IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com of Heterogeneous Mixture of Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid by Black Soldier Larvae ( Illucens) under the Tropical Climate Conditions

Daniel Sarpong1*, Sampson. Oduro. Kwarteng1, Samuel. Fosu. Gyasi,2 Richard. Buamah1, Emmanuel. Donkor, 1 Emmanuel. Yaw. Botchway1 & Samuel. Acquah1

1 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana 2University of Energy & Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana. *Email of corresponding author: [email protected]; Mobile Tel: +233-244488440

Abstract Municipal organic solid waste (MOSW) generation 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, to 4 and control of 2} kg) of is increasing at a faster pace in both developed and heterogeneous mixture of municipal organic solid developing countries due to uncontrolled growth of waste from market, restaurant and households. Each population, urbanization as well as changes in of the set up received equal number of viable larvae production and consumption. Improper disposal of (2,000) which were 5 day old. Waste reduction organic waste pose a huge problem, especially in potential was then measured in terms of total the developing countries due to unavailability of carbon, mass and nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus low-cost technologies. In the past, and potassium) variation after 14 days. Results of vermicomposting and microbial waste degradation the waste reduction potential of the Hermetia has not been promising. Therefore, there is the need Illucens showed that, the highest waste reduction of to look for alternative biodegradation technology 59.4 % (dry matter) was measured at a feeding rate that would be able to deal with the huge volumes of of 107 mg/larvae/day and this was significant (p = organic waste generated from the municipalities. 0.02). However, the least waste reduction potential Black soldier fly (Hermetia Illucens) larvae has that of the larvae was 48.6 % (dry matter) at a feeding potential to help address these challenges by rate of 42 mg/larvae/day. Results of nutrient degrading wide variety of organic waste faster into concentration analysis also showed that, there was value added by-product such as and high percentage increase in nitrogen, phosphorus prepupae as fish feed. The main objective of this and potassium levels, i.e., 58 % (SE ± 0.72 %), 40 study was to assess the potential of Black soldier fly % (SE ± 0.76 %) and 65% (SE ± 0.28 % dry matter larvae to degrade heterogeneous mixture of organic respectively. It was concluded that, the BSF larvae fraction of under the ambient degraded more than half of the total substrate conations and nutrient added by-product for available within 2 weeks with the final residue agricultural purpose. To assess the biodegradation comparable with commercial organic fertilizer, and waste reduction potential of the Hermetia according to International Standard for Agricultural Illucens Larvae, an organic waste digesters purposes. consisting of plastic containers (75 liters) were employed. The waste biodegradation was Keywords: Black Soldier Fly Larvae, Feeding Rate, determined by varying waste feed treatment ({2, Heterogeneous mixture, Municipal Organic Solid Waste, Nutrients and ambient conditions.

