United States Draft Department of Environmental Assessment Agriculture Forest Service King County Emergency Radio Network Phase 2 Project February 2018 Puget Sound Emergency Radio Network (PSERN)

Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest King County, WA

For Further Information, Eric Ozog Contact: Verlot Public Service Center (360) 691-4396

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Table of Contents 1. Purpose and Need for Action ...... 1 1.1 Summary ...... 1 1.2 Background ...... 1 1.3 Project Location ...... 4 1.4 Purpose and Need ...... 4 1.5 Regulations and Direction ...... 5 1.5.1 Land Allocations ...... 5 1.5.2 Watershed Analysis ...... 7 1.5.3 Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Roads Analysis ...... 8 1.6 The Decision Framework ...... 8 1.7 Public Involvement ...... 8 1.8 Tribal Consultation ...... 8 1.9 Issues ...... 8 2. Alternative Descriptions Including the Proposed Action ...... 9 2.1 Alternatives Considered but Eliminated from Detailed Study ...... 9 2.2 Alternatives Considered in Detail ...... 9 2.2.1 Alternative 1: No Action ...... 9 2.2.2 Alternative 2: Proposed Action ...... 9 2.3 Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures and Project Design Features ...... 14 2.4 Other Reasonably Foreseeable Actions ...... 19 3. Affected Environment and Effects of Implementation ...... 21 3.1 Soils and Geology ...... 21 3.1.1 Affected Environment ...... 21 3.1.2 Environmental Effects ...... 21 3.2 Botany, Vegetation, and Invasive Plants ...... 23 3.2.1 Affected Environment ...... 23 3.2.2 Environmental Effects ...... 25 3.3 Water Resources ...... 28 3.3.1 Affected Environment ...... 28 3.3.2 Environmental Effects ...... 30 3.4 Fish ...... 32 3.4.1 Affected Environment ...... 32 3.4.2 Environmental Effects ...... 35

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3.4.3 Aquatic Conservation Strategy ...... 36 3.5 Wildlife ...... 38 3.5.1 Affected Environment ...... 38 3.5.2 Environmental Effects ...... 47 3.6 Heritage Resources ...... 51 3.6.1 Affected Environment ...... 51 3.6.2 Environmental Effects ...... 56 3.7 Recreation ...... 57 3.7.1 Affected Environment ...... 57 3.7.2 Environmental Effects ...... 62 3.8 Visual Resources ...... 68 3.8.1 Affected Environment ...... 68 3.8.2 Environmental Effects ...... 71 3.9 Civil Rights and Environmental Justice ...... 75 3.10 Air Quality and Noise ...... 76 3.11 Climate Change ...... 77 3.12 Transportation ...... 77 3.13 Public Safety ...... 78 3.14 Other Disclosures ...... 78 4. List of Preparers and Contributors ...... 80 5. References ...... 80 Appendix A: Visual Simulations

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List of Tables Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features ...... 15 Table 2. Other Reasonably Foreseeable Actions ...... 19 Table 3. Estimated Disturbance Area ...... 22 Table 4. Designated Uses and Known Impairments or TMDL Listings ...... 29 Table 5. Fish Species of Interest and Federal Designations ...... 34 Table 6. Baseline Habitat Description of Project and Land-use Management Description ...... 38 Table 7. Terrestrial Wildlife Species Considered for Project Area Analysis ...... 40 Table 8. Forest Service Region 6 Sensitive Species ...... 42 Table 9. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Forest Plan Management Indicator Species ...... 46 Table 10. Developed Recreation Sites in the Vicinity of the Proposed PSERN Sites ...... 58 Table 11. Recreation Activity Participation on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest ...... 61

List of Figures Figure 1. Project Vicinity Map, U.S. 2 ...... 2 Figure 2. Project Vicinity Map, I-90 ...... 3 Figure 3. Typical Diagram of Full-Size Emergency Communications Site (dimensions are variable) ...... 11 Figure 4. Typical Diagram of Emergency Repeater Tower Site (dimensions are variable) ...... 12 Figure 5. Illustration of Building Architectural Style ...... 72

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Acronyms and Abbreviations ACS Aquatic Conservation Strategy ATV All-Terrain Vehicle BMP best management practice BNSF Burlington Northern Santa Fe BOD biological oxygen demand CFR Code of Federal Regulations dBA A-weighted scale Districts Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts EA Environmental Assessment EFH essential fish habitat EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FEIS Final Environmental Impact Statement Forest Service USDA Forest Service Forest Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest GNR Great Northern Railroad Highway 2 West U.S. Highway 2 West I-90 Interstate 90 LSR Late Successional Reserve LSR 119 Late-Successional Reserve 119 MBSNF Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest MIS Management indicator species NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NFS National Forest System NWFP Northwest Forest Plan PCB polychlorinated biphenyls PCT PSERN Puget Sound Emergency Radio Network RM river mile

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ROD Record of Decision ROS Recreation Opportunity Spectrum SOPA Schedule of Proposed Actions SPCC Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures SPHD Historic District SPHD Stevens Pass Historic District SPMR Stevens Pass Mountain Resort State Parks Washington State Parks TES threatened and endangered species TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load U.S. 2 U.S. Highway 2 VQO visual quality objective

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1. Purpose and Need for Action

1.1 Summary The Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest (MBSNF or Forest) proposes to issue communication use leases to King County to install and operate seven communication facilities on National Forest System (NFS) managed lands. The communication facilities would be part of King County’s Puget Sound Emergency Radio Network (PSERN) to improve emergency communications along the U.S. Highway 2 (U.S. 2) and Interstate 90 (I-90) corridors. Six sites are proposed in the Skykomish Ranger District and one site is proposed in the Snoqualmie Ranger District (Figures 1 and 2). Pending the approval of an environmental assessment (EA) and leases, construction could potentially begin in summer 2018. The communication facilities would operate daily, year-round. The period of the leases would be for up to 30 years, with extensions possible, if all terms and conditions of the leases are met. Five locations would be full communication sites with a tower, microwave dishes, shelter building, and diesel tanks and generators for primary or backup power, typically within a 50-foot by 50-foot compound (approximate dimensions). Two locations would be unpowered repeater towers with passive reflector dishes typically occupying a 30-foot by 30-foot area without the additional buildings, generators, and fuel needs. The towers would be between 110 and 245 feet tall. All the compounds would be gravel surfaced and fenced around the perimeters with coated chain-link fencing. To help towers blend in with the forested terrain, towers and antennae would be coated with a non-reflective dark color, and all but one of the proposed towers on Forest land would be unlit. The tower at Scenic (along U.S. 2) would require lighting for safety purposes as required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) because it would be over 200 feet tall. New driveways and trails for permanent access would be for administrative access only, with gates or boulders installed to prevent public motorized vehicle use. The six sites along U.S. 2 would be accessed by driveways ranging from about 90 to 500 feet long; no driveway is proposed for the I-90 Repeater which would be accessed by helicopter. Power lines would be buried along existing roads and the proposed access driveways with backup power provided by generators. If power is not available from a nearby distribution line, power may be generated on site with larger diesel generators and storage tanks. All tanks and fuel lines would be twin-walled with electronic leak detection, and employ remote monitoring and notification. Tanks and the generators would be enclosed in shelters. No power would be needed at the U.S. Highway 2 West (Highway 2 West) and I-90 repeater sites, and thus, no generators or fuel storage would be needed because these would be unpowered repeater stations. Detailed information on each of the proposed towers, associated facilities, anticipated tools and equipment, and affected roads is provided in Section 2. King County would own the facilities and could potentially rent tower space to other public and private organizations. USDA Forest Service (Forest Service) policy directs that tenants of communications sites co-locate where possible, to minimize resource impacts and the encumbrance on NFS land. It is anticipated that tenants may co-locate at the new sites, though it is not part of the decision framework for this proposal.

1.2 Background King County is in the process of modernizing and expanding its regional emergency services network, as approved and financed through public levies passed by the voters in April 2015. This process involves upgrading and constructing new communication facilities in urban and rural areas throughout the county. Part of this expansion proposes to install seven new communication facilities on small portions of NFS

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Figure 1. Project Vicinity Map, U.S. 2

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Figure 2. Project Vicinity Map, I-90

3 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA lands to improve first-responders’ radio coverage and dispatching capabilities along U.S. 2 and I-90. County-wide, construction of other PSERN facilities began in 2016 and the project is scheduled to be completed in 2020. In addition to the seven sites considered in this Environmental Assessment (EA), King County also plans to replace three existing towers on NFS land within the MBSNF; two in the Skykomish Ranger District and one in the Snoqualmie Ranger District (refer to the King County 911 Upgrades Project - Phase 1 for more information https://www.fs.usda.gov/project/?project=49898). The proposed communication sites would include ancillary facilities such as access driveways and power lines, which would be authorized by the Forest Service through leases and managed by King County, according to approved communication site management plans. A third-party environmental consulting firm under contract with King County prepared this EA, with Forest Service staff providing guidance and assistance with various resource reports to support the EA. Communications related to tribal consultation and public scoping were sent by the Forest Service so that the Responsible Official could determine if there were any key issues to be addressed, and any effects to resources that should be considered in the analysis.

1.3 Project Location Six sites are proposed on the Skykomish Ranger District and one site is proposed for the Snoqualmie Ranger District (Figures 1 and 2). Legal descriptions of the locations of the proposed sites are as follows. Skykomish Ranger District (U.S. 2 corridor):

• Highway 2 West: T.26N., R.12 E., Sec. 21

• Deception Creek: T.26N., R.13 E., Sec. 30

• Scenic: T.26N., R.,13E., Sec 28

• Wellington: T.26N., R.13 E., Sec. 15

• : T.26N., R.13 E., Sec. 23

• Stevens Pass: T.26N., R.13 E., Sec. 14 Snoqualmie Ranger District (I-90 corridor):

• Interstate 90: T.22N., R.9E., Sec. 1, W.M.

1.4 Purpose and Need The purpose of this project is to respond to a formal proposal from King County to construct seven new communication sites on NFS land. King County has a need to upgrade equipment and improve coverage of their regional emergency services radio system in sparsely populated areas in the eastern part of the County, along the heavily travelled I-90 and U.S. 2 corridors, to enhance public safety. There is a need to respond to King County’s request for communication use leases as per Forest Plan direction for land uses. Also, the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie Land and Resource Management Plan (Forest Service 1990) directs the Forest Service “to be responsive in the consideration of the use and occupancy of the Forest by private individuals, Federal, State, and local governments when such use is consistent with Forest management objectives, is in the public interest, and cannot be reasonably served by development on private land” (p. 4-137). As such, there is a need for the Forest Service to evaluate the proposal, in a timely manner, to decide if the proposed construction of new communication facilities should be authorized, and whether

4 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA the proposed design should be adjusted, and/or whether mitigation measures should be implemented to minimize or eliminate potential resource impacts.

1.5 Regulations and Direction This EA has been prepared in accordance with regulations established under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. This EA is tiered to the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) for the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, as amended. The Forest Plan was amended by the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Management of Habitat for Late Successional and Old Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (Northwest Forest Plan) and the associated Record of Decision (ROD) (Forest Service 1994a); and the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for Amendment to the Survey & Manage, Protection Buffer, and other Mitigation Measures Standards and Guidelines and the associated ROD (Forest Service and BLM 2001). The 1994 ROD incorporates seven land allocations, which amend the allocations described in the 1990 Forest Plan. (One allocation, Managed Late-Successional Areas, does not occur on the Mt. Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest.) There is considerable overlap among some allocations and more than one set of standards and guidelines may apply. In addition, where the standards and guidelines of the 1990 Forest Plan are more restrictive or provide greater benefits to late-successional forest-related species than do those of the 1994 ROD, the existing standards and guides apply. The 1994 Forest Plan amendment also includes additional forest-wide standards and guidelines, and an Aquatic Conservation Strategy, with four components: riparian reserves, key watersheds, watershed analysis, and watershed restoration. These components are designed to help improve the health of the aquatic ecosystem. The Forest-wide goal for facilities includes providing and managing utility systems required to protect and manage the MBSNF. Facilities are to be managed to support Forest management objectives; all new facilities should employ Cascadian architectural style (1990 Forest Plan, pages 4-140 to 4-141). The 1999 Executive Order on invasive species (direction found in Forest Service Manual 2080), the National and Regional strategies for noxious weed management, and the Mediated Agreement of May 24, 1989, identify prevention as the preferred strategy for managing competing and unwanted vegetation. In addition to treatment of known infestations, measures intended to prevent further infestations and weed spread would be incorporated into the construction contract. These measures include cleaning of construction equipment, prompt re-vegetation of disturbed sites, and treatment of known weed sites before they become larger. These measures come from the Forest Plan, Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines, Prevention Strategies, and Best Management Practices for noxious weeds and the Mt. Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest Invasive Plant Treatment ROD (Forest Service 2015a). The Forest Service must comply with all terms of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and ensure that viable populations of Sensitive Species be maintained and do not become Threatened or Endangered as a result of Forest Service actions. The project sites are located outside of Inventoried Roadless Areas and designated Wilderness.

1.5.1 Land Allocations This section describes the land allocations found at each of the seven sites. First, the applicable land allocations are provided by site. Second, the land allocations are described.

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The following are land allocations found within the project area for each site:

• Highway 2 West: Alpine Lakes General Forest 27-GF, U.S. 2 Primary Viewshed Corridor.

• Deception Creek: Late Successional Reserve (LSR) & Alpine Lakes Scenic Forest 27-SF, also Riparian Reserve, Stevens Pass Historic District (SPHD), Recommended Recreational River (5A), U.S. 2 viewshed.

• Scenic: LSR, 27-SF, SPHD, 5A, U.S. 2 viewshed.

• Wellington: 27-SF, SPHD, 5A, U.S. 2 viewshed.

• Stevens Pass: Alpine Lakes Developed Site 27-D (Ski Area), SPHD, 5A, U.S. 2 viewshed.

• Cowboy Mountain: 27-D, SPHD, U.S. 2 viewshed.

• I-90 Repeater: Deer & Elk Winter Range 14, 27-SF, I-90 viewshed. Below, the land allocations listed for each site are described.

Alpine Lakes General Forest 27-GF General Forest: Timber harvest occurs, with a full range of silvicultural prescriptions used on suitable lands. The visual quality objective (VQO) ranges from Retention to Modification. Dispersed recreation sites are common; encounters between recreationists may be numerous. Motorized activities are common. Rustic facilities may be provided. Land in this allocation is generally accessible by road. Road and trail standards range from optimum, for high-volume mixed traffic, to closed after project completion.

Tye River Recommended Recreational River (5A) Evidence of a full range of management activities may exist, including existence of low dams, diversions, residential development, and forestry uses (past and present timber harvest). The rivers readily accessible by railroad and bridge crossing. Streamside bank is generally natural condition. Water quality is such that waters are fishable and swimmable, or a water improvement plan exists or is under development in compliance with Federal and State laws.

Alpine Lakes Scenic Forest 27-SF Scenic Forest: The objective is to retain or enhance viewing and recreation experiences. Developments and use in the seen area from recreation sites, roads, and trails within Scenic Forest will meet visual quality objectives. Use will be integrated with the natural landscape. Timber harvest permitted; a full range of silvicultural prescriptions will be used to meet the visual and recreational objectives.

Alpine Lakes Developed Site 27-D Developed Site: Areas are substantially modified for campgrounds, boating, ski areas, summer home tracts, administrative sites, etc. Sights and mounds of people are evident; concentration of users is often high. Roads, trails, and parking are managed to provide access to the site, with emphasis on nonmotorized activity on the site. No scheduled timber harvest. Vegetative manipulation only for the enhancement or protection of the area.

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U.S. 2 Primary Viewshed Corridor Scenic quality is maintained and gradually improved within seven scenic viewsheds, including Stevens Pass Highway (U.S. 2) and Highway (I-90). Lands within these scenic corridors is managed at a high visual quality level in both the foreground and middleground.

Stevens Pass Historic District (SPHD) The most significant historic resource in the Skykomish system is the Stevens Pass Historic District. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the district is nationally significant. It represents 35 years of effort by the Great Northern Railroad to construct and improve a transcontinental rail line. The district includes a segment of railroad's Cascade crossing, with numerous engineering features such as switchbacks, snowsheds, and tunnels that were unusual or unique engineering achievements in their day. The historic district runs from Martin Creek drainage easterly up over Stevens Pass to Berne Camp on the eastside.

Riparian Reserve This allocation includes areas along streams, wetlands, ponds, lakes, and unstable or potentially unstable areas where the conservation of aquatic and riparian-dependent terrestrial resources receives primary emphasis. Riparian Reserves are mapped overlaying all other land allocations.

Late Successional Reserve LSRs are managed to protect and enhance old-growth forest conditions. No programmed timber harvest is allowed inside the reserves. However, thinning or other silvicultural treatments inside these reserves may occur in stands up to 80 years of age if the treatments are beneficial to the creation and maintenance of late-successional forest conditions. Non-silvicultural activities within late-successional reserves are allowed where such activities are neutral or beneficial to the creation and maintenance of late- successional habitat. According to the 1994 ROD, new development proposals that provide significant public benefits are to be reviewed on a case-by-case basis and may be approved when adverse effects can be minimized and mitigated. These will be planned to have the least possible adverse impacts on LSRs. Developments will be located to avoid degradation of habitat and adverse effects on identified LSR species (ROD, page C-17).

Tier 1 Key Watershed The six proposed sites for the communications facilities along U.S. 2 are within a Tier 1 watershed. Key watersheds were designated as sources for high water quality and they do contain at-risk anadromous fish (e.g., salmon) (ROD page 10). Key watersheds are highest priority for watershed restoration, which includes reducing existing system and non-system road mileage. If funding were insufficient to implement reductions, there would still be no net increase in road mileage allowed in Key Watersheds. No new road construction is associated with this proposal; however permanent driveways or paths would be created at 6 of the sites.

1.5.2 Watershed Analysis Watershed analysis is required prior to management activities within key watersheds, except minor activities such as those Categorically Excluded under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). The , including its forks (and Tye River), is a Tier 1 Key Watershed selected for direct contributions to conservation of at-risk anadromous salmonids, bull trout, and resident fish species. The Tye River Watershed Analysis (Forest Service 1994) compares historic and more recent conditions,

7 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA describes how these ecosystems have functioned through time, and describes how they are likely to function in the future. The findings of the Tye River watershed analysis are incorporated into this environmental assessment by reference.

1.5.3 Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Roads Analysis The Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Forest-wide Sustainable Roads Report (Forest Service 2015b) assists the Forest in addressing issues related to roads in the future. It is used to inform future analyses, decisions, and specific actions (i.e., Access and Travel Management Plans). While the strategy is not a decision document, it serves as a guide to inform future decisions on where and how to invest resources on building new roads, managing current roads, or decommissioning old roads. It assesses Forest transportation management needs, long-term funding, and expected ecosystem, social, and economic effects. It provides the responsible official with critical information needed to identify and manage a minimum road system that is safe and responsive to public needs and desires. No changes to current road management are proposed.

1.6 The Decision Framework Based on the analysis in this document, the Forest Supervisor (Responsible Official) of the Mt. Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest will decide whether or not to issue communications use leases, along with any mitigation measures (included in construction stipulations as part of the leases) to protect resources, to King County for the construction and operation of the emergency communication facilities on NFS- managed land.

1.7 Public Involvement This section discusses the public scoping efforts that took place pursuant to 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1501.7 for the King County 911 Communications Phase 2 Project proposal. The proposal was listed in the Schedule of Proposed Actions (SOPA) in April 2017 and has been listed on subsequent SOPAs on a quarterly schedule. Once the proposed action was developed, a scoping letter (dated February 24, 2017) was mailed or emailed to 95 groups, individuals, and organizations requesting information on any issues, opportunities or concerns these citizens may have. As described in these scoping letters, if recipients wished to respond, they were asked to submit scoping comments in writing to the Forest Supervisor within 30 days. A complete scoping mailing list and all scoping letters and emails received are in the project record. King County 911 Communications Phase 2 project scoping documents, maps, and other associated information can be found in the project record and online at https://www.fs.usda.gov/project/?project=51114.

1.8 Tribal Consultation Government-to-government consultation was initiated with seven Tribes. Two Tribes provided comments in response to a notification letter describing the proposal that was mailed to each Tribal Council Chair.

1.9 Issues Using the comments from the public, Tribes, and site users, the Responsible Official determined there were no key issues that would lead to development of additional alternatives to be considered in detail. Other issues, such as the potential for introduction of invasive plant species, are addressed in the Environmental Consequences section of this document.

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2. Alternative Descriptions Including the Proposed Action

2.1 Alternatives Considered but Eliminated from Detailed Study Prior to proposing development and use of the sites considered in this EA, King County and the Forest Service conducted reconnaissance of alternative locations at established communication sites. Where present, the existing towers were not tall enough to meet King County’s needs, thus eliminating the option of co-locating on existing towers. Also, the PSERN requires a specific “network geometry” to provide emergency radio service to various river valleys and roadways, despite topographical variation. For these reasons, alternative site locations were not evaluated by the Forest Service. Minor modifications to project siting were made based on review by Forest Service resource specialists prior to scoping and resource concerns identified during this analysis. The location of the Cowboy Mountain and Stevens Pass sites were modified slightly to avoid a potential conflict with projects under consideration by Stevens Pass Mountain Resort (SPMR). The location of the Scenic site was shifted to avoid interior old-growth habitat as well as avoid adverse effects to cultural features. Other locations were modified after topographic surveys were completed to optimize facility siting and minimize disturbance footprints.

2.2 Alternatives Considered in Detail

2.2.1 Alternative 1: No Action Alternative 1 is the no action alternative. If implemented, no long-term communication use leases would be issued to King County to construct communications facilities, associated equipment, and buildings on the identified sites on NFS lands. The emergency radio communication system used by 911 dispatchers, emergency service providers (police officers, fire fighters and emergency medical staff), and incident response teams would not be upgraded. Coverage would not be expanded to areas where it is needed, including parts of the National Forest, and system capacity would remain insufficient for King County’s needs in the event of a large-scale disaster or incident. King County anticipates that parts needed to maintain and operate the current system will soon become more scarce, decreasing its ability to repair and maintain the network and increasing the risk of system failure in the future.

