A Comparison of Formal and Structural Principles in the Concerti Grossi of Corelli's Opus Vi and Vivaldi's Opusiii

Home , Arcangelo Corelli, Concertino (composition), Concerto grosso, Manfred Bukofzer, Opus number

A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES

IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S

OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S OPUS III

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

Euclid A. Hart, B. M. E.

Denton, Texas

August, 1968 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page LIST OF TABLES ...... iv

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...... v

Chapter

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONCERTO GROSSO......

The Temperament and Ideals of the Seventeenth Century The Rise of Instrumental Music The Concerto Principle The Emergence of the Concerto Grosso

II. BIOGRAPHIES AND WORKS OF CORELLI AND VIVALDI ...... 24

Corelli's Life Corelli's Works Vivaldi's Life Vivaldi's Works

III. A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S OPUSIII ...... 39

Descriptive Information Pertaining to Corelli's Opus VI and Vivaldi's Opus III Structural Characteristics Pertaining to the Cycle Form as Observed in Corelli's Individual Movements Use of the Concertino by Corelli Form as Observed in Vivaldi's Individual Movements General Comparison of Styles Conclusion

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 93

iii LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I. Corelli's Instrumental Works ...... 30

II. Corelli's Opus VI ...... 40

III. The Concerti Grossi of Vivaldi's Opus III ...... 44

iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Theme of "Allegro" (Finale) of Corelli's Concerto Number 1 ...... 53

2. Excerpt from "Adagio" of Corelli's Concerto Number 5 ...... 56

3. Excerpt from First Movement of Corelli's Concerto Number 1 ...... 58

4. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number 1 ...... 59

5. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number 5 ...... 60

6. Excerpt from "Minuetto" of Corelli's Concerto Number10...... 61

7. Excerpt from First Movement of Corelli's Concerto Number 5 ...... 62

8. Excerpt from First Movement of Corelli's Concerto Number 2 ...... 62

9. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 2 ...... 66

10. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 8 ...... 68

11. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number8 ...... 68

12. Excerpt from "Allemande" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 9 ...... 70

13. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 5 ...... 70

14. Form and Description of Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 5 . . . . 71

V Figure Page

15. Form and Description of Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 1 . . . . 73

16. Form and Description of Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 10 . . . . 73

17. Closing "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 7 ...... * 78

18. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number5* ...... 82

19. Excerpts from "Vivace" of Corelli's Concerto Number 6 ...... 83

20. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 10 ...... 83

21. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number 3 ...... 84

22. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 10 ...... 84

23. Excerpt from "Pastorale" of Corelli's Concerto Number8 ...... 85

24. Excerpt from "Grave" of Corelli's Concerto Number3 ...... 86

25. Excerpt from Central "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number 1 ...... 86

26. Theme of "Giga" of Corelli's Concerto Number 12 ...... 87

27. Excerpt from Opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 11 ...... 88

28. Excerpt from First "Allegro" of Corelli's Concerto Number 7 ...... 88

29. Excerpt from "Larghetto" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 10 ...... 90

30. Excerpt from "Largo" of Vivaldi's Concerto Number 1 ...... 91

va- CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE

CONCERTO GROSSO

The Temperament and Ideals of the

Seventeenth Century

The study of any art work, whether it be music, painting, or literature, can best be appreciated when viewed against the background of the period which produced it. Although the concerti grossi of Corelli and

Vivaldi are the products of a later date, it is well that

the point of departure be the beginning of the seven-

teenth century.

With the fading of the Renaissance, and of its aspi- rations and ideals, a new age was being born. Contrary

to the humanistic philosophy and tendencies of the Ren-

aissance, the new age sought the revival of medieval tra- ditions. As the highly balanced, classical designs of

the Renaissance began to disintegrate, once again Gothic

elements and forms appeared. The search for a new aes-

theticism, influenced by the return of medieval and Goth-

ic elements, gave rise to that period in history referred

to as the Baroque.

1 2

The Baroque period in music is generally considered to extend from the beginning of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth century. Whether the term itself comes from the Portuguese barroco, meaning an ir- regular pearl, or from baroco, a scholastic syllogism, its early use was synonymous with extravagance and bad taste.

Webster defines it, "fantastically overdecorative; gaud- ily ornate." "Its application to the Fine Arts was based on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that seventeenth century style in architecture and paintings was a debased Renais- sance style."2 Although the works of this period are in fact of the highest artistic qualities, the term has the advantage of adequately describing certain characteristics peculiar to the period and is therefore appropriate.

Historical metamorphosis is always the result of many interacting forces, but no other single factor could have affected the social and cultural life of the period more profoundly than that of religion. Seeds sewn by the Refor- mation and Counter Reformation of the sixteenth century were in full bloom in the seventeenth century. The Thirty

Years War (1618-1648) initially began as a series of small

1 "Baroque," Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, College Edition (Cleveland, 196277 p. 119. 2Willi Apel, "Baroque," Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), p. 76. 3

wars waged for the freedom of religion. It was soon transformed also into a political one, the conclusion bringing about the end of European domination by the Haps- burgs with the lead being taken by France and the cultural reign of Louis XIV.

The Church, using every means at its disposal to

strengthen the Counter Reformation, did not neglect the

arts. Cathedrals were built to impress and keep the

faithful. The lean classic style of Renaissance archi-

tecture gave way in the Baroque to the revival and ex-

pansion of Gothic characteristics. Art and music were de-

signed to reflect the new vitality of the Church. "It is

interesting also, in reflecting the point of view of that

day, that a church must not only be a temple of worship;

it must also be a museum and concert hall. It should in

fact teach the pleasures as well as the Scriptures and

lead in all phases of thought."3 Religious ceremonies

were the ultimate in pomp and splendor, and the music ac-

companying these festivities was composed to overwhelm the

listener. The new temperament was reflected in the works

of Giovanni Gabrieli and the Venetian school with their

multiple choirs of voices and instruments. The old style

of Palestrina and the Roman school persisted for a few

3Leo Smith, Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (London, 193177 pp. 44-45. 4

decades into the seventeenth century, but it was a dying art. The paintings of Michelangelo, El Greco, Caravaggio, and other great figures of early Baroque art depict graph- ically the new aesthetics of the period. "The magic en- chantment and religious ecstasy of the beyond held El

Greco 's figures spellbound."4 Qualities that distinguished the new styles in music and architecture had their paral- lels in contemporary art works. The penchant for the co- lossal, massive, and decorative is present in these works.

The element of contrast, the essence of the new music, is seen in the effects of accented light and shadow in the new art.

While the Counter Reformation was to a large degree successful, the spirit of the Reformation pervaded the seventeenth century. Coinciding with the politico-religious wars of the period were the struggles for freedom of thought and the acceptance of scientific truth. De- spite opposition from the Church, such as the condemnation of Galileo by the Inquisition for heresy, it was an age of experimentation, with gains being made in science by such men asNewton, Bacon, and Leibnitz.

In the field of philosophy, the writings of Descartes,

Locke, and other leading philosophers laid the foundation

4 Paul Henry Lang, Music in Western Civilization (New York, 1941), p. 322. 5

for what is referred to as the "Age of Reason." "The spirit of these times demanded the classification of every problem either in the domain of the natural sciences or in that of mathematic philosophy."5 This scientific attitude is also prevalent in the arts and music. Composers were also theorists. Many works were accompanied by expla- nations of style and technique. Numerous newspaper articles appearing throughout the period testify to long- standing feuds over style among followers of conflicting music camps.

The Rise of Instrumental Music

During the sixteenth century there was, on the part of composers, an inclination to establish a purely instrumental music independent of vocal polyphony. Although vocal polyphony dominated the period, instrumental music began tentatively to take its place alongside it and combine with it, as well as to assert itself independently of it.

Claudio Merulo (1533-1604), as well as other great Italian organists, shook off the influence of the technique of vocal composition and wrote in a style idiomatic to the in-

strument.6 The great instrumental music of St. Mark's,

5Ibid., p. 433.

6 The first idiomatic forms in keyboard music are the toccata, intonazione and prelude. They are essentially rhapsodic and improvisatory in character. 6

culminating in the works of Andrea Gabrieli (1520-1586) and his nephew Giovanni (1557-1612), began with vocal music simply transcribed for instruments only. Neverthe- less, the real birth of instrumental music is considered to be the opening of the seventeenth century; the place,

Italy.

The chief problem facing composers of instrumental music during this period was that of handling form. In vocal music, variety and contrast could be achieved simply by changing mood through the use of words. The text also served as a basis for unification, bringing about a sense of coherence throughout. Specifically, the problem of instrumental writing was that of development, or achieving extent. Some composers continued to write in the style of the vocal motet or instrumental ricercare, depending on successive points of imitation as a means of continuing.

Others indulged in sheer fantasy, experimenting with in-

strumental technique and other basic musical processes.

Although some of these works are worthy of merit, the

longer instrumental forms, being structurally weak and vague, were generally abandoned in favor of shorter ones.

"Short movements consisting of an unbroken flow of tune

are more convincing than those that attempt to develop a

short phrase for any length of time."7

7 Philip Radcliffe, "Arcangelo Corelli and Antonio Vi- valdi,'" The Heritaxe of Music, III (London, 1951), p. 56. 7

The introduction of dance music into the realm of art music had much to do with the emergence of genuine instrumental music forms. Regularity of rhythm and the division

of phrases into periods, which were characteristics of the

dance, were assimilated into instrumental composition.

The structure of the period or sentence, consisting of

eight measures repeated with a different ending, consti-

tuted a small musical form in itself.

It soon became apparent to composers that by com-

bining these shorter movements, fashioned after the dance,

a larger cyclic form could be obtained.8 Along with the

variation principle, which arose out of the desire to

avoid mere repetition of the period, these dance movements

led to the formation of the suite, which in turn led di-

rectly to the overture and symphony. It is worthwhile to

note here that the period became the fundamental unit for

all instrumental and vocal forms for centuries to come.

Instrumental music of the early Baroque can be re-

duced to three types: compositionss based upon the

dance, (2)essentially experimental compositions, which are

idiomatic to the instrument and rhapsodic in character,

and (3)compositions based upon older vocal models. The

8 The idea of combining these dances was probably taken from the sixteenth century practice of performing them in pairs. The custom then was to have the first dance slow and in duple meter (a stepped dance), and the second in a lively triple meter (a lept dance). 8

third category is especially significant because it is the source from which the sonata and fugue of the late Baroque

sprang. The ricercare and canzona were the instrumental counterparts of the vocal polyphonic motet and the French chanson respectively. In keyboard music the two forms merged, and the fugue of the late Baroque was born. Of more interest here, however, is the role of the canzona in

the development of instrumental ensemble music.

In the titles of chamber ensemble music, the canzona

was frequently referred to as "sinfonia" or "sonata." Ac-

cording to Manfred Bukofzer, there were two distinct types:

the many-voiced canzona and the few-voiced canzona. "The

many-voiced ensemble canzonas reached their highest devel-

opment in Venice where sumptuous polychoral compositions

for two to four choruses in a resplendent orchestration

were used for occasions of state."9 In these same canzo-

nas, echo effects foreshadowing the principle of the con-

certo are present.

Much more significant, however, is that the Baroque

sonata has as its direct source the few-voiced canzona.

Few-voiced sonatas, or canzonas, were written for from one

to four melodic instruments with continuo.1 As Fontana,

9 Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the BaroqLue Era (New York, 1947), p. 51. 1 0 The term sonata slowly replaced that of canzona as influences of the dance and monody displaced the original canzona elements. 9

Castello, Bernardi, and other predecessors of Corelli began in the few-voiced sonatas to make use of concertato elements which were already present in the many-voiced canzona, "...the tenuous link between the ensemble canzona

and the concerto proper of the late Baroque period [was

established3*1llThe trio sonata became the ideal medium

for Baroque chamber music and was cultivated especially in

Italy. The music centers of Modena, Venice and Bologna

were instrumental in developing two distinct types of

chamber music: music written for the Church (da chiesa),

and music written for the chamber (da camera). The two

differ from each other in that the chamber type more

closely resembles the dance whereas the church type is

characterized by a more developed contrapuntal texture.