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com developing countries because of growing urbanization, population, coupled with changes in 1. Introduction production and consumption pattern [1]. Ensuring adequate solid Generation of municipal organic solid waste (MOSW) is on the increase in both developed and is acknowledged globally, as are reaching their full capacities and one of the key challenges and considered a reducing their available area for future waste and fundamental element for sustainable development this has necessitated the creation of new sites. It [2]. was reported in the year 2000, that only 70% of the An opportunity for improvement remain remaining landfills had a life expectancy of greater particularly pronounced in developing countries or than 10 years (Cameron et al., 2005). Hence, low income settings, where solid waste sustainable technology for waste degradation could management is characterized by low waste reduce the burn on landfills and results in the collection rate, lack of treatment and inadequate production of valuable materials like compost and waste disposal options. Many suitable solution are feed. hindered given the fast and unregulated growth of The black soldier fly, (Hermetia Illucens) (Diptera: settlement in topographically often changing lands, Stratiomydae), could provide one of these methods. lack of financial resources, ineffective The black soldier fly, a tropical is considered organizational structures, lack of viable business non-pest [19] and its larvae can consume a wide models, low political priority settings by range of organic materials, including fruits, and government and minimum enforcement of policies vegetables to animal manure [20] [21]. The last and legislations [3]; [4]; [5]. stage of instar (prepupae) are a value added feed for livestock. The larvae has about 45% crude protein In developing countries, a predominant and 31% fat, which gives its prepupae an estimated characteristics of municipal solid waste is defined value of 330 per ton when used as feed [22]. as non-liquid waste from households, small The biodegradation process by BSF larvae is business and institutions [2]. It has high proportion affected by a number of factors, including the type, fraction of organic, hence biodegradable matter. quantity and quality of feedstock and several This fraction often constitute more than 50 % of the environmental conditions [23] and [20]. An total waste generated and can be as high as 70-80 % appropriate combination of these factors could [6]; [7]. notably enhance the biodegradation efficiency in Unmanaged organic waste poses a huge threat to terms of reduction of unwanted composites, public and environmental health as it impacts stabilization of organic matter, optimal biomass through olfactory nuisance, attracts , rodent production, and degradation time. and other disease vectors and generate leachate that There is limited knowledge and information on may contaminant surfaces and groundwater aquifers other essential factors such as feeding rates, and [8]. Furthermore, uncontrolled disposal of organic overstocking, which relates to larval density [24] waste emits methane, a major greenhouse gas [8]; and [20]. Information on the aforementioned factors [9]. Advancing on organic solid waste is an ideal are pre-requisite for a large scale BSF larvae waste entry point for overall municipal solid waste technology. For this reason, the main objective of management improvement [10]; [2]. this study was to assess the potential of the Black Apart from reducing public health [11] and soldier fly larvae (Hermetia Illucens) to biodegrade environmental burden [12], returning resources heterogeneous mixture of organic fraction of value of waste into the economy, which focus on municipal solid waste and nutrient value addition “closing the loop” through recovery. At the same for agricultural purposes. The study will further time new business opportunities and economic make recommendations for further research of this growth are considered [13]; [14]. Organic waste promising larvae waste treatment technology in treatment in circular economy addresses resources developing countries. scarcity. For instance, the depleting nutrient stock such as phosphorus [15]. It can also act as driving 2. Materials and Methods. force for overall waste management when, for Study Area: The study was conducted on the instance, the economic value of organic –derived campus of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science products incentivizes or the new and Technology (near the Civil Engineering & revenue opportunities enhance financial Environmental Quality Laboratory) in Kumasi, sustainability of the facility [16]. Organic solid Ghana. The experiments were carried out under a waste treatment and its benefits has attracted a lot constructed, roofed shelter in a semi-forest area. of interest to researchers globally [17]; [18].

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com BSF colony establishment: The adults black experimental set up for the bio-waste degradation. soldier fly (Hermetia Illucens) were captured from To supply the fly colony with new adults, the natural ecosystem and kept in design cages approximately 300 black soldier were attracted (BSF colonies), with dimensions (60 x 60 x 45 cm). from the natural ecosystem into the experimental The cages were covered with nylon mesh in order cages and then the procedure aforementioned were to prevent fleeing flies and invasion by followed. and predators. For raising the larvae, the methodology of [19] was followed with some modifications. Strips of light Experimental set up and operation: The waste duty black polyene rubber (ordinary food rappers) degradation time, larvae density and feeding rate folded thrice with porch holes (1mm diameter) were were thought and analyzed through the placed on top of the oviposition bowl (5 liters). The experimental design (Figure 1). The design oviposition bowl placed inside the experimental framework included larvae production phase, waste cage contained pre-feed of restaurant waste (mainly reduction phase and nutrient analysis. The design protein, fats and carbohydrates). This was then tied was adopted since it allow optimizing the BSF with rubber ribbon to secure it firmly. The eggs technology processes, through analysis of the hatched about 3 days after oviposition and fell from various stages. the rubber strips into the moisten pre-feed (60 % moisture content). The experimental set up was located at a calm area The oviposition bowl with the hatched eggs were with tree canopy to maintain a suitable ambient collected every second day and the 5-day old larvae were counted manually. The newly hatched larvae (5-6 days) were then used to inoculate the condition for the black soldier fly larvae waste 2mm diameter) to allow air circulation in the degradation [25]. system. To prevent leachate stagnation, an orifice of about 5 mm diameter was provided at the bottom This phase of the study was carried out in the (10 mm height) of each container. The larvae bio- laboratory scale plastic digester was covered with mosquito net to protect containers of equal volume (75 litres), referred to as against invasion of other insects. It was then placed “larvae bio-digester” The top lids of each larvae inside a constructed wooden cage (1.40 x 1.40 x bio-digesters has a perforated holes (i.e., 10 hole, 1.20 m), covered with mosquito nylon nettings .

