European Journal of Social Sciences ISSN 1450-2267 Vol. 57 No 4 March, 2019, pp.453-473 http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/

Female Athletes’ Media Footprint on Sports Press of 1968

Rosa María Valles Ruiz Professor-researcher of the Hidalgo State Autonomous University (UAEH, Mexico) Ph.D. on Political and Social Science by the National Autonomous University of Mexico She works on the research area of Gender and History Discourse Analysis, Oral History, and Student Movements E-mail: [email protected]

Xochitl Andrea Sen Santos Ph.D., Political and Social Science by the National Autonomous University of Mexico Professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico She works on the research areas Sports and Gender Discourse Analysis and Oral History E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This paper's main objective is to identify the gender stereotypes on sports press about female athletes on the Olympic Games of 1968 through the use of discourse analysis and gender perspective. For the gender perspective, the proposal by Rodríguez and González will be used; they present six analysis categories: traditional, progressive and/or innovative, liberal, biological, educational and psychological. For the discourse analysis, parts of the model by Gutiérrez-Vidrio (2010). She proposes the study of the journalistic speech on a macro discursive field throughout the acts of speech (description, interpretation, and appreciation) and the recreation of the discourse's production conditions that are expressed on the answers to five questions: Who is the discourse emitter? Whom is it aimed for? What does it talk about? Where does it come from? At what circumstantial moment is the discourse emitted? The traditional and biological approaches are closely linked to press stereotypes regarding female athletes through the categories of beauty and racial discrimination. Physical beauty highlights in detriment of sporty dexterity. On a smaller measure, some texts are linked to the liberal theory when the athletes' skills were highlighted. The theoretical approach and the utilized methodology showed its relevance.

Keywords: Olympic Games 1968, female athletes, gender and History, discourse analysis, female stereotypes

1. Introduction

“Corporal training priorities is common to both sexes, although it is headed to different objectives. On boys […] it consists on developing strength; on girls, it is about arousing charms”. Jean Jacques Rousseau 453 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019)

The overwhelming –and lapidary– opinion from Rousseau (1712-1778) about the role of women's physical skills is just an indication of a stance that marked an abyssal difference between public and private ambiances. For Rousseau, the private and the public ambiances were spheres with "neither space nor time" relationships between them. (Calderón, 2005). As Fernando Calderón considers, the philosopher conceived families as an institution "insensitive to History, alienated from the course of time, separated from what is public by a male decision; what is public, on the other hand, addressed the labor of marking the rhythm, and if families had never gathered, the story of our species would have barely started" (2005). Calderón attacks Rousseau, who says in his Discourse on sciences that "the inequality was introduced among men by talents' distinction and virtues' degradation" but forgets "or he rather ignored that such fatal inequality was also introduced by men by subordinating women". (2005). On her behalf, Rosa Cobo (1995) condemns Rousseau that even when he was a defender of equality and an exceptional exponent of disparities that the powerful rich people's privileges caused in society, had forgotten the oldest retainer: the women's. María Luisa Cavana (1996) reviews Cobo's job and highlights the philosopher's achievements when placing human reason as a universalized principle although relegating women's potential. Rousseau redefines the patriarchy and in his well-known Social Contract female subordination plays a crucial part inside his democratic scheme. Including women within the political arena "would bring down all the contractual building […]" (Cobo, 1995).

2. Feminism, Sports and Media Since the XIX century, feminism struggled categorically for women's access to all education levels even if the feminist from that century later accorded on the objective of one single demand: women's suffrage. However, the thoughts of the female population's rights were already registered since the XVII century. William Petty said: "One day both arithmetic and accountancy knowledge will ornament the girls better than a lace stocked dress and will protect them from cold better than fur coats". (Palanca, 2018). The XVIII century registers two idealist female warriors: Olympia de Gouges (1748-1793) and Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), and also a philosopher whom Voltaire qualified as "universal": Nicolas de Condorcet (1743-1794). The British thinker Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) had a vision that related women population's inferiority with the universal value of happiness. He expressed: "the happiness and interest of one female person constitute a big part of universal happiness, as valuable as the ones from a man". (Bentham, 1777). But the links between women and sports were barely mentioned, regardless of the Juvenal's phase in the Satires that immortalized the phrase "Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano" (To pray for a healthy mind in a healthy body). On the XVII, XVIII, and XIX centuries, according to Gabriel Angelotti Pasteur, pedagogues assumed from this sentence a "new sports ideology for the orb". Angelotti mentions Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), who talked about developing "the full man" constituted by the triad of heart, body, and reason, and also about John Dewey, who suggested the use of physical exercise to impulse "the high values of the Western culture" (Angelotti, 2014). He talked about a "full man" but not about a "full woman". The participation demand gradually turned into a social demand from women whose names were not always registered. An emancipatory element was the women's appropriation of writing. This binomial was a relevant factor to establish […] "a luminous path whose sidewalks were opened […] by exceptional women whose common denominator was the pertinence of a privileged social class and a family raising that allowed them the access to reading first than writing" (Valles, 2017).

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History registers Christine de Pisan (1364-1430) as the first female writer or "woman of letters". At first, women were involved only in issues that were "feminine", such as children's care, fashion, home labors, cooking recipes, and etcetera. Some of them printed their ideas on papers, magazines, and journals. The media's presence led to visibility and thus to women's starring role. Although, the arrival to the public sphere was a hard task, "slowed down or directly excluded and aborted in long ages […] even if it's notorious that its register has made both the existence and social presence of women tangible". (Sánchez, 2009). On the sports ambiance, female participation on the Olympic Games and their conquest within the media has meant a slow, arduous task. With ups and downs, a great achievement has been reached by rejecting the quote from Pierre Fredy Baron de Coubertin, known as the father of the Olympic Games: "women's presence inside the stadium happens to be unsightly, poorly interesting and also incorrect but for the function they have: to crown the victor with the wreaths of triumph." (Garcia, 1990).

2.1. Olympic Games: from 1896 to 1968 The first Olympic Games were celebrated in Athena, Greece, from April 6 th to 15 th in 1896 and there were no female contestants; on the second edition held in Paris, 1900, 22 women defeated the exclusion and managed to contest along 975 male athletes for the Olympic glory, according to the official numbers from the International Olympic Committee. In 1904, women’s participation descended from 2% to 1% on the Olympic Games from St. Louis, USA. According to the numbers from the Committee, female participation limited to the 2% of the athletes total. Originally, the disciplines women could compete at were: tennis, archery, golf and croquet; yet, after some editions races, figure skating, swimming and diving were added for women. By the year of 1920 in Antwerp, Belgium, female achievements had started being conversation topics, such as USA’s Ethelda Bleibtrey: she obtained the Gold medal in three swimming competitions and she also participated in five more tests in which she broke the world records. In 1924, there was a female participation of 4%; in 1928, it was 10%; in 1932, 9%; in 1936, 8%. Due to war, the Olympics of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled. From 1948 to 1968, female participation stayed in averages of 10, 11 and even 13%. From 1968 to 1972, the number of women participating decreased one percentage point (Munich, Western ); in 1976 (Montreal, Canada) the percentage increased to 21%. In 1980 (, USSR), female participation was only augmented to 22%. For years later on L.A., United States, it increased one more point (23%). In 1988 (Seoul, South Korea), female athletes increased their participation on 3% and reached 26%. On the Games from 1992 in Barcelona, Spain, the increase was registered with a 3%. A crucial jump was logged in 1996 in Atlanta, United States, when female participation went from 29 to 34%. On the Games from 2000 at Sydney, Australia, the increase of four percentage points and it reached the 38% of female participation. On Athena, Greece (2004), the percentage jumped from 38 to 41%. On Beijing’s 2008 Olympic Games, it arrived to 42% whilst four years later on London, England, the percentage increased on two more points and reached the 44% of female participation. On the Olympic Games of 2016 hosted at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, this percentage was augmented to 46%. The following chart presents both male and female participation per country and percentage from 1986 to 2016. ( The blue dots refer to men and the orange ones to women.)