In regard to the whole cycle, the chamber sonata consists

of a series of dance movements arranged in more or less

free fashion. The form of the individual movement is the

usual bipartite one. On the other hand, the cycle of the

church sonata consists of four or five movements, alter-

nating between slow and fast tempi. The first movement

could be slow or fast, but whatever the case, it is usu-

ally fugal.

The distinction between chamber sonatas and church

sonatas is relevent here because, as will be seen in

11 Bukofzer, op. cit., p. 55. 10

Chapter III, this is characteristic of the concerti grossi

of Corelli. Furthermore, Bologna, the greatest of the

three centers and the place of Corelli's training, was

chiefly responsible for the cultivation of instrumental

counterpoint, and this art is reflected in Corelli's

works. The importance of the trio sonata should not be

underestimated, since with the emergence of the concerto

grosso, it was assimilated bodily into that form as the

standard unit of the concertino.

Every art is dependent upon its means of expression,

hence it is no accident that the emergence and development

of instrumental music should coincide with a time when de-

cisive advances were being achieved in the art of in-

strument making. This is particularly true in the con-

struction of string instruments. The genius and crafts-

manship of Amati and his successors Guarneri and Stradi-

vari produced instruments whose quality and excellence

have not been surpassed to this day.

It is no wonder that composers were also experi-

menting with the technical possibilities of their in-

struments. The compositions of Biagio Marini (1595-1665)

and Andrea Falconieri (1586-1656) presuppose a high degree

of technical proficiency for their performance. Compa-

rable advancements in keyboard technique are evident in

the works of Merulo, Giavanni Gabrieli, and Frescobaldi.

But the preoccupation with acrobatic virtuosity by 11

of composers reached such a peak that by the last quarter the seventeenth century there arose a need for a new balance, a new relationship between technique and expression, so that technical proficiency would be a means and not an end in itself.

The rapid growth of instrumental music form can be attributed chiefly to the corresponding rise and assertion of tonality. Through the compelling organization of tonality, composers were able to achieve longer, more stable forms. The full realization of tonal harmony occurs around 1680 and marks the beginning of the late Baroque.

The early seventeenth century is an important period to the historical development of music. It saw the beginnings of opera and oratorio, and from these forms emerged the overture and vocal aria. The church orchestra

evolved the sonata and laid the foundation for a new in-

strumental art. The culminating form of this purely in-

strumental art was the concerto grosso.

The Concerto Principle

As the concerto grosso embodies the general prin-

ciples of concerto writing, it is first necessary to de-

fine concerto. The word comes from L., concertare, i.e.,

"to fight side by side," "t to compete as brothers-in-

arms." 1 2 While this definition implies the rivalry or

1 2Apel, "Concerto," Harvard Dictionary, p. 173. 12

opposition of forces, it also implies a concerted effort.

It is precisely this double connotation which contributes to the vagueness of the term and its consequent misappli- cation by composers through the years.

The term concerto, when viewed as a principle of style, is more easily defined than when referred to as a musical species. The reason for this is simple enough; as a principle of style, the term has always implied the opposition or rivalry of dissimilar bodies of instruments or voices. As a designation for a certain musical species, it has nevertheless been the source of much confusion and ambiguity. Although the concerto principle is the primary interest, first in order will be the examination of the term as a designation for a musical species.

The term first appeared in the titles of vocal compositions, being used to distinguish those pieces supported by an instrument, or organ, from those sung _a cappella.

This practice persisted through the Baroque period; as a result, many masses and motets which employ as little as one or two instruments to support the vocal forces have in their titles such terms as concerto, concertare, and concertato.

Even in the area of purely instrumental music there is no less confusion. According to Lang, "In the earlier centuries, the term was synonymous with ensemble 13

playing."13 This undoubtedly accounts for the fact that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries many forms such as string quartets, motets, madrigals, masses, and cantatas have at one time or another been labeled concertos by their composers. Considered in the light of the following liberal connotation as put forth by Veinus, "two or more instruments or voices performing together, i.e., in concert with each other,"14 these forms are justifiably called concertos. However, when trying to ascertain the form or structure of any given work, "the presence or absence of the name concerto, concertante is not decisive, as various names, such as canzona, sonata, sinfonia, were used without clear distinction for a variety of styles and types." 1 5

As stated earlier, the concerto principle as an element of style has always implied the opposition or rivalry .of dissimilar bodies of instruments or voices. Since it is precisely this element of contrast that provides the basis for the form of the concerto grosso, it is worthwhile to trace briefly the evolution of this principle.

As far back as the days of antiquity, the concertare

element was present in the alternating choruses of Greek

13 Lang, 2. cit., p. 364.

1 4 Abraham Veinus, The Concerto (New York, 1944), p. 1.

15 Apel, "Concerto," p. 173. 14

tragedy and the antiphons and responsoria of Gregorian music. Although in these two instances the element of contrast is achieved simply by divided sections performing in alternation, the concertare principle may also be manifest in sections of contrasted style, register, or instrumen-

tation.

Palestrina, in his motet Assumpta est Maria, divided

the singers into four groups. In this work, the last sen-

tence is sung alternately by low and high choirs and finally altogether. In this case, the concertare principle

is exemplified by the contrasted sections of different

registers.

During this same period, Giovanni Gabrieli and others

of the Venetian school were making similar advances. The

tutti-solo contrast, so important to the later concerto

grosso, is a prominent feature in many of their ensemble

canzonas.

An eleven-voice canzona by Gabrieli so clearly sets a "tutti" in rondo fashion against a highly figur- ative "concertino" of a few instruments that it may be called the first realization of the concerto grosso principle. Another canzona, in which Gabri- eli assigned the echo optically to the organ, fore- shadows the solo concerto.

In his instrumental sonatas, Gabrieli pitted choirs

of high brass against those of low brass. This practice

became commonplace throughout Italy.

16 Bukofzer, o. _cit., p. 51. 15

In Venice at St. Mark's, at Bologna and St. Petronio, and several other churches in Rome and elsewhere, the musicians were placed in facing galleries above the chancel bays or in transepts. Each side had its organ, and when other instruments such as cornets and trombones were associated with one vocal choir and strings with anot r there was opportunity for bril- liant concertato.

Soon after the death of Palestrina, Ludovico Viadana published his Ecclesiastical Concertos. In this important work, Viadana is not only recognized as being one of the first composers to use figured bass, but, of equal signi- ficance,

Viadana pared the concerto principle down to one, two, three, and four voices singing to an instrument (organ); and in so doing cleared the field for a monodic, rather than the polyphonic style, introducing the possibilities of pitting a solo voice (rather thaj8a massed chorus) against an instrumental tutti.

It remained for Monteverdi to go one step further. After

Viadana had written for solo voice with organ accompaniment, "Monteverdi brought the meaning of the word still closer to instrumental practice by liberating the solo voice as a virtuoso part alternating with a relatively full orchestral tutti." 1 9

The fact that these advances in vocal music had great influence on the techniques of instrumental writing is

1 7 Arthur Hutchings, The Baroque Concerto (London, 1961), pp. 34-35.

18 Veinus, cit., p. 3.

19 Ibid., p. 7. 16

without question. It was merely a matter of transferring these principles to instrumental forms.

It could be said that the entire seventeenth century was devoted to the exploration and development of the con-

certo principle. The element of contrast was foremost in

the mind of the composer and can be attested by its pres-

ence in practically all instrumental and vocal forms. The

device of tossing a phrase back and forth between solo

instruments and tutti was widespread and can be found in

overtures, suites, and church cantatas, and occasionally

in sonatas and sinfonias of the period. Examples of con-

certo-like instrumentation are found in many instrumental

ensemble works, especially the canzoni. Lully inserted

episodes for a trio of solo wind instruments in some of

the dances for his operas. Similarly, various elements of

the concerto can be found in overtures to Venetian operas,

which were performed on occasion as independent ins tru-

mental sonatas. Clearly the time was ripe for the ap-

pearance of that form which more than any other employed

the principles of concerto writing, the concerto grosso. "The concerto grosso, in its broadest definition, in-

cludes any composition written for a group of solo in-

struments contrasted with a larger mass of tutti in-

struments."20 In the above definition, the term concerto

2Ibid.,p. 32. 17

grosso is obviously used to describe a particular musical species. It also has, however, another connotation, as does the term concerto. Any group of instruments regarded as a single unit within a larger orchestral body may be called a "concerto." Of the two unequal choirs, the

larger group is called the large concerto, i.e., the con-

certo grosso, or the ripieno, meaning literally "full."

The smaller group is known as the small concerto, i.e.,

the concertino, or principal. "The interplay of these two

unequal choirs, to each a unit in itself, is the basis for

2 1 the form or species called the concerto grosso."

The instrumentation of the concertino unit is usually

two violins and a thorough bass (violoncello and harpsi-

chord) with one performer on each part. This is the out-

lay of instruments used by Corelli, and as such is referred

to as the "Corellian concertino." However, the concertino

could conceivably consist of any other combination of in-

struments. The ripieno is a small string orchestra,

consisting of four parts: two violins, viola, and bass

with several players on each part. Later works occasion-

ally employed wind instruments: trumpets, oboes, flutes,

and horns.

Although many works, in principle, are truly concer-

ti gross according to the above definition, few in

21 Ibid., p. 14. 18

actuality are referred to as such.

Such composers as L. Gregori, G. Torelli, G. Valentini, and A. Corelli actually used the term concerti grossi in their titles, but after a while the full title was dropped in Italy, and its use by Geminiani and Handel, as well as by later Italians than Corelli who were not composing for Italy itself, usually implied Corelli's outlay of instruments - it was normally discarded for flute, oboe and solo violin concertos and retained only with the Corellian concertino. It was never used by Vivaldi, whose famous collections bore literary titles - L'estro armonico, La stravaIanza, I cimento and so o when they did so they were simply called concerti.

Even today, "people rarely refer to concertos by Albinoni,

Vivaldi or the Marcellos as concerti grossi, nor is it usual so to designate concertos by Bach and other Germans whose concerto movements were modeled on those of the Ve- netians." 23

Another problem of terminology, or more precisely of classification, arises when trying to decide whether cer-

tain works are truly concerti grossi or solo concertos

for more than one instrument. The placing of these works

in either category depends solely on definition. With

Corelli, the problem is simplified, for, as Veinus puts

it, "his concerto grosso is strictly defined as adivtsion

betw n chotrs,"24 that is, the smaller choir performs as

a group and not as individual soloists. In the case of

~Hutchings, 2. cit., p. 92.

23 Ibid., p. 135.

2 4Veinus, p. cit., p. 32. 19

Vivaldi, however, the decision would not be so simple,

since in many of his concertos the concertino disinte-

grates and each performer at one time may be a soloist where the others serve simply as a background. When this happens, it is debatable whether the form is a concerto

grosso or a solo concerto for more than one instrument, which proves nothing more than that the concerto grosso may be narrowly defined in more than one way.

The Emergence of the Concerto Grosso

One task of the music historian has always been the

assignation of credit to the composer or those composers

contributing to, or responsible for, the emergence of new

forms or genres. In regard to the creator of the concerto

grosso which first appeared in the last two decades of the

seventeenth century, there has been some confusion. In-

deed, several composers have on occasion in the past been

given this honor.

The reliance on publication dates has been the pri-

mary source of the confusion. Corelli's Opus VI, pub-

lished posthumously, bears the publication date 1714.