2.2.2 Alternative 2: Proposed Action Under this alternative, the Forest Service would issue King County communications use leases for seven proposed communication facilities. The period of the leases would be for 30 years, with extensions possible, if all terms and conditions of the authorization are met. If approved, King County would: 1. Construct communication facilities at seven locations on NFS-managed lands, with six on Skykomish Ranger District (U.S. 2 corridor to Stevens Pass) and one on Snoqualmie Ranger District (I-90, west of Snoqualmie Pass). 2. Five locations would be full communication sites with a tower, microwave dishes, shelter building, and diesel tanks and generators for power, typically within a 50-foot by 50-foot compound (approximate dimensions). Two locations would be unpowered repeater towers with passive reflector dishes, typically occupying a 30-foot by 30-foot area. Towers and antennae would be coated with a non-reflective dark color to help them blend in with the forested terrain. Six of the proposed towers on Forest land to be considered in the EA would be unlit, and the one

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tower at Scenic would require lighting as required by the FAA. All of the compounds would be gravel surfaced and fenced around the perimeters with coated chain-link fencing. 3. Most communication sites would require constructing short driveways or all-terrain vehicle (ATV) trails that would generally spur from NFS roads for permanent access. The six sites along U.S. 2 would be accessed by driveways ranging from about 90 to 500 feet long; no driveway is proposed for the I-90 Repeater site. Driveways and trails would be for administrative access only, with gates or boulders installed to prevent public motorized vehicle access. 4. Power lines would be buried along roads where power is available nearby. Where power is not available from a nearby distribution line, power may be generated on site with larger diesel generators and storage tanks. All tanks and fuel lines would be twin-walled with electronic leak detection, and employ remote monitoring and notification. Tanks and the generators would be enclosed in shelters. New facilities are proposed at each communication site listed below, including access driveways or trails, and power lines. Dimensions are approximate. Refer to Figures 3 and 4 for drawings of a typical communication site compound, and unpowered passive reflector tower. A general list of construction tools and equipment to be used for the project is also provided after the site descriptions below. Highway 2 West—Install a new, 110-foot-tall, self-supporting lattice steel frame tower near the Jennifer Dunn Trailhead, off NFS road 6066 (Beckler Peak Road). The tower would support three microwave passive reflector drums (two 12-foot diameter, and one 8-foot diameter). This tower would not require power or lighting. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation with a retaining wall for stability. The tower site would be accessed for construction and maintenance via an approximate 420- foot-long temporary driveway from NFS road 6066. After construction, the temporary driveway would be converted to minimum width ATV trail for tower maintenance. A 10-foot by 45-foot construction staging area would be cleared adjacent to NFS road 6066 near a trailhead. The staging area would be retained in the future for public overflow parking at the trailhead. Deception Creek—Install a new 195-foot-tall lattice steel frame tower off NFS road 6000-820 (Deception Creek Road). The tower would accommodate one 8-foot-diameter microwave drum antenna, and directional antennas. This tower would not require lighting. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers, with a retaining wall for stability. One new equipment building (12 feet by 30 feet) would house telecommunications gear and a backup diesel generator. Power would be provided via a buried power line along the road and railroad tracks. A 2,000-gallon diesel tank would be needed to fuel the backup generator(s). The tower would be accessed for construction and maintenance via a 220-foot- long driveway from NFS road 6000-820 with parking for maintenance and refueling adjacent to the facility. Scenic—Install a new 245-foot-tall lattice steel frame tower off NFS road 6000-840 (Surprise Creek Road), south of the Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) maintenance yard. The tower would accommodate one 12-foot-diameter microwave drum antenna, and four dipole bidirectional antennas. Due to its height, the tower would be lit according to FAA requirements. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers. One new equipment building (12 feet by 30 feet) would house telecommunications gear and backup diesel generator(s). Power would be via a buried power line along the road and railroad tracks. A 2,000-gallon diesel tank would be needed to fuel the backup generator(s). The tower would be accessed for construction and maintenance via a 160-foot-long driveway from NFS road 6000-840 with parking for maintenance and refueling adjacent to the facility.

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Figure 3. Typical Diagram of Full-Size Emergency Communications Site (dimensions are variable)

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Figure 4. Typical Diagram of Emergency Repeater Tower Site (dimensions are variable)

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Wellington—Install a new 190-foot-tall lattice steel frame tower off NFS road 6099 (Old Cascade Highway). The tower would accommodate one 3-foot-diameter microwave drum antenna and four dipole bidirectional antennas. This tower would not require lighting. One new equipment building (20 feet by 40 feet) would house telecommunications gear and diesel generator(s). Power would be provided either on site or via an approximately 2.6-mile buried power line along the NFS road 6099 road, depending on final designs and power agreements. A 12,000-gallon aboveground diesel storage tank would be needed if power is generated on site. If power is supplied via line-power, a 2,000-gallon diesel tank would be needed to fuel the backup generator(s). The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers, with a retaining wall for stability. The tower would be accessed for construction and maintenance via an approximately 90-foot-long driveway from NFS road 6099 with parking for maintenance and refueling adjacent to the facility. Cowboy Mountain—Install a new 190-foot-tall lattice steel frame tower near the Stevens Pass Ski Resort’s Skyline Express upper ski lift terminal. The tower would accommodate one 6-foot- and one 3- foot-diameter microwave drum antennas and four omnidirectional antennas. This tower would not require lighting. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers, with a retaining wall for stability. One new equipment building (20 feet by 35 feet) would house telecommunications gear and diesel generator(s) for backup power. Power would be provided from the chair lift terminal via a buried power line along a 500-foot-long extension of the Cowboy chair lift road. A 2,000-gallon diesel aboveground storage tank would be needed to fuel backup generators. Stevens Pass—Install a new 170-foot-tall lattice steel frame tower near the existing Frontier communications site at the Stevens Pass Ski Resort. The tower would accommodate two 3-foot-diameter microwave drum antennas and four directional antennas. This tower would not require lighting. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers. One new equipment building (12 feet by 30 feet) would house telecommunications gear and backup diesel generators. Power would be provided by a buried cable from the existing lower Skyline Ridge access road. A 2,000-gallon diesel tank would be needed to fuel the backup generators. The tower would be accessed for construction and maintenance via a 90-foot- long driveway extended from the lower Skyline Ridge road with parking for maintenance and refueling. Interstate 90—Install a new, 175-foot-tall, self-supporting lattice steel frame tower on a bluff facing the south side of the S.F. , between the John Wayne Pioneer Trail and NFS road 9020. The tower would support two 8-foot-diameter microwave passive reflector drums. This tower would not require power or lighting. The tower would be placed on a concrete mat foundation or piers, with a retaining wall for stability. Construction materials and tower components would be flown to the site via helicopter. A helipad comprising about 0.25 acre would be cleared adjacent to the tower site for construction and future maintenance and emergency access. King County is in the process of finalizing power plans for the Deception Creek, Scenic, and Wellington sites. If changes to the design call for primary power to be generated on site, then the buildings size and fuel storage would increase to accommodate the additional power generation facilities. This minor potential change in facilities and dimensions is considered in this analysis. Road Maintenance—Portions of NFS Roads and non-System roads leading to each of the communication sites may require general maintenance to accommodate heavy equipment, prior to mobilization. Such maintenance could include: brushing, blading, adding spot rock, and cleaning ditches and culverts to correct drainage problems. The pertinent roads to each site are as follows: • Highway 2 West: NFS road 6066

• Deception Creek: NFS road 6000-820

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• Scenic: NFS road 6000-840

• Wellington: NFS road 6099

• Cowboy Mountain: Skyline chairlift access road

• Stevens Pass: lower Skyline Ridge road

• Interstate 90: helicopter access; no road needed Helicopter(s) would be used for construction equipment and material delivery at the I-90 Repeater site and potentially the Cowboy Mountain site due to the steep access road. Helicopters would operate from staging areas to be established at existing developed sites in proximity to the tower locations. These would likely include Washington State Department of Transportation facilities at Camp Mason or the Bandera Air Field (I-90 area) or parking areas at Stevens Pass (U.S. 2). Tools—Tools and equipment that may be used for the proposed construction activities include the following:

• Track-mounted or rubber-tire backhoe, drill auger, or other excavator, trenching machine

• Helicopter, to fly in equipment and materials to sites with limited access

• Road grader, cement mixer truck, dump truck, and low-boy

• Crane truck to assemble the towers on their foundations

• Chain-saw and other motorized and non-motorized hand tools

• Crew vehicles Construction at each site would range from 6 to 12 weeks depending on the facilities to be constructed. During this period, several construction vehicle trips on NFS roads would occur daily; however, roads would remain open to the public. Temporary delays of up to 1 hour could occur during large equipment delivery or operation. King County would provide traffic flaggers when necessary. There would be no road or trail use closures due to project traffic for the I-90 Repeater site, as all materials would be delivered by helicopter. Maintenance visits would occur monthly at powered sites and an estimated one to two times per year for unpowered repeater sites. Fuel would be delivered about once or twice per year to run the backup generators which are remotely started and tested for maintenance. An approximate 12-hour response time is needed for emergency maintenance year round to maintain the emergency radio network. Typically, maintenance is performed by technicians using backpack-size hand tools and climbing gear. King County would own the facilities and could rent tower space to other public and private organizations. It is policy of the Forest Service that tenants on the communications sites should co-locate with PSERN where possible, to minimize resource impacts and the encumbrance on NFS land. It is anticipated that tenants may co-locate at the new sites, though is not part of the decision framework for this proposal.

2.3 Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures and Project Design Features Table 1 lists applicable management requirements, mitigation measures or project design features that would be implemented as part of the proposed action.

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Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features No. Task Objective Reference Botany B1 If any previously undiscovered threatened and endangered Prevent impact to • Standards and Guidelines species (TES) or other rare or uncommon vascular plants, TES or Survey and (S&G) #1 &5 p4-127, bryophytes, lichens, or fungi are discovered, before or Manage plants Forest Service 1990 during project implementation, halt work until a USFS • Survey and Manage, Forest botanist is consulted and necessary mitigation measures are Service and BLM 1994a enacted.1/ B2 Treat known infestations before ground disturbance begins. Eradicate known • Best Management Practices, To be effective a lag time of 2 weeks is needed between infestations Forest Service 1999 the time of treatment and the time of ground disturbance. • MBSNF LRMP S&G #15 Coordinate with a USFS botanist when planning &16, Forest Service 2005 treatments. B3 Actions conducted or authorized by written permit by the Prevent • MBSNF LRMP S&G #2, Forest Service that will operate outside the limits of the introduction of Forest Service 2005 road prism (including public works and service contracts), weeds require the cleaning of all heavy equipment (bulldozers, skidders, graders, backhoes, dump trucks, etc.) prior to entering National Forest System Lands. Equipment should be free of all dirt, mud, and plant parts. B4 Suppliers must provide documentation indicating that the Prevent • MBSNF LRMP S&G #3 following products have been examined by a qualified introduction of and 7, Forest Service 2005 inspector and deemed free of State listed noxious weeds: weeds • Best Management Practices, • Straw or other Mulch2/ Forest Service 1999 • Gravel, Rock, or other fill • Seeds (according to AOSA standards) B5 If weeds are present in the project area, all equipment and Prevent weed • Best Management Practices, gear must be cleaned before leaving the project area to spread Forest Service 1999 avoid spreading the infestation further. B6 If weeds are present in the project area, work from Prevent weed • Best Management Practices, relatively weed-free areas into the infested area rather than spread Forest Service 1999 vice versa. B7 Revegetate all areas of bare soil exposed by project Prevent erosion; • MBSNF LRMP S&G #13, activities if there is a risk of noxious weed invasion. Native prevent Forest Service 2005 plant materials are the first choice in revegetation where introduction and • Best Management Practices, timely natural regeneration of the native plant community spread of weeds; Forest Service 1999 is not likely to occur. If native plant materials are not maintain habitat • Northwest Forest Plan available, use the appropriate MBSNF non-native seedmix. (NWFP) ACS S&G #8 & 9, Forest Service and BLM 1994a B8 Ensure that the large roundleaf orchid would persist at the Determine extent of • NWFP Survey and Manage, Highway 2 West site by either relocating the proposed the large roundleaf Forest Service and BLM tower site and/or conducting further field surveys that orchid population 1994a document the current extent of the population of this and ensure the species and ensuring persistence of this population after population would Project implementation. persist B9 Survey the Highway 2 West site prior to implementation Ensure special • Standards and Guidelines and make adjustments to the proposed action to ensure that status plants would (S&G) #1 &5 p4-127, special status species, if present within the area of potential persist Forest Service 1990 effects, would persist after Project implementation. • Survey and Manage, Forest Service and BLM 1994a 1/ Final facility and access layouts to be reviewed and, where necessary, additional surveys may be needed prior to implementation. Consult USFS botanist. 2/ Weed free straw for erosion control must be certified by WA State via the WWHAM program http://agr.wa.gov/PlantsInsects/WWHAM/WWHAM.aspx

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Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features (continued) No. Task Objective Reference Wildlife WL1 Marbled Murrelet. At the Scenic and Deception Creek Minimize MBSNF S&G, p. 127 sites, activities generating noise above ambient levels, disturbance and and occurring between April 1 and September 23, shall chance of only occur between 2 hours after sunrise and 2 hours aborted feeding before sunset to minimize disturbance during brooding events by adult and feeding of young. murrelets WL2 Northern Spotted Owl. No tree felling shall occur from Avoid harm to MBSNF S&G, p. 127 March 1 through July 15 at the proposed Scenic Tower adult spotted location to ensure no direct harm occurs to potentially owls during peak nesting spotted owls. Although the proposed site was hi- nesting period graded ca 1925 to establish a recreation/campground and brooding of facility and subsequently abandoned in 1955, potential young owlets nest trees may remain at this location. WL3 Carnivores, Murrelets. All personnel present on the tower Minimize MBSNF S&G, p. 4-112 construction site and subsequent long-term operational conflicts with site visits shall ensure that food stuffs or any other edible terrestrial attractants are secured in bear-resistant containers. carnivores and Discarded food may also attract predatory birds (Corvids) avian predators of murrelet nests. of murrelet nests WL4 Avian Species. Apply tower design and the Lighting Minimize MBSNF S&G, p. 4-127 Advisory when applicable. Towers requiring lighting potential bird Recommended Best Practices for shall follow FAA Obstruction Marking and Lighting collisions with Communication Tower; U.S. Advisory Circular AC 70/7460-1L towers with Fish and Wildlife Service using flashing rather than non- flashing lights WL5 Retain the existing downed wood at all communication Retain large MBSNF S&G, p. 4-124 site locations. For those communication sites within LSR down wood for (Deception Creek and Scenic), leave felled trees that are habitat diversity above 20 inches diameter. At Cowboy Mountain, retain large wood and anchor it down. WL6 During construction and operations phase all pipes should Avoid mortality MBSNF S&G, p. 4-127 be capped or stored in manner that birds and small to small mammals do not become entrapped. All other types of mammals and structures capable of wildlife entrapment should be birds properly capped or screened. Soils, Hydrology and Water Quality SW1 Comply with best management practices (BMPs) Control nonpoint Forest Service 2012 guidance presented in the Forest Service National BMP source pollution Program Technical Guide Volume 1 (Forest Service 2012). SW2 Minimize erosion and delivery of sediment laden water to Prevent impacts ACS, (1990 Forest Plan, p. 4- streams and wetlands. Reduce sedimentation by use of to soil, watershed 126), COE (2011), WDFW BMPs and erosion control methods such as silt or filter and fish (2005), NMFS (2007), FWS fabric, silt or filter fencing, straw bales, and cover. resources (2007) SW3 Disturbed soils and exposed ground will be seeded with Protect stream COE (2011) the appropriate native species mix or general seed mix as channel from approved by the Forest Service and covered with water quantity woodstraw, certified weed free straw, or mulch prior to the and quality onset of the wet season. impacts

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Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features (continued) No. Task Objective Reference SW4 Waste materials associated with the project such as Prevent and WDFW (2005), COE (2011), excavated soils shall be disposed of outside of the riparian minimize NMFS (2007), FWS (2007), reserve and stabilized as approved by FS representative potential effects Forest Plan, Soil Resources, and trash removed from site to an appropriate disposal on water quality S&Gs nos. 3 and 5; Water area. Resources and Riparian Areas, S&Gs nos. 2, 3, and 5. SW5 If wet weather conditions occur during construction Minimize risk of Forest Plan, Soil Resources, operations that could generate an increase in the potential erosion and S&Gs nos. 1 and 2; Water for rutting or transportation of sediment to a water body, sedimentation Resources and Riparian Areas, operations shall cease until the weather and site conditions during S&Gs nos. 2 and 3. improve. construction SW6 Topsoil that is removed from a site during project Ensure success Forest Plan, Soil Resources, implementation, and intended to be placed back onto the of rehabilitation S&Gs nos. 3 and 5. disturbed site, will be carefully stored using approved erosion and sediment control methods. Soil will be covered and protected from erosion if it needs to be stored during inclement weather. SW7 Thoroughly clean heavy equipment (tracks, wheels, frame, Minimize weed FP-03, ACS, (1990 Forest Plan, undercarriage, bucket etc.) and service vehicles offsite seed spread and p. 4-126), COE (2011). prior to commencement of work. Equipment may be potential effects inspected by FS prior to commencement of work on of invasive plant National Forest System Lands to ensure machinery is species clean and free of dirt, debris, and noxious weed seed. SW8 Establish a hazardous spill plan (Spill Prevention, Control Prevent Forest Plan, Water Resources and Countermeasures [SPCC] Plan) for each facility with contamination of and Riparian Areas, S&Gs nos. a diesel tank/generator system and maintain a spill soil and water 2, 3, and 6. remediation kit onsite prior to use of the road system and resources for any temporary fuel stored or transported on NFS lands. Spill prevention kits shall be available on-site during use of heavy machinery and commensurate with the type of equipment present. SW9 Vehicle and machinery maintenance, fueling, and fuel Prevent and FP-03, ACS, (1990 Forest Plan, storage shall occur outside of riparian reserves or at a minimize p. 4-126) , COE (2011). location approved by Forest Service representative. potential effects on water quality SW10 Generators and water pumps shall be maintained in or on a Prevent and ACS, (1990 Forest Plan, p. 4- fuel containment system such as an SPCC containment minimize 126), COE (2011) unit with berms or sorbent pad with a minimum capacity potential effects of 150% of the fuel volume present. on water quality Recreation R1 NFS Roads that are open to public access shall be kept Public safety and 1990 Forest Plan p. 4-140. open with a 1-hour maximum delay Monday through minimize effects Friday noon, and open at all times on weekends and on recreationists Federal holidays. and other forest Due to heavy recreation use near each site, restrict work to users weekdays. If possible conduct work during lower use shoulder seasons.

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Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features (continued) No. Task Objective Reference R2 Coordinate design and construction of staging area at Public safety and 1990 Forest Plan p. 4-88. Highway 2 West (NFS road 6066 near Jennifer Dunn minimize effects Trailhead), and sites within the Stevens Pass Mountain on recreationists Resort (SPMR) (Cowboy Mountain, Stevens Pass) with FS personnel. For these sites conduct a field plan-in-hand review with FS and SPMR personnel (if applicable), prior to contract advertisement, and make any necessary changes prior to advertisement. R3 District visitor information specialist shall be notified at Safety of Forest 1990 Forest Plan p. 4-84. least two weeks in advance of any potential delays so that users this information can be posted to the Forest website. R4 Signage informing visitors of potential delays or closure Safety and 1990 Forest Plan p. 4-84. shall also be posted. minimize effects on Forest users Cultural Resources CR1 If a previously unidentified cultural resource is discovered Protect historic Chapter 4-98,99 during project implementation, the activity shall be properties stopped in the area of the find and a reasonable effort to secure and protect the resource be made. The Heritage Specialist shall be notified and the Forest would fulfill its responsibilities in accordance with the Programmatic Agreement and other applicable regulations. CR2 If human remains are discovered, all work must stop in the Comply with Chapter 4-98,99 area of the discovery and NAGPRA protocols followed. NAGPRA Scenery SC1 Utilize the Cascadian Architectural design style for all Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-140 new buildings by using a prefab concrete building stained impact a dark brown with Hardieplank (or equivalent) lap siding and a dark charcoal gabled metal roof to blend in. SC2 Fitting the landscape with a minimum of landform and Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177 vegetation modification. impact SC3 Preserving trees and other vegetation close to the Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177 communication sites for additional screening. impact SC4 Painting tower structures, antennas, and dishes to match Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 trees and rocks in the area and blend in with the trees impact along the ridgeline or mountainous backdrops. Paint a dark slate grey for towers in the skyline or dark forest evergreen for towers with a mountain backdrop as recommended for each site. Use non-reflective galvanized nuts, bolts, washers, for attachments, or paint to match new facilities. Use earth toned colored cables or match new facilities as much as feasible. Use the following colors for the towers: • Dark Forest Evergreen – Stevens Pass, Wellington, Deception Creek, Highway 2 West • Dark Slate Grey – Cowboy Mountain, Scenic (with FAA day/night lighting), I-90 Repeater SC5 Minimizing the tower structures height as much as Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177; feasible, especially to avoid circumstances where FAA impact lighting is required.