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2.2. Media and Sportswomen Mass media develop an essential role within popular consciousness’s construction. Written press, radio, TV and internet nowadays are the media where a country’s majorities learn relevance facts. Journalists’ opinions and interpretations influence the vision of listeners, readers, crowds or audiences. The media select, prioritize and show specific information on specific ways. They present stereotypes based on the dominant schemes of the stage we’re living in. The journalistic discourse analysis, specifically on written press, constitutes a way of widening meanings, to know and to recognize social schemes. The physic log located within newspaper libraries allows this kind of labor. On the case of visibility and use of female athletes’ stereotypes within written press, the starting point is the hypothesis that the athlete’s visibility was quite poor, added to the 456 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019) supposition that the image they transmitted was greatly influenced by the traditional scheme of which role did women have to play at those times, sportswomen included. Morales and Lopez (1993) include these schemes in what they call “implicit theories”, referring to the traditional, biological and psychological postures mixed within a conservative tendency. The treatment given to Olympic female athletes of the Olympic Games of 1968 by the written press will be analyzed within this article. This international event represented Mexico’s overture to the world, mainly on the sports ambience. Diplomatic, economic and political gestures made by chairman Adolfo Lopez Mateos achieved their purpose: 5,516 athletes from 112 different countries contested in the quest for Olympic glory. From all the athletes 4,735 were men and 881 were women 1 As the host, Mexican delegacy presented the biggest contingent in History. Four years before, on the Tokyo Olympic Games, Mexico was represented by 89 athletes, 85 men and 4 women, numbers that increased significantly before the great advantage of participating at home: 313 athletes, 272 sportsmen and 41 sportswomen; thus concluding the number of female athletes doubled itself. Journalistic records from the Olympic Games of 1896 are few, there isn’t much evidence; some information turned out to be confusing and contradictory too. Without going deep into details the International Olympic Committee mentions French women Mrs. Brohy and Miss Ohnier as the first two women who participated in croquet and British female tennis player Charlotte Cooper who obtained the first Olympic title among women. For 1968, 41 women participated and the increase with regard to past editions appeared to be promising; nevertheless, the numbers from future editions reveal it wasn’t. For Munich 1972, Germany, this number was reduced to half (22); for Montreal 1976, Canada, the number dropped to 6 athletes; and for Moscow, USSR, we could say the average stayed at eight (sportswomen). Such numbers demonstrate that the 41 women from the 1968 Olympics presented themselves before an audience whose support was unconditional, probably because it was an unprecedented event even if the group was generally conceived as “abnormal”. One volleyball player’s declaration clearly indicated that those who decided to practice sports came from families with non-traditional thoughts.

I had the fortune of having an open-minded mother; she was British and her ideas (were) quite different than those of Mexican society. She helped me out through everything; we lived in Guadalajara, but she moved to Mexico City so my sister and I could continue practicing volleyball. Family support was crucial for all of us, especially for the gymnasts; they were 12 year old girls. Without that help from our families, we would’ve never achieved a thing. (Paty Nava, Volleyball player and a National selected woman on the 60’s and 70’s) (CONADE, 2005).

Competitions were divided into eighteen official sports (Athletics; Basketball; Boxing; Canoeing; Cycling; Riding; Fencing; Soccer; Gymnastics; Weight lifting; Field Hockey, Wrestling, Swimming, Diving and Water polo; Modern Pentathlon; Rowing; Archery; Sailing and Volleyball) plus two exhibition sports, Tennis and Fronton, divided into 172 trials. On eleven of them, the female participation was registered: 1) Athletics track: 100m, 200m, 400m and 800m; plus 80m with obstacles. 2) Athletics: Height jump, Long jump, , , Javelin throw. 3) Individual combined: 80m pentathlon with obstacles, shot put, height jump, long jump and 200m race. 4) Team athletics: Relay race 4x400

1 The numbers were obtained from the official website of the Mexican Olympic Committee. https://www.olympic.org/mexico-1968 457 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019)

5) Canoeing: Individual kayak and double kayak. 6) Horseback riding (in this case, women could contest against men). 7) Fencing: Individual and team foil. 8) Gymnastics: General classification (by team and individual) and apparatus classification: transversal horse jump, uneven bars and ground demonstration. 9) Swimming: 100m, 200m, 400m and 800m freestyle; 100m and 200m backstroke swimming; 100m and 200m chest swimming; 100m and 200m butterfly swimming; 200m and 400m individual combined; 4x100m free relay; 4x100m combined relay: 3m trampoline diving and diving platform. 10) Archery (in this case, women could contest against men). 11) Volley ball

Contestants were Athletics: Enriqueta Basilio, Esperanza Giron, Alma Rosa Martinez and Mercedes Roman. Canoeing: Ann Margarit Herrinsen and Angelica Zadawski. Diving: Bertha Baraldi and Dora Hilda Hernandez. Fencing: Sonia Arredondo, Linda Betar, Rosa del Moral, Lourdes Roldan and Pilar Roldan. Gymnastics: Rosario Briones, Maria Luisa Morales, Rosalinda Puente, Maria Elena Ramirez, Laura Rivera and Julieta Saenz. Archery: Nuria Ortiz. Volleyball: Gloria Cabada, Alicia Cardenas, Gloria Casales, Blanca Garcia, Gloria Inzua, Trinidad Macias, Carolina Mendoza, Patricia Nava, Isabel Nogueira, Yolanda Reynoso, Maria del Carmen Rodriguez and Rogelia Romo.

3. Theoretical Approach The written (and nowadays online too) press has been a quintessential susceptible niche for determining traditions and customs of different societies and historical periods. Journals constitute the ideal mass media for knowing the journalistic treatment of the athletes’ activity, as well as prevailing schemes like stereotypes put on sportswomen; stereotypes that somehow influenced the athletes’ image over readers. Armando Rodriguez Perez and Rosaura Gonzalez Mendez (1987) consider written press, literary texts and scientific literature as the most suitable media for knowing conceptions about women. Thirty years ago, Rodriguez and Gonzalez stablished six implicit theories over feminine stereotypes, whose model is comprehended within this article to analyze the sports media’s representations presented about the female competitors of the 1968 Olympic Games. Francisco Morales and Mercedes Lopez precise Rodriguez and Lopez’s typology: traditional, biological, psychological, educational, progressive and liberal.