Perhaps this is the reason H. C. Colles claims Torelli as

the true inventor of the form with a concerto da camera

(1686) for two violins and bass.25 If one relies simply

25Marion Bauer, Music Through the A (New York, 1932), p. 130. 20

on the dates of publication, the concerti grossi of Ales-

sandro Scarlatti, Lorenzo Gregori, and Valenti also pre-

cede those of Corelli. Even Vivaldi's L'estro Armonico,

IIl, containing concerti grossi much more advanced than those of Corelli, has as its publication date the

year 1712. Further investigation is obviously necessary

in order to do justice to Corelli and his position rel-

ative to the concerto grosso.

Although it was 1712 before Corelli deemed his

VI ready for publication there is considerable evidence they were in existence a long time before. Georg

Muffat (1653-1704) states that he heard concerti grossi

of Corelli in Rome as early as 1682.26

In the preface to his concertos published at Passau in 1701 (Ausserlesener mit Ernst und Lust, gemengter Instrumental Musik..., Muffat tells us he started to write them at Rome - where he was staying in 1682 - after having heard "with astonishment some symphonies of Signor Arcangelo Corelli, which were very beau- tiful and vyy well performed by a good company of musicians.ti

On the testimony of Muffat, Bukofzer states:

"...they represent in fact the earliest known examples of

the concerto grosso."28 On the basis of the date 1682,

26Muffat, a significant composer himself, developed the German type of concerto grosso.

27 Marc Pincherle, Corelli, His Life, His Work, translated by Hubert E. M. Russell (New York, 1956), p. 121. 2 BBukofzer, p. cit., p. 223. 21

Corelli's concerti grossi do indeed precede those of his contemporaries mentioned above; still, Corelli cannot be regarded as the inventor of the genre. According to Pin- cherle, "Allessandro Stradella, who died in 1682, has left us perfect models of concerti grossi in his two Sin- fonie a piu Instrumenti."2 9

Publishing dates, however, can be of much value; in respect to Vivaldi's OpusII, consider the following passages:

It will not be possible to place Vivaldi in the class where he belongs until the circumstances under which he worked are clearly known and until we pos- sess the exact chronology of his compositions. Given the revolution which transformed the style of instrumental music between 1700 and 1750, his later concertos (if one agrees with Torchi that their date is 1740-50) presuppose for their author a notable talent of adaptability, but unparalleled musical genius if they are to be placed at the beginning of the eight 5 nth century, as everything now seems to indicate.

Pincherle resolves the question in a later publication.

In the beginning of the eighteenth century when the symphony and the concerto were being evolved, a difference of a few years greatly alters the per- spective. At the time when the Red Priest was just being discovered, Luigi Torchi, in an article in the Rivista Musicale Italiana (1899), dates the publication of L'Estro armonico as 1740-1750 (actually it dates from 1712); in so doing he made Vivaldi a

29 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 122.

30 Marc Pincherle, Rassegna musicale, Nov. 1929, cited in Olga Rudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionar of Mu- sic and Musicians, Vol. IX, (New York, 1954), p. 28. 22

follower of J. S. Bach, Handel, Tartini, Locatelli, and Leclair, all of whom were actually in his debt to some extent. On the other hand, Fausto Torre- franca in his article on Vivaldi in the Enciclo- edia Italiana (1937) relies on a daring interpretation of the catalogues of the Dutch publishers Roger and Le Cene, and antedates Vivaldi's first concertos by some ten years; this falsifies their relationship to the concertos of Torelli and Arcan- gelo Corelli among others, thus deprivg these composers of a part of their originality.

It is of course possible to say that the full realization of the concerto grosso occurs first in the works of a single composer; but with all due respect to that composer, the concerto grosso is more accurately the result of experimentation on the part of many, as has been seen in the previous pages concerning the rise of instrumental music and the concerto principle.

Concerning Corelli's position in regard to the concerto grosso, "All the elements were at hand, essays in the genre had been extensively undertaken by artists of standing....."32 Although Corelli is not the creator of the concerto grosso, he is recognized as a stabilizing force in the history of instrumental music.

Music of the seventeenth century was generally in a state of transition. This period witnessed the breakup of a tradition which had been essentially vocal, and the beginnings of "absolute music." The strict counterpoint

31 Marc Pincherle, Vivaldi, Genius of the Baroque, translated by Christopher Hatch (New York, 1957), p. 64. 32 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 123. 23

of the Renaissance was being replaced more and more by accompanied monody and there was a growing awareness of the implications of major-minor tonality. Instrumental forms had been more than roughed out and great advances in instrumental techniques had been accomplished. Still, the state of music was in many ways restless and un- settled.

So that about 1675 the need made itself felt in all spheres - form, texture, technique - of a factor of unification, and, at least provisionally, of sta- bilization, (the time to get organized on a solid foundation) and of a model who would compel recog- nition on the part of all those scattered pioneers - a chef d'ecole. At that opportune moment entered the musician competent above aH others to assume this role: Arcangelo Corelli.

3 3 Ibid., p. 16. CHAPTER II

BIOGRAPHIES AND WORKS OF

CORELLI AND VIVALDI

Corelli's Life

Arcangelo Corelli was born on the 17th of February,

1653, in Fusignano, an old city in the diocese of Faenza.

In considering Corelli's life, it is necessary to dis-

tinguish between those facts which are historically true and those which are simply conjecture.

In regard to Corelli's youth, a reliable source is

Crescimbeni, a colleague of Corelli at the Accademia dci

Arcade. According to Crescimbeni, Corelli received his first instruction in music from a priest in Faenza. From

there, he studied at Luzo and then at Bologna, where he became so involved in the violin that he remained for four years and decided to make music his profession. His pro-

gress in those years was so rapid that it did not go without notice, and in 1670 when he was just seventeen he was accepted by the Accademia Filarmonica.

While at Bologna, Corelli studied violin with Gio- vanni Benvenuti and Leonardo Brugnoli; they, in turn, had

studied with Ercole Gaibara, founder of the first Bolo-

gnese School of violin. Until recently, historians had

24 25

designated Bassani as the teacher of Corelli, but as Pin- cherle points out, "The old Bassini," or rather Bassani,

"would have been thirteen years old when Corelli entered on his eighteenth year."1

Corelli was in Bologna from 1666 to 1670. In 1675 he came to Rome, but during the five-year interim, there

is no evidence to account for his movements. According to

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Corelli traveled to Paris. In his

Lettre sur la Musigue francaise of 1753 he states: "Lully

himself, alarmed by the arrival of Corelli in France, has-

tened to have him expelled from France, which was all the

more easy for him in so far as Corelli was the greater

man and in consequence less of a sycophant than he." 2

Other historians and biographers of Corelli have followed

up with much elaboration the imaginary journey of Corelli

to Paris. But, as Pincherle states:

The futility of trying to prove that Corelli did journey to Paris is obvious from the facts: no search of the archives has ever revealed anything; contemporary newsheets are silent on the subject, although they were never niggardly with details of the arrival of a foreign musician, such as Westhoff, at Paris; and two musicians - Francois Couperin and Georg Muffat - who wrote much on their art and who professed the liveliest admiration for Lully and for Corelli, never made the least reference to an

1 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 21-22.

2 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Lettre sur la Musique francaise, 2nd ed., 1753, p. 45, cited in Pincherle, Corelli, p. 23. 26

encounter between them. 3

Pincherle further suggests that all of the confusion may well be the result of a reading error on the part of

Rousseau, or his copyist mistaking Corelli for Cavalli.

For in 1660, Cavalli had indeed traveled to Paris, and being esteemed as the first operatic composer of the con- tinent, could have easily provoked Lully into intriguing against him for his departure.

According to Padre Martini, after Corelli left Bolo- gna he spent a short while in Fusignano, then traveled to

Rome where he studied counterpoint with Pietro Simonelli, who was responsible for his becoming an accomplished composer. However, there is no proof of his presence in Rome until 1675 where his name is included as third violinist on a list of musicians employed by the church of Saint-

Louis-des-Franais for the festival of Saint Louis. The festival is an annual occurence and in 1676 his name ap- pears as second violinist. The following year there is no mention of him, but in 1678 he is found again as second violinist. A second disappearance takes place from 1679

to 1681, however, on January 6th, 1679, in Rome, he conducted the orchestra of the Teatro- Capranico in a work,

Dove e amore e pieta, by his friend Bernardo Pasquini.

Subsequent correspondence by him in Rome serves to indicate

3 Pincherle, Corelli, p. 24. 27

that his stay there was prolonged. In the summer of the same year one of his journeys to Germany supposedly took place. However, there is no proof of this. Frequent searchings through the archives, including a recent investigation by the late Dr. Alfred Einstein, have yielded not the slightest evidence that this journey took place.

In 1681, Corelli is again in Rome and it is there that he published his first work of trios, dedicating them

to Christina of Sweden.

The following year Corelli can again be found at the church of Saint-Louis-des-Francais. It is worth noting here that from this time to 1708 he participated in the

Festival of St. Louis as head of the violin section. The

list for 1709 is missing but in 1710, Matteo Fornari, his close friend and pupil, is first violinist and Corelli is no longer mentioned.

In 1687, Corelli conducted an orchestra of 150 strings in the performance of a cantata by Alessandro Guidi, and

later that year was hired by Cardinal Panfili as music master in the Panfili palace. He lived there in the pal-- ace until 1690 with his good friend Fornari, and his ser- vant, Bernardino Salviati.

When Alexander VIII (Ottoboni) became pope, one of his first acts was to nominate his nephew, Pietro Ottoboni, as Cardinal of San Lorenzo e Damaro and Vice-chancellor of 28

the church. The young Cardinal, having immense resources

at his disposal, made the most liberal use of them in his

patronizing of the arts. Artists, writers, and musicians

flocked around him in order to gain his favor. The con-

certs at the chancellery were famous and the best of Roman

society attended them. Musicians dedicated their works to

him believing it would insure their success and fortune.

But from the outset, Corelli was surely the Cardinal's

favorite. He became the Cardinal's first violinist and

director of music and lived in the palace itself. His material well-being thus secured, he was able to devote

himself entirely to his music. The leisurely life he led

is evident from a study of his music. In contrast to the

composers who were forced to produce one or two operas a

season, or half a dozen concertos a week, Corelli's rela-

tively few works are highly polished, owing to the fact

that he spent years revising and perfecting his art.

In 1694, Corelli published his fourth set of trios,

dedicated to Cardinal Ottoboni. With each new publication

of his works, his fame continued to grow, so that by 1700,

with the publication of his hera Quinta, his only set of

sonatas for solo violin and bass, he was, "by unanimous

consent esteemed the greatest composer of instrumental

music in the world."4 In 1706, he was accepted as a

4bid., p. 33. 29

member of the Accademia dei Arcadi, the most exclusive society in Italy, and found himself among such celebrated men as Alessandro Scarlatti and Bernado Pasquini.

In 1710 Corelli no longer appeared in public, and by the end of 1712, feeling very ill, he confined himself to his quarters in the Palazotto Ermini, a lodging he had rented at the same time he became a resident in the Cardi- nal's palace in order to store his personal belongings and paintings.

Corelli died during the night of the 12th of January,

1713. Cardinal Ottoboni, wishing to show the world in what esteem he held Corelli, bore the entire expense of a very lavish funeral and had him buried in the Church of

Santa Maria della Rotunda (the Pantheon) the tomb itself

being in the chapel of St. Joseph.