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Table 1. Applicable Management Requirements, Mitigation Measures or Project Design Features (continued) No. Task Objective Reference SC6 The containment structures to be built around the above Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-140 ground diesel fuel tanks should utilize Cascadian impact Architectural style by using dark brown lap siding and a dark charcoal gabled metal roof to match proposed equipment building. SC8 The chain link fencing would be coated with a dark brown Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 to reduce reflective glare. impact SC9 Minimizing clearing limits around access roads. Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177 impact SC10 Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 Complete rehabilitation of new access roads to be closed. impact SC11 Utilizing existing disturbed areas and access roads for new Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177 communication site structures where feasible. impact SC12 Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-137; 4-169-177 Utilizing existing disturbed areas for staging materials. impact SC13 Disposing of construction debris, including construction Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 stakes and ribbons at appropriate facilities off of NFS impact managed lands. SC14 Gravel and stock pile areas to be rehabilitated and cleaned Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 up after use, and hauling extra material off site. impact SC15 Ice bridges3/ placed over any of the shelters should be also Minimize visual Forest Plan 4-169-177 be coated in a flat dark charcoal grey to match the roof; impact not a galvanized finish. 3/ Ice bridges provide over-snow access between the equipment shelter and the tower within the proposed communication site.

2.4 Other Reasonably Foreseeable Actions Table 2 identifies other projects in and around the seven proposed communication tower sites that may occur or be under construction at the same time that the PSERN Phase 2 project would be under construction. Table 2. Other Reasonably Foreseeable Actions Project Name Location Actions Timing Future Projects Stevens Pass Ski Stevens Pass ski Additional lift development, additional base area 2018 and beyond Area Master area facilities, new mountain bike trails, new lodge building Development Plan at Cowboy Mountain, new avalanche training center. Phase 2 The proposed communications towers have been located to avoid all planned facilities. Present Projects Operation of the Winter skiing; summer biking, hiking, and disc golf. 2017 and beyond SPMR Hansen Timber Interstate 90 Trail management, scenery management, species habitat Decision Notice Sale corridor; one improvement, forest vegetation improvement, noxious approved Aug, helicopter harvest weed treatments, watershed improvements, road 2015. Timber sale unit is adjacent to I- maintenance. The tower construction will be timed to contract is 90 repeater location not interfere with helicopter logging the harvest unit. pending WSDOT South side of U.S. 2 Construct an earthen berm to prevent avalanche debris Construction Avalanche Control at Tunnel Creek from falling on the highway. No proposed towers are in expected in 2018 berm the vicinity.

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Table 2. Other Reasonably Foreseeable Actions (continued) Project Name Location Actions Timing Future Projects King County Maloney Ridge, Replace existing tower and shelter at Sobieski Mountain, Construction PSERN Phase 1 Sobieski Mountain, and construct a second tower and equipment shelter at the expected in 2018 communications Dodge Ridge existing Maloney Ridge and Dodge Ridge upgrades (Snoqualmie Ski communication sites. Area) King County Three sites along the Construct three new towers along the I-90 corridor. The Construction PSERN non-USFS I-90 corridor at towers range from approximately 195 feet tall at Bandera expected in 2018 sites Bandera, Tinkham, and Ollalie sites to about 250 feet tall at the Tinkham site. and Ollalie Road maintenance NFS Roads 6066, Routine periodic maintenance on Forest System, County, Maintenance is 6000-820, 6000-840; and Ski Area access roads (culvert and ditch cleaning, ongoing, 2017- and County Road brushing, blading, spot rock, pavement patching). New 2020 6099 (Old Cascade site construction may require additional road maintenance Hwy). to accommodate heavy equipment. Within project areas for U.S. 2 West, Deception Creek, Scenic, Wellington sites, Stevens Pass and Cowboy Mtn. Bonneville Power Various BPA- Capital project to refurbish various BPA-owned roads to Construction Administration managed roads on access the transmission line; repair drainage features to expected in 2018- (BPA) Chief- Skykomish Ranger reduce erosion and sedimentation. Overlap with tower 2020 Joseph Powerline District project is unlikely. Road Reconditioning Mountain Goat Olympic National Nine high elevation sites are proposed where mountain Initial action over Management Plan Forest, various goats could be released on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie 3 to 5 years (plan/DEIS) for locations on the National Forest. None of the release or staging areas beginning in 2018 Olympic National MBSNF and overlap with the PSERN Phase 2 project. then maintenance Park Okanagan- actions in 5 to 15 Wenatchee National years Forest Stevens Pass north Stevens Pass ski area, New parking area constructed on the north side of U.S. 2. Completed in parking area summit area, north A proposed communications tower and compound would 2016 side of U.S. 2 be located off lower Skyline Ridge Road, near the recently completed parking area. Stevens Pass Ski Stevens Pass ski area, Construct about 7 miles of mountain bike trails and Completed 2011- Area Master south side of U.S. 2 replace the existing water treatment facility at the Stevens 2015 Development Plan Pass Ski Area. Proposed Cowboy Mountain Phase 1 Project communications site would not interfere with area trails. WSDOT Howitzer Wellington trailhead A small garage for avalanche control operations. The Constructed in Shelter parking lot proposed Wellington tower is not near the trailhead 2013-14 parking area. WSDOT U.S. 2 Adjacent to U.S. 2, The methods of slope stabilization used in this project Completed in Slope Stabilization west of Stevens Pass include: scaling, trim blasting, installation of rock bolts, 2016 summit, M.P. 62.6 to rock dowels, cable net, and shotcrete, installation of 64.1 horizontal drains with slotted PVC pipe and removal of hazard trees along the slope crest and existing rock slope face. The new slope section will typically be less than 20 feet in height and will increase the effective ditch catchment width by 5 to 15 feet. The added ditch width will allow fewer rocks to reach the road surface and increase snow storage capacity.

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3. Affected Environment and Effects of Implementation

This section summarizes the physical, biological, social and economic environments of the affected project area by resource area and the potential changes to those environments due to implementation of the alternatives.

3.1 Soils and Geology

3.1.1 Affected Environment All of the sites occur within the North in Washington state. The are generally characterized by exposure of plutonic and metamorphic rocks that are resistant to erosion and display evidence of uplift and glaciation (Haugerud and Tabor 2009). Surficial geology at and near the seven sites consist of igneous intrusive rocks (tonalite and granodirorite), metamorphic rocks, alpine glacial drift, quaternary alluvium (fluvial deposits), and volcanoclastic deposits or rocks (WDGER 2016a). No S81 soils occur at any of the sites. S8 soils have been identified as unstable, high risk soils that are prone to landslide or mass wasting occurrence. The nearest occurrence of these unstable soils to any site is about 870 feet east of the Highway 2 West site, in the drainage area of an unnamed tributary to the Tye River. Based on review of WDNR’S Landslide and Landform mapping, there are no known landslides within 1 mile of any site (WDGER 2016b).

3.1.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Under the No Action Alternative, none of the seven communication sites would be developed, precluding new soil disturbance from the construction of facilities and access driveways. Existing vegetation would be left in place, contributing organic material to the forest floor. There would be no change in landslide hazard, which is low at each site due to the lack of unstable soil.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Clearing and construction in vegetated areas can result in displacement, compaction, and erosion of soil; changes in organic matter content; and alteration of the natural sediment regime. Development of the communications sites and access driveways would result in approximately 1 acre of permanent soil disturbance (Table 3). For as long as these facilities are maintained, permanently affected soils would be removed from the productive land base. The conversion of about 1 acre of forest soil across to developed facilities at the seven sites is negligible when considering the spatial distribution of the sites and in comparison to the amount of productive soils on the Forest. Temporary impacts may occur outside of the permanent disturbance area as a result of clearing, grading and mechanical equipment operation and maneuvering, but these effects would be not be widespread and affected areas would be revegetated following construction. Potential temporary impacts include minor compaction or displacement of soils adjacent to the permanent facility and access route footprints

1 S-8 soils are identified in the Forest Plan (1990) as unsuitable forest land that is not managed for timber production to prevent irreversible soil damage. They are generally considered unavailable for road construction due to unstable soils.

21 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA resulting from construction equipment operation. Implementation of the mitigation measures and project design features identified in Section 2 would reduce temporary soil impacts that could occur during construction. While revegetation to existing conditions could take several years, effective ground cover for erosion control would be reestablished following construction. In the time between construction and when effective ground cover could be restored by revegetation, temporarily disturbed areas would be treated by applying erosion control measures such as mulch, fiber fabric, or other temporary ground cover. The acres of impact for each site is provided in the following table. Table 3. Estimated Disturbance Area Tower- Length Tower Site Site Access Height Elevation Area Route Driveway Site Name Infrastructure1/ (ft) (ft) (acres) 1/ (ft) (acres) Skykomish Ranger District – U.S. Highway 2 Corridor Cowboy Tower, building, underground power, Mountain diesel tank and generator for 190 5,286 0.07 500 0.17 (Steven’s Pass backup power. Mountain Resort) Stevens Pass Tower, building, underground power, (Steven’s Pass diesel tank and generator for 170 4,168 0.07 90 0.03 Mountain Resort) backup power. Tower, building, underground power, Wellington diesel tank and generator for primary 190 3,275 0.1 90 0.03 or backup power. Tower, building, underground power, Scenic diesel tank and generator for primary 245 2,214 0.10 160 0.06 or backup power. Tower, building, underground power, Deception Creek diesel tank and generator for primary 195 2,011 0.08 220 0.08 or backup power. Highway 2 West Tower 110 2,840 0.02 420 0.14 Subtotal for Skykomish Ranger District 0.4 1,480 0.5 Snoqualmie Ranger District - I-90 Corridor I-90 Tower and heli-landing pad 175 2,135 0.08 0 0 Subtotal for Snoqualmie Ranger District 0.08 0 0 Totals 0.5 1,480 0.5 1/ Infrastructure include towers, tower pad, fencing, outbuilding(s), parking, retaining walls, and gates where applicable. Underground power lines would occur along existing roads and within the footprint of proposed driveways.

Indirect effects to soil may result from increased soil erosion where runoff flows from impervious surfaces or is concentrated and not adequately controlled. Measures included in Table 1 are expected to adequately control runoff and erosion. Monitoring during construction and operation of the facilities would allow for early detection and control should problems develop. Based on past experience, professional knowledge, and scientific understanding of stipulated mitigation measures and design features listed in Table 1, it is assumed that any potential negative effects of the Proposed Action on soils outside of the facility footprints would be minimized to negligible levels or eliminated.

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Cumulative Effects Table 2 lists actions within the vicinity of the project area that were considered for cumulative effects to soils. Because effects to soils would be negligible, there would be no cumulative effect from the proposed action.

3.2 Botany, Vegetation, and Invasive Plants

3.2.1 Affected Environment All of the proposed project sites are located within proximity to existing roads, existing structures, or lands previously disturbed by development or timber harvest. Existing vegetation at the sites is generally composed of common early seral vegetation, and habitat conditions at the sites are of low to moderate probability for threatened and endangered species (TES) and other rare and uncommon plants to occur. Botanical resources within each of the proposed project sites are summarized by project site below. A complete list of all plant species observed at each of the survey sites is in the project record.

Highway 2 West The Highway 2 West site is located within an approximately 20-year-old second growth plantation (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). The plant association at the location is TSHE/VAME (Western Hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla] / Big Huckleberry [Vaccinium membranaceum]) and species present include common early seral vegetation associated with roadsides and commercially harvested plantations (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). Two known occurrences of large roundleaf orchid (Platanthera orbiculata var. orbiculata) are documented within the vicinity of the Highway 2 West site. One occurrence is a historic occurrence, last observed in 1982, and is documented approximately 100 feet northeast of the proposed Highway 2 West communication tower site. The other occurrence, observed in 2015, is located approximately 165 feet east of the Highway 2 West communication tower site. Neither occurrence was monitored during the 2016 field surveys.

Deception Creek The Deception Creek site is located approximately 200 feet south of the NFS Road 6000-820 and approximately 200 feet north of the BNSF Railroad tracks. Plant association at the site is TSHE/VAAL (Western Hemlock / Alaska Huckleberry [Vaccinium (alaskaense) ovalifolium]). The site is located in an approximately 80-year-old mixed conifer forest, which is in the mid stem exclusion stage of development where smaller sub-dominant trees are becoming suppressed and falling out of the stand (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). The stand is closed canopy and understory tree and herbaceous cover is limited. One target species, large roundleaf orchid (Platanthera orbiculata var. orbiculata) was located within this proposed site during surveys on August 24, 2016 (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). A total of 22 plants were counted and are located to the northwest of the proposed site. The site was accessed again on September 10, 2016, and an additional 78 plants were located to the southeast of the proposed tower site (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016).

Scenic The Scenic site is located near the existing BNSF work yard. An existing old spur road runs south from the work yard to a small opening where the site is located. The road is located adjacent to an approximately 200 year or older late-successional mixed conifer and deciduous forest. The tower site is located within an old decommissioned campground that has resulted in compacted ground and a relatively sparse understory. The plant association at the site is likely TSHE/POMU-TITR (Western Hemlock /

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Sword-Fern [Polystichum munitum]-Foamflower [Tiarella trifoliate]). Existing vegetation includes western hemlock, Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), Alaska huckleberry, salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) star-flowered solomon’s-seal (Maianthemum stellatum), and sword fern.

Wellington The Wellington site is located north of the existing County-owned access road to the Iron Goat trailhead. The site is located within a mature, approximately 80-95 year old, conifer forest. There has been previous over story timber removal at the site. The plant association at this small site is likely ABAM/VAAL, (Silver Fir [Abies amabalis] / Alaska Huckleberry) (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). Other common species include salmonberry, thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), vine maple (Acer circinatum), bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), and lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina).

Cowboy Mountain The proposed site is located approximately 500 feet southwest of the top of the Skyline chair lift at the Stevens Pass Ski Resort. An existing access road leads to the top of the lift and would be extended into the proposed site. A large pond exists approximately 60 to 100 feet down slope to the south of the proposed access road. A small wetland is located approximately 30 feet southeast of the construction footprint for the proposed access road and small drainage bordered by upland plants runs from this wetland to the northwest through the footprint of the proposed access road. Wetland plants were also observed in a small ditch to the southeast of the proposed access road to the south of the Skyline chairlift. The dominant vegetation type at the site is subalpine parkland with conifers and a shrub component. Plant association at the site is ABAM/VAME-VAAL, (Silver Fir / Big Huckleberry-Alaska huckleberry). In addition to silver fir, big huckleberry, and Alaska huckleberry, dominant plant species at the site include mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), fool’s-huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea), pink mountain-heath (Phyllodoce empetriformis), and partridgefoot (Lutkea pectinata). Species observed in the wetland and ditch areas include woodrush sedge (Carex luzulina), small-wing sedge (Carex microptera), black alpine sedge (Carex nigricans), mountain sedge (Carex scopulorum), bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa), Merten’s rush (Juncus mertensianus), and slender cinquefoil (Potentilla gracilis).

Stevens Pass The proposed Stevens Pass site is located approximately 100 feet south of an existing communications tower facility on the Stevens Pass Ski Resort Area. An existing old access road leads from the Frontier facility to the proposed construction site. The area to the south was recently cleared for a new parking area for the resort (completed in 2016). This high elevation site occurs in an area that is heavily used by resort employees. The site is surrounded by a previously managed conifer forest that is approximately 80 years or older. The plant association at the site is ABAM/VAME (Western Hemlock / Big Huckleberry). Additionally, a small seasonally wet area is found on the existing road to the east of the proposed site where sedge (Carex spp.) and rush (Juncus spp.) species occur (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016).

Interstate 90 The proposed Interstate 90 site is located on a bench near the top of a mid-elevation ridge along the Interstate 90 corridor in an approximately 50-year-old mixed conifer stand adjacent to a 22-year-old plantation (K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). Vegetation at the site is limited and the plant association is THSE/VAAL (Western Hemlock / Alaska Huckleberry).

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Threatened and Endangered Species No federally listed threatened, endangered, or proposed species are known to occur on the MBSNF.

Rare Species There are 18 target plant species with known occurrences within 1 mile of the project area. One target plant species, large roundleaf orchid, was located within the Deception Creek site during surveys in August and September 2016. This species was located at the periphery of the proposed Deception Creek site. Twenty-two individual plants were located to the northwest of the proposed site (K.H.Hewitt Forest Resources 2016). An additional 78 plants were located approximately 120 feet to the southeast of the site. Additionally, two known occurrences of large roundleaf orchid are located approximately 100 and 165 feet from the Highway 2 West site. These occurrences, however, were not monitored during surveys of the site conducted in August 2016. One known occurrence of variegated sedge (Carex stylosa) is documented as overlapping with the construction footprint of the Cowboy Mountain site. This occurrence overlaps the proposed extension of the Skyline chairlift road. However, no individuals of variegated sedge were observed within the construction footprint or an approximate 150-foot buffer (approximately 75 feet on either side of the centerline for the proposed access road and approximately 75 feet in all directions from the proposed tower site around the construction footprint) during surveys of the Cowboy Mountain site. It is important to note that the polygon associated with this occurrence of variegated sedge is a large polygon (39 acres), and the polygon was “aerial estimated” indicating that that the locational certainty of the this occurrence “is greater than 20 feet in any direction and the extent of the polygon could not be delimited based on identifiable boundaries on a map” (Forest Service 2014). Thus, individuals of variegated sedge were observed within the 39 acre polygon associated; however, the actual locations of individuals within this polygon are unknown.

Invasive Plants Seven Washington State listed noxious weeds were observed in the proposed project areas. The observed weeds include bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare), common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), evergreen blackberry (Rubus laciniatus), Himalayan blackberry (Rubus armeniacus), oxeye daisy (Leucathemum vulgare), and St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum). All six of these species are Class C non-designated noxious weeds for which control is recommended but not required in the state or in King County. Four of these species, bull thistle, common tansy, evergreen blackberry, and Himalayan blackberry, are considered priority invasive species on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest.

3.2.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Special Status Plants No actions would occur under Alternative 1. Therefore, no impacts to special status plants are expected under Alternative 1. Additionally, no impacts are expected to occur from noxious weeds and target invasive plants beyond those that are presently occurring. Most existing infestations in the project sites are unmanaged.

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Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Special Status Plants One target plant species, large roundleaf orchid, was observed within the Deception Creek site during surveys in August and September 2016, as described in the affected environment. Construction could potentially directly impact this population by crushing or burial of individual plants as the proposed access route to the site is located near where individuals of large roundleaf orchid were observed. Indirect impacts to large roundleaf orchid at this site could also occur from construction or operation of communication facilities at the Deception Creek site due to solar exposure alteration, microclimate alteration, and/or introduction of invasive species. Removal of trees for construction of the communication tower and access road would result in increased solar exposure which could change the microclimate of the area. This could indirectly impact individuals of large roundleaf orchid located near the proposed tower site. Additionally, introduction and/or spread of invasive species during construction could indirectly impact individuals of large roundleaf orchid. However, about 80 percent of the individuals observed would not be affected and the species would persist at the site. Implementation of the best management practices and mitigation measures listed in Table 1 would reduce the risk of indirect impacts from introduction and/or spread of invasive species to an acceptable level. Two known occurrences of large roundleaf orchid, one historic and one recent, are located approximately 100 and 165 feet from the Highway 2 West site, respectively; however, neither location was monitored during surveys conducted in August 2016. Indirect impacts to these occurrences may occur with the installation of the Highway 2 West communication tower resulting in a loss of viability of the plants; however, the full extent of the population is not known. Monitoring of the two occurrences and surveying for the extent of the population would occur prior to implementation to ensure persistence of the population. In addition, the proposed Highway 2 West site was not surveyed for R6 Sensitive botanical species nor Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) Survey and Manage species. Based on historic documentation of special status species adjacent to the proposed tower site, it was determined that suitable habitat is present and botanical field surveys are required. Botanical surveys would occur prior to implementation of any ground disturbing activity. If a Sensitive Species is found at the time, mitigations would be implemented to avoid or minimize impacts to the species. Although individuals of variegated sedge were not observed within the survey area for the Cowboy Mountain site, a known occurrence overlaps with the construction footprint of the proposed access road for this site and occurs within proximity of the proposed tower site. Because no individuals of variegated sedge were observed within the survey area for the Cowboy Mountain site, no direct impacts to this species are anticipated. Indirect impacts; however, could occur to individuals of variegated sedge if they are located within 150 feet of the construction footprint. Indirect impacts could include alteration of hydrology, alteration of solar exposure or microclimate, and/or introduction of invasive species. Variegated sedge is a wetland species, and no impacts to wetlands are anticipated due to construction within the Cowboy Mountain site. Additionally, no alteration of hydrology of wetlands near the construction footprint are anticipated. Removal of trees required during construction of the Cowboy Mountain site would be restricted primarily to the tower site. Removal of trees in this area is unlikely to change the microclimate or solar exposure of suitable wetland habitat for variegated sedge, as there is no suitable wetland habitat adjacent to the proposed tower location. Although, introduction or spread of invasive species during construction could indirectly impact individuals of variegated sedge within the vicinity of the construction footprint, implementation of the best management practices and mitigation

26 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA measures listed in Table 1 would minimize the risk of indirect impacts of introduction or spread of invasive species. Biological Evaluation Determination With the implementation of mitigation measures in Table 1, impacts to large roundleaf orchid are expected to be minor and are not likely to contribute to this species becoming threatened or endangered or alter the persistence or viability of this species across the MBSNF. Indirect impacts to individuals of variegated sedge would likely be minor and would not likely contribute to this species becoming threatened or endangered or alter the persistence or viability of this species across the MBSNF.