The first three implicit theories (traditional, biological, and psychological) are of a conservative cut. The traditional theory appeals women to be a procreating being and family’s binder core. The biological one asserts the biological differences between men and women, from hormonal changes and menstrual cycles to gestation periods, ranging on body structure […] the psychological theory emphasizes on distinguishing psychological features. The approaches from educational, progressive and liberal theories foster stereotypes’ change […] which generally represent strong social changes. The reason is that they consider women as victims of social oppression. (Morales and Lopez, 1993).

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Liberal theory raises incorporation to social life “without limitations, but not leaving behind its featuring values” (Morales and Lopez, 1993). The educational theory highlights the educative factor as a key for advancement. After reading a wide literature about it, Carole A. Oglesby (1999) concludes that dominant masculine stereotypes such as strength, persistence, boldness, leadership skills, and so on, are traceable traits regarding peak performance sport activity; whereas dominant feminine stereotypes such as submissiveness, obliging skills, subordination and other features related to emotions are pretty much contrary to sports competition’s toughness. Rosario Castillo Mayen and Beatriz Montes-Berges (2014) revise several authors’ contributions about stereotypes’ construction (Dovidio, 1986; Heilman, 2001; Eagly, Wood & Johansson-Schmidt, 2004) and warn that keeping gender stereotypes could derive into negative consequences “since they limit people’s comprehensive development […] skills, emotions, physical state, efficiency, and so on”. The previous points are the guide for the gender perspective’s analysis. On the field of journalistic discourse analysis the steps of Silvia Gutierrez Vidrio (2010) are followed. She presents a model that includes lexical, image and macro-discursive levels; such model distinguishes three categories: descriptive, interpretative and appreciative. The macro-discursive level has been chosen for this work’s approach. Descriptive category consists on informing, which implies to take some elements and discard others and propose the reader a certain representation in the shape of a description (Charadeau in Gutierrez, 2010). Interpretation consists on commenting a fact or event’s signification, mostly when it is not completely seeming which is manifested inside the explication; whereas appreciation expresses the event’s valuation. The theoretical approach built by Rodriguez and Gonzalez was chosen regarding gender vision and from the Gutiérrez Vidrio’s approach the macro-discursive level was taken because it is considered they complement each other. Typology from traditional, progressive, liberal, biological, educational and psychological theories will allow to create bonds between the historical phase from the sixties and the seventies’ umbral on the XX century, whilst Gutiérrez Vidrio’s categories will get us close to journalistic texts’ intentionality itself. The prioritization category was added to Vidrio’s proposal deriving from theme approach, which consists on highlighting a text’s place assigned by the journal, first page or not, which influences readers one way or another.

3.1 Research Corpus Mexico 1968 Olympic Games constitute an event of social relevance for analyzing the female athletes’ development. Talking about Mexico, Enriqueta Basilio was the chosen for lighting the Olympic fire, thus marking the beginning of the summerly competition. On that same event, fencer Pilar Roldan won the first Olympic medal (silver) for Mexico. How was the treatment from media to not only the female Mexican delegacy’s participation but also to female athletes on Aztec territories? Were they invisible? Did they receive the same treatment as men? From the theories mentioned above, which of them could have been followed as a guide? Which characteristics did the journalistic discourse have? Did they describe? Did they interpret? Did they value? The analysis method began by reviewing all the journalistic notes published from October 13 th to October 28 th , 1968, about the female athletes’ performance on the Olympic Games in two sports- specialized journals ( Esto 2 and La Afición 3) and the sports sections from three ordinary journals ( El

2 Esto is labeled as the first rotational-tabloid journal dedicated to sports information. Founded by Coronel Jose Garcia Valseca, its circulation started on September 2 nd of 1941 under G. Balcázar’s direction. It was part of the journalistic emporium, nowadays Mexican Editorial Organization. Distinguished by its sepia colored printing, is one of the most sold journals within Mexico. Highlights huge content of soccer information. Now it includes full colored printings but they maintain sepia as its characteristic color. 459 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019)

Universal 4, Excelsior 5 and La Prensa 6). The total were 4 thousand and 129 texts. From the five newspapers, the information related to all the athletes was selected, although only the ones concerning the women were analyzed on two levels: as protagonists and as a mention. The corpus was created by 604 notes. This number is the 17.28% because the journalistic texts that mentioned male participation were 2,891 (82.72%). By journal, it can be seen that regarding the 1968 female athletes, Excelsior, El Universal and La Aficion published most of the notes whereas La Prensa and Esto did it on a smaller measure. (See chart).

Chart 1: Athletes on Mexican press

Newspaper Men Percentage Women Percentage 1 Excélsior 822 82.69 172 17.31 2 La Afición 714 84.69 129 15.31 3 El Universal 628 81.34 144 18.66 4 La Prensa 488 84.42 90 15.58 5 Esto 239 77.59 69 22.41 Total 2891 82.14 604 17.86

Each text was analyzed on three levels: prioritization, informative and/or opinion approach, and stereotypical, since these reflect the women’s social construct given at that time.