Corelli's Works

Corelli's place in the history of music is the result

of six books of instrumental music. His leisurely life

afforded him the opportunity to polish these works until

he deemed them ready for publication. Because his works

are few in number, it is convenient and appropriate to

list them here. A description of these works and a list

of their publication dates is given in Table I. 30

TALE I

CORELLI'S INSTRUMENTAL WORKS

Opus Number Publication Description Date

I 1681 12 Trio Sonatas - Church type

II 1685 12 Trio Sonatas - Chamber type

III 1689 12 Trio Sonatas - Church type

IV 1694 12 Trio Sonatas - Chamber type

V 1700 12 Solo Sonatas First six - Church type Second six - Chamber type

VI 1714 12 Concerti Grossi Published Nos. 1-8 - Church type posthumously Nos. 9-12 - Chamber type

It will be noticed that in the publication dates of

the first four works, they are separated by an interval of

four years. There is an interval of six years between

Opus IV and OpV, and fourteen years between Opus V and

pus VI. Actually, Opus VI was published the year fol-

lowing the composer's death. Of all this, Pincherle states,

"The older he became, the more anxious was Corelli, by then

a prisoner of his fame, to offer only works of an 31

irreproachable finesse to the public.,,5

Vivaldi's Life

Although much of Vivaldi's life is still shrouded in mystery, some facts have been uncovered recently through diligent investigation or by chance discoveries. The exact date and place of Vivaldi's birth are still not known, but based on the age requirements of various stages in his ecclesiastical career, the date of birth is now considered to be 1678 or shortly before. It is generally presumed that he was born in Venice, where his father Giovanni Bat- tista was a prominent violinist.

Vivaldi's musical training began with his father, but he also studied with Giovanni Legrenzi.6 Trained for the priesthood as a young man, he received his minor orders in

1693 and ten years later was ordained a priest. Because of his red hair he is often referred to as il Prete Rosso, or the Red Priest. One year after he was ordained, however, ill health forced him to relinquish his priestly duties. From this point on he devoted himself to music.

The greater part of Vivaldi's life was spent in Ven- ice where he was employed by the Ospedale della Pieta, or the Hospital of the Pieta. Established originally in the

5 lbid., p. 120.

6 Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690) was a celebrated composer and noted teacher. 32

fourteenth century as a pious institution for illegitimate and orphaned girls, the Pieta later adopted the teaching of music as a main part of its curriculum. The success of the program was so great that by the beginning of the eighteenth century the institution was famous as a musical conservatory.

Vivaldi is first mentioned in the Pieta's records in

1704 for payment of services rendered. This marked the beginning of a career with the institution that was to last until 1740. In 1709 he was appointed to the post of violin teacher and in 1716 he became maestro de concerti, or director of the orchestra. The latest entry, however, may refer to a re-election to that post since he had already used the above title on many of his works published earlier.

From 1718 to 1722 Vivaldi does not appear in the records of the Pieta. Some historians surmise that his three years of service as maestro de concerti to the Land- grave of Hesse-Darmstadt at Mantua may have taken place during this period. If this is true, his duties at Mantua did not, however, exclude the possibility of his returning periodically to Venice since several of his operas were performed there during those years. According to the testimony of Edward Wright, an Englishman who traveled through Italy from 1720 to 1722, Vivaldi actually 33

participated in some of the performances. "It is very usual," wrote the traveler, "to see priests play in the orchestra. The famous Vivaldi, whom they call the Prete

Rosso, very well known among us for his concertos, was a topping man among them at Venice."7

In 1723 Vivaldi is again listed in the records of the

Pieta and also in 1724 and 1725. But from 1725 to 1735 there is nothing. It is presumed that this is the period during which his foreign travels took place. In his letter to the Marquis Guido Bentivoglio of 1737, 'Vivaldi writes: "for over fourteen years we have traveled together in many European cities."8 Further evidence indicating that Vivaldi was abroad during this period is a document uncovered in the Venetian archives by Rudolfo

Gallo. In brief, it states that Vivaldi's father, Gio- vanni Battista, in September of 1729, asked for permission to leave the ducal chapel for a year or so in order that he might accompany his son to Germany. The records of these peregrinations are vague, but it is known that he did return occasionally to Venice for the purpose of staging one or another new opera.

7 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 44. 81 E. Stefanie, Sei lettere di Antonio Vivaldi, translated by 0. Rudge, The Listener(October, 1936), cited in Rudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionary, IX, p. 27. 34

For the period of 1725 to 1728, there are various

accounts of his presence in Rome, Vienna, and his native

Venice. According to Marc Pincherle, Vivaldi in 1727

directed a concert of his works in Venice as part of the

festivities given by the French ambassador in honor of the

birth of the royal princesses of his country. The Mercure

de France describes the concert as follows: "a very beau-

tiful instrumental concert, which lasted nearly two hours;

the music for this as well as for the Te Deum was by the

famous Vivaldi."9 On the basis of the French newspaper

article, some historians have implied that Vivaldi trav-

eled to France. However,

No record is known of the composer's presence in Paris, but French connections are indicated indi- rectly by the words of two cantatas which seem to have been written for some ceremonies of the French court: "La Gloria Himeneo" for the wedding of the fourteen-year-old Louis XV to the Polish princess Marie Leczinska; the other, "La sena festeggiante," is not so easily dated -1 &he works would seem to apply best to Louis XIV.

For the following three years, 1728-1731, there is a

total lack of information concerning Vivaldi's whereabouts.

The lack of dramatic output during this period suggests

the possibility that the composer was either ill or abroad.

Referring back to the document of 1729, wherein Giovanni

Battista asks for a leave of absence from the ducal chapel,

9 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 47.

1 0 Rudge, "Vivaldi," Grove's Dictionary, IX, p. 27. 35

it is possible that Vivaldi's stay at Mantua may have oc- curred at this time. But in 1732, his dramatic output again resumes and continues until 1739. During these years his operas appeared at the rate of one or two a year and were performed in Venice, Florence, Verona, and

Ancona.

In 1735, he was again in the employment of the Pieta with the stipulation that he carry on "with no idea of leaving any more as has been his practice in past years."11

It is appropriate here to point out the change of attitude on the part of the officials at the Pieta. In 1723, "he

[Vivaldi] had become famous, a man to be reckoned with.

The asylum had recourse to his talents as often as possible, but it gave him license to subordinate his teaching to the needs of his career as a dramatic composer and a touring virtuoso.1"1 2

In 1737, as Vivaldi was preparing to go to Ferrara for the purpose of staging one of his operas, the Cardinal of that city forbade his admittance on the grounds that he was a priest who failed to say mass. The incident is con-

sidered to have prompted Vivaldi into a final decision to

leave Venice. A popular anecdote perpetuated by many biographers until recent times relates that Vivaldi was

Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 49.

1 2 Ibid., p. 46. 36

suspended from his priestly duties because he was in the habit of leaving the altar while celebrating mass in order

to jot down a musical idea. Actually, the story was in circulation in Vivaldi's lifetime and in an attempt to set

the record straight, although he failed to do so, he wrote

to one of his patrons to ask for help. Part of the letter

reads as follows:

It was twenty-five years ago that I said mass for what will be the last time, not due to inter- diction or at anyone's behest, as His Eminence can appraise himself, but by my own decision on account of an ailment that has burdened me since birth. When I had barely been ordained a priest I said mass for a year or a little more. Then I discontinued saying it, having on three occasions had to leave thefltar without completing it because of this ailment.

Although Vivaldi undoubtedly made many trips outside

Italy during his lifetime, a trip to Holland in 1738 is

the only one of which there is factual information. The

purpose of the trip was to organize the musical part of a

spectacle celebrating the centennial anniversary of the

theatre of Amsterdam. The officials of the theatre,

wanting to put a composer of European reputation in

charge, called on Vivaldi to do the job.

Pincherle has recently found in the records of the

Pieta a document showing payment for a number of Vivaldi's

works. "On May, 1740, he [Vivaldi] received the sum of

13Letter from Vivaldi to Marquis Guido Bentivoglio, November 16, 1737, cited in Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 17. 37

seventy ducats, twenty-three lire, for a series of twenty concertos. One gets the impression that, on the verge of quitting his position at the Pieta, he was selling off pieces that formed part of a previously constituted repos- itory."14 After the above mentioned date, Vivaldi is no longer mentioned in the archives of the Pieta.

Until recent years, it had been generally presumed that Vivaldi died in Venice sometime around the year 1743.

In 1938, investigation by Rudolfo Gallo yielded the exact time and circumstances of the composer's death. Vivaldi died in the parish of St. Stephen, Vienna, and was buried on July 28, 1741, in a cemetery for indigents. Although the composer had achieved immense fame and a relatively high standard of living during his lifetime, he died almost a pauper.

He was entitled only to the Kleingleuth, or ringing of the bells for the poor, which cost two florins thirty-six, to six pallbearers, and to six choirboys; whereas a nobleman buried by night had the knell at four florins twenty, eight pallbearers, twelve choirboys, and six musicians, with t-e rest in keeping, the expenses totaling 102 florins.

Vivaldi's Works

In contrast to the works of Corelli which are rela-

tively few in number, the volume of Vivaldi's output is

1 4 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 52.

15 Ibid., p. 53. 33

immense. Considering the fact that during the eighteenth century there was a constant public demand for new music, and it was not unusual for the ordinary composer to turn out one or two works a week, Vivaldi is still deemed to have been a very prolific composer. As part of his work assignment at the Pieta,

A deliberation of the Congregation for 1723 notes that Vivaldi is to furnish two concertos a month, and even during absences from Venice he was to send them, if he did so, "carriage paid",.... Two motets a month and masses and vespers for Easter and for the feast of the Visitation were required from the maestro coro, a p gt also held by Vivaldi during Gasparini's absence.

Although Vivaldi is noted today primarily for his important role in the development of instrumental music, he was also very successful in the realms of opera and sacred music. He was commissioned to write forty-nine operas, most of them for Venice. As to his instrumental works, the latest estimate amounts to 554 pieces: 75 sonatas or trios; 2 organ pieces; 23 sinfonie; and 454 concertos. These figures represent only those works in existence today, and of these, many are not available in print.

16 Rudge, "Vivaldi," p. 27. A detailed list of Vivaldi's works by Marc Pin- cherle can be found in Rudge, Grove's Dictionary of Music, IX, pp. 30-32. CHAPTER III

A COMPARISON OF FORMAL AND STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES

IN THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF CORELLI'S

OPUS VI AND VIVALDI'S OPUS III

Descriptive Information Pertaining to Corelli's

Opus VI and Vivaldi's Opus III

In an effort to facilitate the discussion of Corelli's music, the concerti grossi, their constituent movements, and descriptive information are shown in Table II on pages

40 and 41.

Corelli's 2us _VI is comprised of twelve concerti grossi. The first eight are of the church type, and are assembled under the title: Concerti grossi con duoi altri

Violini, Viola e Basso di Concerto Grosso ad arbitrio,che

si potranno radoppiare *.. Opera Sesta Parte Prima. The

last four are called Concerti da camera and are entitled:

Preludii, Allemande, Corrente, Gighe, Sarabande, Gavotte

e Minuette .. Parte seconda per Camera. The fact that

the church concertos are in the majority is explained by

their extensive use and popularity in religious ceremo- nial; sometimes two or three of them were played during

an office.

39 40

TABLE II

CORELLI'S OPUS VI

04-) 4 LNQ(D 4 ( 4) 0 40()r 0 S-0Schema z i:A 00 0 Zw

M* S** F*** S F F

Largo Largo Allegro Largo llegro llegro Allegro I D 6 Adagio Allegro Adagio Allegro . Adagio

M F S F

Vivace Allegro Grave Allegro Allegro 2 F 4 Adagio . Vivace Allegro Largo- andante

S3 F S F F . mino Largo Allegro Grave Vivace llegro

F S F F 4 D 4 WSO " Allegro Adagio Vivace Allegro

F S F S F . B- a ---- 5 5 4 a flat Allegro Adagio Allegro Largo Allegro .

