Appendix the Economic Commodities

Appendix The Economic Commodities

This section provides a commodity cross-reference to ARSENIC the geological descriptions of the main text. The page (209-210) numbers given after most section headings (main entries are enumerated in italic type) are intended to direct the World 1979 production of arsenic trioxide 32 824 t. reader to the pages in which the geological descriptions Share of production: USSR 23%, France 22%, Sweden are found. The brief entries also give some idea of the 21%, Mexico 18%, Namibia 8%. These figures exclude world's annual production, and the five major countries the USA, whose production figures are withheld. Arse that share in this. Commodity production figures are nic compounds are used in herbicides and plant desic based on those of the Bureau of Mines (1980a,b) and cants, wood preservatives, mineral flotation agents, United Nations (1979). Other important references are glassware and pharmaceuticals. Arsenic is produced Brobst and Pratt (1973) and LeFond (1975). always as a by-product of some metal, and the principal There is no unified quantity of measure. Commodities ore minerals are arsenopyrite FeAsS, lOllingite FeAs2, may be traditionally quoted in metric tonnes (denoted smaltite CoAs2, niccolite NiAs, tennantite by t) ( = 2205 pounds), long tons ( = 2240 pounds) and (Cu,Fe)sAs2S7, enargite Cu3AsS4, proustite Ag3AsS3 short tons (2000 pounds). Precious metals are usually and relagar AsS (Gualtieri, 1973). quoted in troy ounces ( = 31.103 grams), diamonds in carats ( = 0.2 gram) and mercury in flasks ( = 76 pounds). The standard unit used throughout this book is the ASBESTOS metric tonne (tonne), which is equal to 1000 000 grams (1 Mg). World 1979 production 5 277 591 t. Share of produc This Appendix is not intended to be read by students tion: USSR 46%, Canada 29%, South Africa 7%, Zim using the book as a course textbook. It is a cross babwe 4%, China 4%. The main uses are in reference chapter for professional geologists. asbestos-cement pipes and asbestos-cement sheets. It is used for flooring, roofing, insulation, friction pro ducts, coatings and textiles, which are fire-resistant. Other uses include packing gaskets for bearings. Legis lation now prevents the use of asbestos in brake linings ANTIMONY because of the health hazard. Main mineral is chrysolite (145,186-188,210-212) (serpentine) Mg3(Sh05)(0H)4 (Shride, 19.73; Winson, 1975; Clifton, 1980a). World 1979 production 71998 t. Share of production: Bolivia 21%, China 17%, South Africa 16%, USSR 11%, Thailand 7%. Antimonian lead is used in BARITE starting-lighting-ignition batteries, but the newer (62-67) maintenance-free batteries do not use antimony. Antimonial-lead alloys are used in solder, ammunition, World 1979 production 7 039 227 t. Share of produc chemical pump pipes, roofing sheets, communication tion: USA 25%, USSR 8%, Ireland 6%, China 6%, equipment, anti-friction bearings and pewter alloys. An India 6%. Barite is primarily used for increasing the timony oxide is used in plastics as a stabilizer and specific gravity of oil-well and gas-well drilling muds. flame-retardant and in textiles. Antimony sulphides are Other uses include as a filler in paint, plastics, paper and used in fireworks and ammunition. Because of its milit rubber. It is used as a flux, oxidizer and decolourizer in ary uses, antimony is a strategic metal. The main ore glass manufacture and heavy concrete aggregates. With minerals are stibnite Sb2S3, tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)8Sb2S1 erite is more valuable in the chemical industry. The and jarnesonite Pb2Sb2S5 (Miller, 1973; Rowland and major minerals are barite BaS04 and witherite BaC03 Cammarota, 1980). (Brobst, 1973, 1975; Fulkerson, 1980). 318 Economic Deposits and their Tectonic Setting BAUXITE AND ALUMINIUM alloys, in metallurgical additives for aluminium, carbon (249-254) steel and malleable iron, in pearlescent cosmetic pig ments and in medicines. The largest use is in the phar Bauxite world 1979 production 86 814 000 t. Share of maceutical industry. Bismuth-cadmium alloy is used in production: Australia 32%, Jamaica 13%, Guinea selenium rectifiers. It is also used in bismuth-tellurium 14%, Surinam 6%, USSR 5%. Aluminium metal is electronic devices and as an accelerating agent in rubber made by extracting alumina from bauxite by the Bayer vulcanizing. There is no specific bismuth ore. It is usually process and by reducing the oxide electrolytically to recovered in refining processes from ores of lead and metal. Because of its resistance to oxidation, efficient copper, molybdenum, tin, tungsten and zinc. The main electrical conductivity and low price, it is widely used in mineral is bismuthinite Bi2S3, which occurs widely as an the manufacturing industry-mainly for aircraft (low accessory in ores of the above metals (Hasler et al., specific gravity of 2. 7), motor vehicles, electrical equip 1973; Carlin and Bascle, 1980). ment, machinery, drink cans, containers and a variety of home-consumer products. Although most bauxite ends up as metal, it is also used to make alumina abrasives. BITUMEN The conversion from bauxite to aluminium metal is carried out only where electricity is plentiful and cheap Asphalts refined from crude petroleum have almost (such as that from hydroelectric power). The principal completely replaced native-types. Asphalt cements are metals of bauxite are gibbsite Al(OHh, boehmite used as hot mixes to pavement roads, etc. Cut-back AlO(OH) and diaspore AlO(OH) (Patterson and Dyni, asphalts are used in road mixes. Oxidized asphalts are 1973; Shaffer, 1975; Baumgardner and Hough, 1980). used ii; undersealing and roofing. Slow-curing asphalts, or road oils, are used for dust control of unpaved roads. Emulsified asphalts are used in macadam road pave BENTONITE ments. Native asphalts occur as lakes or rock impregna tions. The largest is at La Brea, Trinidad; it is used for World 1979 production 5 847 419 t. Share of produc paving roads and waterproofing roofs. Rock asphalt tion: USA 62%, Greece 8%, Japan 7%, Italy 5%, occurs as bituminous sandstone or limestone and is used Hungary 2%. The major uses are as bleaching clay (oil for paving. The Athabaska tar sands m Canada are being refining, filtering, clarifying and decolourizing), drilling mined and processed to produce crude oil. Tar sands in mud, iron-ore pellitizing and foundry-sand bonding. In Albania, Romania and the USSR are also being ex addition it is used for filtering and clarifying wine and ploited (Cashion, 1973; Bostwick, 1975). waste water, and in pharmaceuticals. The main compo nent of bentonite is montmorillonite (0.5Ca,Na)o.T (Al,Mg,Fe )4(Si,Al)s02o( OH)4· nH20 (Hosterman, 1973; Patterson and Murray, 1975; Ampian, 1980). BORON MINERALS World 1979 production 2 632 330 t. Share of produc BERYLLIUM tion: USA 55%, Turkey 34%, USSR 8%, Argentina 2%, Chile 1%. Boron in the form of borates is used in (129) msulation products and glass fibre-reinforced plastics. World 1979 production (excluding USA) 2795 t. Share Glass wool is the main product, followed by textile of production (excluding USA): USSR 70%, Brazil grade glass fibres, and special borosilicate glasses. Eo 18%, Argentina 4%, Zimbabwe 3%, Rwanda 2%. Its rates are also used by the chemical industries. The major uses reflect its excellent thermal properties and high minerals are: borax (tineal) Na2B40 7·10H20, which is stiffness-to-weight ratio. The main consumption is in the primary world source, colemanite CazB60u·5HzO, beryllium-copper alloys, business machines and ap produced in the USA and Turkey, and Szaibelyite pliances, transportation and the communications indus MgB02(0H), the principal source in the USSR (Kistler tries. It is used in electronic systems to form connectors, and Smith, 1975; Ab~alom, 1980a). sockets, switches and temperature-pressure sensors. Beryllium oxide is used in lasers, microwave tubes and semi-conductors. Beryllium metal is used in satellites, BROMINE navigation instruments, space optics, nuclear devices and military aircraft brakes, and X-ray tube windows. World 1979 production 345 570 t. Share of production: USA 66%, Israel 13%, United Kingdom 7%, France The principal mineral is beryl Be3Al 2 (S~0 18 ) (Griffiths, 1973; Petkof, 1980a). 5%, USSR 4%. The largest use is in the manufacture of ethylene dibromide, which, together with tetraethyl lead, is used as an anti-knock additive in gasolene. BISMUTH Disinfectants and pharmaceuticals use the next largest amount of bromine; then come fire-retardants and fire (192) extinguishing agents. Insecticides and soil fumigants use World 1979 production 4273 t. Share of production: bromine. Calcium bromide is used in the drilling indus Australia 22%, Mexico 16%, Japan 15%, Peru 15%, try for high-density, solids-free completion of wells. Bolivia 11%. The principal uses are in low-melting Bromine occurs in nature in oil-well brines, which pro- Appendix 319 vide the major source in the USA. Israel obtains Canada 10%, Zambia 6%. The high electrical and ther bromine from the Dead Sea, and the United Kingdom mal conductivities of copper, its good resistance to cor from sea water. France obtains bromine from potash rosion, its good ductility and high strength mean that evaporate fields (Jensen, J.H., 1975; Absalom, 1980b). copper finds innumerable industrial applications. Cop per and its alloys can be joined by welding, brazing and odering. The four alloys brass, bronze, nickel-silver and CADMIUM cupronickel contain no less than 40% copper. About (228) 53% of copper is used in electrical applications, 16% in construction, 12% in industrial machinery and there of pro World 1979 smelter production 18 280 t. Share mainder in numerous other uses. The main· minerals are duction: USSR 16%, Japan 14%, USA 9%, Canada chalcopyrite CuFeS2, bornite Cu5FeS4, chalcocite Cu2S, 8%, Belgium 8%. Cadmium is used in the electroplating covellite CuS, enargite Cu3AsS4, cuprite Cu20, of fabricated steel products. It is also used to make malachite Cu2(0H)2(C03) and native copper Cu. There All batteries, and as pigments, plastics and other alloys. are significant copper contents in the following minerals: cadmium is recovered as a by-product of zinc mining and tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)8Sb2S7, tennantite (Cu,Fe)sAs2S7, smelting. None of the cadmium minerals is abundant famatinite Cu3SbS4, stannite Cu2FeSnS4 and several an ore, although trace greenockite enough to form others. Many ore deposits are mined primarily for cop oxidized sphalerite will enhance the (CdS) in slightly per, but yield significant amounts of by-products (Cox, The cadmium content in the zinc ores cadmium content. D.P. eta/., 1973; Jolly, 1980b). is within the sphalerite itself. Mississippi Valley sphaler ites may contain as much as 5000 ppm cadmium, while the Kupferschiefer ore of Germany contains, on aver CORUNDUM age, 500 ppm of cadmium (Wedow, 1973; Lucas, 1980). World 1979 production 9830 t. Share of production: USSR 81 %,India 13%, Uruguay4%, South Africa 1%. COAL Corundum (AI20 3) is the hardest natural substance (300-310) except for diamond. It is used exclusively as crushed sieved and sized grit and powder for finishing optical World 1979 production 2 763187 000 t. Share of pro parts and polishing metals. The main attraction as an duction: USA 22%, USSR 19%, China 20%, Poland abrasive is that a transverse crystal parting presents to 7%, West Germany 5%. Thismajorfuelis used primari the