Cumulative Effects Within the proposed project sites, activities causing disturbance to vegetation in the past, present and future include timber stand harvest and management, and road construction, re-construction, and maintenance, BNSF railroad activities, ski resort maintenance and recreational activities, as well, as recreational activities. The accumulation of direct and indirect impacts from these activities has resulted in vegetation alteration or modification. Disturbance can be a temporary or long-term change in environmental conditions that may result in changes in vegetation composition. Some plant species favor disturbances and early-successional stages, while other plant species favor late-successional stages. Habitat alteration can occur when vegetation is impacted beyond immediate or short-term recovery. Loss of habitat can occur when vegetation is unable to recover over time. Vegetation modification can decrease the available suitable habitat for rare plants, while increasing the suitable habitat for invasive plants. An altered habitat can result from, but is not limited to, the accumulation of changes in solar exposure, hydrologic patterns, soil microbial and fungal activities, air quality, water quality, microclimate, ground cover, competition, organic litter, mineral soil compaction, and/or sediment movement. Suitable habitat has not been quantitatively or even qualitatively described for many rare or many invasive plants. Suitable habitat, for this analysis, is the environmental gradient and species assemblage in which a species of concern is typically found. Table 2 lists recent, present, and future actions within the vicinity of the project area that may have effects that spatially and temporally overlap with the projected effects of the project. Implementation of the present and future projects listed in Table 2 have the potential to impact Survey and Manage species, or other rare plants, including variegated sedge or large roundleaf orchid. Several known occurrences of variegated sedge occur within the Stevens Pass Ski Area and individuals of this species may have been impacted in the past and may be impacted in the future by activities including construction and maintenance of the ski lifts, ski runs, and bike park trails, maintenance of the disc golf course, ski lifts, ski area roads, and bike trails, and use of the bike trails and disc golf courses by recreationalists. However, the contribution to cumulative effects to variegated sedge from the proposed project is would be relatively minor because no direct impacts to variegated sedge are anticipated and any indirect impacts to variegated sedge from construction and operation of the Cowboy Mountain site are likely to be minor. Additionally, implementation of best management practices and mitigation measures listed in Table 1 would minimize introduction and/or spread of invasive species.

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None of the other projects identified in Table 2 would have overlapping effects to large roundleaf orchid at the Deception Creek or Highway 2 West sites, the only project sites where it occurs, so there would be no cumulative effect.

3.3 Water Resources

3.3.1 Affected Environment The six northern sites are located within the Tye River watershed (HUC 1711000901) which originates in the upper elevations of the Cascade Range near Stevens Pass and flows into the Skykomish River. The Skykomish River is a primary tributary of the in the Puget Sound Basin. The Tye River watershed is designated as a Tier 1 Key Watershed under the Northwest Forest Plan. The I-90 Repeater site would be located within the South Fork (S.F.) Snoqualmie River watershed (HUC 1711001003). The Snoqualmie River system drains 700 square miles before meeting the Skykomish River to create the Snohomish River (WDOE 2008).

Surface Water Quality Water quality in the Tye River watershed, where six of the proposed sites would be located, is largely considered to be in good condition with a few limiting conditions. Historic logging and road building in the area are the historic sediment sources while roads are the contemporary sediment source. Temperature is a concern in the middle reaches of the mainstem Tye River (approximately two river miles between Alpine and ), where riparian vegetation has been removed by timber harvest, powerline corridor maintenance, and highway construction (Forest Service 2004). Beneficial uses of water for the Tye River and S.F. Snoqualmie river watersheds are designated by Washington State (WAC 173-201A-602). The designated beneficial uses of water for all waterbodies in the vicinity of the sites include: Char Spawning/Rearing (Tye River watershed), Core Summer Habitat (S.F. Snoqualmie watershed), Extraordinary Primary Contact (Recreation), water supply (domestic, industrial, agricultural, and stock watering), and other uses (wildlife habitat, harvesting, commerce/navigation, boating, and aesthetics). Water quality standards for the previously mentioned beneficial uses are provided in WAC 173-201A-200 through 260. Where water quality parameters have not been met, waterbodies are listed as 303d water quality impaired. There are no known impaired waterbodies within 20 air miles further downstream of the northern sites in the Tye River watershed. The nearest downstream Category 5 (303d listed) waterbody segment is located near the town of Goldbar, where fish tissue sampling has indicated elevated polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) concentration in exceedance of regulator limits. Downstream of the I-90 Repeater in the S.F. Snoqualmie River watershed, there are no known impaired waterbodies within 5 air miles. However, there are two Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) in place; one for temperature and one multiple impairments (Ammonia-N, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and fecal coliform). A TMDL establishes the maximum amount of a pollutant allowed in a waterbody and serves as the starting point or planning tool for restoring water quality. Water temperature is important to fish and other aquatic life with colder water capable of holding more oxygen. Ammonia is one measure of nitrogen, a nutrient that when in excess can increase plant and algae grow and adversely affect aquatic organisms and recreation. Fecal coliform is an indicator that human or animal waste is entering the water. Finally, BOD is the amount of oxygen required by oxygen dependent (aerobic) microorganisms to break down organic matter in water. High BOD levels indicate that a lot of oxygen is being consumed by the

28 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA microorganisms, which can lower dissolved oxygen levels that are important to fish and other aquatic species (WDOE 2017). Table 4 provides the designated uses for watersheds potentially affected by proposed communication sites along with known impairments or TMDL listings.

Riparian Reserves and Key Watersheds The six northern sites are all located within the Tye River Tier 1 Key Watershed. Tier 1 Key Watersheds contribute directly to the conservation of at-risk anadromous salmonids, bull trout and resident fish species (Forest Service and BLM 1994, p. B-18). Within the Tye River watershed (Tier 1 Key Watershed), there are over 18,000 acres of Riparian Reserves. The Tye River Watershed Analysis (Forest Service 1994) describes the current conditions of the river, compares historic and current conditions, describes how these ecosystems have functioned and are currently functioning, and describes how they are likely to function in the future. Table 4. Designated Uses and Known Impairments or TMDL Listings Category 5 Watershed Subwatershed (303d) Proposed Site (HUC 5) (HUC 6) Designated Uses Waters TMDL Highway 2 Lower Tye River West (171100090104) Deception Deception Creek Char Creek (171100090104) Spawning/Rearing; None within Tye River Scenic Extraordinary 20 miles No. (1711000901) Wellington Primary Contact; downstream Upper Tye River Cowboy Domestic Water Use (171100090102) Mountain Stevens Pass Yes. Snoqualmie River Core Summer Watershed S.F Snoqualmie Lower S.F. Habitat; None within 5 Temperature Interstate 90 River Snoqualmie Extraordinary miles TMDL; (1711001003) (171100100302) Primary Contact; downstream Snoqualmie Domestic Water Use River Watershed Multiparameter TMDL.

Wetlands At the Cowboy Mountain site, a pond exists approximately 60 to 100 feet down slope of the proposed access road. A small wetland is located approximately 30 feet southeast of the construction footprint for the proposed access road and small drainage bordered by upland plants runs from this wetland to the northwest through the footprint of the proposed access road. Wetland plants were also observed in a small ditch to the southeast of the proposed access road to the south of the Skyline chairlift.

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3.3.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Under the No Action Alternative, none of the seven communication sites would be developed, precluding new vegetation clearing and soil disturbance from the construction of facilities and access driveways. Absent of site clearing, grading, installation of impervious surfaces, or fuel storage/use, there would be no effect on water quality, riparian reserves, key watersheds, or wetlands.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Overall, the scope and scale of the proposed project would not compact enough ground area to increase overland flow due to decreased infiltration rates. While there may be temporary erosion and sedimentation locally, within the immediate area of the construction footprint for each facility, sediment delivery to streams would be prevented through project design and best management practices (BMPs). Sediment is expected to be dispersed in the surrounding forest. Additionally, the total area that would be converted to impervious surface is about 0.4 acre within the Tye River watershed and less than 0.1 acre within the S.F. Snoqualmie River watershed (Table 3). This project would have only negligible effect on surface and sub-surface water movement. Water Quality The use, maintenance, and refueling of heavy and light equipment has the potential to impact water quality should fuels, oils, or other chemicals be spilled or mishandled. Additionally, fuels and lubricants to operate these equipment would be stored onsite, which would increase the risk of chemical spills. Measures included in Table 1 would reduce the risk of spills and provide for fast cleanup should a spill occur. This includes the requirement that a Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) plan be a part of each leased site that has diesel systems, which includes fueling procedures (spill pads, etc.) for the tanks. During operations, five of the sites would include onsite fuel storage ranging from 2,000 to 12,000 gallons for primary or secondary power and, as such, there is the potential of a fuel spill that could release chemical contaminants into the surrounding soils and shallow groundwater and potentially reach surface water if undetected and of sufficient quantity. All fuel tanks and lines would be twin-walled (secondary containment) with electronic leak detection, and employ remote monitoring and notification. Additionally, the tanks would be housed in enclosures to limit visibility and potential vandalism. No operational fuel storage would be required at the Highway 2 West or I-90 repeater sites. Stormwater runoff from cleared areas and impervious surfaces could increase turbidity in streams and waterbodies, thereby degrading the water quality, if not controlled. To limit this, the sites would be developed to minimize erosion and disperse runoff to the forest floor which slows water velocity and captures, or filters, sediments, thus preventing sediment-laden water from entering waterbodies. Overall, the potential impacts to water quality would be limited through the implementation of measures identified in Table 1, including complying with the Forest Service National BMP Program Technical Guide Volume 1 (Forest Service 2012), which is intended to control nonpoint source pollution from activities. As such, and in consideration of the small size of each site and distances from surface waters, adverse effects to surface waters from stormwater runoff are not expected to occur.

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Effects to specific water quality impairments associated with the affected watersheds are discussed below. Temperature – Removal of vegetation within and adjacent to riparian areas can decrease stream shade and increase solar heating. Only the I-90 Repeater would be developed within a watershed with a Temperature TMDL; however, there are no surface waters near the site and access would be by helicopter (no road or trail). Because there will be no clearing near waterbodies at the I-90 Repeater, there will be no effect to the Snoqualmie River, a TMDL-listed waterbody. The Deception Creek Site is located about 300 feet from Deception Creek, a Class II stream. However, Deception Creek is located on the north-facing valley wall that receives less sun than open areas or south-facing slopes. Additionally, the facility would be located greater than 350 feet (slope distance) from the stream and outside of the inner gorge, though clearing for the access road would occur within about 290 feet at the closest point. Because of the slope aspect, small clearing footprint, and distance from Deception Creek, project clearing would have no bearing on surface water temperature in Deception Creek or downstream in the Tye River. None of the other sites are located within riparian areas or adjacent to surface waters, so it is presumed that there will be no water temperature effects. PCBs – PCBs are discussed here only because it is the nearest downstream 303d listed waterbody impairment in the Tye River watershed. PCBs were banned in the U.S. and began phasing out in 1979. This project will have no effect on PCBs contamination. Ammonia-N and BOD – Ammonia and BOD are primarily affected by municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges or other significant nutrient sources. The project will have no effect on excess stream nutrients or BOD. Fecal coliform – Fecal coliform levels are affected by human or animal waste entering waterways. The project will have no effect on fecal coliform contamination. Based on the water quality parameter-specific information presented above, temperature and other water quality related effects are not anticipated to have any effect on downstream TMDL-listed water bodies. Riparian Reserves and Key Watersheds Riparian Reserves provide an area along all streams, wetlands, ponds, lakes, and unstable areas where riparian-dependent resources receive primary emphasis. One site is proposed in mapped Riparian Reserves, near Deception Creek. Additionally, the Cowboy Mountain site would be located near a small, unnamed pond. The Deception Creek Site is located about 350 feet (slope distance) from Deception Creek, a Class II stream. However, Deception Creek is located on the north-facing valley wall that receives less sun than open areas or south-facing slopes. Additionally, the facility would be located greater than 350 feet (slope distance) from the stream and outside of the inner gorge, though clearing for the access road would occur within about 290 feet of the creek at the closest point. Because of the slope aspect, small clearing footprint, and distance from Deception Creek, project clearing would have no bearing on riparian conditions or surface water temperature in Deception Creek or downstream in the Tye River. Because of the limited size of the clearing within the watershed, development of this site would not retard or prevent attainment of Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives. At the Cowboy Mountain site, a pond exists approximately 60 to 100 feet down slope of the proposed access road. About 0.3 acre of the facility and driveway footprint, mostly attributable to the driveway, would occur within a 150-foot Riparian Reserve applied to the pond. Most of this area is open forest with

31 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA few trees. Trees that would be cleared for the communication site are about 150 feet from the pond. Measures in Table 1 would limit effects within this reserve and coarse wood from the felled trees would be left on site to benefit riparian habitat. Because of the limited size of the clearing within the watershed, development of this site would not retard or prevent attainment of Aquatic Conservation Strategy objectives. None of the other sites would be located within riparian areas or adjacent to surface waters, so it is presumed that there will be no water temperature effects. While project activities include construction of access driveways or trails totaling approximately 0.3 mile in the Tier 1 Tye River watershed, there have been recent decommissioning of system roads in the watershed. These non-system driveways would not add to the effects roads have in the watershed, nor inhibit the watershed’s contribution to at-risk anadromous salmonids and bull trout conservation (for which it was selected as Tier 1). Wetlands None of the tower sites would directly affect wetlands. The Cowboy Mountain access route would be developed within 100 feet of a perennial pond and within about 30 feet of a small wetland adjacent to the pond. Neither of these wetlands would be directly affected; however the Cowboy Mountain access route would cross a small drainage bordered by upland plants that runs from the wetland. The access route would be designed to not impede flows in the drainage in order to preserve existing hydrologic functions. The discussion of water quality effects for surface waters above (specifically fuel spills and stormwater runoff) apply to these wetland surface waters, as well. For the same reasons, effects to water quality (including sedimentation) are not expected in wetlands.

Cumulative Effects Table 2 lists actions within the vicinity of the project area which may have effects that spatially and temporally overlap with the projected effects of the project. Based on past experience, professional knowledge, and scientific understanding of stipulated mitigation measures and design features listed in Table 1, it is assumed that any potential negative effects of the Proposed Action on water resources would be minimized or eliminated. As a result, no notable effects would occur as a result of the proposed action and it would have no cumulative effect.

3.4 Fish

3.4.1 Affected Environment Actions associated with the project, would occur in the Tye River and S.F. Snoqualmie River drainages. The Tye River is the upstream extension of the S.F. Skykomish River from its confluence with the . In the Tye River drainage, the six communication sites and associated access roads would be upslope of the Tye River from about 2 miles up from its start, to its headwaters at Stevens Pass. In the S.F. Snoqualmie River, one site is proposed on NFS land just upslope of about river mile (RM) 16.5. The S.F. Skykomish and Tye Rivers provide habitat for three federally listed fish species, and several other fish species with special status. Table 5 displays the fish species of interest, special federal designations, and their general utilization of the project area. The S.F. Snoqualmie River provides habitat for resident fish. The Skykomish River, including its forks (and Tye River), is a Tier 1 Key Watershed selected for direct contributions to conservation of at-risk anadromous salmonids, bull trout and resident fish species. Sunset

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Falls is an 88-foot cascade and falls located on the S.F. Skykomish River at around RM 51.5. In 1958, the Washington Department of Fisheries (now Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife) began operating a fishway trap-and-haul facility at Sunset Falls. However, at RM 73.6, Alpine Falls is a natural migration barrier on the Tye River located downstream of five of the sites with no trap-and-haul or fishway. The S.F. Skykomish River watershed is currently known to provide habitat for Chinook, steelhead, bull trout, coho, pink, chum, coastal cutthroat, resident trout, and small numbers of stray sockeye. In the Snoqualmie River drainage, Snoqualmie Falls is a total barrier to anadromous fish at about RM 40. There is no trap-and-haul in place at the Snoqualmie Falls Hydroelectric Project. The S.F. confluences with the mainstem Snoqualmie River at RM 44.

Wild and Scenic Rivers Although none of the project sites are within designated WSR corridors, the MBSNF Forest Plan recommended the Tye River, S.F. Skykomish River, and Deception Creek for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System as recreational segments. The outstandingly remarkable values for this segment were identified as scenic, recreation, fisheries, wildlife, and historical/cultural (Forest Service 1990, Appendix E). The values contributing to the proposed classifications are to be protected until a final designation decision is made. The S.F. Snoqualmie River was found to be not suitable for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System and was not recommended for designation.

Fish Species and Special Habitats of Interest Proximity The Highway 2 West site is the only site in the Skykomish area that is downstream of Alpine Falls. The site, staging area and driveway are about 0.65 mile from documented and designated critical habitats in the Tye River via an unnamed tributary. Fish may use the lower-gradient reach near the confluence of this unnamed stream and the Tye River. The Deception Creek site and driveway would be about 250 feet from Deception Creek, on the opposite side of NFS Road 6000-820. Deception Creek provides habitat for resident trout upstream of Deception Falls, which is just downstream of the proposed communication site. The site is about 2 stream miles from documented and designated critical habitats for listed fish. The Scenic site is adjacent to the BNSF Railroad off NFS Road 6000-840. It is about 700 feet to the Tye River via an unnamed tributary to the north with unknown habitat or occupancy, and about 4 miles from habitats for listed fish. The Wellington site is situated between two headwater tributaries of the Tye River, with two unnamed channels draining the vicinity, about 650 feet drainage length from resident fish habitat in the Tye River, and about 7 miles from habitats for listed fish. The Cowboy Mountain site is at the top of a chair lift in the Stevens Pass Ski Resort. It is about 1.3 miles to the Tye River via unnamed tributaries typed as not providing fish habitat. The Stevens Pass site near an existing communications site at Stevens Pass Ski Resort is about 950 feet from the Tye River and about 9 miles from habitats for listed fish. The Interstate 90 site is upslope of the S.F. Snoqualmie River about 0.28 mile, about 20 miles upstream of habitats for listed fish. There are no streams draining the site.

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Table 5. Fish Species of Interest and Federal Designations Utilization Associated with Species (Population) Status1/ Project Area2/ Chinook (Skykomish; NMFS—Listed threatened (3/99); Mainstem Tye River to Alpine Falls, RM 73.6. Snoqualmie); Designated critical habitat (9/05); Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie Oncorhynchus Essential fish habitat Falls at RM 40.3. tshawytscha FS—MIS Critical habitat and EFH in mainstems below falls. Bull trout USFWS—Listed threatened Mainstem SF Skykomish; presumed Tye River to (Skykomish); (11/99); Revised designated Alpine Falls. Salvelinus confluentus critical habitat (10/10) Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie FS—MIS Falls at RM 40.3. Critical habitat in mainstem below falls. Steelhead NMFS—Listed Threatened (6/07; Mainstem S.F. Skykomish and Tye River to Alpine (Snohomish/Skykomis only anadromous); Designated Falls, RM 73.6. h Winter); critical habitat (2/16) Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie Oncorhynchus mykiss FS—MIS (anadromous and Falls at RM 40.3. resident rainbow) Critical habitat in mainstems and tribs where anadromous known or presumed. Coho NMFS—Candidate; Not Mainstem S.F. Skykomish and Tye River to Alpine (S.F. Skykomish; Warranted (7/10); Essential fish Falls, RM 73.6. Snoqualmie); habitat Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie Oncorhynchus kisutch FS–-MIS Falls at RM 40.3. Same for EFH. Pink NMFS—Not Warranted (10/95); Mainstem S.F. Skykomish and Tye River to Alpine (Snohomish); Essential fish habitat Falls, RM 73.6. Oncorhynchus FS—MIS Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie gorbuscha Falls at RM 40.3. Same for EFH. Chum NMFS—Not Warranted (3/99) Passed above Sunset Falls, presumed some use in (Skykomish Fall; FS—MIS S.F. Skykomish, and modeled in Tye River to Snoqualmie Fall); Alpine Falls. Oncorhynchus keta Mainstem Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie Falls at RM 40.3. Coastal cutthroat NMFS–-Not Warranted (4/99) Small populations in S.F. Skykomish and Tye, with (Snohomish); FS–-MIS (anadromous and larger resident population in the S.F. Snoqualmie Oncorhynchus clarki resident) River. Sockeye (Baker River NMFS—Not Warranted (Baker Baker River stock not present; strays have been stock); Oncorhynchus River stock in Skagit; 10/95) passed above Sunset Falls. nerka 1/ NMFS—National Marine Fisheries Service; USFWS—U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; FS—Forest Service; MIS— Management Indicator Species. 2/ Sources: SWIFD 2017, WDFW 2017, WDFW 2017, WDFW 2017, WDNR 2017, and Williams et al. 1975

Federally Listed Species and Designated Critical Habitats The relevant federally listed fish are Puget Sound Chinook, Puget Sound steelhead, and Coastal/Puget Sound bull trout, with critical habitats designated for Chinook, steelhead and bull trout in the Tye River below Alpine Falls, and in the Snoqualmie River below Snoqualmie Falls. Essential Fish Habitats The Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, as amended by the Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996, requires Federal action agencies to consult with the Secretary of Commerce (NMFS) regarding certain actions. Consultation is required for any action or proposed action authorized, funded, or undertaken by the agency that may adversely affect essential fish habitat (EFH) for species

34 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA managed in Federal Fishery Management Plans. The Pacific Coast Salmon Plan, pertinent to this project, manages for Chinook, coho, and pink salmon. Chinook, coho and pink salmon EFH is in the Tye River below Alpine Falls, and in the Snoqualmie River downstream of Snoqualmie Falls. Sensitive Species For Region 6 of the Forest Service, the Regional Forester identifies those species for which population viability is a concern, as evidenced by significant current or predicted downward trends in population numbers or density and habitat capability that would reduce a species’ existing distribution (FSM 2670.5). Per the most recent Regional Forester’s Special Status Species List (Forest Service 2015c), the MBSNF does not have fish species designated as sensitive, and will not be addressed further. Management Indicator Species The Forest Plan lists Management Indicator Species (MIS), which are Chinook, bull trout, coho, pink, chum, steelhead and rainbow, and sea-run and resident cutthroat. For the fish whose distributions have not already been addressed in the preceding paragraphs, chum are modeled to utilize habitats in the Tye River to Aline Falls, and are downstream of Snoqualmie Falls. While a few sea-run cutthroat have been passed above Sunset Falls, the cutthroat in the S.F. Skykomish and Tye Rivers are predominantly resident. Cutthroat in the S.F. Snoqualmie are resident. Resident rainbow are in the S.F. Skykomish and Tye Rivers and the S.F. Snoqualmie River. The viability of fish MIS are addressed at the forest-level.