*Mixed movement **Slow movement

***Fast movement 41

TABLE II -- Continued

04-1)

S. 4 (1) 4 a) a 0 r-IO a 0 Q a) Schema U 0:

F 6 6 5 sSF55 F S F Adagio Allegro Largo Vivace Allegro

F F S F F

7 D 5 Vivace Allegro Andante- Allegro Vivace largo

M F M F F S

Vivace Allegro Adagio Vivace Allegro Largo 8 G 6 Grave Allegro (Pasto- minor Adagio rale)

S F F F S F

9 F 6 Prelu- Alle- Cor- Gavotte Adagio minu- dio manda rente . etto

S F S F F F 10 C 6 Prelu- Alle- Adagio Cor- Allegro minu- dio manda . rente . etto

S F S S S F 11 B- 6 Prelu- Alle- Adagio Andante Sara- iga flat dio manda . largo banda

S F S F F

12 F 5 Prelu- Allegro Adagio Sara- Giga dio . . banda . 42

In the church concertos, the following terms are used to designate movements: Grave, Largo, Adagio, Andante,

Allegro, Vivace, Presto, and Minuetto. There are also two tempo marks which occur only within movements: largo andante and andante largo. The first is a largo slightly more spirited, and the second is an andante more retarded than usual. The movements of the chamber concertos are designated by the same terms that appear in the title. In addition, there are four adagios, an andante largo, and two allegros. The presence of these latter terms affirms the fact that the second group, in reality, tends toward a compromise between genres of the church and the chamber.

Similarly, some of the allegro movements in the church concertos are in the spirit of the dance although they are not designated as such.

In regard to the tempi of the dance movements, the

Allemandes and gavottes are always allegro; the correntes and minuetti are always vivace; the gigues are allegro or vivace; and the sarabandes are vivace or andante.

What is immediately obvious in these concerti is that the dance movement had become conventionalized. Originally the title of the dance was itself a precise indication of the tempo: the sarabande was slow, the gigue quick, the corrente moderato, - the allemande solemn and imperious, and so forth. Now each name of a dance is followed by an indication of tempo and we figd sarabandes marked vivace and allemandes allegro.

1 HenryPrunieres, A New History of Music (New York, 1943), p. 245. 43

Concerning the tonality of the concerti grossi, rel-

atively few keys are employed. Numbers 2, 6, 9, and 12,

are in F major; numbers 1, 4, and 7, are in D major; numbers 5 and 11 are in B-flat major; number 10 is in C ma-

jor; number 3 is in C minor; and number 8, famous as the

"Christmas Concerto," is in G minor.

The concerti grossi of Vivaldi's s III, their con-

stituent movements, and descriptive information are shown

in Table III on page 44.

Vivaldi's OpIu II, L'estro armonico, is one of his most famous works. The title has often been translated:

"Musical Rapture," "The Composer's Inspiration," and "Har-

monic Whim." Like Corelli's s VI, L'estro armonico

also contains twelve concerti. They were first published

in two sets of six. Of the twelve concerti, four, num-

bers 3, 6, 9, and 12, are solo concerti. The remaining

eight are concerti grossi and are shown in Table III

along with their numerical designation. In regard to

these eight concerti, only two, numbers 2 and 11, conform

to the type favored by Corelli, where the concertino is

made up of two violins and 'cello. Numbers 5 and 8 em-

ploy two violins in the concertino; numbers 1 and 4 use

four violins; and finally, four violins and 'cello are

exhibited in numbers 7 and 10.

It has already been pointed out that Corelli main-

tained the distinction between concerti da chiesa and 44

TABLE III

THE CONCERTI GROSSI OF VIVALDI'S OPUS III

QIHOH ) zC

u Schema , o o io o

F______F. I D 3 4F violins Allegro Largo e Allegro spiccato 2 S F S F 2 2 GG 44 violini s3 Adagio e Allegro Larghetto Allegro minorl with sict i cello piccato S F S-F 4 E.3Andante Allegro Adagio- minor violins assai allegro 5 A 3 2 F S F violins Allegro Largo Allegro 4 S F S-F 7 F 3 violins Andante Allegro Adagio-

- -cello-allegro

F S F 8 A 3 2 Allegro Larghetto Allegro minor violins e spiritoso 4 F S F 10 B 3 violins Allegro Largo- Allegro minor with larghetto

_'cello 2 F S F

11 minor 3vih ns Allegro- Largo e Allegro adagio- spiccato 'cello allegro 45

concerti da camera. In Vivaldi's concerti, no such distinction exists. There can be found, however, certain features in some of these works which are characteristics of the concerti da chiesa. These characteristics will be discussed later. For now, let it suffice to mention that during the first two decades of the eighteenth century the two styles, music for the church and music for the chamber, coexisted. But the two styles were gradually merging, each influencing the other. Moreover, the chamber style came to include not only movements of dance origin but movements derived from other forms as well. Thus, in the titles of many collections of concerti, it became the custom to not specify their usage. L'estro armonico is one of these, and in these concerti the fusion of the two styles is apparent.

Although Corelli's concerti grossi outnumber the concerti grossi of O III, Vivaldi employs more keys. In fact, each concerto is in a different key. It is also of interest that a minor key is the choice for five of the eight concerti.

The comparison of structural and formal traits in the concert grossi of Corelli's OpusVI and Vivaldi's s III will proceed in the following manner: first, the cycle as a whole will be taken up; next, the individual movements will be considered. Finally, in each instance of comparison, Corelli's music will be dealt with first. 46

Structural Characteristics Pertaining

to the Cycle

Corelli's Cycle

In regard to the number of movements in Corelli's concerti grossi, there is a slight difference between the cycles for the church and those for the chamber. On the average, five movements are used in the church concerti.

Numbers 1 and 8 consist of six movements, and numbers 2 and 4 employ four movements. In the chamber concerti numbers 9, 10, and 11 are comprised of six movements, and the

last one, number 12, uses a five-movement scheme. Al-

though Stradella and Torelli offered him many examples of

the tripartite construction, allegro-adagio-allegro, Corel-

li was not at all influenced by this plan. In this re-

spect, the concerti grossi are unprogressive.

The movements are separated from each other by the use

of a double bar and the appearance of a term denoting tem-

po. In the chamber concerti the term is either one de-

noting tempo or one that is a dance title. The demarcation

of movements is not precise since in the mixed movements

the constituent sections are divided very often in the

same manner. Moreover, although there is a slight pause

between most of the movements in performance, some flow

directly into the following one. The most pointed example

of this is the "Pastorale" of the 8th concerto. It is 47

joined to the preceding movements by a unison G tied over

the double bar.

In regard to the order of movements, the church concerto may start with either a slow or fast movement. The

last movement is always fast with the exception of the

"Pastorale" of the 8th concerto. There is no set pattern

to the middle movements, but a slow movement is always

present. In the chamber concerti, the first movement is

always a preludio, and the last movement is either a giga

or a minuetto. Like the church concerti, there is no

standard scheme as far as the middle movements are con-

cerned. Some have more dance movements than others, and

in all of them can be found an allegro or an adagio, or

both. It is well to mention here that the earlier

movements are generally more contrapuntal than the later

ones indicating that consideration may have been given to

the listener's concentration, which is greater at the be-

ginning of a work.

As to tonality, each concerto has all of its movements

in the same key with the exception of the slow movement.

Of the two concerti written in the major mode, numbers 1

and 5 have two slow movements. In these instances, the

first one is in the tonic key and the second is in the

relative minor. The relative minor key is always used for

those having one slow movement. In regard to the two con-

certos in the minor mode: number 3 in C minor has its 48

of the subdom- slow movement in F minor, or in the minor has its "Adagio" in inant; the other, number 8 in G minor, the last movement E-flat. Also, the tonal relationship of is the parallel or "Pastorale" to the preceding movement in E-flat, major. With the exception of the "Adagio" slow movements writ- which ends in the tonic key, all the cycle end with a ten in a key other than the one of the in these concerti was Phrygian cadence. The tonal unity to remain the law of the genre. movements On the other hand, contrast between adjacent where three is always present. Even in the 9th concerto, there is a distinct fast movements are found side be side,

contrast in meter, style, and ideas.

Vivaldi's C

in that Vivaldi's cycle differs from Corelli's cycle scheme is the the tripartite plan or the fast-slow-fast and 7, one most often used. Only three, numbers 2, 4, the first movement is employ four movements. In these, slow movement. slow followed by two allegros enclosing a pat- Since this plan follows the old concerto da chiesa to as such. In num- tern, they are very often referred as a bers 4 and 7, however, the slow adagio functions underlying three- bridge passage and therefore veils an movement structure. 49

Vivaldi's movements are demarcated in the same manner as Corelli's movements. A double bar and the tempo designation are always present. The only difference is that Vivaldi's movements are on the average slightly longer and are also more independent of one another. The only exceptions are the two central adagios of numbers 4 and 7 which are transitory in character. But in these two instances, the double bar is also present.

The tonal unity which is characteristic of Corelli's cycle is also present in Vivaldi's concerti grossi. All of the fast movements are in the key of the cycle, and, though it is an exception, the slow central movement of number 5 is in the major key of the cycle. As to the inner slow movements of the other concerti, varying tonal relationships exist. The slow movement of concerto 1 is written in the relative minor and ends in the relative minor. The central slow movement of number 2, like that of number 11, is in the same minor key as the cycle, and also ends in the same key. The slow movement of number 8 begins and ends in the minor mode of the subdominant. The bridge-type adagio of number 4 in E minor begins in E mi- nor but cadences in the minor of the dominant. A rather startling tonal relationship is present in concerto number

7 in F major. The short adagio here begins with an E-flat major chord and, by a series of modulatory chords, ends on a D minor chord or the relative minor of the cycle's key. 50

As in Corelli's concerti, adjacent movements are al- change of tem- ways contrasted either by change of meter, po, or by mood.

Form as Observed in Corelli's Individual Movements

Before discussing the types of formal structures ex- desirable hibited in Corelli's individual movements, it is of here to describe briefly the usual formal consequences At one ex- the two basic kinds of writing in the Baroque.

treme is the purely fugal or contrapuntal style. This and most often style evolves a texture that is continuous

results in a movement without repetition signs. The most form. usual result of this style is a monothematic cursive This At the other extreme is the purely homophonic style. sectional and style results in movements which are more The most usual symmetrical, and employ repetition signs.

structural result of the homophonic style is a polythe- which matic, integrated, hierarchic design. The extent to either of the generative processes in music depart from

these two poles is generally considered to be the best way 2 of observing form in the Baroque.

In Corelli's concerti grossi, the combined influences

of the formal polyphony and the new homophonic style are

present. Consequently, the forms of his individual

2 William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era (Chapel Hill, 1959), p. 82. movements vary. It is not within the scope of this paper to describe the form of each and every movement in &

VI, rather, the intent is to focus only on principal ones, which in point of fact embrace numerous intermediary types. The examples referred to are representative of the various formal structures found in OpusVI. The discussion on form of Corelli's movements will follow this order. Firstly, the fast movements will be considered; secondly, the slow movements; and finally, the mixed movements.

The Fast Movements

Several of Corelli's fast movements are written in the strictly fugal style.3 An example of this type is the second "Allegro" of the 7th concerto. In this movement, there is no return to the initial subject, rather there is a continuous spinning forth of a contrapuntal texture based on the opening measures. The musical process involved is referred to as Fortspinnung and results in a monothematic cursive form. In other fast fugal movements,

Corelli rounds off the form by partially restating the subject literally as in the central "Allegro" of concerto number 1, or by returning to a similar texture as in the second "Allegro" of concerto number 5. These movements

3By "strictly fugal" is meant there are no sections of homophonic conception. 52

are without repetition signs. A rare case in point where repetition signs are employed in a fugal allegro is the first "Allegro" of concerto number 8 in G minor. This movement consists of two sections with each section repeated. The second section begins on the dominant of the tonic minor. The movement, therefore, is dependent upon the bipartite or binary form of the suite. It should be emphasized that a fugal movement of Corelli hardly cor- responds to the classical concept of "fugue." With Corel-

Ii, the term is used in reference to a procedure rather than a strictly determined formal structure.

Other allegros that are not fugal dispense with repetition signs but achieve symmetry by restating the theme near the middle of the movement. The "Allegro" (finale) of the 1st concerto exemplifies this type.4 The movement begins with only the two violins of the concertino stating the theme in thirds and can be seen in Figure 1 on page 53.