BSF Flies attraction inter-phase Larvae production inter-phase

Light, RH, Temp. Analytical measurements

BSF attraction cage Larvae rearing cage Waste Reduction process Soil application /fertilizer

Figure 1: Experimental design and operational process of BSF larvae waste treatment technology.

Substrate (larvae feedstock) preparation for (including plantain, potatoes, cabbage, fruits, biodegradation: The substrate consisted of a banana, and fish), obtained from restaurant mixed organic fraction of municipal solid waste and domestic, whose nutrient concentration is

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com presented in Table 1. The substrate was chosen as it Each bio-digester received varied quantities of represents a typical waste generated from the organic food waste ranged from 2kg to 4 kg, municipal. inoculated with 2000, 5-day old larvae. Composite With the use of ordinary ladle, the organic waste samples and sampling of prepupae was performed was mixed homogeneously and the nutrients following the methods described by [26]. The contents were analysis before given it out to the temperature and pH of the samples were measured larvae for degradation. The feeding rate were using the digital temperature thermometer and assumed, based on the suggestions by [22] [9], who digital PH meter respectively reared BSF larvae on animal manure and poultry manure.

RGR = (Wlf – Wlo)/ (Tf *Wlo)……………………………….. (3) Waste degradation parameters measured: LPR = The study sought to compare the waste reduction (Vlf)/(S)…………………………………………… index (WRI), (Equation 2), the relative growth rate ….. (4) of larvae, (Equation 3), which is the efficiency of the larvae growth throughout the experiment  Where, S, is the total quantity of substrate (Diener et al., 2009). The leachate percolation rate provided throughout the experiment. (LPR), (Equation 4). Furthermore, the changes in  Where, R, is the residue left after temperature, moisture content, pH and nutrient degradation (non-digested substrate + levels were analyzed. The moisture contents were excreta products). determined by oven dry method, at 105 °C for 4  Where, t, is the degradation time, (define hours. The nutrient contents (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, as the moment when 50 % of the larvae and Potassium) were determined by the standard developed into prepupae [26] laboratory procedure. The equation used are as  Where, Wlf, is the larval weight by the end follows; of the process (prepupae total weight), .  Where, Wlo, is the larval weight at the % R = (S – R)/S * 100 start of the process, %...... (1)  Where, VLf, is the volume of leachate WRI = % R accumulated over the experiment /t…………………………………………………  Where, tf, is the final experiment time. (2)

Statistical Analysis: In this study, for the purposes temperature, pH and moisture content of the of statistical evaluation, experiment was repeated 5 different feeding rate (P= 0.067). There was times. The results obtained were subjected to One- significant difference between the time of way ANOVA, with subsequent Tukey HSD test to degradation and different feeding rates (Table 2). determine the difference between the different Furthermore, the time of degradation differed treatment groups (P ≤ 0.05). significantly between T-1 and Tc of the treatment. This implies that there was positive interaction Results between the larvae degradation time to reach 50% Physicochemical parameters monitored prepupae at those feeding rates (P= 0.0272). The The physical parameters of the initial waste and mean degradation time of larvae differed residue is presented in Table 1. The water content significantly from the control, Tc (natural of the initial waste ranged (65.5-79.6 %), whiles degradation without larvae). Larvae fed at 107 that of the residue ranged (60.0-78.9 %) The g/day at 73 % moisture content developed more heterogeneous feeding mixed had initial quickly by 16 to 18 days, and consumed 59.4 ±1.7 temperature ranged (26.1-26.3 °C) and residual % organic waste (Table 2). temperature finally dropped between 24.4 to 24.7 Generally, the larvae fed at 42 mg/day degraded the °C. waste faster (11 days) than the control, Tc. The It was noted that the initial pH range (5.0-6.1) were treatment group, T-5 showed the longest time of proven best for larvae organic waste reduction and degradation among all the treatments. This means C: N ratio was also suitable for waste degradation. that the larvae fed at 143 g/day at a moisture The mean initial and final pH of the organic waste content of 73 % developed much slower (20 days) was 5.4±0.6 and 6.1±0.9 respectively. There was no as shown in Table 2. significant difference between the different