Tabloid format with five columns per page. From 14 to 16 pages on that Olympic Edition, which appeared with the dates of each day the information was generated (October 12 th to 27 th , 1968). Its edition is regularly sepia colored; although, special editions are printed in blue ink, such as the case of the Olympic Games. https://www.oem.com.mx/oem/index.html 3 La Afición was the first sports-specialized publication in Mexico and is still on circulation as the sports section from the journal Milenio . It is recognized as the first modern weekly journal dedicated to sports since the moment it got into the market (Ruiz Castañeda, 1974). It was founded by Alejandro Aguilar Reyes –aka Fray Nano–, Carlos Quiros –aka Monosabio-, and Mario Fernandez –aka Don Facundo. It started circulating on January 29 th , 1931. It was bought by Juan Francisco Ealy Ortiz on 1979, marking a new era for its publication. It would be later acquired by the Monterrey corporate in charge of Milenio ’s editing and still it is the journal’s sports section. 4 Under the motto “The political morning newspaper”, El Universal started circulating on October 1 st , 1916. Feliz Fulgencio Palvacini was in charge of the journal’s creation and direction. Palvacini was part of the Queretaro Constituent Congress and was secretary of Public Instruction during Venustiano Carranza’s government; thereby it wasn’t a surprise that the journal’s cut supported the President and had the goal of spreading ideas based on the Mexican Revolution and the Constituent Congress. It was temporarily cancelled due to its opposition to Alvaro Obregon’s government. Its first printing location was located on the corner of Madero and Motolinia, being printed in the exact same rotary printer Goss where the Mexican United States Constitution of 1917 saw the light. Since October 23 rd of 1969, Juan Francisco Ealy Ortiz assumed the journal’s maximum management, keeping El Universal on top of the consortium. https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/historia-breve 5 Under the motto “The national life newspaper”, Excelsior came up on March 18 th of 1917 with Rafael Alducin as his founder and first manager. It started its circulation on the streets as an 8 paged format, coming from an editorial located on a manor located in the streets of Rosales and Colon. It began as an anonymous conservative society. Things changed through the years until 1938, time when the cooperative society Editorial Company Excelsior was created; it started with nearly 300 associates and marking the beginning of an organization that would mark the course of Mexican journalism. In 1963, Manuel Becerra Acosta assumes the newspaper’s leadership to lend it to another great journalist, Julio Scherer, in 1968. Nevertheless, after a big scandal supposedly scripted by the Government, Scherer left the journal in 1976. The management was on Regino Diaz Redondo’s charge, whose tendencies the exact opposite of Scherer’s, leading to a dark age for the newspaper. Nowadays it belongs to Olegario Vazquez Raña. (Beltran del Rio, P. 2012. Excelsior . Journalism with past and future. https://www.excelsior.com.mx/2012/03/18/nacional/816529 ). 6 La Prensa was founded on August 28 th of 1929 under the motto “The illustrated morning newspaper”. Its first director was Jose E. Campos (Ruiz Castañeda, 1999, p. 222) with Pablo Langarica’s back up. Due to economic issues the newspaper stopped its circulation on March 25 th , 1935. Through a social cooperative and President Lazaro Cardenas’s support, its activities restarted on the tenth of July, 1935, as the Newspapers Publisher S.C.L. (Camacho; 2004, p. 96). On 1976, El Sol de México, printer of La Prensa , was bought by Mario Vazquez Raña. This made the cooperative start losing power before the Mexican Publisher Organization. It was later joined to it on July 30 th of 1993. Nowadays (2018) La Prensa is one of the most sold newspapers in the country. Its new motto is “The newspaper that says what others keep silent”. 460 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019)

Discourse analysis, as Rosa Maria Valles Ruiz (2004) affirms, “[…] is a good way to widen meanings and even unveil the sense, considering this as the bond between discourse and the social, economic or political context”. We build our world through discourses and the world itself is struck by discourse. It is essential for humans even though “it is not about resorting […] to a mediation tool to represent the world, but the world itself and humans exist by virtue of their linguistic and discursive constructs”. (Calsamiglia and Tuzon, 1999). Press’s speech has an importance that goes beyond the goal of just informing. It also gives opinions, influences; impacts positions, perspectives, points of view (Valles, 2004). Media are not only mediators but also social actors that disclose their own vision about something through their agenda’s determination. The stereotypes’ precision and their relation with context will help to understand the representation made of the female athlete’s on the 1968 Games. In this article only a few representative paragraphs are shown given the analysis’s extent. The model is shown on the next graph.

Chart 2: Analysis model

Analysis Model

Research corpus: 604 journalistic notes

Mentions about women: 306 Women as central topic: 298 notes (50.7%) notes (49.3%)

Theme organisation

Prioritization

Stereotypes

Traditional Liberal Progressive Educational Biological Psychological

Macro discursive level

Production conditions Description Appreciation

Context Interpretation

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3.2. Analysis Categories Based on the mentioned corpus (604 journalistic texts), the quantitative analysis was set on course. The first step consisted on dividing the total of texts into two main categories: women as main characters (298 notes) and the ones who were only mentioned (306 notes), giving percentages of 49.33 and 50.67, respectively. When going into the qualitative level and based on the written methodology, it was found that on the 298 notes where the athletes were under the spotlight, 4 analysis categories were established. These categories were linked to stereotypes highlighted by Rodriguez and Gonzalez. The text’s prioritization and the macro discursive level analysis, proposed by Gutierrez Vidrio, went forward. The analysis categories were: physical beauty, racial discrimination, sexual and/or social status, and reification.

3.2.1. Sportswomen or Beauty Queens? Beauty is one of the most common stereotypes when referring to a woman. The traditional theory includes among its characteristics how a woman “must be” and which adjectives refer to her physical stats. Any condition or occupation where beauty wouldn’t be an important characteristic is left aside. Sports are one of these situations, since beauty has no influence on a male or female athlete’s development. Although, it was actually a factor for the journals to highlight on the 68’s athletes’ case. According to the notes where the male athletes were conversation topic, their beauty stats were never mentioned. Their strength, speed and muscular constitution were highlighted but still, at any moment adjective like handsome, attractive, well-shaped, and etcetera, were used. It is not bold to affirm that if a journalist would’ve written such adjectives, readers would have misunderstood him and hesitated about his sexual preferences. Regardless if the post was in a sports newspaper or not, adjectives for female athletes kept coming without restrictions. Pretty, cute, gorgeous, beautiful or gracile. Yet some notes where these issues had no importance were found, most of the analysis material indicates this stereotype, related to the traditional and/or biological stereotypes. Vera Caslavska, Czech gymnast; Natasha Kushinskaya, another gymnast from the USSR; Wanda Wiecha, Polish volleyball player; Ann Petersen, American diver, among others, were constantly qualified under these adjectives coinciding in the five publications. This stereotype is reaffirmed when noticing that some competitors were criticized for lacking those attributes. In this case, journals talked about some European women, highlighting disc and javelin throwers who were labeled as “too manly” and they even assured they would scare the spectators. A huge gender differentiations was made in the newspaper La Prensa when talking about physical characteristics, mostly when they referred to the “pretty sex” versus the “ugly sex” or the “weak sex” against the “strong sex”. The beauty stereotype matches with the biological model postulated by Rodriguez and Gonzalez, in which certain physical characteristics are predominant on both men and women’s athletic development. Here are some examples: El Universal ¸ October 22 nd , 1968. On the first page of the sports section, Manuel Barragan signed the chronicle that appeared as that day’s main note. He details the activities held in female Olympic gymnastics. The third paragraph of the total fifteen of such text was chosen for the analysis.

The long-expected showdown, not only by Mexicans but also foreigners, between Czech Vera Caslavska and the Soviet Natasha Kushinskaya had its definitive bias yet daunting for the Soviet gymnast and her fans when she toppled and interrupted her routine on the uneven bars at a valuable point. This was a disadvantage for her

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against the good-looking Czech who had a perfect development since the first reunion (Barragan, 1968).

On the text that narrates one of the most eye-catching events from the Olympic Games of 1968, it wasn’t hard to find one of the most common stereotypes used by the journalists narrating these activities. Vera Caslavska and Natasha Kushinskaya; the first one was victorious and she was also the reason for the journalist to recur to the beauty stereotype. On the prioritization level, it can be seen that the journalistic chronicle was placed on the sports section’s first page of El Universal but not at the newspaper’s front page. This indicates that the journal didn’t consider this event was not worthy of being at the Front Page. On the acts of speaking’s macro discursive level, the appreciation category highlights when describing Natasha’s fell as “daunting” and the point she lost on the final score as “valuable”. Excelsior , October 19 th , 1968. On the fifth page where the eight-column note was published, Armando Estrada Nuñez signs a chronicle that details the female diving competition where American Sue Gossick was victorious. On that same page, Pedro Ocampo Ramirez presents the interviews made to each competition’s winners. The first and sixth paragraphs from the total of nine were taken from this text as analysis material.