A literal restatement of the following theme occurs in measure 241. It is interesting to note that when the theme is restated, it begins on the middle of the measure, as opposed to the initial statement where it commences on beat one.

4 This movement illustrates the influence of dance music on the church style, as it is in reality a Giga. 53

Vi~ol. 0 -46.. a s it aa a

II VF

mop'* IPF ff I r Id

Ida 11, low a lei is. AM 46-&-g-li! Elt" ano -ftm C. ar. v

Fig. I--Theme of "Allegro" (finale) of Corelli's concerto number 1.

An extension of this formal principle can be seen in the first allegro movements of concertos 6 and 12. In these movements, Corelli employs the da-capo form, with a clearly set off middle section. They are, however, fully written out, and are without repetition signs. In the 6t concerto, the first 24 bars are repeated literally prior to the final cadence. In the 12th concerto, the first 15 bars are repeated literally before dissolving into a coda section which is 13 bars in length.

Among the fast movements which are divided by a repetition sign, certain ones do not at any time reintro- duce the initial motive; but the second section is in every case similar to the first either in rhythm or 54

scoring. An example of this type is the "Vivace" of concerto number 3. The structure of this movement is an asymmetrical binary form. Other movements in the asymmetrical binary form begin their second repetition with the theme in the dominant key. As always, the movement ends in the tonic key, but in the second section the theme is never heard in the tonic.

More evolved movements restate the theme after the intermediary development which begins after the repetition sign. Examples of this type are the final "Allegro" of the 6i concerto and the "Allegro" preceding the "Pastorale" of the 8 concerto. These movements can be construed as rounded binary forms.

Finally, in the "Allegro" of concerto number 2, there is a development section in the dominant key which is clearly derived from the opening theme, after which it is followed by a recapitulation of the entire opening theme in the tonic key. This example differs from the previous two in that the former have intermediary sections only similar to, but not clearly derived from, the opening theme. Also, in these two examples the theme is restated only partially rather than in its entirety. The structure of the latter is also a rounded binary form. 55

The Slow Movements

Like Corelli's fast movements, the slow ones also exhibit varying styles of writing. One major difference, however, is the total absence of repetition signs.

Some of the slow movements are written in the fugal style throughout. The resulting structure of these movements is a monothematic cursive form. An example of

this kind is the "Grave" of concerto number 2. A similar

type of movement starts out fugally but during the development section approaches a homophonic or note-against- note idiom. At the end of this type of movement there is usually a brief reference to the initial motive, thus es-

tablishing a more rounded form. An example of this type is the "Largo" of concerto number 6. Other slow movements of similar form are obviously in a mixed style; an example of this is the "Adagio" of the 5tb concerto where the in-

struments of the concertino proceed imitatively but are

supported at times by homophonic chords. This is shown in

Figure 2 on page 56.

Several of the slow movements are in the homophonic

style. The resulting structure of this type is the song

form or ABA form, and can be seen in the "Largo" of con-

certo number 1. The B section in this movement is melod-

ic. Another example exhibiting the ABA form is the "Pas-

torale" of the 8th concerto. In this case, the B section

is comprised of sequential development. The brief adagios 56

AOL I AWL

0 Viol. 4) AN

t IL lk Amma - 4-) %a

01 (W Rio

a RL Ab

0r-

CC 1661 Amp ;a Im x Vla. - a

Vc. A"" ifI ILL Cb. I

Fig. 2--Excerpt showing mixed style of "Adagio" of Corelli's concerto number 5. separating the allegros of the 9th, 10th, and 11th concertos are not movements in themselves, but serve only as bridge passages. 57

The Mixed Movements

The mixed movements consist of fast and slow sections in alternation. Some of these movements have obvious symmetry. The mixed movement preceding the "Vivace" of concerto number 8 is constituted of three sections. The

first section is an adagio of 8 measures; the second

section is an allegro of 13 measures, which is then fol-

lowed by a repetition of the same adagio, this time with

an extension of 4 bars. This structure can be construed

as an ABA form. Others, however, are much more capricious

with their alternation of fast and slow tempi, and defy

standard formal classification. An example of this type

is the mixed movement of concerto number 1. It is con-

stituted as follows: largo (11 measures), allegro (8

measures), adagio (2 measures), allegro (6 measures),

adagio (1 measure), allegro (8 measures), and adagio (3

measures).

Use of the Concertino by Corelli

Corelli's concertino consists of two violins and vio-

loncello. The concerto grosso or ripieno is composed of

two violin parts, a viola, and a bass part. In addition,

each group has its figured bass, realized by harpsichord

or organ. When the two ensembles are performing together

there are rarely more than four parts present, due to the

fact that the violin and bass parts in both ensembles are 58

identical. This can be seen in Figure 3.

A -It nI~ ANN& AD I Sam-

OF Viol. 0,

--Xy- a I IF SWAMM 4 LON now"aws"Wo wo

0 u Vc. P4, W up is AFAft- ##a, A j M II ir

'WPMNP IjF WW

Viol.

Ala

M I i wo

0 WF Sri

# Via. Jim Asp_-II #AWLAOP-M% -JLM%6--Jlp-U SIC _M&Aft99

Vc. Cb.

Fig. 3--Excerpt from first movement of Corelli's concerto number 1 showing identical violin and bass parts.

An exception to this is seen in Figure 4 on page 59.

In this instance, the violoncello has a running sixteenth

note figure instead of merely doubling the bass as it

normally does. 59

-L - A A- -0 0- i AOL A6 - 0 . v Tr- 11 IL WEE

0 Viol. -) -A3 jkm- g 1 -1 -5 -RUP, I

0 u A A- A 0 A 0 0 's +0 JW-Pr or I a a -3 1 a I I Vc.

Alp AL lk a AskA as IF moo"

Viol. As An lk IV man" wr IIl n IL Ar m 0 .df q4 (3) o'H A Vla. loom

lit, Vc. AM Cb.

Fig. 4--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli's concerto number 1 showing the presence of more than four parts.

Corelli makes use of the concertino in various ways.

Using concerto number 10 as an example, the concertino is

treated in the following manner. In the "Preludio" the

two choirs perform simultaneously throughout, with the ex-

ception of a one-measure segment which occurs twice during

the movement, wherein only the concertino is heard. In 60

the following two movements, the "Allemande" and "Adagio,"

the two choirs perform simultaneously throughout. In the

next movement, the "Corrente," the concertino predomi- nates, with the ripieno serving only as a light accom-

paniment. In the following "Allegro," the ripieno some-

times enters for a measure at a time in alternating meas-

ures, and at other times it joins in and accompanies for

several measures at length. Finally, in the concluding

"Minuetto," a symmetrical balance between the concertino

and the whole ensemble is achieved by giving the concer-

tino a phrase for a number of measures and having it re-

peated by the whole orchestra.

In regard to the relationship of parts within the

concertino, various methods of treatment can again be ob-

served. The concertos written in the older style employ

the two violins on an equal par, that is, they share alike

in passages of equal difficulty, as can be seen in Figure

tAIL A I Alk AAWF

Viol. A.4&40,*/ 1400m®r moo* A& AL w II I

Fig. 5--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli's concerto number 5 showing violin parts of equal difficulty. 61

In the later concertos, there is a tendency toward so-

loistic display in the first violin part. As the other

parts become mere accompaniment, there can be seen a resem- blance to the solo concerto, as illustrated in Figure 6.

AW AW Oil 'AL qw

Ida Vc. so PIP

Fig. 6--Excerpt -from "Minuetto" of Corelli's concerto number 10 showing tendency toward soloistic display in the first violin part.

The two violin parts are always in proximity but are

separated from the bass or 'cello part by a wide interval.

Very often the two upper voices cross, as can be seen in

Figure 7 on page 62. In movements that are homophonically

conceived they move frequently at an interval of a third,

as seen in Figure 8, also on page 62.

Form as Observed in Vivaldi's Individual Movements

Just as Corelli's style of writing was influenced by

both the former polyphony and the new monody, the same

holds true for Vivaldi's style. At the time when the Red 62

Ala Aw

a A- v 'W sic 1 9w w Viol.

WASI

A-Aw V" II IF IRL AV '""T

Vc. -- A, awn" mr WF I

I I A II w 'V I r I W I I w

Fig. 7--Excerpt from first movement of Corellit s concerto number 5 showing proximity and crossing of voices.

IMA ft I - - 4ro ka~

Viol. II

Vc. II MF -1

Fig. 8--Excerpt from first movement of Corelli's concerto number 2 showing movement in thirds.

Priest was writing his Opus il, the two styles were in open conflict. But like Corelli, Vivaldi was also able to combine the two styles in a single work or even a single movement and obtain a coherency and unity of construction that few of his contemporaries were able to achieve. It 63

is not at all unusual for one of his movements to begin in a strictly contrapuntal style, afterwards transforming in- to a texture that is characterized by imitative figures occuring less and less, and finally becoming purely homophonic and governed by vertical harmony.

Most of Vivaldi's individual movements exhibit forms which are of broadly binary or ternary design, hence, they are similar in outer form to Corelli's individual movements.

However, in regard to inner form, or internal organization, there are striking differences.

The feature which most distinguishes Vivaldi's concerti grossi from those of Corelli is the former's use of the ritornello. As put by Bukofzer, "As the length of the single movement increased, the tutti ritornellos took on a greater importance for the formal design."5 This is especially true for Vivaldi, who along with other Venetian composers employed them in all types of movements, including the slow movement.

The term "ritornello" is used by modern writers to designate the "recurrent portions of the concerto grosso and the rondo."6 In the concerti grossi of Corelli, there are very few instances where a tutti section could justifiably be called a ritornello. In most cases, after the

5 Bukofzer, op. ci't., p. 230.

6Apel, "Ritornello," Harvard Dictionary, p. 647. 64

concertina has answered the tutti, the tutti proceeds with an advancing or new musical idea. In the concerti grossi of Vivaldi, however, the alternation of solo sections with the ritornelli begets a series of tensions and relax- ations; each solo departure is an advancing factor and each ritornello is a consolidating one.

Moreover, in Vivaldi's concerti grossi, the relationship of the soloists to the tutti takes on a new meaning.

For Corelli, the alternation of the concertino and ripieno was simply a means of achieving contrast between a larger and smaller choir. Even in the works of Albinoni and

Torelli, whose concertos more closely resemble Vivaldi's, the silencing of the tutti is merely aimed at giving the soloists a greater independence and distinctiveness. With

Vivaldi, the primary purpose is the establishing of an essentially dramatic conflict between the soloists and the orchestra.

As has already been observed, the three-movement scheme, allegro-largo-allegro, is the one most often adopted by Vivaldi. In the discussion on form of Vivaldi's individual movements, the opening allegro will be treated first, followed by the slow middle movement and finally the closing allegro. In addition, since ritornello organization plays such an important role in the form of the movement, this subject, along with the several types of 65

relationships that exist between tutti and solo sections, will receive particular attention.

The Opening Allgro

The majority of Vivaldi's opening allegros are in two main sections. In the first, the motives are stated.

This section may be referred to as the exposition. The second section consists of a development of principal motives in the dominant and other closely related keys and a short recapitulation of the principal motive by the tutti in the tonic key. The overall design is the ABA form.

Of the opening allegros of O III, several of them, numbers 2, 5, and 8, begin with the ripieno or tutti. Of these, concerto number 2 provides an excellent example of an opening tutti which is constructed in such a way that ritornelli can be drawn from it. Hutchings describes the construction of Vivaldi's opening tuttis as being of

"... contrasted but organically connected ideas which can later be disconnected and then rejoined in a different order; one of them will be used as a ritornello and another

(either directly or in a varied form) for treatment by the solo group." Figure 9 on page 66 shows the opening tutti of concerto number 2.

7 Hutchings, _. _cit., p. 147. 66

Viol. I

bd k4 P--

Fig. 9--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 2 showing construction of opening tutti.