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com Table 1: Characterization of Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste before and after biodegradation by (Hermetia Illucens) larvae

Parameters Before Degradation After Degradation Mean Range Values (in Mean ±SEM Range Values (in ±SEM parenthesis) parenthesis)

Temperature (0C) 26.1±0.5 (26.1-26.3) 24.6±0.4 (24.4-24.7) pH 5.4±0.6 (5.0-6.1) 6.1±0.9 (5.4-7.2) Moisture content (%) 72.6±0.7 (65.5-79.6) 69.6±0.1 (60.0-78.9) TOC (g/kg) 41.8±0.3 (40.3-43.5) 30.3±.01 (29.4-32.4) COD (g/kg) 143.6±0.2 (29.1-317.0) 28.2±0.4 (12.8 -60.8)

Waste reduction efficiency, Waste reduction index and prepupae weight Table 2 shows the waste reduction, waste reduction index, larvae weight before and after degradation. The feeding rate of 42, 89, 107, 125 and 143 g/larvae/day yielded waste reduction between 48.8 to 59.4 % (dry weight) (Table 2). The highest (68.6 ± 0.3%) waste reduction occurred when larvae were supplied 107 g/day and the lowest (51.1 ± 0.4), happened when the larvae were fed at 143 g/day. Generally, there was no significant difference between waste reduction and different feeding rates. However, there was significant difference between

the waste reduction, T-1 and T-3 (P=0.0422) (Figure 2). The treatment T-3 showed the highest Figure 2. Mean percentage waste reduction. WRI value (Table 2). The highest and lowest relative growth weight of the prepupae was 6.5 and 4.8 g/g/day. Leachate volume was higher (0.0007 ml/g) in T-5 and the lowest (0.0001 ml/g) in T-1 of the treatment.

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com Table 2: Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Feedstock and Residue

Feeding larvae larvae Final rate Quantity Waste Waste Time of weight weight Vol. exp. (mg/larv of waste consumed Remained degradation start end leachate Time(d Treatment* ae/day) (g) (g) (g) (days) (g) (g) (mls) ays) RGR WRI (%R/day LPR S C R t P-Value WLo WLf Vlf Tf % R P-Value (%/day) ) (ml/g)

T-1 42 2000 973.0±0.2ab 1026.7±0.5 12±1.1abcd 0.0453 0.02 1.35 0.2 14 48.6±1.3 0.0301 3.5±0.5 4.0 0.0001

T-2 89 2500 1291.2±0.5 1208.7±0.5 15±1.3 0.0511 0.02 1.65 1.5 14 51.6±1.5 0.0621 3.7±0.7 3.7 0.0006

T-3 107 3000 1784.2±0.5a 1215.7±0.5 17±1.2a 0.0272 0.02 1.85 1.4 14 59.4±1.7 0.0422 4.2±0.6 4.2 0.0005

T-4 125 3500 1583. ±0.2 1916.7±0.5 18±1.3c 0.0521 0.02 1.75 2.5 14 45.2±1.3 0.0611 3.2±0.8 3.2 0.0007

T-5 143 4000 1584. ±0.5 2415. ±0.5 18±1.7d 0.0621 0.02 1.65 2.8 14 39.6±1.3 0.0561 2.8±0.5 2.8 0.0007

T-6 2 2000 297. ±0.7b 1702.2±0.5 21±2.3b 0.0434 0.02 n/a 2.3 14 14.8±0.8 n/a 1.1±0.1 1.1 0.0012 *±SEM

 Where, S, is the total quantity of substrate provided throughout the experiment.  Where, R, is the residue left after degradation (non-digested substrate + excreta products).  Where, t, is the degradation time, (define as the moment when 50 % of the larvae developed into prepupae [26]  Where, Wlf, is the larval weight by the end of the process (prepupae total weight),  Where, Wlo, is the larval weight at the start of the process,  Where, VLf, is the volume of leachate accumulated over the experiment  Where, tf, is the final experiment time.

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Total Organic Carbon Reduction Efficiency Total organic carbon (TOC) reduction varied between 25.4 to 28.4 % in the different treatment groups (Figure 3). Reduction of TOC was higher (28.8 ± 0.6) in feeding rate of 107 mg/larvae/day, T-3 and lower (25.4 ± 0.2) in feeding rate of 143 mg/larvae/day, T-4. There was no significant difference between the mean of different feeding rates of the treatment groups.