work a sharp chisel-like edge, which scrapes rather ly for electricity generation and in steel-smelting plants. than scratches the polished surface. When the grains Coal occurs in a variety of ranks, related to the geologi wear, a flake spalls off to expose a new cutting edge. This cal environment (Averitt, 1973; United Nations, 1979). property ensures a continuing use for corundum as an abrasive. Several varieties of corundum are of gemstone quality; they are ruby, sapphire, star-ruby and star COBALT sapphire (Thaden, 1973a,b; Hight, 1975; Jahns, 1975; (209-210, 237) Baskin, 1980a,b). World 1979 mine production in metal28 513 t. Share of production: Zaire 53%, Zambia 11%, Cuba 6%, USSR 6%, Canada 5%, Australia 5%. Cobalt is used in high CHROMIUM temperature alloys, magnets and tool steels. The high (19-23, 104-112) temperature alloys find their use in turbine engines for World 1979 production 9 521686 t. Share of produc aircraft and power plants. The largest market is for use in tion: South Africa 34%, USSR 22%, Albania 9%, a cobalt-molybdenum -alumina catalyst for desulphur Turkey 7%, Philippines 6%. Most chromium consump ization of light petroleum distillates. Cobalt is also used tion goes to form an alloyingelement in stainless and in paint driers and oil-based paints. It is usually a by higher-alloyed heat-resistant and corrosin-resitant al rodut of copper and nickel ore. he main minerals are loys, and full-alloy steels. Chromite is used to form siegenite (Co,Ni)3S4, carrollite (Co2Cu)S4, cobaltite refractory bricks and casting items for furnaces. (Co,Fe)AsS, skutterudite (Co,Fe)As3, erythrite Chromium is used in the chemical industry and in the (Co,Ni)3(As04)2.8H20 and gersdorffite (Ni,Co)AsS. leather industry for tanning. Chromite represents a com Cobalt may also be contained in pyrrhotite, pentlandite, position range of the spinel series pyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite and manganese oxides (Mg,Fe2+)(Cr,Al,Fe3+)20. Chromites of economic in (Vhay et al., 1973; Sibley, 1980). terest have Cr20 3 contents ranging from 25% to 65% by weight (Thayer, 1973; Mikami, 1975; Matthews and Morning, 1980). COPPER (31-42, 46, 92-93, 102, 104, 168-175, 183-185, 202-204,207-210,227,234-238) DIAMONDS (NATURAL) (119-123,144,262-264) World 1979 production from mines 7 606 800 t. Share of production: USA 18%, Chile 14%, USSR 11%, World 1979 production 7.94 t (39 698 000 carats) (in- 320 Economic Deposits and their Tectonic Setting dustrial 73%, gem 27% ). Share of production: South uses are in glass manufacture and in ceramics. The main Africa 20%, Zaire 28%, USSR 26%, Botswana 7%, producing countries are Canada and Norway (Minnes, Ghana 6%. Diamond (C) is the hardest natural sub 1975). Aplite, when low in iron minerals, is used in the stance. Only 27% of the production is of gemstone manufacture of glass, especially container glass. Japan is quality. The majority of the non-gem material is used in the world's foremost producer, with an annual produc industry. A small proportion goes into hard-wearing tion of 450 000 t (Potter, 1980a). uses such as record-player needles, instrument bearings and wire-drawing dies. Most is used as abrasive. Pencil like tools for cutting glass, or trimming abrasive wheels, FLUORITE have a whole diamond set in a tool face. Rock drills have (53-55,59-62,107-108) diamond crystals bonded into the cutting end. Crushed and sieved diamond is made into a paste for polishing a World 1979 production 4865165 t. Share of produc variety of hard materials. To a large extent artificially tion: Mexico 21%, USSR 11%, Spain9%,SouthAfrica produced diamonds have taken the place of the natural 8%, France 8%. The major use of fluorite is in the form, but the rich deposits at Kimberley, Western Aus production of hydrofluoric acid, from which is made tralia, may change this (Thaden 1973a,b; Hight, 1975; synthetic cryolite, used as an electrolyte in the manufac Jahns, 1975;Recklingeta/., 1975;Baskin, 1980a,b). ture of aluminium metal. Fluorite (CaF2) is used as a flux in steel-making furnaces; it promotes fluidity of the slag and passage of sulphur and phosphorus into the slag. It is DIATOMITE used to make flint glass, white or coloured glass and enamels (Worl et al., 1973; Grogan and Montgomery, World 1979 production 1587 302 t. Share of produc 1975; Kostick and DeFilippo, 1980). Natural cryolite tion: USA 33%, USSR 24%, France 12%, Romania (Na3AIF6) has been found in commercial quantities only 2%, West Germany 1%. The widest use of processed at Ivigtut, Greenland, within a pegmatite, but the de diatomite is as a filter aid for the separation of suspended posit is now exhausted. Cryolite is now produced synth solids from fluids. It is also used s a filler in paint and etically. It is needed for the electrolytic production of paper, and as a carrier in rug cleansers, pesticides and aluminium. catalysts. The highly refined diatomite is used as a mild abrasive in metal polishes. Diatomite is composed of fossilized skeletons of diatoms composed of silica FULLERS EARTH S02.nHzO (Durham, 1973; Kadley, 1975; Meisinger, 1980a). World 1979 production 1675 381 t. Share of produc tion: USA 81%, United Kingdom 10%, Mexico 4%, Algeria 2%, Morocco 1%; excluding communist coun EMERY tries for which data are not avail able. The palygorskite (attapulgite) clay is used as a The world's supply comes from Greece, which produced component in drilling mud, and as a carrier for insec 6530 t in 1979 and from Turkey, which produced ticides and fungicides. It is used as an absorbent for 65 509 t in 1977. Emery is a black granular material greases, oil, water and other undesirable substances on consisting of corundum (Aiz03) and magnetite the floors of factories and other installations. Some ((Fe,Mg)Fe204) with admixed spinel, haematite, garnet grades are used for pharmaceuticals designed to absorb and other minerals. The use of natural emery has largely toxins and bacteria. It is used as a thickener in paints, been replaced by synthetic materials as an abrasive cements and plastics. The mineralogy of fullers earth is (Thaden, 1973a; Baskin, 1980a). palygorskite (OHz)4(0H)zMgsSisOzo.4HzO, but sub stitution of AI3+ for either Mg2+ or Si4+ takes place (Hosterman, 1973; Patterson and Murray, 1975; Am FELDSPAR pian, 1980). (115, 119) World 1979 production 3 092 870 t. Share of produc GALLIUM, GERMANIUM, INDIUM tion: USA 24%, WestGermany16%, USSR 11%,1taly (254) 8%, France 7%. More than half the feldspar mined is consumed in glass-making; the second major use is in World production of gallium is not available, but the pottery. The remainder is used in glazes, enamels, soaps, USA imported 6.4 t of metal in 1979, and Switzerland abrasives, sanitary ware, rubber products and electrical supplied 86% of this total. Germanium world produc insulators. The main ore minerals are orthoclase tion in 1979 is estimated to be 109 t, of which France, KAISiJ08 and albite NaA1SiJ08. Most mined feldspars Italy and Austria are the main producers. Production will contain a small amount ofthecalciumend-member, figures for indium are not available, but the USA im anorthite CaA}zSiz08 (LeSure, 1973a; Rogers, C.P. and ported 9.144 tin 1979,44% from Belgium and Luxem Neal, 1975; Potter, 1980a). Nepheline syenite is com bourg, 32% from Peru and 13% from Canada. The mercially mined for its feldspar and nepheline content. It principal uses for these three metals are in the manufac is processed to remove the iron-bearing minerals. Its ture of transistors, diodes and rectifiers. Gallium, ger- Appendix 321

manium and indium do not form their own ore minerals property of readily giVmg up or taking in water of and they are recovered as a by-product from zinc ore. crystallization. When calcined, gypsum is converted to Sphalerite is the main ore mineral that contains all three plaster of paris. This material is manufactured into elements; other sulphides that contain them are chal plasters and wallboard. Uncalcined gypsum is used as a copyrite, bornite, enargite and tennantite. They may retardant in portland cement, as soil conditioner and as also be concentrated in wood tin. Germanium and gal mineral filler. It is also used to produce sulphuric acid. lium may be recovered from coal ash (Weeks, 1973; Alabaster is a compact fine-grained variety of rock Petkof, 1980b). gypsum, prized by sculptors because of its workability. Gypsum CaS04.2H20 is usually closely associated with anhydrite CaS04 and bassanite CaS04.0.5 H 20 (Smith, GEM STONES G.I. etal., 1973; Appleyard, 1975; Pressler, 1980a). With the exception of diamonds (listed above) produc tion figures are not available. Some of the most impor tant and the main producers are: agate (Australia, HALITE Brazil, Mexico, China), amber (Italy, Sicily), amethyst (89-94) (USSR, Sri Lanka, India), emerald (Egypt, USSR), World 1979 production 167 756 910 t. Share of produc jadeite jade (Burma, China), nephrite jade (Taiwan), tion: USA23%,China 18%, USSR9%, West Germany opal (Australia, Mexico), ruby (Burma, Indochina, Af 7%, United Kingdom 5%. There are so many uses for ghanistan), sapphire (Burma, Thailand), topaz (Sri salt that only a few can be mentioned: as a nutrient or Lanka, India), tourmaline (USSR, Burma, India) and flavour in food, as a preservative, as a food-processing turquois (USSR, Australia, Arizona). For a complete material, in chemical manufacturing, as a freezing-point discussion, see Thanden (1973a,b), Jahns (1975) and depressant, largely for highway de-icing, in metallurgi Baskin (1980a,b). cal processing, dye processing, herbicides, in the chemi cal industry to form soda ash, in the manufacture of sodium sulphate, hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, chlorine GOLD and caustic soda. Altogether there are over 14 000 uses (168-175, 180-194,204-207,261-262, 269-272) for salt. Halite or rock salt is NaCI, but it may be World 1979 production 1220.4 t (39 238 343 troy associated with other evaporite minerals (Smith, G.I. et ounces). Share of production: South Africa 58%, USSR al., 1973; LeFond and Jacoby, 1975; Foster, 1980). 20%, Canada 4%, USA 3%, Zimbabwe 2%. Gold is used primarily as bullion, stored in banks. The next major use is in jewellery and art works. Its soft, easily ILMENITE malleable nature and resistance to corrosion makes it (272-275) equip perfect for dental repairs. It is used in electronics World 1979 production 3 490 7 84 t. Share of produc by ment, but increasing cost has led to its replacement tion: Australia 32%, Norway 25%, USA 17%, USSR palladium, tin and other metals wherever possible. Gold 12%, Malaysia 5%. Titanium metal is made from ilmen occurs mainly as native gold Au. Other important min ite and rutile by the Kroll process. The metal has a high erals are tellurides, calaverite AuTe2 and sylvanite strength-to-weight ratio, so is used in the aerospace (Au,Ag)Te2 • Gold may occur as small contents in sul industry, military aircraft and spaceships and rockets. It phide minerals, extractable during processing of the ore is also used in the manufacture of aircraft engines and (Simons and Prinz, 1973; Butterman, 1980). gas turbines. Pigments are made by converting ilmenite to water-soluble sulphates. Ilmenite has the composition FeTi03 (Klemic eta[., 1973c; Lynd and LeFond, 1975; GRAPHITE Lynd and Hough, 1980). World 1979 production (excluding the USA, for which data are withheld) 523 049 t. Share of production: USSR 21%, North Korea 17%, Mexico 13%, China IRON ORE 11%, Austria 8%. The largest single use is in foundry (14, 15,26-30,37-42,46,68-75,102,112,156-160, facings. It is also used in steel-making, and in crucibles. 