(…) Delicate and we would say fragile if we hadn’t watched her steely and stretchy according to the circumstances of the leap from the diving board. Sue Gossick, blonde and slightly freckled under the effects of Sun and water, pictured herself as a bold and young amazon with a cowgirl hat. (Estrada, 1968).

(…) Tamara Pogozeva is discreet and formal. At her 22’s, she is the most beautiful of the three competitors. Her child’s face has all that candor and beautifulness of the Moscow girls. (Ocampo, 1968).

Both divers’ descriptions shows a suspected pertinence to highlight their physical attributes, giving them more importance than to their athletic skills. Nonetheless, Sue Gossik’s talent is recognized within this journalistic text; she was qualified as “steely and stretchy” as well as “bold and young amazon”. On Tamara’s case, her athletic skills were barely mentioned next to being “the most beautiful” of the contestants and of having “all that candor and beautifulness of the Moscow girls”. A liberal approach can be seen in the first paragraph since both the athlete’s skills and beauty were highlighted. In the second, Tamara Pogozeva’s role as an athlete was practically erased. Thus, the paragraph approaches to the theoretical and/or biological models. On the speaking acts ambiance, both paragraphs are evaluating even if the second one presents a physical description of the sportswoma.

3.2.2. “Gentlemen Prefer them Blonde” or so they Say There are characteristics that outline others or are falsely seen as qualities above others. This vision has even led to discriminating some social groups with certain physical characteristics that make them believe, to them and to those who are different, they are inferior. An example of that specific situation will be analyzed hereunder: racial discrimination. Esther Pineda (2016) quotes Michel Foucault, Michel Wierviorka, Anthony Giddens, and some other author that categorize racial discrimination and racial segregation phenomena. Pineda parts from the multicultural theories that have been studied from a sociological perspective. She highlights Edward Du Bois’ work against racial discrimination in the USA towards African American people, while they have been gathered within the so called “minorities” (Pineda, 2016). From the anthropological perspective, the pioneer studies of Gonzalo Aguirre Beltran (2005), who rejects other countries Africanists’ positions (Gilberto de Mello, Philipps Ortiz, Nina Rodriguez)

463 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019) for hiding “a latent racism and dissimulate the white people’s belief of biological superiority above the color races”. He notes: intentional oblivion or not about the presence and participation of black people in Mexico even comes from the Baron of Humboldt, who qualified black people’s presence as “lightly important”; position that is considered as a dogma. Racial discrimination stereotype is expressed within the opinion that white people with blonde hair are prettier than those of black or moray skin. In Mexico, this stereotype is, has been and currently continues. The so called “third root”, meaning the one derived from the black slaves that came to America in the XIX century is relegated and even forgotten. Gabriel Székely (2007) thinks that found reality is “surprising, impressive and revealing” whereas the National Council for Preventing Discrimination (CONAPRED, 2011) considers that within Mexican society “intense practices of exclusion, hatred, and discrimination towards certain groups… and strongly rooted and assumed within social culture that reproduces via cultural values in the families’ cores” are registered. Székely identified seven groups associated with exclusion and discrimination practices: elders +60 years old, handicapped, women, native populations, the poor, LGBT community and religious minorities. In the Olympic Games of 1968, the contestants’ blonde hair, mainly Europeans and Americans, was constantly highlighted on an implicit yet obvious discrimination towards brunette athletes. The differentiation given to masculine image is underlined because the journals barely outlined some male athlete because of his hair’s color. The color athletes caught all the attention at certain moments but it was more of a political reason by supporting the so called “Black power” movement as a manifestation against racism.

Journalists rarely made references about the sportswomen’s brunette hair and moray skin. Here are some examples: Esto , October 22 nd , 1968.

Jorge de la Serna informed about the final team competition of female gymnastics. The journalistic text was located on the left side of the page all along three columns illustrated with 2 pictures; it had 19 paragraphs and the eighth and ninth were chosen for the analysis.

Cutie girl Cathy Rigby from the United States of America has fully entered the Mexicans’ hearts. Her grace, her charm, her gracile moves have been part of that charm besides her little age.

The green-eyed blondie wearing a pair of hair buns is really tiny. Tiny height. She’d measure 4’5’’, maximum. She’s still a child for she is only 15 years old. She stayed serious when confronting the press conferences. (De la Serna, 1968).

The location on the page 16 manifests a secondary place within information. Readers’ emotions are appealed when expressing that the “child” has “fully entered the Mexicans’ hearts”. Regarding the theories of the marked stereotypes, the approach is more traditional even if it gets close to the “liberal” when mentioning the gymnast’s “gracile movements”, which expresses an “equilibrium model” between what’s labeled as feminine and women’s working activities. Context gives sense to journalistic information. If it wasn’t about a sports competition, the chosen note could have been perfectly placed inside an entertainment magazine. On the macro discursive level, the appreciation prevails even if the gymnast’s body is also used for the note’s corpus. Valuation presents a valuable woman because of her physical attributes; her white skin and blonde hair.

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3.2.3 Mistress, Miss, Lady… the Big Dilemma There are too many words whose moral and social charge exempts them of pretending to be used innocently. To exemplify this we will take two words that have been quite repeated in the made analysis and that are found in the same way within the five chosen publications. To begin with, the meanings of both words are defined hereunder, based on the Dictionary of the Real Academy of the Spanish Language. Miss 1. M. & f. Child of an important/wealthy person. 2. M. & f. [fam.] Master, regarding the servants. 3. F. Polite term applied to an unmarried woman. 4. F. Polite term applied to school teachers, professors, and also to many other women that have a service job, such as secretaries, management employees, and etcetera. Mister, mistress. 1. adj. That owns something; that has property on it. 2. adj. Noble, decorous. 3. adj. Used as a prefix before some names to drive up their meanings. 4. m. & f. Reputable person who is not young. 5. m. & f. Title used as a prefix of a man’s or woman’s last name, married or widowed, or the charge they manage. 6. m. & f. Master, regarding the servants. 7. m. & f. Polite term applied to a man or a woman, even if they are of equal or inferior condition (RAE, 2018). On this definitions, the stereotypes of being labeled as “miss” or “mistress” are confirmed. Miss refers to a polite term to name unmarried women or women that develop a role related to administrative labors. It can also be confirmed that the word implies pointing to a woman’s age because this element helps inferring if such woman is “at the age” of getting married or not. Regarding social and moral implications of this term, it can also be deduces that if a woman is single then she is candidate to be charmed by men. This can be seen on several paragraphs that were taken as analysis material, paragraphs that not only suggest but affirm that the sportswomen whose marriages are known are not available for the men that wished to conquer them; they also say that the athletes that are about to get married may retire from sports activities to play their role as wives and thus, housewives. Another point to consider is the one linked to the great myth of virginity: if a young woman is not married, it is inferred that hence she has never practiced sexual intercourse from a sanctimonious perspective. Even, there are moments that the ironical use of the word “miss” comes precisely when doubting the women’s virginal condition. When talking about the term “mistress”, we refer to a married woman that “belongs” to a man and thus is not available for other men. She’s past “the age of deserving”. “Deserving” what? We could say this sentence has a “wicked” sense since it generally refers that a woman is ready to lose her virginity and that’s why people say she must be married already. When saying “she belongs”, the term itself has a connotation that goes beyond this article’s reach. Another great stereotype that had been appealed to women through ages: the lady. According to the Dictionary of the Real Academy of the Spanish Language , this term makes reference to a “noble or distinguished woman” (RAE, 2018). Such characteristics are generally looked after women’s behavior, which has to answer to the stereotype appealed to this gender; in other words, women must act daintily, delicacy, gracefulness, education, and honesty overall. If it’s not the case, their condition is challenged. Situations where the term is used ironically by writing it enclosed in quotation marks and thus challenging the female athletes’ conditions were found inside the analyzed material. Examples:

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La Aficion, October 18 th , 1968. Declarations of the Gold medal winner at Height Jump, the Czech Miroslava Rezkova-Hubner, are shown in a short text from the sixth page signed by Sergio Lara. The note is located in the upper left corner of the newspaper in two columns with length of 21 paragraphs; the commented text is on the thirteenth.

A gorgeous 18 years old miss that makes gold works back in her natal country was the Height Jump winner (Lara, 1968).

Beauty couldn’t be left aside for the author, who also makes reference to the athlete’s youth and possible civil status by calling her “miss”. The note’s location (page 6) points out that it was given an intermediate place inside the sports section; it wasn’t cornered within the last pages. Since the theoretical perspective, it can be seen that the note adjusts to the liberal theory by presenting a balanced text between the athlete’s physical qualities and not only the gold works byt also the Height Jump. The stereotype located was the word “miss”. On the macro discursive level, the text would be appreciative since it globally values the athlete’s personality. El Universal , October 18 th , 1968. In page 7, Ramon Bravo presents the journalistic chronicle about the female Diving competition on diving board. The analysis material comes first from the picture’s caption and then from the first, second, third and fifth paragraphs from the total nine.

The almighty American diving team captained by Micki King appears to be finishing Mrs. Kramer diving board Kingdom. Miss King shows here why she is winning (…) Mrs. Kramer, mother of a plus year old one little girl, must do a superhuman effort if getting her third golden medal is a strong desire (Bravo, 1968).

The German woman Ingrid Kramer receives the “mistress” label on multiple occasions. Although, the comparison between both athletes and words used is quite notorious on the picture’s caption when Bravo refers to King as “miss”; in this case there can be no significant age gap between them since the 25 year old German diver was only a year older than her challenger; they both had more than enough experience for the event and arrived at the competition with high expectations. Nevertheless, the last paragraph gives answer to the different use of this adjective; Kramer had married in 1963 and was mother of a little girl while King was single. Regarding prioritization, some importance for the note can be appreciated although it wasn’t as important to appear in the first page of the El Universal sports section. Technically, we could consider it inside the liberal approach since the journalist highlights the contestants’ beauty or facial attributes but also their value inside the sports ambiance. On the macro discursive level, this text enters to the appreciative category thanks to the speaker’s valuation of the athletes’ sports achievements. El Universal , October 23 rd , 1968. In the eighth page, Luis E. Parra (1968) presents a note in which he gives a previous context on the Field Hockey’s final. Although the note presents no sign of stereotypes, there is one on the picture’s caption illustrating this text. The fact that a female journalist used inappropriate language “for a lady” is emphasized.

AP’s American journalist Janice Power, yelling and in front of the police, has expressed herself badly about Mexico and its organizers and even started insulting. Inside the Field Hockey’s world, this “lady” is no longer tolerated. (Parra, 1968).

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When talking about this journalist’s behavior, the text questions her “lady” qualities by writing the word inside quotation marks and ironically expresses the idea that the journalist’s behavior was not appropriate for a prudent woman. On the prioritization level, the mentioned text is located in the eighth page, an intermediate position. Regarding the theoretical approach, it can be included inside the educational approach because even more than gender, the Mexican journalist highlights the American journalist’s rude attitude towards Mexico and the organizers by “yelling in front of the police”, situation that clearly opposed the stereotype of a woman that doesn’t rise her voice and must behave with base on the “lady” stereotype. The text inserts itself inside the appreciative category in the macro discursive level since the journalist presents his opinion without explaining the context in which the American journalist expressed her ideas.

3.2.4. Are Mexican Sportswomen Different from the Foreigner Ones? What does Vera have that Pilar doesn’t? Finally, we must do reference to a stereotype that wasn’t repetitive but it was present throughout the analysis. It is a common thought that Mexicans often prefer foreigners than their own countrymen. A relevant example is found in the information surrounding one woman who attracted all the eyes not only because of her results but for her mere presence; in the follow-up she had from the media, her apparitions were always on First pages or at least with higher transcendence since the beginning of the Olympic Games’ coverage. We’re talking about Vera Caslavska, a woman that even after the gymnastics competition was over, kept on attracting the population’s eyesight and her wedding ceremony at the Metropolitan Cathedral was at the center of all media’s sight. Before her, two Mexican women should have been placed under the spotlights: Silver medal fencer Pilar Roldan and Maria Teresa Ramirez, whose effort made her won the bronze medal at the Swimming competition. One could think that the shadow hiding these two athletes was their lack of experience or even their “surprisingly” good performance; nevertheless, those were Roldan’s second Olympic Games and she already had carried the flag of an Olympic delegation. On the other part, and regardless of her short age (15 years old), Ramirez proved she was more than capable of contesting. Pilar Roldan was underestimated by the journalists when comparing her to the gold medal winner, who was pointed out because of her athletic superiority and also her “superior” beauty. Examples: La Prensa, October 21 st , 1968. The day Pilar Roldan won the silver medal was mentioned on the newspaper’s first page but no pictures of the Mexican athlete; instead, there were two pictures from the Jacky Kennedy’s wedding. At the same time, on the first page of the Olympic Edition, the first page was exclusively dedicated to the marathon without mentioning the fencer’s achievement. Inside the page 16B, details of the competition where Roldan won the second place are found in a chronicle signed by Moises Martinez.

The eminent Mexican fencer succumbed to the beautiful Elena Novikova. The blonde obtained the gold medal of the tournament. Novikova is a beautiful, blonde green-eyed Soviet. She is 5’7” tall and weighs 152 lbs. She is 21 years old and she is a student. (Martinez, 1968).