Figure 4. Shows mean percentage total nitrogen.

The highest percentage increase in phosphorus (50.0 %) was reported in feeding rates of 107 mg/larvae/day, T-3, whilst the lowest percentage increase in phosphorus (25.0 %) was measured in the feeding rates of 143 mg/larvae/day, T-5 as shown in Figure 5 below.

Figure 3. Mean Percentage Total Organic Carbon

Measurement of Nutrients - Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Generally, there was an increased in nutrient content in all the treatment groups. The mean percentage increase in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium ranged between 13.2 to 23.1 %, 25.0 to 50.0 % and 14.3 to 26.5 % respectively.

The highest percentage increase in nitrogen (23.1 %) was reported in the feeding rates of 107 mg/larvae/day, T-3 , whilst the lowest increase in nitrogen (13.2 %) was measured in the feeding rates of 42 mg/larvae/day, T-1 as Figure 5. Shows mean percentage total phosphorus shown in Figure 4 below. The waste reduction in the control group (without larvae degradation) remained the The highest percentage increase in potassium (26.5%) was lowest (7.5 %) in terms of increase in nitrogen levels. reported in feeding rates of 107 mg/larvae/day, T-3, whilst the lowest percentage increase in potassium (14.3 %) was measured in the feeding rates of 143 mg/larvae/day, T-5 as shown in Figure 6 below.

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com time in days. The lower waste reduction could be due to the fact that it might take the natural microbes much longer time to multiple and be able to degrade the quantity of waste provided. Waste reduction by the larvae was about 4 time greater than that of the control. Although this was a small-scale research study, it showed a great promise for using black soldier fly larvae as a potential agent for organic waste management. In a large-scale study by [23], Hermitia Illucens larvae reduced animal manure by approximately 50% in a facility holding 460 fowl. Furthermore, [34] ; [35] reported that the mortality of larvae fed with manure was not significantly different from that of the control. The BSF Figure 6: Mean Percentage Total Potassium larvae may be able to reduce other waste (i.e., inhomogeneous waste) on a large scale than what has been Discussion established currently. Physicochemical parameters analysis The moisture content of the treated waste (residue) was Weight gain and development time within acceptable range for compost and it was consist The larvae fed at 107 mg/day at initial moisture content of with literature [26]; [27]; [28]. 73 % reported the highest relative growth rate. From the The pH of the heterogeneous mixture of organic waste was BSF life cycle point of view, the feeding rate of 107 mg of initially within the acidic medium. Organic waste was organic waste per larvae in a day showed the maximum transformed from acidic to slightly alkaline. The increase threshold where any additional organic solid waste would in pH value may be due to the alkalization of waste mass not accelerate the larval development. as a results of the ammonia released. This also confirmed Development time and waste reduction is affected by other by a researcher [29] during organic waste decomposition factors such as waste composition [32] nutrient availability by worms. in substrate [36] and feed availability [37]. Waste reduction efficiency According to [24], feed quality affects insect’s growth and The treatment group T-3 showed the highest WRI value. proportion of survival. This study is in agreement with This means that 107 mg of substrate per larvae in a day previous studies that increasing feed in the bio-digester was the most suitable feeding rate to efficiently reduce the would not necessarily increase the development time of the heterogeneous mixture of organic waste from the larvae. With the exception of treatment group, T-1, the municipal. The waste reduction established in this study is prepupae produced were nearly the same length, breadth slight higher than the values reported, 50 % chicken and weight as fed with heterogeneous mixture of municipal manure reduction [30], 37.3 -43.2 % food waste [4]; 25.2- organic solid waste. The treatment group T-3, with feeding 54.6 % fresh human faeces [31]. The difference might to rate 107 mg/larvae /day reported the largest prepupae size, due to higher nutrient content of the waste stream in this followed by T-4. This might be due to the adequate food study. supply for the larvae to consume. The remaining waste portion (40.6 - 51.2 %) was left as residual waste, which might have passed through the gut of Total organic carbon reduction efficiency the larvae or had not been eaten at all [32][33]. It should The total organic carbon reduction reported in this study be mentioned that organic waste in the bio-digester may was lower than the values reported in literature, 45.4 % have lost water through evaporation. It was beyond the animal manure dry matter [35] and 52.6 % soybean residue scope of this study to clearly establish the extent to which [38]. The utilization of carbon compounds by BSF larvae this phenomenon might have influenced the results reported by [22] was about 62 % reduction of TOC in obtained. It is most likely that the small substrate with the swine manure. A drop in the TOC during worm feeding rate, 42 mg/larvae/day experienced much composting at varied waste reduction rates have been dehydration due to the unfavorable surface area-to-volume reported by [39] and [29]. The loss of carbon in this study ratio. Thus, the drier waste could not be degraded to the might be due to respiration of the associated microbes in same extent like the other treatment groups at the same the gut of the insect. All the same, larval activities play a constant moisture contents. The control (without larvae critical role in the carbon reduction rate. The ingested feed degradation) reported the least waste reduction in a longer mixture are being broken down and homogenized by the