198-202,207-210,214-219) Other uses include batteries, bearings, brake linings, was carbon electrical brushes, lubricants, pencils, and in The 1979 iron metal production from ore graphite-oil packings. Graphite is crystalline carbon C 510679370t. Share of production: USSR 28%, (Weis, 1973; Graffin, 1975; Taylor, H.A., 1980). Australia 12%, Canada 7%, USA 7%, China 7%. Iron is the principal metal employed in modem industry. Iron is alloyed with other metals to form a GYPSUM variety of steels used in manufacturing, equipment, tools, containers, building, etc. The main minerals World 1979 production 74 332 278 t. Share of produc are magnetite Fe304, haematite Fe20 3, goethite tion: USA 19%, Canada 11%, Iran 10%, France 9%, Fe20 3.H20, siderite FeC03, pyrite FeS2 and chamosite USSR 8%. The largest use of gypsum is based on its (Mg,Fe,A1)6(Si,A1)4014(0H)s (Klemic et al., 1973b; 322 Economic Deposits and their Tectonic Setting Peterson, E.C. and Collins, 1980). Natural iron oxides ground mixture of limestone and aluminous and silice are also used as pigments for colouring glass, plastics, ous materials such as shale and silica sand. The world paper and ceramics. The main producers of these are the 1979 production of hydraulic cement was 868 716 440 t. USA and India (Collins, 1980). Share of production: USSR 14%,Japan 10%, USA 9%, China 9%, West Germany 4% (Dikeou, 1980). Apart from cement manufacture, limestone is used in construc KAOLINITE tion, as a flux in open-hearth furnaces, to manufacture lime for smelting ores and for the chemical industry, as World 1979 production 20 365 200 t. Share of produc refractory dolomite, as agricultural limestone and sever tion: USA 34%, United Kingdom 23%, USSR 13%, al other uses such as filler and whiting. The main ore France 5%, Czechoslovakia 3%. The uses result from minerals are calcite CaC03 and dolomite CaMg(C03)z the chemically inert nature of the clay. The major use is (Hubbard and Ericksen, 1973; Ames, 1975; Boynton in paper manufacture. Glossy paper of magazines uses as and Gutschick, 1975; Carr and Rooney, 1975; Pressler, much as 30% by weight of kaolinite. It is also used as a 1980b). The world 1979 production of lime (quicklime, filler in natural and synthetic rubber, and as an extender hydrated lime, dead-burned dolomite) was in paints. An important use is as a filler in plastics. 112 972 290 t. Share of production: USSR 21%, USA Historically its main use was in ceramics, and this is still a 16%, West Germany 9%, Poland 7%, Japan 8%. major use for the clay, especially in porcelain. Because of its chemical inertness and whiteness it has a wide range of other uses. Kaolinite has the composition Si~l4 0 10 (0H) 8 (Hosterman, 1973; Patterson and LITHIUM MINERALS Murray, 1975; Ampian, 1980). (127-129, 143) World 1979 production (data from USA withheld) KY ANITE, SILLIMANITE, 74410t of metal. Share of production: USSR 65%, ANDALUSITE China 13%, Zimbabwe 12%, Brazil4%, Namibia 3%. (113) Spodumene LiA1Sh06 is used in ceramics, glass, enamels, glass-ceramics, and manufacture of lithium World 1979 production, based on incomplete data, salts. Petalite LiAlS4010 is used in ceramics, glasses, 239 758 t. Share of production: South Africa 63%, India glazes and enamels. Lepidolite K2(Li,Al)5-6- 28%, France 5%, Spain 3%. The major use is in the (Si6-7Ah-t02o)(OH,F)4 is used in the manufacture of manufacture of refractory mortars, cements, castables glasses. Amblygonite LiAl(P04)(F,OH) is used for the and plastic ramming mixes. A major use is in refractory manufacture of lithium chemicals; the other silicate is linings for furnaces. Kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite eucryptite LiA1Si04 . In the metal form, lithium is used are polymorphs with the formula Al2SiOs (Espenshade, in deoxidation, degasification, and the manufacture of 1973; Bennett, P.J. and Castle, 1975; Potter, 1980b). alloys, organic compounds, synthetic rubber, vitamins and batteries, as well as in the manufacture of a wide variety of chemicals and in the nuclear-energy industry LEAD (Norton, J.J., 1973; Kunasz, 1975; Singleton and Searles, 1980a). Caesium is produced as pollucite (39,47-5~92-93,175-176,183-185,227-238) (Cs,Na)A1Si206 from pegmatite at Bikita, Zimbabwe. World 1979 production 3 512 700 t. Share of produc tion: USA 16%, USSR 15%, Australia 13%, Canada 8%, Peru 5%. Lead is used mainly in storage batteries, leaded gasolene and the construction industry. Some of MAGNESITE its main uses are in ammunition, as bearing metals, in (113) brass and bronze, in cable coverings, as a casting metal and as a caulking material. It is also used as a pigment. World 1979 production 10 054 866 t. Share of produc The main ore mineral is galena PbS. Galena ore bodies tion: USSR 21%, North Korea 17%, Greece 12%, China 11%, Austria 11%. Most refractory magnesia is are commonly near-surface altered to cerussite PbC03, used by the steel industry. The magnesia is converted to anglesite PbS04 and pyromorphite Pb4(PbCI)(P04)3. Most ores of lead also contain iron, copper and zinc calcined products or chemicals. Dead-burned magnesite (Morris eta[., 1973; Rathjen and Rowland, 1980). is used as a refractory material, used in the cement, glass, steel and copper industries. The advantage of magnesia as a refractory material is its great ability to resist basic LIMESTONE slags at high temperatures. Caustic-calcined magnesia is used in cements for fire-proofing buildings. Other major Carbonate rocks are perhaps the world's most widely uses are in the paper, fertilizer and chemical industries. used materials. Huge quantities are used in construction, Processed olivine (M~Si0 4) is used in limited quantities in agriculture, and in the chemical and metallurgical for refractories and in fertilizer. Magnesite has the com industries. High-purity calcite limestone is used in the position MgC03 (Bodenlos and Thayer, 1973; Wicken production of portland cement, made by fusing a finely and Duncan, 1975; Petkof, 1980c). Appendix 323 MANGANESE low-alloy construction steels. It is also used in special (14,1~26-3~46,74-75,222-225) alloys and castings. Other uses are in the manufacture of pigments, catalysts, agriculture, chemicals and lubric World 1979 production 24 455 397 t. Share of produc ants. The main minerals are molybdenite MoS2, powel Africa 23%, Gabon 8%, India tion: USSR 39%, South lite Ca(Mo,W)04, wulfenite PbMo04, ferrimolybdite is used in two ways in the 8%, Australia 6%. Manganese Fez(Mo04)3.8HzO and jordisite, which is amorphous manufacture of steel: as a scavenger in molten steel-it MoS2 (King et al., 1973; Kummer, 1980). combines with sulphur and oxygen and removes them in the slag; and as an alloying material. It makes steel more resistant to shock or abrasion. It is also used in the manufacture of various chemicals. Pyrolusite is used in MONAZITE the manufacture of batteries. Other uses of manganese (257-261, 272-275) and in include the manufacture of paints and fertilizers World 1979 production 23 686 t (data from the USA large solution mining. Manganese is contained in a withheld). Share of production: Australia 56%, India haus number of minerals. The main ore minerals are 19%, Malaysia 13%, Brazil 12%. Monazite is the mannite Mm04, polianite MnOz, pyrolusite MnOz, world's foremost source of thorium. Thorium is used to cryptomelane K(Mn2 +,Mn•+ )80 16, psilomelane make nuclear fuel cells, incandescent gas-light mantles 2 4 BaMn +Mn 8+018.2HzO (Dorr et al., 1973; Jacoby, and in alloys. Mixed with yttrium, thorium makes incan 1975; De Huff, 1980). descent lamps. Monazite has the composition (Ce,La,Nd,Th)P04. Other thorium ores are thorite ThSi04 and brannerite (a multiple oxide of Ti, U, Ca, MERCURY Fe, Th andY) (Staatz and Olson, 1973; Shannon, 197 5; (96-101) Kirk, 1980). World 1979 production 6646 t (192 845 flasks). Share of production: USSR 29%, Spain 19%, USA 14%, Algeria 13%, China 10%. It is used in the manufacture NATURAL GAS of thermometers and switches. The biggest use is by (276-300) chemical and allied industries for processes such as World 1979 production 1677 559 x 106m3. Natural chlorine and caustic preparation, and in the manufacture gas is measured at a pressure of 14.73 psi of pigments, catalysts, pharmaceuticals and agricultural ( = 1.13 kg cm-2) at 15°C under saturated water vapour chemicals. It is also used in dental preparations and conditions. Share of production: USA 35%, USSR batteries. The major mineral of mercury is cinnabar HgS 21%, Holland 6%, Canada 6%, Iran 3%, Saudi Arabia (Bailey,E.H.eta/., 1973;Drake, 1980a). 3%. Natural gas is used for home heating and cooking, as an industrial and engine fuel, in electricity generation, MICA in fuel cells, for oil-field use to increase oil production, in protein synthesis, as natural gas liquids and liquefied (127-129) petroleum gas and in the manufacture of chemical prod World 1979 production 239 352 t. Share of production: ucts. Natural gas is formed of methane, ethane, propane, USA 60%, USSR 17%, India 13%, South Korea 4%. butane, pentane and nitrogen in various proportions, Sheet mica is hand-trimmed and stamped into shape but methane is the major component (McCulloh, 1973; for industrial use; this use is because of its excellent Tiratsoo, 1979). electrical and thermal insulating qualities. Major uses are as electrical insulations in capacitors and other electrical .1pplications. Scrap and flake mica is NICKEL reconstituted into mica paper or ground up. It is used il} (15, 23-26, 102-104,202-204,209-210, 245) oil-drilling fluids, decorative finishes, and protective World 1979 mine production 704 323 t. Share of pro coatings for electrodes and lubricants. The main duction: Canada 30%, New Caledonia 14%, USSR ore minerals are muscovite K2Al4(Si6Alz0zo) 19%, Australia 11%, Cuba 5%. Themainusesofnickel (OH,F)4, phlogopite Kz(Mg,Fe)6(S~Alz0zo)(OH,F)4, are for making stainless steels and super alloys, in elec biotite Kz(Mg,Fe )6-4(Fe,Al, Ti)n-z(Si6-sAiz-30zo)On-z troplating, and in the manufacture of high-nickel heat (OH,F)4 and lepidolite Kz(Li,AI)~(S~7Alz-10zo) resistant and corrosion-resistant alloys. It is also used in (OH,F)4 (LeSure, 1973b; Petkof, 1975; Zlobik, 1980). making alloys for permanent magnets and in the chemi cal industry. The two major nickel minerals are pentlan MOLYBDENUM dite (Fe,Ni)gS8 and garnierite (Ni,Mg)3Siz05(0H)4.1t is not a true mineral, but rather a mixture of nickel serpen (168-175,177-179) tine, nickel talc and possibly other silicates. Other minor World 1979 production 102 992 t. Share of production: nickel minerals are bravoite (Fe,Ni)S2, millerite NiS, USA 59%, Canada 18%, Chile 12%, USSR 10%, siegenite (Ni,Co)3S4, linnaeite (Co,Fe,Ni)3S4, gersdorf China 2%. The principal uses are in the iron and steel fite NiAsS and niccolite NiAs (Cornwall, 1973; Matth industries, mainly to form high-speed, tool, stainless and ews, 1980). 