3.4.2 Environmental Effects The action area for fishery resources is the area affected by the proposed project activities that include the footprint of the new disturbance required for the new towers, support buildings, helipad, and the access driveways being constructed and maintained. The direct and indirect, short-term and long-term effects are considered, as is the area for consultation for federally listed fish under the ESA.

Alternative 1—No Action Under the No Action alternative, there would be no direct or indirect effects to fish or fish habitat, as no sites would be cleared or constructed, and no staging areas, associated access driveways or helipads would be needed.

Alternative 2—Proposed Action Proposed project activities would not have direct effects to fish, as work would not occur in fish-bearing streams. While the potential exists for indirect effects from sedimentation to streams or from equipment contaminants, the likelihood is low due to distance from water and fish habitats, lack of hydrologic connectivity at the sites, and BMP requirements such as having spill prevention plans in place and having appropriate materials on-site/readily available during construction. The new diesel storage tanks and piping would have twin-walled containment with electronic leak detection and employ remote monitoring and notification of leakage problems. Should any project sediments reach flowing streams, they would be expected to be quickly diluted by background sediments in the larger/fish-bearing streams. Construction and maintenance would not affect fish or their habitats at any of these sites. Removing vegetation has the potential to increase stream temperatures. The Deception Creek site is within mapped Riparian Reserve, however it is not adjacent to Deception Creek, and would not affect stream temperatures.

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Effect Determinations Federally listed fish and designated critical habitats Project activities would occur between 0.65 mile and 8 miles away from habitats occupied by federally listed fish, and from their designated critical habitats downstream of Alpine Falls in the Tye River, and about 20 miles away from Snoqualmie Falls in the Snoqualmie River. For federally listed fish, the effect determinations are No Effect for Chinook salmon, steelhead, and bull trout. For critical habitats, the effect determinations for proposed activities are also No Effect for designated Chinook, steelhead and bull trout critical habitats. Essential Fish Habitats For Essential Fish Habitats, the effect determinations are Would Not Adversely Affect Chinook, coho, or pink salmon EFH due to the scale of activities and distance from habitats. Viability of management indicator species The MBSNF management indicator species are Chinook salmon, steelhead, bull trout, coho, pink, chum, sea-run cutthroat, rainbow, and resident cutthroat. While there are no specific “effect calls” for management indicator species, clearing, construction and maintenance of new towers, support buildings, helipad, and access driveways would not affect the Forestwide viability of these populations, nor would they have a measurable negative effect to the quality or quantity of their habitats in the Tye River, Deception Creek, or the South Fork or mainstem Snoqualmie Rivers.

Cumulative Effects The analysis area for cumulative effects project to fishery resources is the same as the action area, which includes the footprint of the new disturbance required for the new towers, support buildings, helipad, and the access driveways being constructed and maintained. In order for effects of the proposed project to be cumulative with effects from past, existing or planned projects, they must overlap in both space and time (and in type of effect). Table 2 outlines past, present, and reasonably foreseeable actions to consider in this analysis and with which effects from the King County PSERN Project, Phase 2, could overlap. While some projects listed in Table 2 may occur in the same space or time as the proposed project, because there would not be effects to fish or fish habitats from the King County PSERN Project, Phase 2, there would be no contribution to cumulative effects from the proposed project.

3.4.3 Aquatic Conservation Strategy The Aquatic Conservation Strategy (ACS) is a primary component of the Forest Plan, as amended, and is intended to maintain and restore ecosystem health, preventing further degradation and restoring habitat over broad landscapes instead of small watersheds or individual projects (Forest Service and BLM 1994b) to protect aquatic and riparian-dependent species and resources, and restore degraded habitats. The following is a brief description of how the project relates to each objective. Objective 1: Maintain and restore the distribution, diversity, and complexity of watershed and landscape- scale features to ensure protection of the aquatic systems to which species, populations and communities are uniquely adapted. Proposed activities are not at a scale to influence watershed and landscape-scale features. The project would maintain this objective at the watershed scale. Objective 2: Maintain and restore spatial and temporal connectivity within and between watersheds. Lateral, longitudinal, and drainage network connections include floodplains, wetlands, upslope areas,

36 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA headwater tributaries, and intact refugia. These network connections must provide chemically and physically unobstructed routes to areas critical for fulfilling life history requirements of aquatic and riparian-dependent species. Proposed activities are not in or close enough to streams, floodplains, wetlands or other waterbodies, to affect their spatial or temporal connectivity. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 3: Maintain and restore the physical integrity of the aquatic system, including shorelines, banks, and bottom configurations. Proposed activities are not in streams and would not affect shorelines or channel banks and bottoms. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 4: Maintain and restore water quality necessary to support healthy riparian, aquatic, and wetland ecosystems. Water quality must remain within the range that maintains the biological, physical, and chemical integrity of the system and benefits survival, growth, reproduction, and migration of individuals composing aquatic and riparian communities. Proposed activities are not in streams or wetlands, and use of best management practices would minimize potential impacts to soils that could result in erosion or for project-related contaminants to leave the sites. All tanks and fuel lines would be twin-walled (secondary containment is built- in) with electronic leak detection and would implement SPCC Plans, minimizing the risk of releasing diesel into the environment. While the Deception Creek site is within mapped Riparian Reserve and the Cowboy Mountain site is within the Riparian Reserve of a pond, clearing vegetation at these sites would not affect riparian, aquatic, and wetland ecosystems. There would be no measurable effects to water quality. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 5: Maintain and restore the sediment regime under which aquatic ecosystems evolved. Elements of the sediment regime include the timing, volume, rate, and character of sediment input, storage, and transport. Though proposed activities would be ground-disturbing, they generally occur away from streams. Through design and implementation of BMPs, these sites would be developed to disperse runoff and minimize erosion. Proposed activities are not expected to alter the sediment regime. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 6: Maintain and restore in-stream flows sufficient to create and sustain riparian, aquatic, and wetland habitats and to retain patterns of sediment, nutrient, and wood routing. The timing, magnitude, duration, and spatial distribution of peak, high, and low flows must be protected. Permanent ground disturbance and compaction required for the new communication sites, staging area, helipad and driveways are not of the scale to alter flows or flow patterns. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 7: Maintain and restore the timing, variability, and duration of floodplain inundation and water table elevation in meadows and wetlands. Proposed activities are not in or near floodplains or meadows. The pond down slope of the Cowboy Mountain Site and access route would be protected by implementing erosion control measures (Table 1). The access route for the Cowboy site would be designed to maintain the hydrologic function of the small drainage it crosses. The location and amount of disturbance

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would not result in a measurable change in the timing, variability, or duration of inundation or water table elevation of these that may occur downslope. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 8: Maintain and restore the species composition and structural diversity of plant communities in riparian areas and wetlands to provide adequate summer and winter thermal regulation, nutrient filtering, appropriate rates of surface erosion, bank erosion, and channel migration and to supply amounts and distributions of coarse woody debris sufficient to sustain physical complexity and stability. Proposed project activities are away from wetlands and riparian areas. While the Deception Creek site is within mapped Riparian Reserve, it is not immediately adjacent to Deception Creek, with NFS Road 6000-820 between the site and Deception Creek. Riparian habitat is downslope of the road. The riparian area surrounding the pond at the Cowboy Mountain site would be avoided. Species composition and structural diversity of plant communities would not be affected. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales. Objective 9: Maintain and restore habitat to support well-distributed populations of native plant, invertebrate and vertebrate riparian-dependent species. Proposed activities are not in riparian habitat areas and would not affect populations of native plant, invertebrate and vertebrate riparian-dependent species. Conservation and mitigation measures would address invasive vegetation. Retention of large wood at the Cowboy Mountain Site is required to maintain habitat. The project would maintain this objective at both the site and watershed scales.

3.5 Wildlife

3.5.1 Affected Environment The project occurs within the Western Washington Cascades physiographic province (FEMAT 1993). The forested landscape includes a variety of mountainous terrain with moderate to steep slopes and are typically dissected by permanent and ephemeral drainages. Moisture gradient influences habitats of a variety of terrestrial species from invertebrates to big-game ungulates and carnivores. Table 6 describes habitat conditions and land-use allocations at the project sites. Table 6. Baseline Habitat Description of Project and Land-use Management Description Site Name Dominant Vegetation Type Land-Use Allocation Cowboy (Steven’s Pass Ski area) Subalpine Parkland with conifers and Administratively Withdrawn, Location: T26N R13E Sec 30 shrub component including MA 3C – Developed Recreation, Winter Sports Resorts Deception Managed second-growth conifer Late Successional Reserve Location: T26N R13E Sec 30 habitat approximately 50-80 years old I-90 Repeater Managed second-growth conifer GF, Big-game winter range Location: T22N R9E Sec 1 habitat 40-50 years old Highway 2 West Managed second-growth conifer General Forest Location: T26N R12E Sec 21 habitat approximately 30 years old Stevens Pass Previously managed conifer habitat 80 Scenic Forest Location: T26N R13E Sec 30 years or older. Scenic Late successional conifer habitat Late Successional Reserve Location: T26N R13E Sec 28 approximately 200 years or older. Wellington Mature conifer habitat, 80-95 years General Forest, Scenic Forest Location: T26N R13E Sec 15 old

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Vegetation in the project area is dominated by temperate conifer forest. Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata), are most abundant (Henderson et al 1992). Relatively low fire-return intervals resulted in small areas covered with mature forest for long periods. The last large fire occurred in the 1200s and only small fires since. In the Tye and Snoqualmie River basins large fires occurred every 100 to 200 years. After 1900, the major agent of disturbance has been timber harvest. At upper elevations, above 4,500 feet, depending on aspect, tree cover will change to mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Hardwood tree species typically result from disturbance such as timber harvest and road building as well as from natural occurrences found in riverine systems and associated tributaries where canopy densities allow prolific amounts of sunlight. Dominant hardwood species include red alder (Alnus rubra), big leaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), and black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa). Man-made features including paved and gravel roads bisect the forested landscape and are associated with the frequency and distribution of human-induced activities. Watersheds in the project areas began habitat conversions in the early 1900s for timber harvest using a rail system to remove and deliver trees to the mills. Specific roads, which may receive individually prescribed maintenance levels, still provide access for timber harvest as well as a variety of dispersed recreation and access to private in-holdings. The frequency, distribution, and duration of human-induced activities as well as natural events such as fire have likely produced a profound influence on wildlife species composition and their adaptability to existing habitats over time, or that species became extirpated or migrated out to seek habitat types necessary to persist in the landscape. The historic and continued disturbance regime is characteristic throughout most of western Washington from the coast line to the upper slopes of the Cascade Mountain Range. Each project location site are situated in upland habitat conditions where vegetation indicators of riparian and wetland influences are absent. The Cowboy Mountain tower location, at an elevation of over 5,000 feet, is within a forested meadow complex and lies within upland, but in proximity of riparian habitat and a small perennial pond. The remainder of project locations are within forested environments below 4,500- foot elevation.

Species Considered Species analyzed in this assessment include those that occur on the MBSNF that are:

• Federally listed endangered, threatened, or proposed, and designated critical habitat for these species.

• Region 6 Regional Forester Sensitive Species for the MBSNF.

• Migratory Bird species that may occur on the MBSNF.

• MBSNF MIS as listed in the Forest Plan (Forest Service 1990).

• Survey and Manage Species (Forest Service and BLM 1994a) Threatened and Endangered Species and Designated Critical Habitat Several federally listed threatened and endangered species occur on the Forest. Federally listed terrestrial species include the northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet, grizzly bear, and gray wolf. There are designated critical habitat for the northern spotted owl and marbled murrelet.

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Table 7. Terrestrial Wildlife Species Considered for Project Area Analysis Species Documented in Species or Habitat Status Documented Habitat Use Project Area Northern Spotted Owl Mature, old-growth forests (nesting, Threatened/ Species occur within (Strix occidentalis roosting, foraging); second-growth used MIS vicinity of project locations caurina) for dispersal Northern Spotted Owl Present at two tower site locations Designated Present Critical Habitat Marbled Murrelet Mature, old-growth forests (nesting, Species occur within (Brachyramphus Threatened brooding) vicinity of project locations marmoratus m.) Marbled Murrelet Present at two tower site locations Designated Present Critical Habitat Core Security habitat with adequate Species likely extirpated Grizzly Bear (Ursus Threatened/ forage and > 500 m from motorized from Skykomish and arctos horribilis) MIS roads and high-use trails Snoqualmie RD Security habitat with reliable prey base Species suspected or Gray Wolf Endangered/ and > 500 m from road and high-use known to occur within (Canis lupus) MIS trails vicinity of project locations

Northern Spotted Owl and Critical Habitat Within the project area there are documented historic owl activity centers based on historic surveys in the 1990s and the ongoing efforts on the Snoqualmie Ranger District. Occupancy within historic spotted owl territories on the Skykomish Ranger District are unknown. The early nesting season for spotted owl occurs from March 1 – May 30. During this time, owls initiate nesting and incubate eggs. Adverse effects from noise disturbance during the early nesting season are of concern due to the potential to interrupt optimal nest selection, or incubation success. Since most owl activities are nocturnal, noise from daytime activities are less likely to disrupt owl feeding or nesting activities. Disturbance after July 15 is not expected to adversely affect spotted owl nesting because young birds will be capable of flight and can move out of an area where noise affects them. In Late-Successional Reserve 119 (LSR 119) on the Skykomish Ranger District, which includes the project area, approximately 74 percent of the acreage is in a potential condition to provide nesting habitat or nesting by spotted owls. Because of the immense area of this LSR it may provide a future contribution to spotted owl production. This LSR is very important to the success of the LSR conservation strategy adopted by the Northwest Forest Plan (Forest Service and BLM 1994). The LSR is expected to be a source of owls dispersing to neighboring LSRs and maybe a critical link to late-successional habitats in adjacent wilderness areas and National Parks. The single tower location on the Snoqualmie Ranger District is outside of the nearest LSR. The Final Revised Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted Owl (USFWS 2011) recommends retaining all occupied and unoccupied, high quality spotted owl habitat on all lands to the maximum extent possible. This plan does not include specific recommendations on a network of management areas for spotted owl habitat, since the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) is in the process of conducting a range-wide, multi-step modeling process to design, assess, and inform designation of a habitat conservation network that will help address the recovery of the spotted owl. The project area contains part of the northern spotted owl designated critical habitat unit (West Cascades North Designated Critical Habitat sub unit West Cascades North 2 (USFWS 2012).

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Marbled Murrelet and Critical Habitat On the Skykomish Ranger District, marbled murrelet detections (fly-overs and vocalizations) have been made in the Miller, North Fork Skykomish, and Tye River drainages. Surveys resulted in murrelet detections but flight behaviors did not determine occupancy behavior (nesting). The project vicinity is approximately 45 to 50 miles from foraging habitat in Puget Sound. The nearest known murrelet nest site is located on the Snoqualmie Ranger District, approximately 12 to 14 miles from the project areas in the U.S. 2 and I-90 travel corridors. Within the project vicinity, young forest stands may lack the minimal dimensional structures needed for suitable nest platforms. Even where patches of mature, late- successional habitat patches may be present in the project area, the proximity of young conifer plantations may be too dense to allow a flight approach to available nest platforms. The murrelet nesting season, from egg laying, hatching, and to fledging, may extend from April 1 – September 23 (USFWS 2012). During this time period, it is a potential concern that adult birds could be flushed from nests due to a disturbance. With the nest exposed and unprotected, there is a risk of egg predation, or egg development failure, and chick predation. Following egg hatching daily flights by adults to Puget Sound will collect prey to feed the young. The flights are primarily in the early morning and evening hours, while the chick remains on the nest. Two tower locations on the Skykomish Ranger District (Scenic and Deception) are within Murrelet Designated Critical Habitat WA Unit (CHU) 10-b (USFWS 2016). This CHU also coincides with LSR 119 in which there are no known murrelet activity centers. The I-90 Repeater site is outside of designated critical habitat. Grizzly Bear The North Cascades area north of I-90 is part of a recovery zone for grizzly bear as outlined in the Recovery Plan of 1993 and 1997 Supplement (USFWS 1993, 1997). In 1997, the North Cascades Grizzly Bear Management Committee, which consists of the Park Superintendent of the North Cascades National Park and the Forest Supervisors of the Wenatchee, Okanogan, and Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forests, agreed to an interim standard of "No Net Loss” of core habitat until superseded by a Forest/Park Plan amendment or revision (Forest Service and USFWS 1997). There are no recent confirmed sightings of grizzly on the Skykomish Ranger District. The most recent confirmed sighting occurred in 1996 more than 100 miles north-northeast of the project area. The I-90 Repeater location is outside of a grizzly bear recovery area zone. Gray Wolf Only transient or dispersing wolves might be expected to temporarily wander on to the MBSNF because, except where deer and elk are relatively abundant, the MBSNF may only provide marginal resources for a territorial and breeding wolf pack. Currently, there are no known den or rendezvous sites on the on the MBSNF (Becker et al. 2015). Regional Forester Sensitive Species The Forest Service Sensitive Species List for Region 6 was reviewed to determine the species that would need to be considered in the evaluation of this project. Table 8 identifies the sensitive species considered for this evaluation, and the species dropped from additional evaluation.

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Table 8. Forest Service Region 6 Sensitive Species Spp. Dropped from Additional Analysis Species or Habitat Status Documented Habitats Use and Rational American Peregrine Cliff habitat for nesting with nearby Sensitive/ Falcon (Falco peregrinus adequate prey base. MIS anatum) Roost, nest habitat and forage areas near Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus Sensitive/ lakes, reservoirs, rivers with readily leucocephalus) MIS available food source (fish and carrion) . Swift, moving streams (rivers and creeks), Harlequin Duck No life supporting habitat on Sensitive adequate pool habitat for foraging and (Histronicus histronicus) project sites. No Impact. brooding. Common Loon (Gavia Large lakes. No life supporting habitat on Sensitive immer) project sites. No Impact. Northern Goshawk Mature or old forest habitat for nesting. Sensitive (Accipiter gentilis) Townsend’s big-eared Abandoned mine shafts and other human- No life supporting habitat on bat (Corynorhinus Sensitive made structures for roosting and project sites. No Impact. townsendii) hibernacula; Foraging in forest edges. Mountain Goat Sensitive/ Habitat of cliffs, isolated rock outcrops,

(Oreamnos americanus) MIS forest cover in winter. Large expanse of minimally disturbed California wolverine Sensitive habitats, persistent snow fields, & reliable (Gulo gulo luscus) prey base. Native habitat consists of the bunch grass Giant Palouse No known habitat or prairies of the Palouse region. The fertile Earthworm (Driloleirus Sensitive occurrence records on the soil consists of deposits of volcanic ash americanus) MBSNF. No Impact. and rich layers of organic matter. includes abundant ground cover, conifer or No habitat or occurrence Broadwhorl Tightcoil Sensitive hardwood overstory, and moderate to deep records on the MBSNF. No (Pristiloma johnsoni) litter. Impact Ponderosa pine and Douglas fir forests at No habitat or occurrence Shiny Tightcoil Sensitive moderate to high elevations. records on the MBSNF. No (Pristiloma wascoense) Impact Western Bumblebee A generalist forager and has been reported Sensitive (Bombus occidentalis) to visit a wide variety of flowering plants. Old-growth coniferous forests; associated Johnson’s Hairstreak Sensitive with conifer mistletoe (genus (Callophrys johnsoni) Arceuthobium). Dry tundra, talus slopes, fellfields, rocky No habitat or occurrence summits and saddles, ridges, and frost- records on the MBSNF. No Melissa Arctic (Oeneis Sensitive heaved clear-cuts; generally occurs above Impact. Melissa) the timberline, which, in Washington, is at about 7,000 to 8,000 ft. Inhabits windy peaks with nearby forest No habitat or occurrence Valley Silverspot openings. It is also found in native prairies records on the MBSNF. No (Speyeria zerene Sensitive and grasslands, often tending towards Impact. bremnerii) more mesic sites. Larch Mountain Sensitive/ Associated with hardwood logs, leaf litter, Salamander Survey and and beneath cool and moist rocks and (Plethodon larselli) Manage talus. Sensitive/ Associated with hardwood logs, leaf litter, Van Dyke’s Salamander Survey and and beneath cool and moist rocks and (Plethodon vandykei) Manage talus.