While the Mexican contestant is labeled as “eminent”, her rival, the only one she couldn’t beat to get the gold, was covered in adjectives that highlighted the Soviet’s beauty; it appears that the author took for granted that Roldan was also defeated in the beauty ambiance, as if this should’ve influenced both athletes’ development. It is noted that this event did made it to the registers of the first page from the Olympic Section although details were found inside inferior pages (16B). In terms of the stereotype, the derived from

467 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019) racial discrimination is reinforced since the journalist not only wrote about the Soviet fencer’s triumph but also about her beauty, her eyes’ color, her blonde hair, her measures and her condition as a student. Regarding the Mexican fencer, she was only given the title of “eminent” although she lacked the strength to defeat “the beautiful Soviet blonde” and “succumbed” to her. In the text, admiration, even veneration, to what isn’t Mexican is clearly noticed. On the macro discursive level, the appreciation category is more than obvious when preferring what is foreigner.

3.2.5. “Almost Like Men” The media emphasize that sportswomen were inferior by using phrases like “almost like men”, as if they were close to developing like men did but couldn’t quite made it. Although, there were some disciplines in which women were the stars, such as gymnastics. It’s obvious that it was a sport where women could show off not only their physical attributes bur also their best stats as fragile, docile ladies. Example: Esto , October 26 th , 1968. Inside the third page, under the sign of the AP news agency, the international opinion about the Mexico’s Olympic Games is registered.

The viewers pointed out that Russian women weren’t masculine and with wide backrests as the ones that appeared in previous Olympics; instead they were young, slim and pretty, with a natural femininity and great weakness for lipsticks, make up and other female cosmetics. They couldn’t run or throw that far, but they did attract more eyes on them. (AP Agency, 1968).

In this case, masculine characteristics were related to sportswomen, particularly Soviet women. In the note, they are “liberated” or even “exonerated” when saying they no longer belong to those descriptions; they are pretty, as “they should be”. Excelsior , October 21 st , 1968. In the sixth page, where female Shot Put is discussed in the chronicle located on the left half of the page, we find the next analysis material; this is the second of seven paragraphs. (…) the East German , a big strong woman, was on the best day of her life. She started throwing the iron 18.53m away; on the second shot, she reached 17.88m; she then surpassed the 19 m, more than enough for defeating ; 18.3m on the fourth and 19.61 on the fifth shot, she broke both the Olympic and the World’s records. (Excelsior, 1968).

Contrary to when adjectives about the competitors’ beauty are used, in this case two words were used to highlight another kind of characteristics, but the way they are managed on allow to see that the author sees these attributes as abnormal: “a big strong woman”. Theoretically, this representation answers to the liberal model that recognizes women’s sports skills even when pointing out their different physical appearance (“big strong”). On the macro discursive level, the valuation to the athlete’s activity is highlighted.

4. Time’s Context Socio-political context from 1968 was signified worldwide because of two events: the murder of Martin Luther King Jr in the United States of America and the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia. King had the primary goal of fighting racial segregation and contempt against his people and to

468 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019) achieve an equal coexistence among Americans. In Czechoslovakia, the goal was to establish a balance between democracy and socialism. These cutting-edge ideas were violently dashed in 1968. The FBI considered King as “the most dangerous black man” in the US (Ruiz, 2013). The mercenary James Earl Ray ended Martin Luther King’s life on April 4 th in Memphis, Tennessee. At the other side of the world, on August 28 th of 1968, tanks, planes and a whole army from the USSR and the allies of the Warsaw Pact entered to Czech lands to end the “Prague Spring”, a movement that aimed for a political, social and economic liberation of the country. Alexander Dubceck, leader of the Czech-Slovak Communist Party, affirmed: “I have proposed to myself the rise of a socialist society with a human face in Czechoslovakia; a deeply democratic, socially fair and modernist society” (p.90). But because they didn’t want to lose Czechoslovakia’s control, the Soviet invasion terminated the other “dream” that, just as Quo magazine (Vega, 2013) says, only lasted 8 months and forced nearly 300 thousand citizens to abandon the country. The Czech gymnast Vera Caslavska won four gold medals and two silver medals added to the Mexicans’ love, but she shared a medal with a Soviet female athlete in the middle of an awarding ceremony where her feelings of reject towards the USSR were shown. She went back to her country to become an outcast for 5 years. The context in Mexico had its singularities. On one hand, many important infrastructure improvements were registered at the time, like the Mexico City Telecommunication Central Tower that transmitted the Olympic Games, and the antennas complex in Hidalgo City, that broadcasted the sports event to the world. Some bridges were also built, such as the Coatzacoalcos Bridge in Veracruz, and also the inauguration of the Mexico City’s Subway, that even after 50 years of its opening is still one of the main public transport systems in the capital city. On energy matters, the hydroelectric companies broke world records by providing energy to millions of lightbulbs in the country, like El Infiernillo hydroelectric plant, that generated millions of watts and fed 10 million 100 watts lightbulbs. Regarding the social ambiance, some projects were also highlighted like the Olympic Villa (1968) with the intention of hosting the athletes; the XXI Century National Medical Center of the Social Insurance Mexican Institute (IMMS) that incorporated buildings for Gynecology, Oncology and other specialties that allowed to treat 4.5 million assignees, and we should not forget one of the most iconic buildings of the capital city and the whole country: the World Trade Center building (1968) which is one of the most important places for businesses and conventions. On recreation and culture ambiances we need to mention the Aztec Stadium (1966), where the Olympic Games soccer final match was played. And last but not least, the National Museum of History and Anthropology of 1964, which is one of the most important museums in the country that keeps the archeology History of Mesoamerica (IPM, A.S of V.C., 1999). Growth indexes were evident although they weren’t development indexes. The social classes’ distribution was clearly unbalanced. Dissident voices participating on politics were inexistent. The vertical and authoritarian control of only one political party and a president with almost absolute power drowned every desire for democracy in the country. In this context, the Popular-Student Movement of 1968 is registered, whose most visible face happened at Mexico City. What started as a clash between two high schools soon was spread throughout the city and nearby territories. The government’s inability to provide a pacific solution to this conflict ended up as a student’s massacre on October 2 nd of 1968 in the Three Culture Square in Tlatelolco. The Olympic Games were not cancelled, though. The media minimized what happened in Tlatelolco and dedicated only to the enthusiasm of hosting the Olympic Games from October 12 th to 27 th . Probably, male and female foreigner athletes didn’t know about this events until they left the country. The government’s control over press managed to erase the repression of what we can consider the most relevant popular-student movement after the Mexican Revolution.

469 European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 57, Issue 4 March (2019) Considerations One of the recurrent situations in the analysis was the constant omission of women’s names. Their identities were only important when being beside a man. It even expresses itself as a belonging sense to the husband, boyfriend or father when registering their roles as wives, girlfriends or daughters of someone “important”. President Diaz Ordaz’s wife (1968) was quoted many times but her name was never revealed, thus letting know that her only reason to be and almost to exist was that of being the president’s wife. For instance:

(…) President of the Republic Mr. Gustavo Diaz Ordaz arrived at the honor balcony (…) along with his distinguished wife, as well as Mr. Alfonso Corona del Rosal and his wife, architect Pedro Ramirez Vazquez and his wife, and Mr. Avery Brundage (La Aficion, 1968).