324 Economic Deposits and their Tectonic Setting NIOBIUM AND TANTALUM PETROLEUM (CRUDE) (118, 123-125, 127-129) (276-300) World 1979 production 25 093 t. Share of production: World 1977 production 2 994 275 000 t. Share of pro Brazil 76%, Canada 20%, Nigeria 3%, Australia 1%. duction: USSR 18%, Saudi Arabia 15%, USA 14%, Columbium is used as ferrocolumbium by the steel Iran 9%, Venezuela 4%. Petroleum is the major energy industry to give a high-strength low-alloy steel and in the source of the western world, upon which it is so depen automotive industry to replace carbon steel and save dent that no satisfactory alternative has yet been de weight. Columbium is also used in pipeline and tubular veloped. Crude petroleum is refined into the following steels, and in super-conducting alloys. Tantalum is used products: gasolene, kerosene and jet fuel, liquefied in the electronics industry for the manufacture of gases, ethane and ethylene, distillate fuel oils, residual capacitors. The main mineral is pyrochlore fuel oil, asphalt and road oil. Other products include (Na,Ca)z(Nb,Ta)z06(0,0H,F), in which the amount of petrochemical feedstocks, special naphthas, lubricants, niobium is greater than the tantalum; it is isomorphous waxes, petroleum coke, still gas, unfinished and finished with microlite (Na,Ca)z(Ta,Nb)206(0,0H,F), in which oils. The finished oils form the basis of the petrochemical the amount of tantalum is greater than the niobium. industry (McCulloh, 1973; Carleton et al., 1975; United Another important mineral is columbite Nations, 1979). (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta)z06, which is isomorphous with tanta lite (Fe,Mn)(Ta,Nb)z06 (Parker and Adams, 1973; Jones, T.S., 1980). PHOSPHATE ROCK (82-89, 114-119) World 1979 production 127 842 000 t. Share of produc tion: USA41%, USSR21%,Morocco 15%,China4%, OIL SHALE Tunisia 3%. Fertilizers consume 90% of the world's (305) rock production. Phosphorus is also used in the chemical industry and gypsum is produced as a by-product. The This fine-grained sedimentary rock contains insoluble phosphate in both igneous and sedimentary deposits is organic matter and can yield substantial amounts of oil contained in minerals of the apatite family, by destructive distillation. It occurs in large volumes in Ca (P0 h(OH,F,Cl) (Cathcart and Gulbrandsen, many parts of the world, and constitutes an enormous 5 4 1973; Emigh, 1975; Stowasser, 1980). reserve of oil, if mining and distilling problems can be overcome (Culbertson and Pitman, 1973). PLATINUM GROUP (105-110) PEAT World 1979 production 207.13 t (6 659 520 troy ounces). Share of production: South Africa 48%, USSR (302-303, 306) 48%, Canada 3%, Japan 0.5%, Colombia 0.2%. The World 1979 production 201773 000 t. Share of produc uses are because of the catalytic properties, electrical tion: USSR 94%, Ireland 3%, West Germany 1%. Peat conductivity, and resistance to chemical corrosion, heat is used for agriculture and horticulture. In some coun and oxidation. The main uses are as electrical contacts in tries it is used as a fuel. Peat consists of partly decayed high-precision instruments and insoluble anodes for vegetable matter, inorganic minerals and water in vary metallurgy, in the chemical industry as catalytic gauze ing proportions. It occurs in peat bogs, and almost 80% for oxidation of ammonia, in petroleum refining as a of the world's peat lands are in the USSR (Cameron, catalyst to produce high-octane gasolene, in dental and C.C., 1973; Singleton and Searls, 1980b). medical devices, in decorative arts and jewellery, in spinnerettes used in the manufacture of glass and in laboratory crucibles. The metals of the group are platinum, palladium, iridium, osmium, rhodium and PERLITE ruthenium. The first two are the most abundant. The platinum-group minerals occur in a variety of forms: World 1979 production 1424 897 t. Share of produc ferroplatinum (Pt, Fe, Ir, Os, Ru, Rh, Pd, Cu, Ni), tion: USA 42%, USSR 25%, Greece 10%, Hungary iridium-ruthenium-osmium, osmium, osmium 7%, Italy 6%. Expanded perlite is used because of its iridium, braggite (Pt, Pd, Ni)S, laurite (Ru, Ir, Os)S2, low density, low thermal conductivity and high resis erlichmanite OsS2, cooperite PtS, mertieite Pts(Sb,As)z tance to fire. It is primarily used as an aggregate in and sperrylite PtAs2. In addition the platinum-group insulation boards, acoustical material in buildings, and metals are contained in small amounts within pyrrhotite, cavity-fill insulation. Perlite is a glassy volcanic rock that pentlandite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. The metals may will, on rapid controlled heating, expand into frothy therefore be recovered during smelting of ores whose material. Most deposits are as volcanic flows and domes contents are extremely low (Page et at., 1973; Jolly, of Cenozoic age (Chesterman, 1975; Meisinger, 1980b). 1980a). Appendix 325 POTASH SAND AND GRAVEL (89-91) The mining and use of sand and gravel represents one of the largest industries. It is used in the building industry World 1979 production 26 345 000 t of K20 equivalent. as a portland cement concrete aggregate, and as asphal Share of production: USSR 32%, Canada 24%, East tic aggregate for paving roads. The Germany 13%, West Germany 9%, USA 9%. Potash is main materials used are stream deposits, alluvial fans, glacial deposits, primarily used as a fertilizer and in the chemical indus dredge tailings, and older geological formations and try. The main minerals are sylvite KCI, carnallite beach deposits. The sand and gravel may be KCI.MgCI2.6H20, kainite 4KC1.4MgS0 .11H 0, 4 2 monomineralic, or of lithic fragments (Yeend, 1973; polyhalite K2S04. MgS04. 2CaS0 . 2H 0, langbeinite 4 2 Goldman and Reining, 1975; Tepordei, 1980). K2S04.2MgS04 and leonite K2S04.MgS04.4H20. There are many minor minerals. Most ores contain admixed halite NaCI. For example, sylvinite is SILICA SAND KCI + NaCI (Smith, G.I. et al., 1973; Adams, S.S., 197 5; Singleton and Searls, 1980c). High-purity silica sand is the main raw material for glass-making. Minor uses include for sand-blasting, in railroad traction and as blast-furnace linings. High PUMICE AND VOLCANIC CINDERS purity silica sands are the result of often-repeated cycles of weathering and transportation. The most extensive World 1979 production 17 686 000 t. Share of produc and purest are found in shallow seas, desert dunes and tion: Italy 43%, USA 18%, West Germany 12%, the flood plains of streams (Ketner, 1973; Murphy, Greece 12%, France 5%. The main use is in the con T.D., 1975). struction industry in light-weight structural concrete, plaster aggregate and road-surfacing material. It is also used as an abrasive for polishing glass, metal, leather and SILVER stone. Pumice and cinders are products of explosive (34-36,168-175,180-194,206-207,228-238) volcanic activity. The rock is generally basaltic and World 1979 production 10 714 t (344 457 000 troy highly vesicular (Peterson, N. V. and Mason, 197 5; ounces). Share of production: Mexico 14%, USSR Meisinger, 1980c). 14%, Canada 13%, USA 12%,Peru9%. The main uses of silver are in photographic materials, in electrical and electronic products, in sterling ware, in electroplated RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS ware, in brazing wares, and for other sundry uses such as (118-119,127,129,242) in dentistry, medicine, as catalysts, as a bearing and for Rare earths have numerous uses, for example, in the jewellery. Of the world's total production of silver, manufacture of petroleum-cracking catalysts, glass and about 75% is a by-product of base-metal ores. In these ceramics, colourizers for television tubes, phosphors, deposits, silver is found within galena, chalcopyrite and optical fibres, low-alloy steels and permanent magnets. sphalerite. The galena is commonly highly argentiferous Monazite (Ce,La,Th,Y)P04 and bastnaesite CeFC03 (up to 0.2% content). The following are some silver are the most abundant minerals. Xenotime YP04 is also minerals: silver Ag, electrum (Ag,Au), andorite mined. Apatite may incorporate re-earth elements PbAgSb3S6, acanthite Ag2S, argentite Ag2S, pearceite (Adams, J.W. and Staatz, 1973; Moore, C.M., 1980). Ag1~s2Su, proustite Ag3AsS3, polybasite Ag1 6Sb2S11 , pyrargyrite A~SbS 3 , sylvanite Ag2Au2Te 8, argentifer ous tennantite (Cu,Fe,Ag)12As4S13, argentiferous tet RHENIUM rahedrite (Cu,Fe,Ag)12Sb4S13 and argentian plumbo jarosite (Pb,Ag)Fe6(S04)4(0H)12. Silver is an impor Rhenium is used as a petroleum-refining catalyst, in tant by-product of both porphyry-copper and massive high-temperature thermocouples, and in the manufac sulphide and other base-metal deposits, but it also oc ture of X-ray tubes, electrical contacts and alloys. curs in epithermal vein deposits (Hey! et al., 1973; Porphyry-copper deposits are the major source of Drake, 1980b). rhenium. One of its major occurrences is in molybde nite, which contains 100-2000 ppm rhenium (King, 1973; Alverson, 1980). SODIUM CARBONATE World 1979 production 28 433 543 t. Share of produc RUTILE tion: USA 26%, USSR 19%, China 6%, United King (272-275) dom 6%, Canada 5%. However the production is both natural and synthetic. The world 1977 production of World 1979 production 361143 t. Share of production: natural sodium carbonate was 5 780 000 t, of which the Australia 77%,SouthAfrica 12%,SriLanka4%,Sierra USA produced 98% and Kenya 2%. Soda ash is a white Leone 3%, India 2%. The uses of rutile (Ti02) are crystalline hygroscopic powder of composition Na2C03. similar to those of ilmenite (Kiemic et al., 1973c; Lynd The market is dominated by the glass industry. Inorganic and LeFond, 1975; Lynd and Hough, 1980). chemicals use most of the remainder. Other uses are in 326 Economic Deposits and their Tectonic Setting detergents, in the manufacture of caustic soda, and in TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE metallurgy. The main minerals are predominantly trona World 1979 production 6 212 839 t. Share of produc Na2C03.NaHC03 .2H20, natron Na2C03.10H.O and tion: Japan 24%, USA 19%, South Korea 11%, USSR thermonatrite Na2C03.H20 (Smith, G.I. et al., 1973; 8%, France 5%. Although not related, pyrophyllite Mannion, 1975; Kostick, 1980). and talc have similar physical properties, so share a common use. The properties that are important are the flaky SODIUM SULPHATE nature and softness. Ground talc is used in the manufac ture of ceramics, paint, plastics, paper, cosmetics and Natural 1979 production 1 746 882 t. Share of produc rubber. Pyrophyllite is predominantly used in refrac tion: USA 31%, Canada 23%, USSR 17%, Mexico tories, but can be used for the same end-products as talc. 12%, Spain 8%. The principal use is in the manufacture The main ore minerals are talc Mg6(Sis0zo)(OH)4 of kraft paper pulp. Other important uses are in the and pyrophyllite Al4(Sis0zo)(OH)4 (Brown, C.E., glass-manufacturing industry, and in detergents. The 1973; Roe, 1975; Clifton, 1980b). two important minerals are mirabilite NazS04. lOHzO and thenardite NazS04 (Smith, G.I. et al., 1973; Weis man and Tandy, 1975; Kostick, 1980). TIN (4, 112, 123-125, 127-129, 134-139, 141-145, 148-15~155-15~178,188-193,257-261) STONE World 1979 production 256 002 t. Share of production: Stone is used in the construction industry in two forms, Malaysia 25%, USSR 14%, Bolivia 14%, Thailand crushed aggregate and dimension stone, either polished 10%, Indonesia 10%. The majorusesoftinareinsolder or unpolished and cut into slabs for decorative use in and tinplate. It is also used in the manufacture of bearing buildings and memorials. A large variety of rocks are alloys, bronze, chemicals and coatings. Cassiterite SnOz suitable, but the most commonly used are limestone, is the major ore mineral. Small production may come marble, granite, gabbro, basalt, sandstone and slate from stannite Cu2FeSnS4, cylindrite PbzSn4SbzS14 and (Laurence, 1973; Schenck and Torries, 1975; Singleton, teallite PbSnS2 (Sainsbury and Reed, 1973; Carlin and 1980). Harris, 1980).