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American Peregrine Falcon The peregrine falcon was federally delisted in August 1999 and is managed and administered under the Forest Service sensitive species program. The population trend for this species is on the increase and the species has become widely distributed. By 2009, the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife identified 108 occupied territories and has recently delisted the species from sensitive to protected wildlife (Vekasy and Hays 2016). Cliff sites or other natural or man-made features with protected ledges provide nest platforms and are typically located in proximity of water and abundant prey resources. Prey consists almost entirely of birds, these ranging in size from swallows to ducks and large shorebirds. Jays, woodpeckers, swifts, mourning doves and pigeons are among the commonly-taken prey species. There are documented nest locations that are in wooded/forested habitats adjacent and within the MBSNF in the U.S. 2 and I-90 travel corridors. Statewide survey data indicate a continuing upward trend in known and active breeding sites. The greater density and recovery of peregrines observed in western Washington may be attributable to concentrated migration movements and high quality winter habitat found in this region of the state (Vekasy and Hays 2016). Although peregrine falcons have been observed on the MBSNF, there are no known nest sites within 1 mile of project features. Bald Eagle The bald eagle was delisted in 2007 and is managed and administered under the Forest Service sensitive species program. There are no known eagle nest sites on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. The Beckler Watershed Analysis, completed in October 1995, states that between 3 to 15 eagles use the basin and that use is highest from Harlan Creek to the confluence of the Beckler and South Fork of the Skykomish rivers (Forest Service 2001). A study conducted in 1977-1978 of the Skykomish Ranger District's wintering eagle population estimated that the Miller River foraging area received more use than the Beckler area (Hansen, unpubl. report). Bald eagle surveys, conducted during the winter of 1989-1990, daily counts ranged from zero to a high of 28 eagles observed either flying, perched, or foraging within the Beckler River reaches between the and S.F. Skykomish River confluence (Skykomish Ranger District files). Subsequent surveys have showed similar patterns of use with the Beckler and Tye River, but exhibiting the lowest count of eagles during the midwinter season on the district. The occurrence of bald eagles in the Skykomish River area during the mid-winter season (October 1 – March 1) which coincides with the arrival of salmon that is artificially placed above the migration barriers on the main Skykomish River channel. Although the breeding population of bald eagles in Washington has increased dramatically in the past 30 years, most nests are on private lands and only about 10 percent of eagle nests are on lands dedicated to conservation. Northern Goshawk Northern goshawks have been documented nesting on the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts. This species may occupy a variety of habitats, but are typically associated with mature coniferous forests. The principal forest types occupied by the goshawk in the Pacific Northwest may be mixed conifer species, in stands of larger trees with dense canopy cover, and generally in larger tracts of forests over smaller tracts. On the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, nests have been typically been located in forests dominated by Douglas-fir dominated vegetation. Reynolds (1983), reports that goshawks apparently prefer to nest within a quarter mile of water in forest blocks greater than 80 hectares in size (about 200 acres) which contain small openings. This species is sensitive to changes in canopy closure and habitat fragmentation. The loss of goshawk habitat due to fragmentation from roads bisecting forested areas was identified as a detrimental effect to the species due to reduction in prey base (Wisdom et al. 2000). Goshawks typically form a post-fledging area which is the area of concentrated use by the goshawk family after the young leave the nest (Reynolds et al, 1992). The fledging area may surround the

43 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA nest and is approximately 600 acres. Goshawk have been reported to harass hikers on the Deception Creek trail on the Skykomish Ranger District during the post-fledging period. Mountain Goat Mountain goats serve as a management indicator for habitat that includes cliff habitats at upper elevations where forest communities begin to transition from mid-elevation to upper elevations habitats where subalpine communities begin to persist. Mountain goats are slowly making a comeback throughout the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest following a period of population decline possibly due to over- hunting and lack of recruitment from more remote areas (Rice and Gay 2010). Although the project area is not known to include habitat frequented by mountain goats, they do occur just above portions of the project area where cliffs and exposed rock outcrops occur and have been observed. The project area in Stevens Pass Ski Resort may be an occasional source of forage when unusual storm events with strong winds uproot weakened trees causing arboreal lichens and mosses to become available as forage. Rarely, goats may also traverse through forest cover and over roads to move between montane habitat areas or seek forage opportunities. California Wolverine On August 13, 2014, the USFWS withdrew its proposal to list the wolverine under the ESA. As a result of this action, the wolverine automatically has returned to the Region 6 Sensitive Species list. Wolverines are not tied to any specific vegetative or geologic habitat features – they use a variety of habitats, including those altered by management activities and fire and can persist in areas with dispersed or developed summer or winter recreation activities. Forest Service management activities may impact individuals, but do not adversely impact wolverines at the population level. Historic records of wolverine occurrence in North America suggests it is a rare species with limited distribution and density and confined to the most northern latitude of the Unites States, and in Canada and Alaska. In Washington, most of the historical records originate from north central portion of the state (Aubrey et al. 2007). Wolverines are suspected to occupy a variety of remote habitats in Washington such as alpine and subalpine habitats. Habitat preferences are influenced by available food sources, predation risk, and relatively low disturbance from human activity (Krebs et al. 2007). Seasonal elevation shifts in habitat selection (low elevations in winter, higher elevations in summer) are correlated to food availability. Avalanche chutes may be important year-round habitats for food items due to presence of carrion from winter-caused mortality and as summer habitat where potential prey such as marmots inhabit them (Krebs et al. 2007). Female wolverines with young may be particularly sensitive to human disturbance associated with roads and winter recreation activities (Krebs et al. 2007). Although sightings and tracks have been reported on the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger District, presence has not been confirmed within the vicinity of the project locations. Western Bumblebee Western bumblebee (Bombus occidentalis) was historically broadly distributed across the west coast of North America from Alaska to central California, east through Alberta and western South Dakota, and south to Arizona and New Mexico (Williams et al. 2014). Since 1998, populations of this bumblebee have declined drastically throughout parts of its former range. In Alaska and east of the Cascades in the Canadian and U.S. Rocky Mountains, viable populations still exist. Populations of the western bumblebee in central California, Oregon, Washington, and southern British Columbia have mostly disappeared. Bumblebees will visit a range of different plant species and are important generalist pollinators of a wide variety of flowering plants and crops (Goulson 2003). Although bumblebees do not depend on a single type of flower, some plants rely solely on bumblebees for pollination.

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Johnson’s Hairstreak The reproductive stages of this butterfly are considered old-growth obligates. Old-growth trees infected with the dwarf mistletoe are host to the insect’s reproductive cycle. They are suspected to occur in old- growth stands throughout the Forest. Mature and old-growth trees are found in the Tye and Snoqualmie River. To date, no surveys have been conducted for this species in the project area. Although the species is mainly associated with old-growth forests, they have been found in younger age-class conifers (Davis et al. 2011). Based on recent modeling analysis the likelihood of finding hairstreaks in the watershed has a low to moderate probability of occurrence (Davis et al. 2011). Larch Mountain and Van Dyke’s Salamander Larch Mountain salamanders occur on the Snoqualmie Ranger District that currently represent the most northern geographical range in western Washington. They are found in a variety of habitat types that provide suitable, cool moist microhabitat conditions. They may occur in early to late seral forest habitats that contain snags and coarse wood (Crisafulli et al. 2008). Forested and unforested scree and talus also provide habitats where microhabitat conditions occur (Crisafulli et al. 2008). Although the MBSNF is within the suspected geographical range for the Van Dyke’s Salamander, there are no known locations on the Forest. Habitat preferences include sites occurring in wet and moist environments such as streams, seeps, lake shores, and upland forest environments containing coarse downed wood, and rock debris accumulations (Olson and Crisafulli 2014). Neotropical Migratory Bird Species The MBSNF supports a marginal population of wintering bald eagles as described previously. Bald eagles that winter on the project area are likely migratory individuals that breed in the northern U.S. and Canada (Grubb 2003). The project area does not represent a wide diversity of forest age classes. However, present are numerous, ponds, wetlands and riparian habitats in or near the project area. Habitat conditions may provide for numerous migratory bird species, including various species of warblers, kinglets, nuthatches, flycatchers, thrushes, and swallows.

Management Indicator Species Guidance regarding MIS are set forth in the Forest Plan (Forest Service 1990) which directs Forest Service resource managers to (1) at project scale, analyze the effects of proposed projects on the habitat of each MIS affected by such projects, and (2) at the forest scale, monitor populations and/or habitat trends of MIS, as identified in the LRMP. Viability assessments for MIS are included in the 2011 Forest MIS Assessment (Forest Service 2011). Federal listed species and sensitive species were previously discussed in this section. Table 9 lists MIS species considered.

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Table 9. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Forest Plan Management Indicator Species Species Habitat Present or Present in Suspected Rationale For Analysis in Analysis Species Preferred Habitats Selection as MIS Area Area Bald Eagle Roost, nest habitat and forage areas near Threatened and lakes, reservoirs, rivers with readily Endangered Species Yes Yes available food source (fish and carrion) Habitat American Cliff habitat for nesting; areas with Threatened and Peregrine available prey Endangered Species Yes No Falcon Habitat Gray Wolf Security habitat > 300 m from road and Threatened and high use trails; available ungulate prey Endangered Species Yes No Habitat Grizzly Bear Core habitat > 300 m from road and Threatened and high use trails Endangered Species No No Habitat Mountain goat Rocky slopes >40 degrees adjacent to Big-game Winter Yes Yes forage and cover Range Northern Mature, old-growth forests (nesting, Mature, Old-Growth Spotted Owl roosting, foraging). Second-growth used Forest Yes Yes for dispersal American Mature, old-growth forest >40% fir and Mature, Old-Growth Yes Yes Marten canopy closure >50% Forest Pileated Mature, old-growth forest Mature, Old-Growth Yes Yes Woodpecker Forest Primary Cavity Snags and downed logs in forested Snags and Downed Yes Yes Excavators habitats Logs Source: Forest Service 1990

MIS: Threatened and Endangered Species Habitat The grizzly bear, northern spotted owl, and gray wolf are discussed in the Threatened and Endangered Species section. The bald eagle and peregrine falcon, both delisted from the ESA list, are addressed in the sensitive species section.

MIS: Mountain Goat Habitat The mountain goat is addressed in the sensitive species section.

MIS: Old-growth Forest American Marten Several studies have indicated a strong correlation between marten populations and the availability of old- growth forest (Raphael and Jones 1997), with local extirpations in areas with less than 30 to 50 percent old-growth forest across the landscape (Marshall 1994). Both natal and maternal dens are found in stands generally characteristic of late successional forests with a large amount of down woody debris and snags (Raphael and Jones 1997). Coarse woody debris and a shrubby understory are also important structural components of foraging habitat. Although historic logging has fragmented late-successional habitats, marten populations continue to inhabit river basins in the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts that are in similar conditions (Jones and Raphael 1990) found in the project area vicinity.

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Pileated Woodpecker Pileated woodpeckers use large snags and defective live trees for nesting, roosting, and foraging (Brown 1985). Downed logs in various stages of decay are also forage sources (Mellen et al. 1992). Evidence of pileated woodpecker foraging activity has been observed in the project area. There are approximately 34,775 acres (LSR 119, Skykomish Ranger District) (Forest Service 2001) of conifer forest of which more than 78 percent is suitable for pileated woodpeckers that are distributed widely throughout the project analysis area. As stand age increases, there is the expectation that pileated woodpecker abundance will be stable or increase as forest stand age increases.

MIS: Primary Cavity Excavators Primary excavators represent the snag and downed log component for species such as the northern flicker, red-breasted sapsucker, and hairy woodpecker, three species that are known to occur in the project area. Nesting and foraging habitat include cavities in both snags and trees (with heartrot) or otherwise with dead heartwood. Foraging generally occurs in dead or dying trees as well as recently dead snags. Habitat requirements are slightly different for each species but the commonality for all is forest stand diversity through a range of successional stages from small openings to late-seral stands.

Survey and Manage Species The Larch Mountain and Van Dyke’s salamanders are addressed in the sensitive species section. No suitable habitat for mollusks was identified at any of the sites; therefore, mollusk surveys were not required. Wildlife Management Area 14 (MA-14) Deer and Elk Winter Range Habitat The Rainier elk herd provides recreational, aesthetic, spiritual, and subsistence values to residents of northwestern Washington. The herd is the smallest in Washington and has regained incremental abundance and distribution of animals for the past 15 years. The Snoqualmie River watershed basin is located partially in the Rainier herd’s range. Deer occur throughout the area and both species use a combination of habitats comprised of cover and forage areas that are not too fragmented by road systems. Taber and Raedeke (1980) reported that winter mortality, legal harvest, and poaching were the primary causes of elk mortality. Merged allocations resulting from the NWFP (Forest Service and BLM 1994a) decision has shifted land managed priorities to emphasize late-successional habitat objectives resulting in reduced restoration and enhancement efforts to provide early successional habitats. The I-90 Repeater location is currently situated in MA-14.

3.5.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Under the No Action Alternative, there would be no impacts to wildlife and habitats. Changes to habitats (vegetative composition) would continue within the natural variation of the existing environment unless subject to adverse natural occurrences or other direct or indirect human-caused disturbance. The No Action Alternative would have no effect on federally listed, Forest Service sensitive, Survey and Manage, and to other terrestrial species of concern from project activities. The viability of MIS would be neutral and would not result in a negative trend in absence of the proposed management actions.

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Alternative 2 – Proposed Action This section describes the impacts to wildlife associated with the PSERN Phase 2 project. The analysis area for direct and indirect effects on wildlife resources is defined as those areas experiencing ground disturbing activities and above-ambient noise-generating activities for the duration of implementation (estimated 1 to 2 years for construction). Concerns addressed in this section include direct and indirect loss of wildlife habitat, and disturbance to wildlife from noise and human activity. Impacts to wildlife habitat are the permanent loss of forest cover and associated understory vegetation, and clearing of woody debris. Each project site includes construction of a tower footpad, tower installation, perimeter fencing, outbuilding construction to house telecommunications equipment, diesel generator, diesel fuel tank, power cable installation, and access routes where applicable. Six sites are located in vicinity of the U.S. 2 travel corridor and one site is in the vicinity of the I-90 travel corridor. Potential impacts to wildlife resources include the direct impact of vegetation clearing and construction of the towers, supporting infrastructure, and installation of underground power lines, where applicable. Disturbance activities include the use of gas-powered machinery, including hand tools, motorized vehicles, and helicopters. Other indirect impacts include incidental damage to residual vegetation. These impacts may be considered separately depending on the anticipated affect. Under the proposed action, there would be localized change physically to the habitat conditions within the project area. Changes to habitat would be limited in area where vegetation clearings are created for the purpose of installing the radio network towers and associated infrastructure, and establishing new access routes. Project construction would induce disturbance and permanent habitat reduction resulting in slight but localized fragmentation in habitats (Table 3). Threatened and Endangered Species and Designated Critical Habitat Consultation with USFWS on the effects of the proposed action on threatened and endangered wildlife species is in progress. The Forest Service has prepared a draft Biological Assessment for the project which will be submitted to USFWS. Northern Spotted Owl and Designated Critical Habitat The project area occurs within the potential home range of three northern spotted owl activity areas. The tower locations that would be within home range include I-90 Repeater, Scenic, and Deception Creek. However, there are no data that indicate that any nesting, roosting, and foraging activities within the project locations. All project locations are currently habitat capable for owl dispersal. The Scenic site, while hi-graded of large diameter conifer trees, is considered nesting capable. For this reason, tree felling would be restricted at the Scenic tower location during the spotted owl nesting season. The restriction would also reduce harassment from noise during the early nesting season. The project is not expected to contribute towards a negative trend in the viability of this management indicator species as a result of project implementation. The Effect Determination under the action alternative: May Affect, Not Likely to Adversely Affect the spotted owl due to potential noise disturbance. Two project locations, Deception Creek and Scenic, are located within designated critical habitat for the Northern Spotted Owl and Marbled Murrelet. The combined area of both project sites is projected to permanently remove approximately one-third acre of designated critical habitat. Neither site was identified as a known or historic nesting, roosting, or foraging habitat location. Both tower sites are situated at forest stand edges. NFS road 6000-820 (Deception Creek Road), bisects existing critical

48 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA habitat and would provide the approach for access to the Deception Creek site. The Deception Creek site is also adjacent to a railroad line and within proximity to U.S. 2. The Scenic site is adjacent to an active railroad yard operated by BNSF Railroad and next to an existing NFS road. An existing road from the railroad yard provides the approach for access to the Scenic tower site. The Deception Creek site was identified as dispersal habitat based on stand age and habitat structure. The Scenic site contains mature, late-successional habitat, where potential owl nesting habitat may exist. The primary constituent elements of designated critical habitat are expected to remain relatively intact and serve their intended function for potential breeding, roosting, foraging and dispersal considering that the towers will reduce only a small amount of habitat. The onsite analysis concludes that the edge effect is already present and will nominally increase, but the proposed action would not negatively exacerbate the overall function and value of critical habitat. The project would not contribute towards the adverse impact to nesting, roosting, foraging, or dispersal habitat or the primary constituent elements of critical habitat for the spotted owl. For these reasons, a determination of May affect, Not Likely to Adversely Affect is made for designated northern spotted owl critical habitat. Marbled Murrelet and Designated Critical Habitat All sites have been subject to previous (historic) vegetation management or indirect human-induced disturbance. The locations are typically near forest edges from human-induced openings where tree heights, topography, and access provide optimal conditions for emergency radio network siting. The proposed locations provide little to no nesting elements for the marbled murrelet. Implementing the project and proposed long-term tower operations would pose little to no risk to conserve the species and critical habitat objectives. Effects Determination: With the removal of less than a quarter acre of existing vegetation per tower location and the likelihood of no risk to the species, a determination of May Affect, Not Likely to Adversely Affect is made to the action alternative. Grizzly Bear and Gray Wolf There are no known reproductive grizzly bears occupying habitats on either the Skykomish or Snoqualmie Ranger Districts, and there are no known reproductive wolf packs, although there are verified wolf sightings in the project area. The construction and long-term operations of each tower would pose little to no risk to the conservation of these species. All proposed tower sites in unoccupied habitats are within a human influence zone due to the presence of roads and developed sites. Effects Determination: There will be less than a quarter acre of removing existing vegetation per tower location. The project will occur outside of core or security habitat for each species, which will pose little to no risk to species conservation. The action alternative is No Effect to the grizzly bear and gray wolf. Regional Forester Sensitive Species and Survey and Manage Species Implementing the action alternative would have no impact to the following Sensitive and Survey and Manage species: peregrine falcon, bald eagle, northern goshawk, Townsend’s big-eared bat, mountain goat, western bumblebee, Johnson’s hairstreak, Van Dyke’s salamander, Larch Mountain salamander, and Puget Oregonian mollusk. Rationale: There would be no impact because pre-project surveys did not detect these species, or the area does not provide support habitat for these species, or the suitable habitat that is present near the project

49 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA area would not be negatively affected, directly or indirectly, by implementation of the proposed action. Sensitive species or other species of concern would not trend towards federal listing. Migratory Bird Species The potential to affect individuals under the action alternative exists. There will be no measurable negative effects on this focal group of migratory species. Unintentional take of individuals may occur, but the alternative would not negatively affect population levels. Management Indicator Species Implementing the project would have no impact or neutral impact to the following MIS: pileated woodpecker, or primary cavity excavators, and mountain goat. Rationale: There would be no impact because pre-project surveys did not detect these species, or substantiate the presence of habitat features, e.g., nesting cavities, and kidding areas for mountain goats. For primary excavators, the project provides existing and potential forage habitat as evidenced by the presence of decaying snags and downed wood. However, the relatively small areas involved with the project would not have a measurable impact to populations from implementation.

Wildlife Cumulative Effects Cumulative terrestrial wildlife assessments address the incremental impacts of an action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions. This assessment analyzes effects regardless of who has undertaken the action(s) (i.e., private roads within or adjacent to a project area) within the area of potentially affected habitat. The time frame considered in this analysis goes back to signing/ implementation of the current forest plan (1990) and its subsequent amendments (e.g., Northwest Forest Plan 1994), and actions that have the potential to occur over the next 5 years. In this case the area of potentially affected habitat is the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts that encompass the U.S. 2 and I-90 travel corridors, respectively. The process used to complete this analysis starts by considering habitat conditions at the start of the stated time frame for species of concern (federally listed species, Forest Service sensitive species, MIS species, migratory bird species and species identified through scoping for this emergency radio network project analysis); habitat changes to date as a result of management actions taken within the action area; and potential habitat changes in the near future (Table 2). Management activities that influence effects to wildlife can include landownership, mining, permitted and developed recreation Special Use Permits, vegetation management and non-fire related treatments, roads, non-permitted recreational activities, and other land disturbing actions that can cause effects to species and/or their habitat. The effects from these events will be discussed as they relate to wildlife and will continue to be considered in our current and future planning and management decisions. Vegetation Management There have been a number of vegetation management activities across the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts (Districts) over the past 25 years. These have included activities like commercial thinning, salvage cutting, small patch overstory openings for wildlife, watershed, vegetation and forest health improvement, hazard tree removal, and road closures. Timber harvest has decreased from the 1980s to present on the MBSNF. This decline started around 1993 and has continued since, for over a period of approximately the last 20 years. This reduction in timber harvest has, in turn, reduced the number of roads constructed for these activities. The Forest Plan, as amended, projected harvest levels would cause habitat conditions for late-successional species to increase, but would cause habitat conditions for early to mid-successional species to decrease. Since the actual annual harvest rate has been

50 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA reduced of that projected by the Forest Plan the District is well within its ability to maintain viable populations for all species of concern. The permanent reduction of slightly over one acre of forest cover to implement the action alternative will not be a contributing factor towards a cumulative effect. Recreation Dispersed recreation during the summer and fall months is the time and type of the most use on the Districts. There has been an incremental increase of foot trails outside of wilderness areas and only a slight increase in wilderness areas. Implementation of the Master Development Plan in the Steven’s Pass ski resort has increased emphasis on summer recreation, particularly downhill bicycle trails. There have also been an incremental increase of visitor amenities such as buildings and parking areas. Upgrades to ski trails and lifts are also planned. Effects to species of concern and their habitats is very localized and can be considered discountable from developed and dispersed recreation on the Districts. Roads Nearly 41 percent of the Mt Baker-Snoqualmie road system (2,440 miles) has an identified resource concern of medium or high. The listing of numerous species as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act and a large amount of unstable landscapes contribute to the high mileage of resource concern roads. Since the 1990s, there has been a general decrease in open road miles which may lessen an adverse impact to species of concern and their associated habitats due to reduction of direct and indirect road use. One mile per square mile is usually considered to be at a level that can maintain good habitat conditions for species sensitive to impacts by roads. Researchers have found that when road densities exceed about 1 mile/mi² (1.6 km/0.9 km radius circle) wolves were displaced or avoided the area (Mech et al. 1988). Gaines et.al. (2003) rates routes at a density 1 mile/ mi² typically low for several species. The amount of access route to each tower site would not add appreciably to the existing road density on the respective districts. Therefore, the action alternative will not contribute to a cumulative effect in road density.

