characterize the self-healing systems, the different methods for evaluating self-healing efficiencies, and the applicability of these concepts to composites and structural components. Finally, the challenges and future research opportunities are highlighted. Crown Copyright r 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Polymeric materials; Self-healing; Composite repair; Biomimetic repair Contents 1. Introduction . 480 2. Fracture mechanics of polymeric materials. 483 3. Traditional repair methods for polymeric materials. 485 3.1. Repair of advanced composites . 485 3.1.1. Welding . 485 3.1.2. Patching . 485 3.1.3. In-situ curing of new resin . 485 3.2. Repair of thermoplastics . 485 4. Self-healing of thermoplastic materials. 486 4.1. Molecular interdiffusion . 486 4.2. Photo-induced healing . 487 4.3. Recombination of chain ends . 488 4.4. Self-healing via reversible bond formation. 489 ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 9545 2893; fax: +61 3 9545 2829. E-mail address: [email protected] (D.Y. Wu). 0079-6700/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2008.02.001 ARTICLE IN PRESS 480 D.Y. Wu et al. / Prog. Polym. Sci. 33 (2008) 479–522 4.4.1. Organo-siloxane . 489 4.4.2. Ionomers . 491 4.5. Living polymer approach. 493 4.6. Self-healing by nanoparticles . 493 5. Self-healing of thermoset materials . 494 5.1. Hollow fiber approach. 494 5.1.1. Manufacture and characterization . 494 5.1.2. Assessment of self-healing efficiency . 497 5.2. Microencapsulation approach . 498 5.2.1. Manufacture and characterization of self-healing microcapsules . 499 5.2.2. Mechanical property and processing considerations . 503 5.2.3. Assessment of self-healing efficiency . 504 5.3. Thermally reversible crosslinked polymers . 508 5.4. Inclusion of thermoplastic additives . 509 5.5. Chain rearrangement. 511 5.6. Metal-ion-mediated healing . 512 5.7. Other approaches . 513 5.7.1. Self-healing with shape memory materials . 513 5.7.2. Self-healing via swollen materials . 513 5.7.3. Self-healing via passivation . 514 6. Modeling . 514 7. Conclusions . 515 8. Insights for future work . 515 References . 516 1. Introduction microcracks may affect the structural integrity of the polymeric components, shorten the life of the Polymers and structural composites are used in a vehicle, and potentially compromise passenger variety of applications, which include transport safety. vehicles (cars, aircrafts, ships, and spacecrafts), With polymers and composites being increasingly sporting goods, civil engineering, and electronics. used in structural applications in aircraft, cars, However, these materials are susceptible to damage ships, defence and construction industries, several induced by mechanical, chemical, thermal, UV techniques have been developed and adopted by radiation, or a combination of these factors [1]. industries for repairing visible or detectable da- This could lead to the formation of microcracks mages on the polymeric structures. However, these deep within the structure where detection and conventional repair methods are not effective for external intervention are difficult or impossible. healing invisible microcracks within the structure The presence of the microcracks in the polymer during its service life. In response, the concept of matrix can affect both the fiber- and matrix- self-healing polymeric materials was proposed in the dominated properties of a composite. Riefsnider 1980s [7] as a means of healing invisible microcracks et al. [2] have predicted reductions in fiber- for extending the working life and safety of the dominated properties such as tensile strength and polymeric components. The more recent publica- fatigue life due to the redistribution of loads caused tions in the topic by Dry and Sottos [8] in 1993 and by matrix damage. Chamis and Sullivan [3] and then White et al. [9] in 2001 further inspired world more recently, Wilson et al. [4] have shown that wide interests in these materials [10]. Examples of matrix-dominated properties such as compressive such interests were demonstrated through US Air strength are also influenced by the amount of matrix force [11] and European Space Agency [12] invest- damage. Jang et al. [5] and Morton and Godwin [6] ments in self-healing polymers, and the strong extensively studied impact response in toughened presence of polymers at the First International polymer composites and found that matrix cracking Conference on Self-healing Materials organized by causes delamination and subsequent fiber fracture. the Delft University of Technology of the Nether- In the case of a transport vehicle, the propagation of lands in February 2007. ARTICLE IN PRESS D.Y. Wu et al. / Prog. Polym. Sci. 33 (2008) 479–522 481 Nomenclature Mw molecular weight N number of cycles in a fatigue test e elongation to break NBE norbornene Z fatigue-healing efficiency NMA nadic methyl anhydride s fracture stress NMR nuclear magnetic resonance DK change in KI during fatigue cycling OH hydroxyl group l wavelength PBE polybisphenol-A-co-epichlorohydrin A6ACA acryloyl-6-amino caproic acid PC polycarbonate BDMA benzyl dimethylamine PDES polydiethoxysiloxane CQ camphorquinone PEEK polyether–ether–ketone DA Diels–Alder PET poly(ethylene terephthalate) DBTL di-n-butyltin dilaurate PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate) DCB double-cantilever beam PMEA poly(methoxy ethylacrylate) DCPD dicyclopentadiene PROMP photo-induced ring-opening metathesis DETA diethylenetriamine polymerization DGEBA diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A PS polystyrene DMA dimethylaniline ROMP ring-opening metathesis polymeriza- DSC differential scanning calorimetry tion E fracture energy SEM scanning electron microscopy EMAA poly(ethylene-co-methacrylic acid) TBC paratertbutylcatechol ENB 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene TCE 1,1,1-tris-(cinnamoyloxymethyl) ESR electron spin resonance ethane GQ strain energy-release factor TDCB tapered double-cantilever beam HOPMDS hydroxyl end-functionalized polydi- TEGDMA triethyleneglycol dimethylacrylate methyl-siloxane TEM transmission electron microscopy I molecular parameters TEMPO 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidine-1-oxy KI stress intensity factor Tg glass transition temperature KIMax maximum stress intensity factor TGA thermo-gravimetric analysis KIQ critical stress intensity factor UDME urethane dimethacrylate LDPE low-density polyethylene UF urea-formaldehyde MA methacrylic acid UV ultraviolet light Conceptually, self-healing polymeric materials actuators, cracking due to manufacturing-induced have the built-in capability to substantially recover residual stresses, and fiber de-bonding. their load transferring ability after damage. Such An ideal self-healing material is capable of recovery can occur autonomously or be activated continuously sensing and responding to damage after an application of a specific stimulus (e.g. heat, over the lifetime of the polymeric components, and radiation). As such, these materials are expected to restoring the material’s performance without nega- contribute greatly to the safety and durability of tively affecting the initial materials properties. This polymeric components without the high costs of is expected to make the materials safer, more active monitoring or external repair. Throughout reliable and durable while reducing costs and the development of this new range of smart maintenance. Successful development of self-healing materials, the mimicking of biological systems has polymeric materials offers great opportunities for been used as a source of inspiration [13]. One broadening the applications of these lightweight example of biomimetic healing is seen in the materials into the manufacture of structural and vascular-style bleeding of healing agents following critical components. the original self-healing composites proposed by Healing of a polymeric material can refer to the Dry and Sottos [8]. These materials may also be able recovery of properties such as fracture toughness, to heal damage caused by insertion of other sensors/ tensile strength, surface smoothness, barrier properties ARTICLE IN PRESS 482 D.Y. Wu et al. / Prog. Polym. Sci. 33 (2008) 479–522 and even molecular weight. Due to the range of I healed RðIÞ¼ (4) properties that are healed in these materials, it can I initial be difficult to compare the extent of healing. Wool and O’Connor [14] proposed a basic method
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