STRONTIUM TUNGSTEN (123-125,135,141,144-14~150-155) World 1979 production 78 900 t of strontium minerals. Share of production: Mexico 42%, Turkey 23%, Iran World 1979 production 46 013 t. Share of production: 10%, Spain 9%, Algeria 7%. The main uses are in glass China 21%, USSR 19%, Bolivia 7%, South Korea 6%, manufacture, in electronics, in pyrotechnics and in metal Thailand 6%. The rna jor use of tungsten is in cutting and refining. The major mineral is celestite SrS04 and stron wear-resistant materials, primarily tungsten carbide. It tianite is of second importance SrC03 (Fulton, 1975). is also used in the manufacture of mill products, hard facing steels, super alloys and chemicals. The main occurrence is as wolframite, which forms an isomorph SULPHUR ous series between huebnerite MnW04 and ferberite (11-14, 37-39,46-50, 53-58, 94-95) Fe W04. Scheelite CaW0 4 is the other major ore miner al (Hobbs, S.W. and Elliot, 1973; Stafford, 1980). World 1979 production 54 834 000 t (26% of total by Frasch process; 7% native; 18% from pyrite). Share of production: USA 21%, USSR 19%, Poland 10%, URANIUM Canada 14%, Japan 5%. Most sulphur is made into (75-81, 95-96, 119, 160-167, 238-248, 254-256, sulphuric acid, which is mainly used to make fertilizers, 264-272, 310-316) explosives, lubricants, rayon, iron and steel, paints and enamels, and in various chemicals and pharmaceuticals. World 1977 production, excluding the USSR, eastern Sulphur is used directly in paper making, cellophane, Europe and China, 28 615 t. Share of production: USA rubber-processing chemicals, insecticides and in bleach 39%, Canada 21%, South Africa 23%, France 8%, ing chemicals. Elemental sulphur is produced from cap Niger 6%. Uranium is an important energy resource. It rocks of salt domes, evaporite basins and volcanic de is mainly used as the fuel for nuclear-powered electricity posits. Much is mined by the Frasch process in which hot generators and reactors. It has important military uses. water and air are pumped down a well to drive sulphur It is likely to be a major fuel of the future if the disposal and air upwards. Elemental sulphur is also a by-product problems are overcome. The major ore minerals are of the petroleum-refining industry. Sulphur is also uraninite U02, pitchblende (the same material that recovered from pyrite FeS2 , marcasite FeS2 and pyrrho occurs as rounded botryoidal masses), coffinite tite Fe..Sn+l from massive sulphide deposits (Bodenlos, U(Si04)1-.J:OH)4x, another important primary mineral, 1973; Gittinger, 1975; Shelton, 1980). brannerite (U,Ca,Ce)(Ti,Fe)z06 and davidite Appendix 327 A6Bis(O,OH)36, where A= U, Fe, rare earths, Ca, Zr, additive to the soil, and as a molecular sieve in the Th, and B = Ti, Fe, V and Cr. There is a large number of purification of gaseous hydrocarbons and the prepara brightly coloured secondary minerals such as carnotite tion of catalysts in the petroleum-refining industry. Kz(UOz)z(V04)2, tyuyamunite Ca(UOz)z(V04)2, autu Zeolites occur concentrated in tuffaceous sedimentary nite (H,Na,K)z(U02)z(P04)z, torbernite Cu (U02)z rocks. There are at least 20 different species reported; (P04)z and uranophane Ca(U02)z(Si030H)z for example, analcime NaAISi20 6.H20, chabazite (Finch eta/., 1973; United Nations, 1979). (Ca,Naz)AlzS4012 .6HzO, harmotone (Ba,Naz)z Al4Si12032.12H20 and stilbite (Ca,Naz)~lsSizs On-28H20. The zeolites in sedimentary rocks are fine VANADIUM grained but voluminous (Mumpton, 1975; Olson, R.H., 1975; Sheppard, R.A., 1973, 1975). (92-93, 105-112) World 1979 production 37 568 t. Share of production: South Africa 37%, USSR 30%, USA 20%, Finland 6%. ZINC Vanadium is usually added to steel to toughen and (34-4~ 46,47-49, 50-53,56-5~92-93, 175-176, strengthen it and to control its grain size.lt is also used in 183-185,207-210,227-238) cast irons and super alloys. Vanadium rarely forms ore World 1979 production from mines 5 977 800 t. Share minerals. It is concentrated in magmatic magnetite de of production: Canada21 %, USSR 12%, Australia8%, posits, especially those that are titaniferous, commonly ranging from 1000 ppm to 5000 ppm in hese deposits. Peru 7%, USA 7%. Most commercial zinc is produced as metallic slab zinc. Zinc is utilized chiefly in the Carnotite K2(U02)z(V04)2. 3Hz0 is a secondary min eral formed in near-surface deposits of vanadium and automobile, household-appliance and hardware indus tries. The three major uses are for zinc-based alloy die uranium. Vanadinite Pb5(V04)3Cl is a secondary miner al formed in the oxidized parts of base-metal deposits. castings, for galvanizing iron and steel and in the man Trace amounts of vanadium accumulate in crude pet ufacture of copper-based alloys and brass. Zinc oxide is used in the manufacture of chemicals, in the photocopy roleum and bauxite (Fischer, 1973; Morgan, 1980). ing, fabrics and plastics industries, and generally as a pigment. There are several zinc ore minerals, the main ones being sphalerite ZnS, wurtzite ZnS, zincite VERMICULITE ZnO, franklinite (Fe,Zn,Mn)(Fe,Mn)z04, smithsonite (110) ZnC03, hydrozincite Zns(OH)6(C03)z, willemite World 1979 production 550 549 t. Share of production: Zn2Si04 and hemimorphite Zn4(0H)zSi207. H20 USA 57%, South Africa 35%, Brazil 4%, Japan 3%, (Wedow eta/., 1973; Cammarota et al., 1980). Argentina 1%. Heated and expanded vermiculite is mainly used in the construction industry for insulation and acoustical walls. Fertilizer and agricultural chemi ZIRCONIUM cals are often carried on vermiculite. The composition of (272-275) vermiculite is (H20)(Mg,Ca,K)(Al,Fe,Mg)(SiAI, Fe)4- World 1979 production of zirconium concentrate 010(0H)z (Strand, 1975; Meisinger, 1980d). 543 865 t. Share of production: Australia 94%, South Africa 3%, India 2%, Brazil 1%, Sri Lanka 1%. Be cause of their refractory nature, zirconium sands are ZEOLITES used as mould material in foundries. Zircon sands are also used in refractory bricks. Zirconium dioxide is Natural zeolites in the form of zeolitic tuff are used in the produced by reacting zircon sand with dolomite at high manufacture of pozzolanic cements and concrete and as temperature; the zirconia is then converted to metal a light-weight aggregate. High-brightness zeolite ore zirconium. Most of the metal is used in water-cooled may be used as a paper filler. Important uses are in nuclear reactors for fuel cladding and pressure tubes. It large-scale ion exchange processes, for example, to is also used for corrosion-resistant applications in the separate radioactive strontium and caesium from waste chemical industry and in the manufacture of photo streams of nuclear facilities and also for sewage treat graphic flashbulbs. The major minerals in zirconium ment. Zeolites are used for producing high-purity ox sands are zircon ZrSi04, baddeleyite Zr02 and ygen for smelting operations. Zeolites may be used as a eudialyte-eucolite(Ca,Na)sZr2Si6(0,0H,Cl)z0 (Klernic dietary supplement for farm animals, as a fertilizer eta/., 1973a; Klemic, 1975; Lynd, 1980). References

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Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada 202, -gold, Malaysia 187 BAKER, E.G. 284 203,206,208-209 -gold mineralization 186-188 BALDWIN,J.T.173, 175 Lake, Canada 204 , greenstone belts 210-212 BALLY, A.W. 293,297 abyssal zone, organic matter 278 Antimony Line, South Africa 211 banded-iron formations 201, 214 Acoje, Philippines 20 antimony, Peru 188 banded spar fluorite 108 actualistic model4 , South Africa 210-212 Bangka, Indonesia 259 ADAM, J.W.H. 137 antithetic faults 288 banket 270,271 ADAMS,J.262 apatite, Brazil117 BARDOSSY, G. 249,250,251 African Copper Belt 234-238 deposits, igneous 114-119 barite bedded deposits 62-63 Agnew Lake deposit 268 , ironore219 deposits 62-67 AHFELD, F. 188, 190 -nepheline ore 115-116 , Pennines 53 albitite 115 Appalachian zinc -lead deposits replacement deposits 63-64 ALEVA, G.J.J. 259 58-59 residual deposits 66-67 algal ore, fluorite 108 aqueous solution 283 vein and cavity deposits 64-66 structures, ironstone 215 Ara1Sea68 BARKER, C. 279 Algoman-type ironstone 199-200 Archaean mineralization 196-213 BARNES, H.L. 5 alkali granite 130 , model for 212-213 BARRETT, F.M. 202 pyroxenite 115 tectonics 196-198 basal zone, Bushveld complex 108 syenite 115 Arkansas barite 62-63,66 basalt 17 alkaline igneous rocks 114-123 ARTH,J.C.198 basin classification 293-299 Alligator River, Australia 238-242 Ashio Mountains, Japan 28-29 BATCHELOR, B.C. 257,258 alluvial deposit 302 Askrigg Block, England 53-55 BATEMAN,P.C.183 alluvium, Southeast Asia 257 astrobleme 8 batholith geology 130-133 Almaden mercury deposit, Spain , Sudbury 104 bathyal zone, organic matter 278 97-99 Athabasca Formation 243, 245 Bau, gold and antimony 186 alnoite 115 Trough90 ,mercury97 Alpinotypeorogenies 131-132 uranium 243-247 , stibnite 186 Alps, tungsten 154 Atlantis Deep 45 -46 bauxite249-254 Alston Block, England 53-54 AUDLEY-CHARLES,M.G. 303 ,age250 alteration tongues 80 aulacogen 44, 225, 286 , classification 249-250 Alum Shale, Sweden 96 Australian bauxite 253 , composition 250 American coal31 0 coal310-311 , geographical distribution 250 AMST1JTZ,G.C.62-63 gold204 ,origin251 anatexis 9, 194 nickel202-204 BEAN,J.H.136, 137,159 andalusite, Bushveld 113 pegmatites 129 Beatrice Pipe, Malaysia 139, 140 ANDERSON, G.M. 48, 50 phosphorites 88 Beaverlodge mining area 246-248 Andes mineralization 189,191, placers 272-275 bedded bauxite 25 3-25 4 194-195 stratiform ore bodies 229-233 manganese deposits 26-30, Andinotypeorogenies 131-132 sulphide ores 229-234 222-225 ANHAEUSSER, C.R. 197,205, uranium 238-242 BELL,R.T. 95 206,212,213 Avoca sulphide, Ireland 40 Belt-Purcell aulacogen 225-22 7 anthracite 306 AzovSea96 copper227 anticlinal traps 292 lead-zinc227-228 antimony, Bolivia 188 palaeo-geography 225 ,Burma 188 back-arc spreading 12 Benioff Zones 12-13,17,131 , China 145, 188 back-arc thrusting 14 Benue Trough, Africa 44, 286 backdeep basins 299 BERNING,J.167 • Main entries are enumerated in italic BAILEY, R.V. 78, 79, 100,238, Besshi deposits 40-42 type. Author entries are in capitals. 