3.6 Heritage Resources

3.6.1 Affected Environment

Ethnographic Environment The six proposed communication tower sites are closest to the traditional territory of the Skykomish people and within the overlapping foraging territories of the Skykomish, Snoqualmie, and Wenatchi. The earliest records, including the Treaty of Point Elliot, indicate that the Skykomish were a distinct tribal entity related to the Snohomish and Snoqualmie. Ethnographic accounts and histories provided during the 1974 Indian Claims Commission proceedings described the Skykomish Indians ("upriver people") as a band of the larger group of Snohomish Indians (Tweddell 1953). Tweddell suggests that the upriver group originally entered their present territory by branching off from the lower river Snohomish. He described the Skykomish territory as: “…from Sultan to Index inclusive with the drainage area of the Sultan and Wallace Rivers, and the drainage area as far as into the nearer parts of the North and South forks of the Skykomish River (1953).” A different opinion was expressed in the land claim petition brought before the Indian Claims Commission in 1951. Historic evidence was presented indicating that the Skykomish Indians were a sub- group of the Snoqualmie Tribe at the time of the treaty. The Indian Claims Commission found, and

51 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA contemporary experts agreed, that the Snoqualmie and Skykomish Indians were separate identifiable groups living along opposite forks of the same river (Hollenbeck 1987). The Skykomish were known to have been friendliest with the Snoqualmie and Snohomish, with whom they shared a common language, although the matter of dialect is still unclear (Hollenbeck 1987). They also shared friendly trade relationships with the Wenatchi despite a substantial language difference. There were no village sites known upriver from Index to Stevens Pass; however, the montane regions were known to have been used heavily by many Salish bands both coastal and interior, for hunting and gathering of berries, roots, and many other seasonal resources during the warmer months. The use of Stevens Pass and the surrounding area would have been governed by the relationships among those various related villages and trading partners. The Skykomish and Snoqualmie in particular had strong relationships with the montane region, and thus had greatest access to food and clothing sources such as mountain goats, deer, elk, and bears. Trade with coastal partners often included goat wool and hides, while the Snohomish provided dog wool and marine foods (Haeberlin and Gunther 1930). Unlike some of the neighboring upriver groups, most of the Skykomish people moved to the Tulalip reservation after the signing of the Point Elliot Treaty in 1855. This disrupted the traditional lifeways to the point that the Skykomish disappeared as a distinct people during the latter half of the 19th century. One of the proposed towers would be located along the S.F. Snoqualmie River along the I-90 corridor to the south. The S.F. Snoqualmie River was the province of the ancestors of the present day Snoqualmie Tribe that consisted of those people who made their permanent homes along the Snoqualmie River and its tributaries. Most villages were located downstream of Snoqualmie Falls, which formed a natural barrier for migratory fish. However, one village site is said to have been between the South and Middle Forks of the Snoqualmie River, and another was one mile below North Bend. The upriver and mountainous environment of the Snoqualmie Indians provided deer, elk, mountain goat, bear, beaver, grouse, huckleberries, blackberries, elderberries, and salmonberries to name just a few of the food resources. The headwaters of the South Fork and Granite Mountain areas were reported to have been prime mountain goat territory/hunting areas. Travel routes and trade networks were well established between the Yakama, Wenatchi, and Snoqualmie. The Snoqualmie Pass Trail followed the general route of the S.F. Snoqualmie River. It was considered the "foot trail" across the Cascades, and after the introduction of horses in the mid-1800s, it was used less often than the horse trail across Yakima Pass.

Historical Context The first Europeans to stay for any length of time in the Puget Sound area were traders, trappers, and explorers for the Hudson’s Bay Company. In the 1820s through the 1860s, Hudson’s Bay Company employees regularly traveled and traded around the Puget Sound. They bartered and traded with Puget Sound native people, and often hired Indians as guides. In 1858-1859, gold fever took hold in the Pacific Northwest and prospectors searched the Skykomish watershed for gold and silver. An engineer by the name of E.F. Cady was hired to search for a pass over the Cascades. Along with a man named Parsons, he made his way up the North Fork of the Skykomish to Cady Pass, and began building a trail. The route was later abandoned when he reported that the gold fields in eastern Washington were not as lucrative as once believed. Nonetheless, the exploration of a cross- Cascades route up the Skykomish was an important beginning of what was to be the greatest transportation network in the west: the railroad. In 1867 the Minnesota-based Great Northern Railroad (GNR) began its first exploration of the North Cascades under the direction of James J. Hill. In 1890, Stevens Pass was located for the GNR. The GNR

52 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA was in competition with the Northern Pacific, which completed its route across to Tacoma in 1888. In 1893, using private capital but also in partnership with large lumber interests, Hill completed the route across Stevens Pass, which gave Everett and direct access to the markets and suppliers in Asia. The development of the town of Skykomish is inseparable from the arrival of the GNR. A man working for Stevens, John Maloney, platted the town in 1899. An important base for the GNR, Skykomish was a thriving town by 1890, with a hotel, store and lumber mill. The lumber mill was acquired by Bloedel Donovan Lumber Mills in 1917 from the estate of Peter Larson. Bloedel Donovan began as a joint venture of Peter Larson, J.J. Donovan and J.H. Bloedel as the Lake Whatcom Logging Company, and shortly became one of the largest all-rail shippers of Pacific coast lumber products. The company would receive orders when Pearl Harbor needed to increase its defenses and when the GNR needed nine million board feet of lumber. When WWI broke out, the demand for lumber became critical and to meet the rising demand, Bloedel Donovan Lumber Mills purchased the Skykomish Lumber Company. Included in the purchase were 134 million feet of timber on the Skykomish and Beckler Rivers. Bloedel Donovan harvested timber in the Becker drainage from 1927 until 1946. In 1920, Bloedel Donovan constructed a railroad bridge across the Skykomish River for ease of log transport from the Beckler drainage to the mill in Skykomish. From the beginning of operations in the Beckler drainage, Bloedel Donovan logged by rail. A railroad grade was built along the river from the bridge up to Camp 8 and then turned east to continue on to Beckler Peak; several spurs were built as well. Much of the present-day Forest Service Road 65 is built on this railroad grade. The grade from the Beckler River to Beckler Peak was converted to a truck road. Bloedel Donovan established four camp locations in along the Beckler River to house workers. Some workers brought their families to live at the camps. Buildings were temporary and on wheels, and could be easily transported to the next location up river. The farthest upriver Camp was Camp 9, at the confluence of the Beckler and the Rapid Rivers, from where a branch line of rail was built up the Rapid River. During the Great Depression, logging trucks became the popular way to ship lumber regionally; Bloedel Donovan, however, would continue to use trains in the Beckler drainage for the entire time they logged there. After Bloedel Donovan sold the mill in Skykomish in 1946, other logging operations continued harvesting in the Beckler drainage. In the 1940s through the 1960s, the higher elevations of the drainage, above the confluence with the Rapid River, were logged using trucks. Miles of spur roads were built using track hoes and cats. Congress passed the Organic Act of 1897 that allowed mining, agricultural developments and the use of timber on U.S. Forest Reserve lands including those set aside in the Pacific Northwest. In 1905, the Reserves were transferred to the Department of Agriculture under the newly established Forest Service and the supervision of Gifford Pinchot. The lands in the Beckler drainage have been under the administration of the Forest Service since that time. In 1911, the Forest Service established a Ranger station south of the Beckler on the Miller River, for the purpose of housing a ranger to check homestead claims, patrol for fires, and manage timber permits. In the 1920s, lookouts became a popular method for fire detection, and a lookout was established on Beckler Peak in 1925, and on Evergreen Mountain in 1934.

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Recreation became increasingly popular on National Forest lands when railroads and roads began providing a means to get to the mountains. In 1912, a Good Roads Club was formed in to promote the Cascade Scenic Highway across Stevens Pass. The Forest Service contributed funds with a goal of providing better access to recreation and fire suppression on the National Forest. The road officially opened across Stevens Pass in 1925.

Proposed PSERN Sites There are six repeater sites proposed for installation along the U.S. 2 corridor between Skykomish and Stevens Pass. A seventh repeater is proposed along the I-90 corridor near Garcia. Highway 2 West The westernmost repeater along the Tye River valley would be located mid-slope on the steep southeast flank of Beckler Peak. The site is located within a second-growth stand near the Jennifer Dunn Trailhead. There is no evidence of historical use of the location and it is unsuitable for habitation. The potential for significant archaeological sites is negligible. Deception Creek The proposed Deception Creek location is on the south side of U.S. 2 across from the Deception Falls Trail. The repeater would be constructed off NFS road 6000-820, which diverges from U.S. 2 and passes under the BNSF railroad, and between two existing powerline corridors. It would be on the east side of Deception Creek above a small set of rapids that begin under the railroad bridge. The terrain of the proposed site is a hummocky slope of third growth hemlock, silver fir, and western red cedar. The ground is covered in a thick organic layer of duff and decomposing downed timber, channeled by small ephemeral drainages. The uphill periphery is bordered by a berm resulting from ground clearing along the railroad. The site is between the historical developments of the Great Northern Railway (1893) and the Old Cascade Highway (1914-1925), and adjacent to the original Deception Creek Trail (ca 1913.) While Deception Creek and its associated falls have been a recreational attraction since at least as far back as 1913, the trail was split from the falls when the modern route of U.S. 2 moved to the south side of the Tye River. Now the falls are a separate attraction on the north side of the highway, while the creek trailhead is accessible as a spur from the powerline access road on the south side. The only original historical feature in the area is the railroad. Scenic The proposed Scenic tower would be located at a flat river terrace near Scenic Creek on the periphery of the BNSF Railroad graded rail yard. It is within a mixed stand of high-graded hemlock and Douglas fir. The ground cover is comprised of ferns, two varieties of rosacea, Devil’s club, trillium, and mosses. The tower would be placed on the footprint of the old Scenic Forest Camp. The campground’s existence dates back to 1925, concurrent with the rerouting of the Old Cascade Highway to the north side of the river and railroad. It was among the earliest recreational developments along what was classified as the Steven Pass Highway Recreation Unit (Cleator 1926). Visitation at the camp was noted as 1,200 people in 1925, followed by a substantial drop-off due to the construction of the new close to the campground. The camp was temporarily shut down until after the tunnel’s completion in 1929. It was reconstructed in 1934 by the Civilian Conservation Corps stationed at Stevens Pass, but suffered numerous subsequent developments that eroded its utility and attraction over the years. It was decommissioned in 1957.

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Wellington The proposed Wellington tower would be placed on the hillside along the edge of the Old Cascade Highway above the former railroad towns of Wellington and Tye. The tower would be located mid-slope below the road and above a former railroad switchback grade within second-growth fir. Wellington marks the centerpiece to the Stevens Pass Historic District. The town originally sprang up to support the railroad operations at the west side of the switchbacks as the trains of the Great Northern Railroad made their way over the Cascade crest. In 1910, it became the site of one of the worst railroad disasters in U.S. history when an avalanche swept two trains from the tracks, killing 96 people. The town was rebuilt and renamed Tye to separate it from the bad publicity surrounding the tragedy. Eventually the risk was abated by the construction of extensive concrete snow sheds, and by excavation of a second tunnel at a lower elevation to bypass the avalanche-prone upper slopes. The town was abandoned in 1929 with the completion of the new tunnel. What remains are various historical foundations and features along the old rail line, and the impressive concrete snow sheds. Stevens Pass The Stevens Pass repeater location would be adjacent to the existing Frontier Communications building and tower on the north side of U.S. 2, across from the Stevens Pass ski area. Surrounding vegetation is a mix of secondary-growth fir and open grasses and forbs under the existing utility corridor adjacent to Skyline Road. The proposed site would be co-located with an existing tower development and surrounded by other improvements that support ski area operations. The potential for significant cultural resources is extremely low. Cowboy Mountain The Cowboy Mountain site is located at the top of the Skyline Chair lift at the Stevens Pass ski resort, within a subalpine meadow of vaccinium surrounded by mountain hemlock and silver fir. An access road would be constructed behind the lift on the northwest side of a shallow ephemeral pond. Surface visibility is somewhat obscured by ground vegetation, but otherwise lacks the thick duff and woody debris seen at other tower locations. I-90 Repeater The Garcia site is an outlier in this phase of proposed towers as it is along the I-90 corridor much farther south. It is located on a knob of resistant bedrock overlooking the glacial valley of the S.F. Snoqualmie River. The site is located at the end of a logging road and within a second-growth stand of small hemlock. The access road begins at a cleared power-line corridor but is quickly lost as the cut-and-fill route degrades to a dense path of vine maple. Historic use of this area included transportation developments, mining, logging, Civilian Conservation Corps improvements, and administrative activities. Beginning in 1869, farmers started driving cattle, sheep, and hogs across Snoqualmie Pass to market. From 1869 to 1888, Snoqualmie Pass was the most important trans-mountain route for the cattle trade. Despite this popularity, the road remained unreliable and unsafe. Efforts to improve the route continued and the first motorized traffic went through the Pass in 1905. In 1905, the Milwaukee Railway Company contracted construction of a cross-Cascade segment to compete with the Northern Pacific crossing at Stampede Pass, and the Great Northern already running through Stevens Pass. A "highline" route was completed in 1908 across the top to expedite use of the Pass, and the Snoqualmie Pass tunnel was completed in 1915. The line, known as the “,” was used into the 1970s, but it was abandoned by the bankrupt railroad in 1980. Acquired by the state between 1981 and 1984, the railroad grade was converted to a multi-use trail. Logging activities predominated this drainage from the late 1800s well into the 1940s.

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Although the site is adjacent to the historic Milwaukee Road railway, there is no record of a historical occupation at this location. Logging in the 1940s also eliminated any indication of pre-contact use of the landform.

3.6.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action This alternative would present no change from the existing condition. There would be no undertaking, thus, compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 would not be required. There would be no potential to adversely affect historic properties.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Direct Effects The construction of the proposed towers, facilities, and access routes would require ground disturbance by heavy equipment for the preparation of foundations plots ranging in size from approximately 700 to 3,500 square feet. Access road construction would also result in ground disturbance. The direct effect of earth movement to significant cultural sites stems primarily from the damage or destruction of archaeological deposits or features. Another impact from earth movement is the displacement of artifacts within a site and mixing of soil, which can both eliminate valuable provenience information as well as expose delicate organic materials to weathering and decay. Evaluations of significance for archaeological sites are heavily dependent on information potential. Destruction of diagnostic artifacts, important features (including unobtrusive buried features and standing architecture,) and movement of artifacts from their depositional contexts degrades or eliminates the information potential of important sites. Sites also must retain integrity and the physical ability to convey their significance through various aspects. The seven aspects of integrity as defined by the National Park Service are setting, design, location, workmanship, materials feeling, and association. In the context of direct effects, location, design, workmanship, and materials all may be adversely effected by construction activities and heavy equipment impacts. Preparation of the installation sites would also require the removal of trees. In some cases, culturally modified trees are considered significant cultural resources. The falling of trees also has the potential to destroy architectural features through direct impact. Skidding of trees across shallow archaeological sites may further displace, damage, or destroy artifacts. Indirect Effects Indirect effects can range in scope from site-specific to broadly regional. Should artifacts be exposed by vegetation removal or soil displacement, they are more likely to be picked up by the public, or the construction workers themselves (Bryant et al. 1982). Exposure also subjects the site to erosion, which further displaces and destroys the archaeological matrix. Increased exposure to weathering also poses a risk as organic materials such as woven fibers, wood, bark, and bone implements often deteriorate quickly once exposed to the surface. A less obvious indirect effect is that of destruction to site integrity by altering the viewshed or other nearby conditions. Removal of vegetation can affect the setting and feeling of a site to a degree that it would constitute an adverse effect. With most archaeological sites, this is unlikely. This is more likely to affect historical sites with standing features that rely on the environmental setting to convey its place in history.

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Based on project-specific review of existing information and site surveys, most site locations either have low probability for cultural resources or were surveyed and no cultural resources were found; however, two site locations were modified to avoid cultural resources discovered during the project review and site surveys or areas with higher likelihood of occurrence. Five of the proposed towers would be built within the Stevens Pass Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Forest Service has determined that the construction would not affect the integrity of this large discontiguous historic district. Consultation with the State Historic Preservation Officer was initiated in October 2017 and is now complete.

Cumulative Effects Archaeological sites are non-renewable resources that are being lost with an increasing frequency to alteration or destruction. However, current projects and those in the foreseeable future are given the same consideration per cultural resource laws in regards to potential adverse effects. No known projects are planned or predicted within the project area that would result in adverse effects to historic properties.

Forest Plan Consistency Provided that the avoidance measures included as part of the proposed action (see Table 1) are followed, all alternatives would be consistent with the standards and guidelines of the Forest Plan, as amended.

3.7 Recreation

3.7.1 Affected Environment The proposed PSERN sites are located on the Skykomish (six sites) and Snoqualmie (one site) Ranger Districts (Figures 1 and 2). The following sections describe recreation opportunities and facilities within the immediate vicinity of each proposed site.

Recreation Opportunity Spectrum The six proposed sites that would be located on the Skykomish Ranger District are all in areas assigned to the Roaded Natural Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) class. The areas immediately surrounding the proposed sites are also assigned to the Roaded Natural ROS class. The I-90 Repeater site on the Snoqualmie Ranger District is in an area that has not been assigned an ROS class. The closest areas with a designation are assigned to Roaded Natural. The Roaded Natural ROS class is characterized by a predominately natural appearing environment with moderate evidence of man. Resource modification and utilization practices are evident, and conventional motorized use is allowed.

Developed Recreation Developed recreation sites are generally defined as constructed recreation sites with developed facilities such as an established trailhead with a bulletin board or a campground with campsites, toilets, picnic tables, fire rings, and trash receptacles. According to the most recent information for the MBSNF available from the Forest Service’s National Visitor Use Monitoring program, nearly half of the total site visits to the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest were to developed sites (Forest Service 2016). Developed recreation sites in the vicinity of the proposed sites include trails, trailheads, campgrounds, and picnic areas (Table 10). These sites are discussed in the following sections.

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Table 10. Developed Recreation Sites in the Vicinity of the Proposed PSERN Sites Site Facility Name Highway 2 West Jennifer Dunn Trailhead and Beckler Peak Trail (#1240) Deception Creek Deception Falls Picnic Area; Deception Falls National Recreation Area (#1078) Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail (#1059) Scenic Surprise Creek Trailhead and Trail (#1060) Wellington Wellington Trailhead and Iron Goat Trail (#1074) Cowboy Mountain Stevens Pass Mountain Resort Stevens Pass Stevens Pass Mountain Resort Pacific Crest Trail (#2000) Interstate 90 —John Wayne Pioneer Trail McCellan Butte Trailhead and Trail (#1015) Tinkham Campground Alice Creek Campground

Highway 2 West Jennifer Dunn Trailhead and Beckler Peak Trail The Jennifer Dunn Trailhead is accessed from U.S. 2 at milepost 52, approximately 2 miles east of the Skykomish Ranger Station. Visitors turn off U.S. 2 north onto NFS road 6066 (Beckler Peak Road) and drive approximately 5.5 miles on NFS road 6066 to reach the trailhead and parking area, which are located at the end of the road. The Beckler Peak Trail was re-built and opened in September 2011 along with the Jennifer Dunn Trailhead. The proposed U.S. 2 West site would be located approximately 100 feet northwest of the trailhead. The Forest Service difficulty level assigned to the trail is more difficult, with the trail and trailhead receiving medium use in the summer and fall (Forest Service 2017a). Deception Creek Deception Falls Picnic Area and National Recreation Area (#1078) The Deception Falls Picnic Area and National Recreation Area is located on the north side of U.S. 2 at milepost 56. The shelter is generally open from Memorial Day to Labor Day and receives heavy use (Forest Service 2017b). The picnic area is located north across U.S. 2 from the proposed Deception Creek site. From the picnic area and parking lot, a paved trail extends 0.2 mile to a bridge that spans the Upper Falls. The trail then continues down the creek before looping back to the parking lot. The proposed Deception Creek site would be accessed via NFS Road 6000-820 (Deception Creek Road). Located by the BNSF railroad tracks, the proposed Deception Creek site would be located across NFS road 6000-820 from Upper Deception Falls at about 700 feet. Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail Access to the Deception Creek Trailhead is via U.S. 2 and NFS road 6000-820 (Deception Creek Road). The trailhead is located approximately 1 mile south of the highway, south of the BNSF railroad tracks that parallel the south side of U.S. 2, and just south of two sets of high voltage power lines. The proposed Deception Creek site would be located north of the trailhead, between U.S. 2 and the BNSF railroad tracks. The length of Deception Creek Trail is 10.3 miles. The first 5 miles gradually ascend the valley following Deception Creek south away from the proposed Deception Creek site, continuing to meet the Pacific Crest Trail (PCT) at Deception Pass or Deception Lakes.

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Scenic Surprise Creek Trailhead and Trail The Surprise Creek Trailhead is accessed from U.S. 2 at mile marker 58.7 via an unmarked road (NFS road 6000-840 [Surprise Creek Road]) to the BNSF service center. NFS road 6000-840 crosses the BNSF railroad tracks and a spur to the right continues 0.2 mile to the trailhead. The road passes under two sets of high voltage power lines. The proposed Scenic site would be located adjacent to the railroad tracks where the spur veers to the right. The trailhead is located approximately 1,000 feet southwest of the proposed Scenic site. The length of Surprise Creek Trail is 4.7 miles. The first 0.2 mile follows a power line service road to the beginning of the trail proper. From this point, the trail climbs up the narrow Surprise Creek valley through the forest to enter the Alpine Lakes Wilderness and connect with the PCT, heading south from the trailhead and away from the proposed Scenic site. Wellington Wellington Trailhead and Iron Goat Trail The Wellington Trailhead is accessed from U.S. 2 at mile marker 64.4 via NFS road 6099 (Old Stevens Pass Highway) and NFS road 050. The proposed Wellington site would be located on the west side of NFS road 6099 just north of its intersection with NFS road 050, approximately 1,400 feet northeast of the Wellington Trailhead. The length of Iron Goat Trail is 12 miles and follows the grade of the former Great Northern railroad, originally built to provide service over the Cascades in the late 1890s. The trail is accessible via trailheads located at Wellington, Scenic, and Martin Creek. From the Wellington Trailhead, the Iron Goat Trail trends southwest broadly paralleling Old Stevens Pass Highway and U.S. 2 away from the proposed Wellington site. Cowboy Mountain Stevens Pass Mountain Resort Stevens Pass Mountain Resort (SPMR) is one of four ski resorts on the Mt. Baker Snoqualmie National Forest that offers winter sports, including alpine skiing, snowboarding, and Nordic skiing. SPMR provides winter recreation opportunities for a sizeable portion of the region’s residents, with approximately 440,000 winter visitors during the 2016-2017 season, up from 415,000 during the previous winter (Forbes 2017). SPMR includes approximately 2,500 acres of NFS lands, with almost half of this total used for downhill skiing. SPMR has operated a lift-serviced summer mountain bike program since 2011, with approximately 8 miles of mountain bike trail. Other summer recreation activities in the SPMR include the SPMR 18-hole disc golf course. Dispersed recreation activities on the SPMR include day hiking, sightseeing, and berry picking. SPMR received 16,500 visitors in summer 2016, up from 14,500 visitors the previous summer (Forbes 2017). The proposed Cowboy Mountain site is located near the top of Cowboy Mountain, the highest point in the SPMR. The proposed site is located west above the top terminal of the Skyline Express ski lift.