Af ter the initial tutti, quoted above, two solo violins of the concertino enter with a small unit figure in bravura style. This is followed by the first ritornello which states the motive designated as B. After the first ritornello, the two violins enter again with the same type of figuration heard previously. In the fifth bar of this section the solo 'cello joins in and the soloists deal with motive A, now slightly modified. The second ritornello states the whole of the opening tutti in D minor and the third ritornello states the motive B again. When the soloists reach the tonic key there is a short recapitulatory section to the end of the movement. 67

In regard to the exposition section and a little beyond, Vivaldi, in his allegro movements, established the

general first-movement design for the classical concerto.

It is distinct from the latter, however, in that there is

no second solo theme of strong individuality. Also, the

recapitulatory section is extremely brief as compared to

that of the classical concerto. Hutchings states, "After

the purposeful organization earlier in the movement, the

finish sometimes suggests an improvisory loss of grip." 8

The opening "Allegro" of concerto number 8 is unique

in that it is the only one of O III that exhibits a bi-

thematic construction. Although it is similar in overall

design to concerto number 2, it resembles even more

closely the form of the classical concerto in its presen-

tation, although in rudimentary fashion, of a secondary

theme. Figure 10 on page 68 shows the opening tutti. The

letters A, 13, C, and D designate the main motives that are

later used as ritornelli. After the initial tutti, the

soloists enter introducing the following secondary theme

as shown in Figure 11 on page 68. After the secondary

theme is announced, the procedure is the usual one, ri-

tornelli sections alternating with solo sections. Some-

times the soloists present material from the opening tut-

ti, or at other times, parts of the secondary theme are

tIbid., p. 148. 68

a ff I I a- a RAE I- Viol. I a OL Mr. a

AMP Tutti

AN a in AL

I WF WF Ak IL 1 11 1 a

......

f7 Ada AML Am MF A AR M- w

40% 4 AL 11 Am ICU- WF li It IL lk w it IL It VF 11 A It 75 IN Ic i -"mom- q ;

Awg

LIC a U-L-j w I Imagm 5 JkJU4NL4'~.tr

Fig. IG--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 8 showing constitution of opening tutti.

- at . % - Viol. I d ~ L4~U.B4oom=" Solo

Fig. l--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 8 showing secondary theme. 69

heard in modification. The ending, as is usually the case, is a recapitulation of a part of the opening tutti in the tonic key.

In regard to Vivaldi's opening tuttis, Grout de-

scribes them as

..1.a rather loose series of related but separable musical ideas any of which can be selected for development in the course of a movement; this treatment represents a stage midway between the older Baroque practice of spinning out a single theme and the latgr Classical practice of developing contrasted themes.

It would be hard to imagine a closed tutti or the use of ritornelli in a movement of one of Corelli's church

concerti, especially in a slow prelude or a fugal allegro.

But Corelli's style is so smooth and flowing there is hardly a need for ritornelli to maintain unity of con-

struction. His movements sustain a continuing forward motion. Even in his chamber concerti, Corelli is very

sparing with ritornello. One remarkable exception is the

9th concerto. In it, the first allegro, or the "Allemande," begins with a closed initial tutti, as is shown in Figure

12 on the following page. In the first ritornello, the portion from B is quoted while other shorter ritornellos

quote A or C. In this movement, Corelli achieves an inner form, or method of organization that is very similar

to the type found in Vivaldi's allegros.

9 Donald J. Grout, A History _of Western Music (New York, 1960), p. 373. 70

- I -- : Viol. i ig t a MRIN U "LL r Tutti

-6-.L-A=k I t Til ElirRAL Ir .. O w

Fig. 12--Excerpt from "Allemande" of Corelli's concerto number 9 showing closed opening tutti.

Another type of opening tutti that Vivaldi uses is seen in the 5th concerto. It differs from the ones discussed above in that when it is heard as a subsequent ritornello, it is in its entirety. It is also always sounded in unison.

ITT R lp Viol. I

Tutti

ML OIL I IL, mow -AL W;-', WW'. :Fm

Fig. 13--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 5 showing opening tutti sounded in unison.

After the opening tutti, the solo violin enters and is shortly afterwards joined by the second violin; then the 71

entire opening tutti is repeated. When the two violins enter again, the material is again the same but the end of the episode is open and leads directly into the middle or development section. The form of the movement is seen in the following representation.

Form Description

tutti soloists

A tutti soloists

B development

A recapitulation

Fig. 14--Form and description of the opening "Alle- gro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 5.

Before examining the opening allegros of Vivaldi that do not begin with the tutti, it is in order to discuss here the various types of connections that exist between the first tutti and the first solo section. There are essentially three types. Concerto number 2 and concerto number 5 are examples of the first kind where the first solo section consists of a light and decorative figuration that is not related to the main tutti. The second type occurs most frequently and is distinct from the first in that the solo section is derived from the opening tutti.

It may be described as a soloistic figuration and expansion of the tutti idea. The third kind of connection is the 72

one least used by Vivaldi. It occurs when the soloist in- troduces an idea or theme distinct from the opening tutti such as in the Si concerto.

The intermediary solo sections serve mainly as di- versions from the recurring tuttis. They are in most cases related, in various degrees, to the melodic motives of the piece. The exposition and development sections are often unified by a solo section in each that are similar or symmetrical. Similarities of rhythms and melodic patterns between the two sections also serve as a means of unification.

In regard to the opening allegros which begin with the soloists, numbers 1, 4, 10, and 11 fall into this category. They also consist of two main sections: the first is the exposition; the second, the development with a short recapitulation.

The form of concerto number 1 in D major and concerto number 10 in B minor is shown in Figures 15 and 16 respectively on page 73. Shown also is a description of the musical procedure.

The first movement of concerto number 11 in D minor is an exception to the usual format of Vivaldi. It is in tripartite form: allegro-adagio-allegro (fugue). In the first section, only the two solo violins are heard. The second section is a bridge-type adagio of three measures and is scored for the entire orchestra. The last section 73

Form Description

Exposition

Soloists* A Tutti** *different but related material Soloists* **same material Tutti**

Development

B Consists of sequential treatment in related keys with echo effects between solo and tutti sections.

Recapitulation

A Short restatement of tutti material from the exposition in the tonic key.

Fig. 15--Form and description of opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 1 in D major.

Form Description

Exposition

Soloists - state opening theme Tutti - repeats theme A Soloists - episode Tutti - states theme again Soloists - episode Tutti - material derived from opening theme

Development

B Solo sections are sequential, tutti sections are derived from main theme.

Recapitulation

A Restatement of main theme with a repeat of last two bars.

Fig. 16--Form and description of opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 10 in B minor. 74 is a fugue; apart from this, it is also unique in that Vi- valdi's characteristic emphasis on contrast between tutti and concertino sections is almost totally lacking.

In concertos 2, 4, and 7, the first allegro is pre- faced by a slow introductory movement, however, the make- up of the following allegro is not altered by it. These slow movements seldom admit solo sections. The introductory slow movement of concerto number 2 is in the stately, strict style and allows only a two-measure solo section near the end of the movement just before the last brief tutti. The introductory slow movements of concerto number 4 and concerto number 7 exude the same spirit as those of Corelli, with the qualification that they are more developed. The 4t concerto is reminiscent of the opera overture with its pompous style and dotted rhythm. In spirit and style, the first "Allegros" of concertos 4 and

7 are similar to those of Corelli; "... the concerto that is most loyal to the old ideal, No. 7, seems to be less a spontaneous outpouring than a tribute to the master of the genre, Corelli, the nature and treatment of his themes being invoked throughout the first movement." No movement of Vivaldi, however, could easily be mistaken as

Corelli's. When the concertino enters, the individual members very often enter in succession, rather than

1 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 143. 75

simultaneously as in Corelli. The overall design of the

first "Allegros" in concertos 4 and 7 is the usual ABA

one.

The Middle Slow Movement

For Vivaldi's predecessors, the middle slow movement

served little more than a transitional role. Aside from

the short transitional "Adagios" of concertos 4 and 7,

Vivaldi, in Opus III, was the first composer to give the

slow movement of a concerto equal importance along with

the two allegros. With him, the slow movement became the

vehicle for great lyrical outpouring and the stamp of the

Venetian opera aria is often present. As for the form,

there is no standard scheme.

In concerto number 1, the slow movement is an ABA

form. Here again, the composer employs the ritornello.

The first section begins with the tutti stating the theme

and cadencing in the tonic, after which the soloists

enter. With the first ritornello, or restatement of the

theme, the tutti marks the second section by cadencing in

the dominant minor, from here the soloists again continue.

The final section is the recapitulation of the theme by

the tutti.

In concerto number 2, the slow movement consists of

two sections with repetitions. The second section, being longer than the first, constitutes an asymmetrical binary form.

The flexibility in Vivaldi's formal procedures is

further illustrated in the 5n concerto. Here, the slow

movement consists of a continuous song-like melody by the

soloists. The movement is totally without repetitions or

periodicity and may be construed as a monothematic cursive

form.

In the 8th concerto, Vivaldi again spins out a homo-

geneous melodic line for the soloists. In this movement

the melody is framed by a four-measure unison tutti. As

the soloists enter, the introductory four-bar phrase con-

tinues for a while as an ostinato and then breaks down into

a one-measure repetitive figure. The repetitive figure

which continues is in unison throughout, as is the ostinato

when it returns as a concluding tutti.

The slow movement of the 10th concerto consists of two

distinct sections. The first part is designated "Largo"

and is characterized by the stately dotted rhythm of the

opera overture. This rhythm, along with the alternation of

tutti and solo sections, puts it in sharp contrast with the

following "Larghetto."t Vivaldi's sense for rounded form

leads him to mark the last three bars "Largo" with a return

to the dotted rhythm.

Concerto number 11 has as its middle slow movement a

solo phrase framed by two tutti which are more rhythmic. 77

Vivaldi's slow movements vary not only in formal design, but also in orchestration and emotional content.

The Closing Allegro

In regard to the final allegro of the concerto,

J. J. Quantz defines the reigning aesthetic of the first half of the eighteenth century as follows:

The last allegro of a concerto should differ greatly from the first both in the nature and kind of its ideas, and in its meter. As much as the first should be serious, so the last should be, on the contrary, light and playful.... The accompaniment should not be too full or overburdened with parts. It should rather consist of notes that the accompanying part can perform without much work or trouble, becaufi the last movement is generally played very rapidly.

In general, Vivaldi's finales conform to the above description as given by Quantz. They are, on the average,

shorter in duration and less serious in nature than the opening allegro. As put by Pincherle:

Nearly always it is a question of ending the work rather lightly, so as to leave the listener with such a feeling of euphoria that he can pass without shock from the concert hall to the pace of everyday life, or can approach the j mainder of the program with fresh attentiveness.

Formally, the last movements of Opus III exhibit the

same basic overall structure as do the opening allegros.

In regard to inner form, however, there is even more

Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752). New edition (Arnold Schering), 1906, cited in Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 163.

12 Pincherle, Vivaldi, p. 163. 78

freedom in the disposition of solo and tutti sections. In one section of the "Finale" of concerto number 7, the alternation occurs each measure. Figure 17 shows the disposition of solo and tutti sections in the 72 concerto.

t t6OP i

s0l1 utti

s1 tj o] tutti s l tutti

soli utt oli

tu ts

tit

101 t -4 79

soli

tutti

soli tutti

Fig. 17--Closing "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 7T showing disposition of solo and tutti sections.

In the above illustration, the solo-tutti relationship is reminiscent of the one practiced by Corelli, where the movement is carried forward by both solo and tutti sections. In this case, the melody, simple and homogeneous throughout, is merely divided between the two sections.