313,315 BEUKES, N.J. 223,224 357 358 Author and subject index BICHAN,R.113 Canada, gold 204-205 petrology 305-306 Big Indian Ore Belt, Utah 78-79 , uranium 243-247 ranks 281,306-307 BIGNELL, R.D. 45 , uranium placers 264-265 , tectonic setting 303 Bikita pegmatite 12 7 -12 9 cannel coal303 coalification 279,306-308, 310 Billiton, Indonesia 137-139 cap rock 95,289 Cobalt, Canada 210 bioepigenetic sulphur deposits 94 Capel Beach sands 273-274 Cobalt -Gowanda ore body, Canada biosyngenetic sulphur deposits 95 capillary pressure 284-285 209-210 BISHOFF, J.L. 44 seal285 Coeur d'Alene 226,228-229 BiwabiklronFormation214-217 carbon isotopes 57 coffinite 77 Black Sea 68, 93, 95 , Witwatersrand 272 COLEMAN, R.G. 15, 17 Black shales, uraniferous 95-96 carbonas135,143,149,150 COLLEY, H. 32, 43 blackspar fluorite 108 carbonatite 115,116-119 collision orogen 297 bogironore75 Carboniferouscoals304, 308-310 collophane 84 boghead coal305 carnotite 78,255-256 colluvial placers 260 Bolivia tin 189-193 Cartersville, Georgia, barite 65 columbite, Nigeria 125 Bonneterre Formation, Missouri cassiterite, Malaysia 136 combination traps 292 51-53 , pleochroic 143 COMER,J.B. 251 Borneo186 , temperature of deposition 134 Comstock Lode 182 BOTI, M.H.P. 55 Catahoula Formation, Texas 80 conglomerate ore, sulphide 34 Bougainville, porphyry copper catazonal emplacement 134 , uraniferous265-267, 270, 173-175 cauldron subsidence 36, 180, 184 313 Boulby potash, England 91-92 Cave-in-Rock, Illinois 60 Congo pegmatite 128 BOWDEN, P. 124 Central Graben, North Sea 2 90-2 91 CONNAN,J.279 BOWEN, R. 234,235 Cerro Boliva, Venezuela 217-218 connate water 5 BOYLE, R.W. 64 Cerro Chorolque, Bolivia 189 CONSTANTINOU, G. 26,32 BRADFORD, E.F. 139, 141 Cerro Colorado, Spain 37-39 consuming plate margin 32 braided stream placers 261 CHAKRABORTY, K.R. 194 Consuzo stock, Peru 151 Brazil apatite 115, 117 CHAPPELL, B.W. 130 continental embankment 298 tin 124 Chattanooga Shale, USA 96 margin basin 298 breccia ore 141-142 chemical brecciation 141 COOK, P.J. 82, 83,88 spar fluorite 108 CHENEY,E.S.167,256,313 COOPER, B.S. 280 brine 4, 14, 45, 46, 50,62 CHENEY, T.M. 89 copper skarn 175-176 circulation 33,45 cherty iron formation 201, 215 Copper Belt, Africa 235-238 BRITTEN, R.A. 310,311 CHILDERS, M.O. 238, 313, 315 cordierite hornfels 143 BROBST, D.A. 62 chillzone,Bushveldcomplex 108 cordillera 12-13 Broken Hill, Australia 230, 232-233 China, bauxite 253-254 Cordillera Real, Bolivia 190-192 mineralogy 233 , iron ore 159 cordilleran margin basin 296 brown coal306 , tungsten 144-147 porphyry copper 172 BRYNER, L. 21, 157, 185 Chinese-type basins 298 Cornish-type lodes 149 Buchans sulphide, Newfoundland 40 Chinkuashih, Taiwan 185 Cornwall, England 148-150 Bukit Besi, Malaysia 136-137 Chinle Formation 79 Cornwall, Pennsylvania 158, Bukitlbam, Malaysia 157-158 Christmas Island 86 159-160 buoyancy 284 chromite 19-23 Coto, Philippines 20-21 BURBANK, W.S. 183, 184 ,Bushveld 111-112 cratonic basins 293-294 Burma, antimony 188 ,Great Dyke 113-114 igneous intrusions 102-129 , barite66 ,podiform 19-23 interior basins 89 Bushveld Granite 107, 110 circum-Pacific mercury 97 Creighton Embayment, Sudbury igneous complex 104-113,197 CLARK,A.H.190, 194 103-104 igneous stratigraphy 109 classification 4-7 Cretaceous ironstones, England 72 tectonic setting 105-106 clay alteration zones 36-37, critical zone, Bushveld 108 172-173 CRONAN,D.S.14-15 Cleveland ironstone, England 72 cryptic layering, Bushveld 105 calc-alkaline series 130 Cleveland, Tasmania 156 cryptovolcano 8 calcrete, uraniferous 254-256 Climax porphyry mine, Colorado Cuba, chromite 23 caliche256 178-180 , manganese 28 California, chromite 23 Clinton Group ironstones 69-71 Cudgen placers 27 4 ,gold262 palaeo-geography 71 CUNEY, M. 163 , mercury 100 coal, climate control303 cupriferous sulphide 27 CALLOW, K.J. 157 deposits300-310 cyclothem 301-302 Camborne, England 149 , origin 300-303 Cyprus 16, 18, 22, 26, 32 CAMERON,E.N.111, 129,225 measures 302 Cyprus-type sulphides 31-34, 40 Author and subject index 359 DAHLKAMP,F.J. 244,245,248, EUGSTER,H.P.160 Gallivare, Sweden 220 312,313,314,316 EVANS, A.M. 53, 56,66 gangue2 Dalcoath mine, England 149, 150 EVANS, C.R. 285 GARLICK, W.G. 236,237 DAMBERGER, H.H. 310 EVANS, D.G. 306 gamierite 23 Dan Field, North Sea 290-291 EVANS, H.J. 253 GARSON, M.S. 18, 32, 43, 143, 144 Darling Ranges, bauxite 253 evaporite 89-94 gaseous solution 283 Dartmoor granite 148 , cycles in North Sea 91, 92 GASS, I. G. 15, 16, 18 DAUKORU, E. 286, 287 , salina model 93 Georgia barite 65,67 DAWSON,J.B.119, 120,121,122 , water depth 93 Georgina Basin phosphorite 88 DEGENS, E.T. 95 exhalative processes 9-10,212-213 geothermal gradient 280, 282 delta deposits 299-302 GERASIMOVSKY, V.I. 115 deposit 1 FALCON, R.M.S. 303,304,305 Germancoa1308-310 Derbyshire Dome, England 54-55 Fanay mine, France 162 ironstones 74 DEUTSCHER, R.L. 256 fault control, migration 288 GEVERS, T.W. 128, 129 diamond 119-123 seals288 Ghana manganese 225 formation 119 Felbertal, Alps 154 GLASBY, G.P. 15 placers 262-264 fenite 115 GLIKSON,A.Y.196, 199 144,264 , Thailand ferromanganese deposits 26-30 goethite23 89 diatomite , fresh water 74-75 Golalan, Turkey 22 DICKEY, P.A. 284 mineralization nodules 74-75 gold-antimony W.R. 12,293 296 DICKINSON, Fiji, gold 185 186-188 297 , , 186-188 , Kuroko deposits 43 ,Malaysia DIESSEL,C.F.K. 310 182-188,204-207, FINCH, W.I. 76, 77,84 gold deposits DIETZ,R.S.l04 261-262,269-272 fireclay 302 DIMROTH, E. 68 , USA 182, 183 fissure veins 59 214 belts 204-207 distaldeposits43, , Comwall149 , greenstone R.G. 238,239,241 lode deposits 207 DODSON, FITCH, F.H. 136 261-262,269-272 DOE,B.R.53 flats 53 placers 7 3 269-272 Dogger ironstones, Germany FLEISCHER, V.D. 235 , SouthAfrica205-207, DOW, W.G. 276, 278, 280, 282 Flin Flon ore body, Canada 209 , stratiform 206-207 DOZY,J.J.50 FLINTER,B.H.139 -uranium placers 270-272 Duluth gabbro 215 flood plains 302 Zimbabwe 205 Dundonald, Canada 203 FLORAN,R.J. 215 GOLDICH, S.S. 214 DUNHAM, A. C. 63 Florida phosphorite 85 GOLIGHTLY,J.P.25 DUNHAM, K.C. 53, 54, 55, 72, 148 gondite 223, 225 149 , fluid inclusions 5, 47, 60, 62, 134, 152,175,181,184,247 Gondwanaland 217,218,303 fluorite, Bushveld complex 107-108 coal303,304,310,311 East Pacific Rise 14 deposits 59-62 GOODWIN,A.M.199,200,201, EASTOE,C.J.175 , Mexico 59-60 205,212,215 economic deposit 2 , Pennines 54 GOOSSENS, P.J. 66 Ekofisk, North Sea 290, 291 FOLINSBEE, R.E. 56 gossan9 252, 253 El Laco, magnetite 219 FORD, T.D. 54,56 Gove Peninsula bauxite G.J.S. 26,32 Elliot Lake, Ontario 266 267 269 fore-arc basins 296,299 GOVETT, 265 ' ' graben basins 298 Elliot syncline foreland basins 296 grade, cut-off 2-3 eluvial placers 260 Forez uranium deposit 161-163 ,ore2-3 elvans 148 Forties Field 290,291 Grand Isle Block Oil Field 288-289 Ely, Nevada 175, 176 foyaite 115 granite series 130,131 EMERY, J.A. 221,222 Franciscan melange 100 GRANT,J.N.189, 190,192,193 EMMONS, J. 133, 135 FRAZIER, D.E. 301 Gravelotte mine 211 emplacement depth 133, 134 FREEZE, A. C. 227 Gravelotte-Mica pegmatite 129 Endako, British Columbia 177-178 French ironstones 74 Great Dyke, Zimbabwe 111 Eneabba placers 273-274 R. 219,220 FRIETSCH, 113-114,197,206 , English ironstones 72-73 FRIPP, R.E.P. 207,213 Greece, nickel laterite 26 epicontinental basin deposits FRYKLUND, V.C. Jr. 226 Shale 276, 305 82-101,214 fumarole 208,212,213 Green River epicrustal rocks, Bushveld 110 greentuff,Japan35,37, 181 epigenetic deposits 168-195 GREENBAUM, D. 22 uranium 75 Gabon manganese 225 greenstone belts 196-199 epithermal vein deposits 180-194 galena, Missouri 51 , antimony 210-212 epizonal pluton emplacement 133 , Pennines 53 , evolution 198-199 134,168 ' , Pine Point 56 , gold 205, 207 360 Author and subject index greenstone belts (contd) HOSKING, K.F.G. 66, 133, 135, , Philippines 157 mineralization 198-213 136,137,138,140,141,144, formations 198-202,214-219 , South Africa 197,205-207 148,149,150,155,159 Iron Mountain, Missouri 222 , stratigraphy 203 hot-spot 12-13 iron skams 15 6 greisen 135, 143, 145 tracks 13, 123 -tin mineralization, Malaysia -bordered veins 135, 148 Hsiuwen bauxite 254 136-137 GRIP, E. 96,220 Huallatani, Bolivia 191, 192 ironstones, reworked 69,73 GROGAN,R.M.61 Hunan, China 96, 188 , sedimentary 68-74,214 GROSS, G.A. 199 HUNTER, D.R. 105, 106, 107 ISHIHARA, S. 131, 135, 142, 144 ground water, uranium-bearing 80, HUNTER,R.E.69, 70 island arc 12-13,43 256 Hunter Valley coal31 0 porphyrycopper172 GROVES, D.l. 202,203 HUTCHINSON, R.W. 155,207, itabirite 217-218 growth faults 286-287 212,225 GRUBB,P.L.C.137,249,252,253 HUTCHISON, C.S. 22, 97, GRUSS, H. 217,218 131-133,135,136,150,188, Jabiluka deposit 239 Guanajuato,Mexico 182,183 194,259 JACKSON, S.A. 56 guano85-86 H.Y.C. pyritic shale 230-231 Jacupiranga, Brazil115-117 GUILBERT,J.171 hydrocarbon generation 278, 280 jacupirangite 115 GUILD, P.W. 23, 182, 183 hydrogen isotopes 5 Jamaica bauxite 251-252 GUILLON, J.H. 24,25 hydrothermal alteration 171-173, JAMBOR,J.L.209 GULBRANDSEN, R.A. 88 175,177,185 Japan, Hokuroko district 35 Guleman -Soridag, Turkey 22 exhalations 62 , iron deposits 15 9 Gulf Coast oil fields 282, 288-289 pipes 139, 140 , Kuroko deposits 34-37 Gulf of Mexico sulphur 94 processes 8 , manganese deposits 28-30 GUNATILAKA, A. 234,235 solutions2,5-7, 19,133,152 JOHNSON, I.R. 232 Gunflint Iron Formation 214-217 temperatures 134-135 JONES, M.T. 139 Range216 uranium 238-248 JONES, W.A. 205,206 GUSTAFSON,L.B.168, 171,173 Jos-Bukuru, Nigeria 125-126 Guyana iron formation 218 JUNG,W.93 !