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IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 5 Issue 3, March 2018 ISSN (Online) 2348 – 7968 www.ijiset.com larvae through muscular activities, leading to the decline of reported by [49]; [45] and this it was consistent with our TOC [40] and [38]. The utilization of TOC by worms has study been reported by [41]. Conclusion Analysis of Nutrient of Residue Black soldier fly larvae were able to degrade successfully, From the results obtained, the feeding rate 107 heterogeneous mixture of organic fraction of municipal mg/larvae/day reported the highest increase in nitrogen solid waste. The study reported more than half of organic than other larvae treatment group as well as the control waste reduction, which was significant under the tropical climate condition in Ghana. treatment groups (Figure 4, 5 and 6). The results is promising because residue from these organic waste could The larvae developmental time established was slightly be used as organic fertilizer. Moreover, the prepupae fed shorter than those reported previously. This means that the on organic waste is rich in protein, which can be used as operational process of BSF larvae technology can be [42]; [43]; [22]. The reported increase in shorter than the conventional composting process time as nitrogen may be due to the muscular activities of the well nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) value larvae, and subsequent secretion of enzymes to realize addition in the residue for agricultural purposes. ammonia in solution [35]. The marketability of the final waste treated (residue as fertilizer) was not explored in this paper and would require Similar increase in total nitrogen and decline in TOC were further investigation in future. observed by [44]; [45]. The increase in nitrogen is in contradictory to the study by [46], who reported 24 % reduction in total nitrogen levels in manure, degraded by BSF larvae. The nutrients values obtained in this study 4. Conclusions strongly suggest that the nitrogen could be made available to plants, which could improve the congenital release of Black soldier fly larvae were able to degrade successfully, the nutrients by tree crops [47]. heterogeneous mixture of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. The study reported more than half of organic Generally, nitrogen exist in two forms, namely organic waste reduction, which was significant under the tropical nitrogen and inorganic nitrogen. Most of the nitrogen in climate condition in Ghana. the soil is made up of organic form and only a fraction of them is in the inorganic form [17]. The nitrogen serves as a The larvae developmental time established was slightly reservoir and the inorganic, mainly in the form of nitrate shorter than those reported previously. This means that the and ammonia, which are available to be used by plants operational process of BSF larvae technology can be [41]. shorter than the conventional composting process time as well nutrient (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) value An increase in total phosphorus was observed in all the addition in the residue for agricultural purposes. treatment including the control composting. The percentage increase is an indication of mineralization and The marketability of the final waste treated (residue as mobilization of phosphorus in the presence of enzymes fertilizer) was not explored in this paper and would require secreted by the black soldier fly larvae [35] further investigation in future. The increase in phosphorus concentrations resulted in a decrease in C: P ratio. The increase in phosphorus in the residue could be attributed to the absorption of inorganic Acknowledgments phosphorus released from the larvae tissues. The results of this study is in consistent with literature [41] and [48]. The The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers study observed increase in total potassium in all the larvae of this paper for their comments and advice. Again, special treatment groups including the control composting. thanks go to the Technicians at Environmental & Water The increase in potassium is also an indication of the Quality, Science and Soil Laboratory at KNUST for their presence of tissues in the larvae substrate. The support during the nutrient analysis. increase in potassium might be due to mineralization and mobilization of potassium in the presence of enzymes secreted by the larvae on them. Similar observation was

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