We can find the stereotype that women only have presence by “belonging” to a man; the proof is that only the men’s names were mentioned and their wives appeared as some kind of belonging for them. This social construct persists to our days in countries where preposition “of” turns a woman in a property, an object that only comes to life according to its utility, hence comes the existence of the stereotype that women only exist if they have a function to develop. On the note, it can be seen that Mr. Avery Brundage, chairman of the International Olympic Committee, wasn’t presented with his wife; wasn’t she there? Was her name ignored? Stereotypes don’t seem to be independent but they relate to each other; in this case, we recover the traditional theory’s beauty stereotype when thinking that women only matter when being ornaments in the different scenarios of the competitions. Journalists often talked about female spectators, especially of their tiny skirts as elements to beautify the stage and give, as the slang says, an “eye candy”. Something similar happened with the female aides and guards that developed some duties within press offices, awarding ceremonies, and etcetera, since their names were never revealed; only their beauty, smiles, and kindness were mentioned, ignoring the fact those women were multilingual. The most recurrent stereotypes on the analyzed texts belong to the beauty category, which makes reference to both biological and traditional approaches. Nevertheless, the liberal approach was noticed when mentioning the athletes’ sports skills. When representing the female athletes, they were mostly treated like things, like objects. Prefixing articles to the sportswomen’s names or last names was very common even though no sportsman was presented like this. La Prensa, October 20 th , 1968. On the page 19B, a note previous to Roldan’s participation in Fencing is found. (Disclaimer: this next sentence may not sound right in English but is quite common in Spanish when talking about someone; people tend to add “the” before someone’s name).

The Roldan, mother of two kids, an athlete that trains between breakfast and dinner, defeated the World Champion, the Soviet Alexandra Zabelina, as well as the international champion Galina Korokhova. (Martinez, 1968).

One of the most highlighted women during the Olympic Games was also a victim of a journalist since the very moment he added an article before her last name and thus giving her the condition of an object; but not only that, because he also outlined her condition as a mother and said that her training sessions were taken on her spare time, “between breakfast and dinner”.

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This example reaffirms the theoretical biological approach’s validity that assigns specific roles to women, such as motherhood. The reinforced stereotype is the highlighting of a mother’s condition, not considering sports activity as a professional labor but as a “hobby” by pointing out that in her “spare time” she dedicates to the activity that made her won an Olympic medal. To sum up, based on the theoretical approaches proposed to explain gender stereotypes, it can be noticed that the biological approach was the most common. Although, given the importance of this event, a liberal approach could be observed within notes where the journalists highlighted not only the beauty or the so called racial superiority but the athletes’ sports skills. The progressive approach was not registered when analyzing the chosen texts.

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[19] Morales, J. & López, M. 1993. “Bases para la construcción de un sistema de indicadores sociales de estereotipia de género”. Psicothema , 5 pp.123-132. [20] Oglesby, C. 1999. Le sport et la femme . Paris, Vigot Editions. [21] Palanca, J. 2018. “Sufragismo y feminismo: la lucha por los derechos de la mujer (1879- 1945)”. Revista digital La Crisis de la Historia , 2018. https://www.lacrisisdelahistoria.com/feminismo-siglo-xix/ [22) Esto newspaper. https://www.oem.com.mx/oem/index.html [23] El Universal newspaper . https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/historia-breve [24] Pineda, E. 2016. Esther: “Periferias Sociológicas. Discriminación racial y afrodescendencia” EPG, Venezuela, pp. 3-9. http://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/122/12249087008/index.html [25] Rodríguez, A. & González, R. 1987. “Estructura interna y capacidad predictiva de las teorías implícitas: un estudio sobre la mujer”. Social Psychology Magazine , 2 (1987) 25-50. [26] Ruiz, F. 2013. “50 años del discurso que estremeció al mundo”. Quo. XX Century. Key Moments, May 15th – July 15th, pp. 66-71. [27] Sánchez, O. et al . 2009. “Mujeres, prensa e invisibilidad: la cuantificación de un olvido”. Palabra Clave, 12-2. pp. 301-314. [28] Szèkely, G. 2007. “Una nueva imagen en el espejo: percepciones sobre la discriminación en México”. Este País , 190, pp. 4-13. [29] Valles, R.M. 2004. La columna política en México. Una propuesta de análisis ante las elecciones presidenciales del 2 de julio del 2000 , México, Instituto Electoral del Distrito Federal, p. 33 [30] ______2017. El discurso en Mujer Moderna primera revista feminista del siglo XX en México 1915-1919, México, UAEH-Miguel Ángel Porrúa. [31] Vega, P. 2013. “Un sueño que solo duró ocho meses”. Quo. Siglo XXI. Momentos clave , May 15th – July 15th 2013 pp.88-93.

Research Corpus [1] AP news agency. 1968. “Nuestros Juegos Olímpicos ganaron una medalla de oro”. Esto , October 26th, p. 3. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [2] Barragán, M. 1968. “Vera y Natalia, el espectáculo”, Excélsior , October 22nd. First Page of the Sports Section. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [3] Bravo, R. 1968. “Esta noche puede terminar el reinado de Ingrid Kramer”. El Universal , October 18th, p. 7. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [4] De la Serna, J. 1968. “Vamos a darle la batalla a Vera y ganaremos las preseas”. Esto , October 22nd, p.16. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [5] Editorial office. 1968. “Fue impresionante el esfuerzo de Colette Besson, para triunfar en los 400 planos”. Excélsior, October 17th, p. 6. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [6] Editorial office. 1968.“Margitta Gummel superó la hazaña de Tamara Press: rompió sus marcas”. Excélsior, October 21st, p. 6. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [7] Editorial office. “Inicia la fiesta”, La Afición, October 13th, First Page. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [8] Estrada, A. 1968. “Tamara Pogozeva conquistó el 2º lugar en el último clavado”, Excélsior , October 19th, page 5, Sports section. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [9] Lara, S. 1968 “Entrevistas con los vencedores”. La Afición , October 18th p. 6. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [10] Martínez, M.1968. “Pilar Roldán, por la medalla de oro, hoy”. La Prensa, October 20th, p. 19B. Hemeroteca Nacional de México

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[11] ______1968. Medalla de plata para Pilar Roldán”. La Prensa , October 21st, p. 16B. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [12] Ocampo, P. 1968. “Finales de clavados”. Excélsior , October 19th, p. 5, Sports section. Hemeroteca Nacional de México. [13] Parra, L. 1968. “Hoy es el último maratón de hockey decidiéndose del 9º. al 16º. lugares”. El Universal, October 23rd, p. 8. Hemeroteca Nacional de México,

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