-granite 130, 131, 133 Jurassic ironstones, Europe 72-74 Iberian pyrite belt 3 7 Hainan 159 Idaho batholith 227 HALL, T.C.F. 303 phosphorite 87 Kafue anticline 234-235,237 HALL, W.E. 178, 180 SpringsFormation81, 178 kaksa261 HALLAM, C.D. 262 Idria mine, Yugoslavia 98-100 Kalahari manganese 223-224 Hamme tungsten, North Carolina igneous layering, Bushveld 105, 109 Kalgoorlie, Australia 204 154 ijolite 115 Kalimantan 186 HARRISON,J.E.227 IKONNIKOV, A.B. 96, 145 Kamativi pegmatite 129 HARSHMAN, E.N. 80 Ilimuassaq, Greenland 119 Kambalda, Australia 202-204 Hauraki, New Zealand 185 Illinois, fluorite 60-62 KANEHIRA, K. 42 HAWKINS,B.W. 242 , fluorite-zinc-lead 61 Kao kimberlite, Lesotho 120, 123 HEGGE, M.R. 242 -Kentucky fluorite 49 Karamken, Siberia 185 Henderson mine 177 ilmenite placers 2 72-2 75 karang261 HENLEY, R.W. 261,262 -series granite 131,144 karst mineralization 58-59, 250 Hercyniangranite 161-165 Imperial Valley, California44 Katanga Supergroup 234 uranium 161-165 Indian manganese deposits 223 Keewatin flows 209 Hercyno-typeorogenies 131-133 Indonesia tin mineralization KELLY, W.C. 152, 153 HEYL, A.V. 48, 49, 59,62 138-139 Kentucky barite 66 Hicks Dome, Illinois 61 inertinite 278 fluorite 60-62 Highland area, Powder River 76 INESON,P.R.53 fluorite -zinc -lead 61 Hilton deposit, Australia 230-232 INGHAM,F.T.139-141 keratophyre, magnetite ore 220 Hilt's Law 306 intermontaine basins 299 kerogen concentration 2 7 6 HIRDES, W. 270, 271 intra-arc basin 297-298 evolution paths 277, 279 HOAGLAND, A.D. 58 intracratonic basins 44-81, 89 inshale305 HOBBS, S.W. 226,228 Ireland barite 64, 66 types 276-278 HOEVE, J. 243 Kuroko deposits 40 KESLER, S.E. 60, 171, 182, 183 Hokuroko, Japan 36 Mississippi Valley deposits 56 KESLER, T.L. 65, 67 H0LL,R.155,210 iron deposits, China 159 Key Lake deposit 245 Hollinger, Canada 205-206 , contact 156-160 Khakandzha, Siberia 185 HOLLISTER, V.F. 168 ,Japan 159 KhaoSoon, Thailand 142 Hong Kong tungsten 147 , Malaysia 136-137, 157-158 Khibina, Kola Peninsula 114-116 Author and subject index 361 khibinite 115 LAWRENCE,L.J.232 MainZone,Bushveld 109,110 Kiangsi, China 145 layered sequence, Bushveld Malay Peninsula tectonics 132, 133, Kidd Creek mine, Canada 208-209 108-110 135-137 Kiirunavaara 220 LAZNICKA, P. 204 malayaite 139 killas 148 leadisotopes47, 48, 56, 59,229,246 Malaysia barite 66 KIMBERLEY,M.M. 30,68, 199, LEOW,J.H.143 iron 157-158 201,214,269 Lepanto, Philippines 185 tin mineralization 135-137 kimberlite 114, 115, 119-123 lepidolite 134, 144 manganese, bedded ore 26-30, age 122 LEROY,J.162, 164 222-225 classification 119 Lesotho kimberlite 120,122-123 nodules 15, 74-75 diatremes 119, 120 Letseng-la-terae, Lesotho 120, mangrove swamps 302 distribution 122 122-123 MANN, A.W. 255,256 dykes 119, 120 Levackembayment, Sudbury 103, manto deposits 59-60 King Island, Australia 155 104 marginal basins 12-13, 17,297-298 Kinta Valley, Malaysia 139-140, LEWIS,D.E.171 Margnacmine,France 162 257,258-259 Liberia iron formation 217-219 Mary Kathleen uranium deposit 240, KIRPAL, G.R. 254 Liesegang rings 79 242-243 Kiruna 219,221 lignite, uraniferous 315 Masinloc, Philippines 20 ironore219-221 Limassol Forest, Cyprus 22 MassifCentral161-162 Klamath Mountains, California 23 limestone mineralization 50-51 massive pyritite 39 Klappa Kampit, Indonesia 138-139, limnic basins 303 sulphide deposits 14, 31-43, 155 Limousin, France 164 207-210,225-238 Kleinarltal, Alps 154 LINDGREN, W. 4 MATHIAS,B.V.231 KLEMME, H.D. 292-295,298 LIPMAN,P.W.183,184 Mattabi mine, Canada 208, 209 Klerksdorp gold field 272 liquid immiscibility 8, 219 Mattagami Lake deposit, Canada 209 KNIGHT, C.L. 156 window 279-280 maturation, organic matter 277, KNITZSCHKE, C. 92 Lisbon Valley anticline 78 279-280, 281 Kochiu, China 148 listric growth faults 286-287 profile282 KOEPPEL, V. 246 Llallagua mine, Bolivia 193 , time factor 281 Kola Peninsula, USSR 114-116 lode2 MAUCHER, A. 99,210 komatiites 196, 202 gold deposits 207 McArthur deposit, Australia Koongarra, Australia241 tin deposits, Malaysia 136, 138 229-231 Korea tungsten 154-155 longshore drift 262-263, 273 McELHINNY, M. W. 82, 88 Kosaka, Japan 36 lopolith, Sudbury 102 McKELLAR, J.B. 273, 27 4 Kramat Pulai scheelite-fluorite Lorraine ironstones, France 73-74 McMILLAN, R.H. 243, 266, 268 140-141 Louisiana Gulf Coast oil fields 281, Meade Peak phosphorite 86, 87 Kuching, Sarawak 186 282,288-289 mechanical accumulation 9 Kunghsien bauxite 254 Lousal, Portugal38-39 Mediterranean Sea mercury 97 Kupferschiefer 91, 92-93 Loussavaara 220 MELCHER,G.C.115, 117 Kuroko deposit 32,34-40 LOWELL,J.D.171 melteigite 115 ore35 LUEDKE, R.G. 183, 184 Menglembu, Malaysia 142 -porphyry comparisons 42-43 Meratus Mountains 264 Kwantung,China 145 mercury deposits 96-101 maceral305 mobilization 97 Macquarie Island 1 7 ore genesis 99 Labat pipe, Malaysia 141 Madhya Pradesh iron 223-225 MerenskyReef,Bushveld 108,109, Lahn-Dillirondeposits 29,30 magmatic cumulates 7-8, 19 110-111 Lake Michigan ferromanganese 75 disseminations 7 Mesabi Range 216,217 LAMBERT, I.B. 35,185,230,231, processes 7-8 mesozonalemplacement 133, 134 233 waterS metal-rich sediments 46 Lamotte Sandstone, Missouri 53 magnesite, Bushveld 113 metamorphic processes 8-9 lamprophyre 115 magnetite, Bushveld 109, 112 waterS LANDIS, G.P. 151 ,Canada 159 meteoric water 5 LANGFORD,F.F. 75,77,254-256 ,Cornwall, Pennsylvania 158-160 Mexico fluorite 59-60 LAPHAM, D.M. 158-159 , Kiruna-type 219-222 tin 190 Larap, Philippines 157 lava flows 219 Michipicoten Basin 200-202 LARSEN,K.G.51 series 131 mid-Atlantic Ridge 14 Las Cuevas fluorite 60 Maharashtra manganese 223 Midnite mine, Washington 165-166 lateral secretion 8, 4 7 Main Chromite seam, Bushveld 109 migration of oil281-285, 288 laterite 23-26,249 Main Magnetite seam, Bushveld 109 , primary 281-284 LAVEROV,N.P.313 Main Range, Malaysia 135,139-143 , secondary 284-285 362 Author and subject index minette iron ore 7 4 Niger Delta oil field 286-288 OSANIK, A. 300, 301 Miocene coals 303, 304 Nigeria granite 126 OSBERGER, R. 261 miogeoclinal basin 89,296,298 tin 124-126 Osburn Fault 229 miscellar solution 284 Nirnba iron formation 21 7-219 Otago gold fields 261-262 Mishrag sulphur 94 niobium deposits 117, 118, 123-125 Oxfordian ironstone 72-73 Mississippi Delta 282 ,Canada 117-118 oxidation of iron 7 9 Embayment 49-50 , cratonic settings 123-125 oxidative sulphur 95 Valleydeposits6, 47-59 NIXON, P.H. 120, 122 oxygenisotopes5,49,57,58,151, ,mineralogy 51-52 Noda-Tamagawa, Japan 28-29 152,173,185,215 , lead isotopes 48 Noranda region, Canada 205, 208 , ore genesis 49-50 norite, Sudbury 102 Missouri iron ore 221-222 North Carolina tungsten 154 Pachuca, Mexico 182, 183 , Mississippi Valley deposits 50-53 North Sea evaporites 91-92 padang placers 261 MITCHELL,A.H.G.18,32,43, oil fields 290-291 Pahang Consolidated Co. mine, 123,133,150 palaeo-geography 2 91 Malaysia 136, 138 MLAKER, I. 98, 99 stratigraphy 92,291 paired granite belts 132, 133 molybdenum porphyry 177-179 Norway tungsten 154 orogenic belts 132, 135 Montana phosphorite 87 NOTHOLT,A.J.G.115 Palabora, South Africa 119 MOORE, L.R. 305 Nova Scotia barite 64-65 Palawan mercury 100 MOREAU, M. 160, 161, 165 Nsuta, Ghana 225 Panasqueira, Portugal152 -153 MOREY, G.B. 215,216 Panguna, Bougainville 173-175 Mother Lode, California 182, 183 PAPIKE,J.J. 214,215 Mount Bishoff, Tasmania 156 obduction 17-18 Papua New Guinea 18 Mount Isa, Australia 230-232 Oberfalz ironstone, Germany 7 4 PARAK, T.219,220,221 Mountain Pass, California 117-119 ocean-floor mineralization 14-30 paralic coals 303 MUFF, R. 210,211,212 oceanic lithosphere 11-30 PARK,C.F.Jr.156, 157,219 Murchison Range, South Africa unwellings 88 Pasto Buena, Peru 150-152 210-212 ochre26-27 PATTISON,E.F.104 Muskeg-Prairie evaporite 56-57, OHMOTO, H. 37, 141, 171, 181 Pea Ridge, Missouri 219,221-222 89-91 oil basin classification 293-299 peat deposits 300,302,306 tectonics 296,297 pegmatite 8, 126-129, 134, 144, 148 oil generation 299 , Bushveld 110 Nabarlek, Australia 241 -phase migration 284 classification 127-128 NALDRETT, A.J. 102,202 preservation 299-300 mineralization 126-129, 144 Namaqualand tungsten 154 shale305 , Nigeria 124, 126 Namibiadiamonds262-264 -trap classification 292-293 Peine detrital iron ore 7 3-74 pegmatites 128, 129 oil-fields classification 293-299 Pelepah Kanan, Malaysia 13 7 uranium 166-167 distribution 293, 299-300 Pennine Hills, England 53-56 natural gas 276-300 occurrence 292, 299-300 fluorite 53 Naurzum bauxite 252, 254 , supergiants 300 , ore genesis 55 Nchanga copper mine 235, 237-238 Oka alkaline complex, Canada 117, Pennsylvania coals 302, 304, 310 NEGLIA, S. 283 118 Per Geijer 220 nepheline syenite 115 okaite 115 peridotite 17, 115 nephelinite 115 Okukimine,Japan42 Permian coals 303, 304, 310-311 neritic zone, organic matter 278 Old Lead Belt, Missouri 52 Peru, tungsten 150-152 NEUMANN-REDLIN, C. 73,74 olistostrome 19 PETERSEN, U.188, 190,191,194 Nevada barite 63-64 Oman ophiolite 26-27 petroleum276-300 New Almaden mine, California 98, Ongeluk lava 223, 224 , relation to Mississippi Valley 100 Ontario placers, uranium 264-266 deposits 48, 50 New Caledonia 19,24-25 oolitic ironstone 68, 215 PETRUK, W. 210 New Zealand gold261-262 ophiolite 15-23 Philippines, Barlo mine 34 Newcastle, Australia 311 tectonics 18 , chromitite 20-21 Newfoundland, ophiolite 33 ore2 ,iron 157 , sulphides 34 grade2-3 , Lorraine ore 33-34 NEWNHAM, L.A. 155 minerals2 , manganese 28-29 nickel, Australia 202-204 reserves2 ,mercury 100-101 Nickel Eruptive, Sudbury 102 shoot2-3 phoscrete 88 nickellaterite 23-26 organic-matter maturation 277, phosphate, igneous 114-119 , allochthonous 26 279-280 phosphatic guano 86 , Sudbury 102-104 production 278 sediments 82 sulphide deposits 202-204 orogenic belts 131-132 source rocks 85 Author and subject index 363 Phosphoria Formation, western USA PUSEY, W.C. 279 Ruhr-Basin