But concerto number 7 is an exception. Most of Vi- valdi's allegro finales employ the ritornello, as do his opening allegros. The ritornello, serving both as an or- ganizing and controlling factor, functions in much the same way as does the refrain section of the rondo. It differs from the latter, however, in that when it reappears, it is most often in a modified form and not necessarily in the tonic key as is the Classical rondo. Still, there can be 80

seen in the allegro movement of Vivaldi not only the be-

ginnings of the Classical sonata form, but also the pattern

of the rondo; the two, not formally opposed, but merging in

much the same manner as in the Classical era.

General Comparison of Styles

Considering that Corelli's Opus VI and Vivaldi's _gus

III were published within two years of each other, and that

Corelli and Vivaldi were near contemporaries, it would seem

safe to assume that there are a great many similarities be-

tween the two works. In fact, Vivaldi began his career as

a composer by imitating very closely the works of Corelli.

In Vivaldi's Opus I and 2u _II, there can be found numerous examples of harmonic schemes and melodic shapes that if not for their transposition to another key could be superimposed over their Corellian models. But in Opus III,

there is a greater degree of individuality. There are, of course, various harmonic sequences linking the two works, and more than one melodic affinity exists especially in the slow movements. However, in regard to general style, the concerti grossi of _Ous III are quite distinct from Corel- li's pug _VI. "Vivaldi differed from Corelli as much as

Bach differed from Handel, and if any of his concertos re- minds us of Corelli, the resemblence can be traced to single turns of melody or single musical ideas, not to design 81

or style." 1 3

Harmonically, Vivaldi's Opus III reveals an extension and an elaboration of the tonal principles established by

Corelli. Corelli's harmony, whether resulting from linear or horizontal conception, is almost completely diatonic.

His use of chromaticism is comparatively rare and is lim- ited to a few diminished seventh chords, a few augmented sixth chords, and an occasional Neapolitan sixth chord. In comparison, Vivaldi's harmony is more varied, more compelling and is sustained by a greater rhythmic drive. He also employs chromaticism to a greater extent. After the initial tonality is established, his harmony is varied not only by the usual cycle of modulations, but also by chromatic modulation. Chromatic bass lines often emerge to signal the approaching cadence. Characteristic also is the use of minor thirds and minor sixths in a major key.

A fundamental technical device used extensively in both Qpus VI and Q9u III is the sequence. Melodic and harmonic sequences abound in both works. The most con- spicuous of the harmonic formulas is the cycle of fifths progression or chords with their roots a fifth apart. A manifestation of this formula can be seen in Figure 18 on the following page.

13 Hutchings, p. cit., p. 137. 82

+A 4, a06 wpft Viol. 1

Vc. CIII- S IP 1011

Fig. 18--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli's concerto number 5 in B-flat major showing sequence of fifths progression.

Another favorite harmonic formula employed by Corelli as a means of harmonizing the steps of the scale is the ascending or descending series of sixth chords. This formula is shown in Figure 19 on Page 83. The formula is also frequently employed by Vivaldi. An example of Vivaldi's use of ascending chords is shown in Figure 20, also on page 83.

A constant feature of Corelli's harmonic style is the suspension. Suspended fourths, sevenths, and ninths appear frequently throughout. Vivaldi uses suspensions less frequently.

Figure 21 on page 84 illustrates Corelli's practice of dovetailing or overlapping suspensions of the seventh.

Similar use of this formula by Vivaldi is shown in Figure

22, also on page 84.

Before comparing the melodic style of Corelli and Vi- valdi, it is to be remembered that both composers employed the old polyphonic style as well as the new monodic style. 83

-Loh aim Viol. I-

Vc.

Ascending

Viol. I

Vc.

Descending

Fig. 19--Excerpts from "Vivace"l of Corelli's concerto number 6 showing ascending and descending series of sixths chords.

4' 00% 1).- IMA Am

Viol. 1 M-1

Of Cb. At IL ww MF w * 4v

Fig. 20--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi t s concerto number 10 showing series of ascending sixth chords. 84

Viol.

Vc. I LiI

qp -V i* 7 P -7 '

Fig. 21--Excerpt from first "Allegro" of Corelli s concerto number 3 showing dovetailing suspensions of the seventh.

IL-A

ca II Viol.

III

Cb.

Iwo qw f w I v q iro i r

Fig. 22--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 10 showing dovetailing suspensions of the seventh.

In those sections where Polyphony prevails, the top voice does not predominate but merely complements the other voices. In monodic sections, the melodic line is distinct with the other voices reduced to accompaniment. 85

Consequently, the two styles govern dissimilar melodic out- lines. Of the two works, the polyphonic style is much more prevalent in _ VI.

Corelli sought to transfer the sensuous expressiveness of the human voice to the violin. Hence, his melodic style is often lyrical, flowing and quite singable. The following excerpt is the first four measures from the "Pas- torale" of concerto number 8. It is diatonic and of homophonic conception.

Viol. I

Fig. 23--Excerpt from the "tPastorale"t of Corelli's concerto number 8 showing lyrical melodic style.

In movements where polyphony prevails, the melodic line is more dis junct, employing interval leaps of fourths, fifths, diminished sevenths, and octaves. The resulting mood is of ten one of patheticism. The excerpt shown in

Figure 24 on the following page is the first ten measures of the "Grave" from Corelli's concerto number 3.

In strict terminology, that particular kind of melody referred to as a "theme" is lacking in many of Corelli's 86

t l . I I I I a I -- ddm6w - lw a Viol. I

Al -1I -7w--- _ _I

Fig. 24--Excerpt from the "Grave" of Corelli's concerto number 3 showing disjunct melodic style. movements. In movements that begin contrapuntally, such as in the above figure, the term "subject" is often ap- plied, but not with the same structural implications as when used in reference to a Bach fugue. Other movements in Opus VI begin with an arpeggiated or broken-chord figure, as seen in the following excerpt.

.flio. ' slop OPT7K- As AL- Viol. I -Itn.lir-puo- .1-- t (j ~ ~ AL

Fig. 25--Excerpt from central "Allegro" of Corelli's concerto number 1 showing broken-chord melodic pattern.

This type of melodic line hardly approaches the characteristic distinctiveness of a true theme. It is more often in reference to the dance movements, or in those movements of the church concern'ti that are influenced by 87

the dance, that it is possible to speak accurately of the presence of a theme. An example of a distinctive melodic

theme is the following excerpt.

II Viol. I 3T y

7ftft%%J 4 I 'a Af LL4~ W-J4. W 1

Fig. 26--Theme of "Giga" of Corelli's concerto number 12.

Vivaldi's themes are distinguishable from those of

Corelli in that they stress tonal feeling to a greater ex-

tent, are more vigorous and rhythmically animated, and exhibit a wider breadth of melodic phrasing. Vivaldi's characteristic insistence upon establishing the tonic tonality in the theme can be seen by referring back to Fig- ure 13 on page 70. The first three measures of the opening theme consist almost entirely of the tonic note. The

theme escapes monotony because of its briskness and rhythmic drive. An extreme case in point is the opening "Al-

legro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 11 in D minor. During

the first twenty measures of the movement a D pedal point

is consistently present. The second five measures of the movement are shown in Figure 27 on the following page. 88

rEp= was" w W 7AI K I a 4eo ~qij~*e 4 1 ~ 01 All rr~rrrI I a A I

Viol0.

I I-A

ARE mit I II ot ef L Udtju 0Ar AWWAs 00 -W ,1 4f IF 4 i

Fig. 27--Excerpt from opening "Allegro" of Vivaldi's concerto number 11 showing insistence upon the tonic tonality.

There is but one instance in Opus VI where Corelli's

insistence upon the tonic tonality is equal to that of Vi-

valdi's. It occurs in the first "Allegro" of Corelli's

concerto number 7 and is shown in Figure 28.

2 - TitI 111 11 L A .a & - -ir A-- I A :w Af I ffll I 1 0 dig IL Viol. en I I I 1 11 J -1 II J L

a --7C, %F71 I. f

Fig. 28--Opening six measures of first "Allegro" of Corelli's concerto number 7 showing insistence upon the tonic tonality.

A rhythmic device used more extensively by Vivaldi is

syncopation. An example of this can be seen in the fourth

measure, designated B, of Figure 9 on page 66. Although

Corelli also uses syncopation, it occurs more often in the 89 context of a whole texture rather than in a distinct me-

lodic line. Vivaldi's melodic treatment also includes the

use of binary and ternary rhythmic patterns within the

framework of a four-beat measure, so that, in general, he

is less tied down to the bar line than Corelli.

In regard to the length of themes, O III exhibits

a wider range, extending from themes of a few measures in

length to ones of long periods of breadth. And to reit-

erate, Vivaldi's themes play a more decisive role in re-

lation to the structure of the entire movement.

Concerning orchestration, the concerti grossi of Vi-

valdi are much more advanced than those of Corelli. Dur-

ing the preceding pages dealing with Corelli's use of the

concertino, it has been noted that hardly ever is there a

structural distinction made between the two bodies of

sound. Corelli's solo parts do not differ in any essential

feature from those he gives to the ripieno instruments.

In Op_ III, not only is this structural distinction prac-

tically always maintained, but there is a more complete

independence among instruments of both groups, and a dis-

tinct feeling for solo effects. Vivaldi also uses devices

of orchestration that are completely foreign to Corelli.

In fact, much of the credit generally attributed to the

Mannheim school as the source of orchestral effects may

very well be transferred to Vivaldi in view of the illus-

tration on the following page. 90

toe

$ArvA*%. II

Viol.

Am v3w III aI A>L

I\v

Fig. 29--Excerpt from the "Larghetto" of Vivaldi's concerto number 10 showing orchestral effect.

The above musical excerpt is completely devoid of a melodic pattern. Rather, it is merely a series of superimposed chords arpeggiated and articulated in four different ways.

The result is a shimmering harmonic effect, uncommon and

totally modern for the period.

Another device, absent in Corelli but used quite of-

ten by Vivaldi, is the unison setting. It produces a dramatic effect and reveals the operatic influence present in

Vivaldi's concerti. An example of the unison setting can be seen in Figure 30 on page 91.

Such devices as the pizzicato and tremelo were also used by Vivaldi, but they appear in works composed later 91

Viol. I ME

'10 A

I ME A

Fig. 30--Excerpt from the "Largo"t of Vivaldi's concerto number 1 showing the unison setting. than _Opus III. But Vivaldi's talent for orchestrating is apparent through all of ,p0u Ill. Regarding orchestral combinations, arrangement, and proportioning of various timbres, there is a greater freedom and flexibility present in Vivaldi's Opu I. And whereas Corelli very sel- com goes beyond the third position on the violin, Vivaldi extends considerably the range of the instrument, occasionally up to the eighth position.

Conclusion

The concerti gross of Vivaldi are in all spheres of composition more progressive than those of Corelli. Corel-

Ii's concerti grossi were the models of the new genre and served as a point of departure for other composers. With

Vivaldi, Handel, and Bach, the form reached its peak of development, and with the rise of sonata form it was discarded as a normal musical vehicle. 92

Corelli was the link between two musical epochs: the polyphony of the seventeenth century and the melodic eman- cipation of the eighteenth. Although he was not an inno- vator, his art was the refining of all the instrumental resources at his disposal.

... the epithet of "genius" traditionally associated with Corelli's name undoubtedly has not quite the same connotation as when ascribed to a Vivaldi or a Bach. It does not imply the same high soaring; but instead a constant perfection, a volu4ary moderation, and an exemplary sense of proportion.

Vivaldi occupies an equally important position in the history of music. He played a vital part in the tran-

sition from the late Baroque to the early Classical style and his dramatic conception of the role of the soloist

paved the way for the Classical concerto.

14Pincherle, Corelli, p. 186. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Concerto Grosso No. 3, C Minor, edited by Alfred Einstein, Leipzig, Ernst Eulenburg, 1933.

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Concerto Grosso Q . 6 No.7, D Major edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor- poration, 1937.

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Corelli, Arcangelo, Concerto Grosso . 6 No. 12, F Major, edited by Waldemar Woehl, New York, C. F. Peters Cor- poration, 1937.

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