coal308-310 84,86-87 pyrochlore deposits 118 Rum Jungle, Australia 238-242 phosphorites 82-89 pyrolysis 277, 279 rutile placers 272-275 classification 83-85 pyrometasomatic deposits 148, 156 Rwanda pegmatites 128 distribution 82, 83 pyroxenite 115 RYE,R.0.151-153, 171,181 petrology 83, 84 , platform deposits 85 , residual 85 QUADE, H. 30, 201 S-granite 130-133, 160 , west coast-type 85 Quirke zone 267 Sabah, Borneo 20, 22 phosphorogenesis 82, 88, 89 SAEGART, W.E. 171 Phuket, Thailand 143-144,264 salina deposits 93 phyllic alteration 172-173 Rabbit Lake deposit 243-244 salt deposits 89-94 Pilbara Block, Australia 204 radiogenic lead 48 diapirs 288-289 Pilot Knob 222 rakes 53,56 withdrawal288-289 Pine Point zinc-lead deposit, Canada Rammelsberg, Germany 43 Salton Sea 4, 44 56-58 Ranger One, Australia 239-241 SanJuan, Colorado 183-185 pipe deposits 139-140,150 rare-earth deposits 118-119 sandstone uranium deposits 75, 76, pitchblende 81, 164,238,246 , California 117-119 77,79 PITCHER, W.S. 131, 132 Raub Australian gold mine 186-188 Sangdong, Korea 153-155 placer deposits 4, 256-276 recycled tin 193-195 SANGSTER, D.F. 4 7, 59 diamonds 262-264 Red Sea 4, 6, 44-47 saprolite 25 , gold 261-262, 269-272 redeposited bauxite 250, 253-254 sapropelitic coals 303-305 , gold-uranium 270-272 reef mineralization 4 7, 51 Sarawak 186 ilmenite, rutile, zircon 2 72-2 75 reflectance of coal307 -308 Saskatchewan potash deposits 90, 91 tin257-261 remnant arcs 14 uranium244 Planes-San Antonio, Spain 38-39 RENFRO, A.R. 236, 23 7 SASSANO, G.P. 247 platinum, Bushveld 105, 110-111 Renison-Bell, Tasmania 153, SATO, T. 35, 185 Platreef, Bushveld 111 155-156 SAUPE, F. 97, 98 PLIMER, I.R. 233 replacement ore bodies 143 SAWKINS,F.J.42, 181,225 Porcupine, Canada 204-206 residual barite 66-67 scheelite, China 145 porphyry-copper deposits 5, 32, phosphorite 85 -fluorite skarns 141 168-175 processes9 , King Island 155 , classification 168-169 Retort member phosphorite 86 , Malaysia 141 ,distribution 169-170 retro-arc basins 297 SCHNEIDER,H.J.191, 192,195 porphyry-molybdenum deposits 169, Rhine-Ruhr coal field 308-31 0 SCHOWALTER, T.T. 284 177-179 RICHARDSON J.A.186, 187 SCHUILING,R.D.191, 194 porphyry stocks 171 rift-related mineralization 123 Schwartzwalder deposit, Colorado porphyry-tin deposits 169, 188, 193 rift valleys 298 81 porphyry-tungsten deposits 147 RIGGS, S.R. 83-85,88 scrins 53, 56 Portugal, massive sulphide deposits RILEY, G. 143 SCRIVENOR,J.B.260 37-40 ring complex 115,124 sea-floor spreading 12-13 , tungsten 152-153 , Nigeria 124,126 sealing of faults 288 potash salts 89 Rio Tinto, Spain 37-39 seatearth 302 potassic alteration 172, 175 rischorrite 115 secondary migration 284-285 Potosi, Bolivia 189, 192 RIVAS, S. 193 sedimentary bauxite 250, 254 POTY, B.P. 163 Roan Formation 234 ironstone 68-74 Powder River Basin, Wyoming 80 ROBBINS, D.A. 165 precipitation 9 Prairie Formation 89-91 ROBERTSON, D.S. 264-266,313, Semail nappe, Oman 27 Presqu'ile Barrier Reef 56-57 314 SEMENOV,E.I.116 pressure seal285 ROBERTSON,J.A. 265,268 serpentinite diapirs 19 PRETORIUS, D.A. 269-272 ROEDDER, E.H. 5, 47, 49,58 melange 100 Pfibram, Czechoslovakia 165 ROGERS,J.J.161 Seyler chart 308 PRICE, L.C. 283 roll-front uranium deposits 79-81 Shakanai, Japan 36 primary migration 281-284 roll-over structures 288, 292 shale, uraniferous 95-96, 315 propylitic alteration 173, 175, 180 Rondonia, Brazi1124 SHCHERBA, G.N. 137 Proterozoic mineralization 214-248, R6ssing, Namibia 166-167 shelf basins 299 264-272 Rotliegendes evaporite 91 SHEPPARD, S.M.F. 33, 135, 148, uranium placers 264-272 ROWNTREE, J.C. 242 150,173,180 protore2 ROY,S.223 Shihlu, China 159 proximal deposits 43 Rubicon pegmatite 128-129 Shikoku,Japan41-42 pull-apart basins 299 RUCKMICK,J.C. 94,95,217 Shimokawa, Japan 41 364 Author and subject index Shirataki, Japan 41 STAUFFER, P.H. 257,261,303 Tayeh, China 159 Shirley basin, Wyoming 80 STEINER, R.J. 288 TAYLOR, D. 97,135,157,158, shonkinite 115 stockwork deposits 148 188,259 Shor-Su sulphur 94 strata-bound 5 TAYLOR, H.P.l35, 152,185 SIBBALD, T.I.I. 243 sulphides 207, 229-238 Taylor Creek, New Mexico 190 silica-carbonate rock 100 tin 154-155,191-192 Teesdale Dome, England 54 SILLITOE,R.H.124, 180-183, tungsten 154-155 TEH, G.H. 142 191,193 Strathcona mine, Sudbury 103, 104 TEICHMULLER, M. 304, 306, silver deposits 182-186 stratiform gold 206-207 308-310 , USA 182 ore bodies 5, 229-238 Tekkamines, Malaysia 142-143 Silverton cauldron 184 stratigraphic traps 292 telescoped ore deposit 143 skarn 136-137, 139, 145, 156, 169, strontium isotopes 114, 124, 130, Tennessee barite 67 175-176 171 TENYAKOV, V.A. 254 , China 145 structural traps 292 terra rossa 251 ,copper 175-176 S11JMPFL,E.F.154 Terrebonne syncline 289 ,iron 156 subduction 296 Tertiary coals 304 ,Malaysia 136-137 zone, mercury 100 Tethys Sea 22,299-300 'tin 139 submarine caldera 36, 3 7 Thailand barite 66 SKINNER,E.M.W.119 hydrothermal activity 14,35 Thanksgiving mine, Philippines 157 SLOSS,L.L. 89 Sudbury Basin, Canada 102-104 THAYER, T.P. 19, 22, 23 SMART, P.G. 239,241 Nickel Eruptive 102 THEIS, N.J. 267 SMIRNOV, V.I. 256 platinoids 111 THEODORE, T.G. 176 SNYDER,F.G.47,51, 52,222 sublayer 104 thermogenic sulphur 95 Sokli carbonatite, Lapland 118 Sulawesi, Indonesia 24-25 THOMPSON, R.I. 226,227 SOMM, A.F. 253 Sullivan ore body, British Columbia thucolite 24 7, 266, 26 7 Sonnenschein coal seam 309, 310 226-228 time in maturation 281 S0RENSEN,H.119 Sulphide Queen carbonatite tin breccia 14 2 SOUCH, B.E. 103, 104 118-119 , Bushveld complex 107, 112 source beds 276-279 sulphur, bacteriogenic origin 50 , cratonic settings 123-125 South Africa andalusite 113 deposits 94-95 deposit classification 134 antimony 210-212 isotopes 49, 56, 64, 171 , Indonesia 138, 139 chromite 111 Sungei Besi, Malaysia 142 -iron mineralization, Malaysia fluorite 107 supergene enrichment 2, 9, 217-219 136-137 gold 205-207 supergiant oil fields 300 ,Malaysia 136-138,139-143 magnetite 112 Superior iron formation 214, 216 , Nigeria 124-126 pegrnatites 129 surface processes 9-10 pegmatites 127, 129, 143 platinoids 110 surficial deposits 249-275 placers 257-261 tin 107,112 SUTHERLAND-BROWN, A. 169, skarns, Malaysia 139-141 South China Sea 20 177 ,strata-bound 191,192,194 Southeast Asia Cenozoic swamp deposits 301,302 TISSOT, B. 276, 277, 279,280, stratigraphy 257 SWANSON, R.W. 86,87 305 placers 257-261 Swaziland pegrnatites 127 TOOMS,J.S. 84 sovite 115 Swedish black shales 96 trachytoid texture 115 Spain massive sulphides 37-40 magnetite 219-222 Transvaal fluorite 107,108 mercury 97-99 Sydney Basin, Australia 310, 311 System 107 SparLakecopper227 coal field 311 trapping of oil288, 292-293 SPENCE, C.D. 209 syenite 115 TREMBLAY, L.P. 243,246,247, SPENCER,A.C.l59, 160 syndiagenetic 5 248 sphalerite, Appalachians 58 syngenetic deposition 238 trenches 12, 13 , Pennsylvania 58 synvolcanic nickel deposits 202-204 trend uranium deposits 78-79 , Pine Point 56 Troodos, Cyprus 16, 17, 21, 22 , Tennessee 59 tungsten breccia 142 , Virginia 58 taconite 215 , China 144-147 spinifex texture 203 TAKAHASHI, M. 144 ,cratonic settings 123-125 Spokane Mountain 165-166 TALBOT,M.R. 72,73 , Korea 153-155 spore colouration 280-281 Tarniao, China 159 ,Peru 150-152 spreading axis 6, 12, 13 tantalite, cratonic settings 123-125 ,Portugal152-153 St. Francois Mountains, Missouri , Nigeria 125 skarn 141, 155 50-51,53, 124 TARNEY,J.198, 199 Turkey, Ana Yatak sulphide 34 STACH, E. 305,306 Tarnpbrzeg sulphur 94 , ophiolite 22 STANTON,R.L.232 Tasmania tin fields 153, 155-156 11JRNEAURE,F.S.l90 Author and subject index 365 umber26,27 Vauze, massive sulphide 208, 209 Wollaston Foldbelt deposits unconformity, uranium 243-248 vein swarms 142,180-194 243-247 underclay 302 Venezuela iron formations 21 7-218 wood tin 150,190 upper zone, Bushveld 109, 110 Viburnum Trend, Missouri 50-53 WORSLEY, N. 91 Urad mine 177 Viking,NorthSea290-291 WYLLIE, P.J. 120 uraninite 77, 78 Viloco, Bolivia 191, 192 Wyoming phosphorite 87 uranium, black shales 95-96 vitrinite reflectance 279-281, , calcrete 254-256 306-308 deposits, ages 314,316 volatiles of coal307 -308 , classification 312-316 volcanic dome 208-209 xenoliths 130 ,Sweden96 exhalations 9-1 0 xenothermal ore deposit 143 deposition, climate control 77 sublimates 97 XU, K.144, 147 , detrital26 7-268 sulphur95 , geographical distribution 312 volcanogenic sulphides 207-21 0 -gold placers 270-272 tin 188-193 , granitoids 160-167 VONGRUENEWALDT,G.105, YAN,M.Z.145-147 , Hercynian 161-165 106 Yarrow -Spionkop copper 227 , hydrothermal238-248 YEAP,E.B.142, 143 , penecontemporaneous deposits Yeelirrie, Australia 254, 255 77 Yilgam Block, Australia 204 , peralkaline plutons 119 WALLACE, S.R. 178, 179 Yoganup placers 2 7 4 , phosphorite 84 Walton-Cheverie barite, Nova Yoredale series 301,303 placers 264-272 Scotia65 Yugoslavia mercury 99-100 mineralogy 269 WANLESS, H.R. 300, 302 Yunnan, China 148 , remobilization 244, 246, 316 WATANABE,T.28 , resources 310-316 Weardale granite, England 55 ,roll-frontdeposits 79-81 WEBER, F. 225 , sandstones 76 WEBER, K.J. 286, 287 Zaire copper 234, 235 , strata-controlled epigenetic Weipa bauxite 253 Zambales, Philippines 20-21 75-81 WESTOLL, T.S. 301,303 Zambia copper 234-238 , trend deposits 78-79 Westphalian ironstones, England Zechstein salt 91-92 Urquhart Shale 232 72-73 Zechstein Sea 92, 93 urtite 115 WHITE, A.J.R. 130 ZIEGLER, W.H. 91, 92,290,291 WILLBOURN, E.S. 139-140,260 Zimbabwe, gold 205-206 WILLEMSE,J. 105,109, 112 ,Great Dyke 113-114 Vaa1Reef272 Williston basin 89 , greenstone 206 V ALETON, I. 249 Witwatersrand gold field 197, ,pegmatites 127-129 vanadium, Bushveld 112 269-272 , tungsten 154 , uranium deposits 77 wolframite, China 145-146 ZIMMERMAN, R.A. 63 VARLAMOFF, N. 127, 128, 133, , Malaysia 136 zircon placers 2 72-2 75 134 , Nigeria 125 zoning, vein deposits 146-147