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Stevens Pass Stevens Pass Mountain Resort SPMR is discussed in the preceding section. The proposed Stevens Pass site is located north of the existing SPMR Parking Area G on the north side of U.S. 2 and accessed via lower Skyline Ridge road. Pacific Crest Trail (PCT) The PCT is a long-distance hiking trail that extends a total distance of 2,650 miles from the U.S. border with Mexico north to the border with Canada. The PCT crosses through SPMR with two trailheads located either side of U.S. 2. The proposed Stevens Pass site is located on the north side of U.S. 2, approximately 600 feet west of the PCT Stevens Pass north trailhead. A total of 5,657 long-distance permits were issued to PCT hikers traveling 500 miles or more in a single trip in 2016, up from 4,453 permits in 2015 and 2,655 permits in 2014 (Pacific Crest Trail Association 2017). However, most backpackers, stock users, and permitted outfitter guides who use the PCT are “section hikers” spending shorter periods hiking specific sections or loops. Visitor use numbers for the PCT at Stevens Pass are estimated based on periodic samples taken by Forest Service personnel. An estimated 4,000 visitors per year use the PCT south of U.S. 2, with many of these visitors taking day trips. User estimates for the northern PCT trailhead (out of SPMR Parking Lot D) are lower, with an estimated annual total of 1,225 users, approximately one-third of whom are overnight users (Forest Service 2015d). Interstate 90 Iron Horse State Park and John Wayne Pioneer Trail The John Wayne Pioneer Trail is a 285-mile-long trail that extends from Cedar Falls near North Bend, Washington across the state to the border with Idaho. More than 100 miles of the trail from Cedar Falls to the Columbia River passes through Iron Horse State Park, a 1,612-acre park managed by Washington State Parks (State Parks) that follows the bed of the former Chicago-Milwaukee-St. Paul-Pacific Railroad. The John Wayne Pioneer Trail is a gravel-surfaced trail that follows the old railroad grade crossing several old railroad trestles and traveling through the 2.3-mile-long Snoqualmie Tunnel below Snoqualmie Pass. The John Wayne Pioneer Trail passes within 1,000 feet of the proposed I-90 Repeater. The proposed site would be located on top of a bluff between the trail and NFS road 9020. The John Wayne Pioneer Trail follows the valley around the north side of the bluff. Based primarily on vehicle counters, State Parks estimates that the Iron Horse King County trailhead received 43,057 visitors in fiscal year 2016 (July 1 to July 1), with an estimated 127,874 visitors visiting the Iron Horse Easton trailhead, east of the Cascades (Kline 2017). McClellan Butte Trailhead and Trail Access to the McClellan Butte Trailhead is via exit 42 (Tinkham Road) from I-90 and NFS road 55. The McClellan Butte Trailhead is located near I-90 more than half a mile from the proposed I-90 Repeater site. The trail length is approximately 5.4 miles and includes an initial section of nearly a mile that follows an unpaved road serving nearby powerlines, and crosses the John Wayne Pioneer Trail. Following that initial mile, the trail ascends the steep slopes via switchbacks in the forest, finally reaching the summit with

60 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA open views. The trail passes within approximately 2,000 feet of the proposed I-90 Repeater site at its closest point. The Forest Service difficulty level assigned to the trail is most difficult, with the trail and trailhead receiving medium use primarily in the summer and fall (Forest Service 2017c). Tinkham Campground Tinkham Campground is located near I-90 on the south fork of the Snoqualmie River. Like the McClellan Butte Trailhead, the campground is accessed via exit 42 (Tinkham Road) from I-90 and NFS road 55. Operated by a concessionaire, the campground includes 47 tent or trailer sites, a hand pump for water, and vault toilets. The season opens at the campground in May with use considered medium (Forest Service 2017d). The campground is located almost 2 miles southeast of the proposed I-90 Repeater site. Alice Creek Campground The Alice Creek Campground consists of three to four campsites, a picnic table, and a vault toilet. Located along the John Wayne Pioneer Trail, the campground is managed by State Parks as part of Iron Horse State Park (State Parks 2017). The campground is located about 3,500 feet southeast of the proposed I-90 Repeater site.

Dispersed Recreation Dispersed recreation activities are those that take place outside of developed recreation sites and facilities. Dispersed recreation activities may include scenic driving, hiking, bird watching, hunting, fishing, mountain biking, horseback riding, and camping at undeveloped campsites. According to the National Visitor Use Monitoring program, nearly one-third (32 percent) of the total site visits to the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest were general forest area visits (as distinct from developed site visits), with an additional 22 percent of total visits identified as designated Wilderness visits (Forest Service 2016). Table 11 lists the top 10 visitor activities by estimated participation. Recognizing that visitors may participate in more than one activity at a time (e.g., viewing natural features while hiking), the table also identifies the share of visitors who identified each activity as their main activity. Viewed in this manner, hiking/walking is the most popular activity at the Mt. Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest, with 45 percent of visitors identifying it as their main activity (Table 11). Table 11. Recreation Activity Participation on the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Participation Main Activity Activity (Percent) (Percent) Hiking/Walking 58.4 44.8 Viewing Natural Features 53.8 7.4 Relaxing 37 2.1 Viewing Wildlife 35.4 0.8 Downhill Skiing 29.6 29.6 Driving for Pleasure 15.3 2.4 Gathering Forest Products 12.4 0.1 Picnicking 8.8 0.4 Nature Study 7.7 0.2 Nature Center Activity 6.7 0.1 Source: Forest Service 2016

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Scenic Driving An estimated 15 percent of visitors to the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest participated in driving for pleasure (Table 11). Two scenic byways would provide access to the proposed sites: the Stevens Pass Greenway (U.S. 2) and the Mountains to Sound Greenway (I-90). Stevens Pass Greenway The Stevens Pass Greenway is one of seven scenic byways in Washington that are nationally designated routes as part of the National Scenic Byways Program. Washington State contains two designated All American Roads and five National Scenic Byways. The Stevens Pass Greenway is a National Scenic Byway that follows U.S. 2 east from Everett across Stevens Pass to Wenatchee (VGP Destination Marketing 2015). The section of U.S. 2 that extends west from the town of Skykomish to Stevens Pass and would provide access to six of the proposed sites is part of the Stevens Pass Greenway. Mountains to Sound Greenway The Mountains to Sound Greenway is also a National Scenic Byway. The 100-mile-long Greenway follows I-90 from Seattle across Snoqualmie Pass to Ellensburg, east of the mountains (VGP Destination Marketing 2015). Access to the proposed I-90 Repeater would be via helicopter taking off from a designating staging area accessed via I-90 and the Mountains to Sound Greenway.

3.7.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Under this alternative, no long-term special use permit would be issued to PSERN to construct communications facilities, associated equipment, and buildings on the identified sites on NFS lands. Improvement to the emergency communication network (e.g., coverage and reliability) would not occur in the area. No action for this proposal would not preclude other reasonably foreseeable actions in the area. This alternative would not have an impact on recreation resources.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action This alternative would involve the construction of communication facilities at seven locations on NFS lands. Development at six of the seven sites would involve the construction of permanent driveways or ATV trails that would extend existing roads to the proposed site. The proposed driveways range in length from 90 to 650 feet long. Driveways and trails would be for administrative access only, with gates or boulders installed to prevent public motorized vehicle access. ATV trails would be designed and maintained to USFS Specifications (FSH 2309.18, Section 23.22, Exhibit 01). Construction and maintenance at the proposed I-90 Repeater would be via helicopter. The estimated construction period for each site is expected to range from 6 to 12 weeks depending on the project scope at that location. Estimated construction vehicle traffic would range from one trip per day to four to six trips per day per site depending on the phase of the project. The proposed project is not expected to result in any temporary or permanent closures to existing roads; however, temporary delays of up to 1 hour could occur during large equipment delivery or operation. King County would provide traffic flaggers. There would be no road or trail use or closures due to project traffic for the I-90 Repeater, as all materials will be delivered by helicopter. Maintenance visits would occur monthly at powered sites and an estimated one to two times per year for unpowered repeater sites. Backup diesel generators would run only during testing and maintenance startups, or continuously during power interruptions. If power is not available at the site(s), full-time

62 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA generators would be needed for primary power, and the potential for this exists at the Deception Creek, Wellington, and Scenic sites. Information provided by the developer indicates that the proposed generators operating at a 75 percent load factor have operational noise levels of 77 decibels on the A- weighted scale (dBA) at a distance of 1 meter. However, the generators would be housed inside a prefabricated building that would reduce noise further. Fuel would be delivered about once or twice per year to run the backup generators which are remotely started and tested for maintenance. An approximate 12-hour response time is needed for emergency maintenance year round to maintain the emergency radio network. Typically, maintenance is performed by technicians using backpack-size hand tools and climbing gear. Recreation Opportunity Spectrum On the ROS continuum for the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Roaded Natural is the third most developed ROS setting. The proposed project is not expected to affect the ROS settings at or in the vicinity of the proposed sites. The proposed level of development is consistent with the ROS remoteness criteria for Roaded Natural settings, which include areas within 0.5 mile of better than primitive roads. The new driveways would also not change the overall level of access, management, facilities, and social encounters in the affected areas. Developed Recreation Impacts to developed recreation sites would occur during construction, which could potentially begin in summer 2018 under this alternative. The estimated construction period for each site is expected to range from 6 to 12 weeks depending on the project scope at that location. Estimated construction vehicle traffic would range from one trip per day to four to six trips per day per site depending on the phase of the project. Summer and fall are the busiest use times for all of the potentially affected developed recreation sites identified in the vicinity of the proposed sites. Construction activities could directly affect access to trailheads and trails, with visitors delayed by slow moving construction vehicles traveling access roads. Temporary delays may also occur prior to construction mobilization as a result of initial general maintenance of existing roads to accommodate heavy equipment. The presence of construction vehicles could also affect the availability of parking for visitors at trailheads and other potentially affected facilities. Construction activities could also potentially affect the quality of the recreation experience for visitors using the potentially affected facilities while construction is ongoing. Impacts would likely occur as a result of construction-related noise and dust, as well as the visual intrusion of construction activities. Sources of potential construction-related noise include typical ground-based heavy equipment, such as backhoes, excavators, road graders, and cement mixers. Other potential sources would include the crane trucks that would be required to assemble the towers on their foundations and helicopters that would be used to fly in equipment and materials to sites with limited access, primarily the proposed I-90 Repeater. Impacts to recreation during construction would generally be short-term and localized, with the severity of the impact reduced by implementation of the management requirements and mitigation measures related to recreation identified in Table 1. These measures include restricting work to weekdays and, if possible, lower shoulder seasons. NFS roads open to public access would remain open with maximum delays of up to 1 hour during work periods. Forest Service visitor information specialists would be notified in advance of potential delays so that the information could be posted to the Forest Service web site, and signs informing visitors of potential delays would be posted. Potential visitors to the affected recreation facilities could be temporarily displaced during construction, choosing to visit an alternate location where construction is not taking place.

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Following construction, operation and maintenance of the new facilities would require periodic access. Access would, however, be relatively infrequent and the occasional presence of operation and maintenance vehicles would not be expected to affect recreation access or the recreation experience at developed recreation facilities in the vicinity of the sites. Potential impacts following construction are more likely to be related to the introduction of the new communications facilities into the visual landscape experienced by visitors. Diesel generator information provided by the developer suggests that when in use the proposed generators would operational noise levels of 77 dBA at 1 meter. Comparable common noise levels include a truck at 50 feet (80 dBA) and a gas lawnmower at 100 feet (70 dBA) (BPA 2003). Noise levels decrease with distance from the source. At 100 feet, the sound level would be 47 dBA. Similar common noise levels include moderate rainfall on foliage (50 dBA) and light automobile traffic at 100 feet (50 dBA). Beyond 100 feet from the generator, noise would decrease by 6 dBA for every doubling of distance from the source (41 dBA at 200 feet, 35 dBA at 400 feet, and so on). Because the generators would be housed inside prefabricated buildings, actual noise levels outside of the building would be lower than these estimates. Highway 2 West Jennifer Dunn Trail and Beckler Peak Trail. The potential for construction traffic-related delays to weekday visitors to this trailhead are relatively high. Impacts to the quality of the recreation experience would also be relatively high as the proposed site and construction staging area would both be located next to the trailhead. Impacts would decrease for hikers once they are on the trail heading away from the trailhead. Long-term impacts would primarily be associated with the introduction of the tower into the visual landscape. Construction activities would involve the use of a construction staging area that would be cleared adjacent to NFS road 6066, near the trailhead. Following construction, the staging area would be retained for public overflow parking. Consistent with the Forest-wide standard and guideline for recreation that other resource activity planning such as road and timber sale developments should include plans to provide or improve compatible recreation facilities or services, the availability of the former staging area for use for overflow parking at the Jennifer Dunn Trailhead would be a long-term positive impact. Deception Creek Deception Falls Picnic Area and National Recreation Area. Potential construction-related impacts to the picnic area would be relatively low because the proposed site would be located on the other side of U.S. 2 and would not affect access to the picnic area. The proposed Deception Creek site, as the name suggests, would be located relatively close to Deception Falls and noise and visual impacts related to construction would likely have detrimental effects on weekday visitors walking the short loop trail from the picnic area to Deception Falls. Long-term impacts would primarily be associated with the introduction of the new communications facilities into the visual landscape. While the proposed facilities would represent the introduction of a new man-made structure into the landscape, impacts would be reduced by the location near the BNSF railroad tracks, existing high voltage power lines, and its location near U.S. 2. Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail. The Deception Creek Trailhead is located on NFS road 6000-820 (Deception Creek Road) approximately 1 mile south of U.S. 2. There is also a lightly used dispersed recreation site near the beginning of the proposed driveway. Construction access for the proposed Deception Creek site would also be via NFS road 6000-820 resulting in the potential for construction-

64 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA related delays for weekday visitors to the Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail. This potential would, however, be relatively low due the proximity of the proposed site to U.S. 2, which would limit the amount of time construction vehicles would need to travel on NFS road 6000-820. Potential impacts to the quality of the recreation experience would decrease as visitors pass the proposed site, with impacts to hikers further decreasing once they are on the trail heading away from the proposed Deception Creek site. As noted with respect to the Deception Falls Picnic Area and National Recreation Area, long-term visual impacts to visitors to the Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail would be reduced by the proposed site’s location adjacent to existing transportation and power transmission facilities. Scenic Surprise Creek Trailhead and Trail. Construction and maintenance access would be via a 200-foot- long driveway from NFS road 6000-840. The Surprise Creek Trailhead is also accessed via NFS road 6000-840 resulting in the potential for construction-related delays for weekday visitors to the Surprise Creek Trailhead and Trail. However, this potential would be relatively low due to the proximity of the proposed site to U.S. 2, which would limit the amount of time construction vehicles would need to travel on NFS road 6000-840. Visitors to the trailhead and trail initially pass through an area heavily developed with existing transportation and power transmission facilities, including the BNSF railroad service center, with the Surprise Creek Trail initially following a power line service road. Construction-related impacts to the quality of the recreation experience would decrease as visitors pass the proposed site, with impacts to hikers further decreasing once they are on the trail heading into the Forest and away from the proposed Scenic site. Long-term visual impacts to visitors would likely be reduced by the proposed site’s location adjacent to existing transportation and power transmission facilities. Wellington Wellington Trailhead and Iron Goat Trail. Construction and maintenance access would be via a 170- foot-long driveway from NFS road 6099. Additionally, an underground powerline may be installed along NFS road 6099 to the site. The Wellington Trailhead is accessed via NFS road 6099 (Old Stevens Pass Highway) and NFS road 050. The proposed Wellington site would be located on the west side of NFS road 6099 just north of its intersection with NFS road 050, approximately 1,400 feet northeast of the Wellington Trailhead. Visitors traveling NFS road 6099 southwest to NFS road 050 from the intersection near Stevens Pass would pass the proposed site. The Iron Goat Trail may also be accessed at Scenic and Martin Creek. Using one of these alternate points of access would also reduce potential impacts to visitors. Construction-related impacts to the quality of the recreation experience would decrease as visitors pass the proposed site, with impacts to visitors further decreasing once they are on the trail heading away from the proposed Wellington site. Long-term potential impacts to recreation would primarily be associated with the introduction of the proposed communication facilities into the visual landscape. Cowboy Mountain Prior to scoping for this project, the location of the Cowboy Mountain site was modified slightly to avoid potential conflict with projects under consideration by SPMR. The tower would be accessed for construction and maintenance via a 500-foot-long extension of the Skyline Express chair lift road. Power would be provided from the chair lift terminal via a buried power line along the proposed road extension.

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Construction would occur outside of the winter recreation season at SPMR. SPMR received an estimated 16,500 visitors in summer 2016 compared to 440,000 winter visitors during the 2016-2017 season (Forbes 2017). Developed recreation sites on the SPMR used during the summer include the lift-serviced mountain bike trails and the disc golf course. These facilities are located away from the proposed Cowboy Mountain site, which is located near the top of Cowboy Mountain, the highest point in the SPMR, reducing the potential for impacts to recreation. The management requirements and mitigation measures related to recreation identified in Table 1 include the requirement that the design and construction of the proposed Cowboy Mountain site be coordinated with Forest Service personnel and SPMR. Long-term potential impacts to recreation would primarily be associated with the introduction of the tower into the visual landscape. Stevens Pass Stevens Pass Mountain Resort. As noted with respect to the proposed Cowboy Mountain site, construction would occur during the outside of the winter recreation season at SPMR. The proposed Stevens Pass site is located north of the existing SPMR Parking Area G on the north side of U.S. 2 and accessed via lower Skyline Ridge Road. Construction activities at this location are unlikely to affect access to SPMR. The management requirements and mitigation measures related to recreation identified in Table 1 include the requirement that the design and construction of the proposed Cowboy Mountain site be coordinated with Forest Service and SPMR personnel. Pacific Crest Trail. Construction at the proposed Stevens Pass site would likely affect the quality of the recreation experience of both long-distance and section hikers passing through or accessing the PCT at the northern PCT trailhead. These impacts would be short-term and localized, with the intrusion decreasing as hikers move away from the proposed Stevens Pass site. Interstate-90 Iron Horse State Park and John Wayne Pioneer Trail. The John Wayne Pioneer Trail passes within 1,000 feet of the proposed I-90 Repeater, following the valley around the north side of the bluff. Construction activities would likely be apparent to visitors to the John Wayne Pioneer Trail, but impacts would be short-term and localized, decreasing as visitors continue along the trail away from the proposed I-90 Repeater. The trail generally parallels I-90 through the valley and visitors are routinely exposed to motor vehicle noise as they travel the trail. McClellan Butte Trailhead and Trail. The McClellan Butte Trailhead is located near I-90, more than half a mile from the proposed site, and passes within approximately 2,000 feet of the site at its closest point. Weekday visitors to the trailhead could experience potential construction-related traffic delays depending on the location of the construction staging area. However, this potential would be reduced by the proximity of the trailhead to I-90 and the limited distance visitors need to travel to the trailhead. Construction activities would likely be apparent to visitors to the McClellan Butte Trailhead and Trail, but impacts would be short-term and localized, decreasing as visitors continue along the trail south away from the proposed I-90 Repeater. Traffic sounds from the nearby interstate are audible along parts of the McClellan Butte Trail. Tinkham Campground. Tinkham Campground is located near I-90 on the south fork of the Snoqualmie River. Like the McClellan Butte Trailhead, the campground is accessed via exit 42 (Tinkham Road) from I-90 and NFS road 55. Weekday visitors to the campsite could experience potential construction-related traffic delays depending on the location of the construction staging area. However, this potential would be

66 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA reduced by the limited distance visitors need to travel to reach the campsite. Further, alternate access to Tinkham Road is available from the east via exit 47 (Asahel Curtis and Denny Creek) from I-90. Located nearly 2 miles southeast of the proposed I-90 Repeater, visitors to the campground are unlikely to be affected by construction-related noise and visual impacts, but may be aware of helicopter activity. Potential impacts would be short-term and localized. Alice Creek Campground. The campground is located about 3,500 feet southeast of the proposed I-90 Repeater. Visitors to the campground are unlikely to be affected by construction-related noise and visual impacts, but may be aware of helicopter activity. Potential impacts would be short-term and localized. Dispersed Recreation Potential impacts to dispersed recreation activities are likely to be similar to those described with respect to developed recreation. Visitors could be delayed by slow moving construction vehicles, and the presence of construction activities could affect the quality of the recreation experience for some visitors engaging in dispersed recreation activities in the vicinity of the proposed sites. As noted with respect to developed recreation opportunities, impacts to recreation during construction would generally be short- term and localized, with the severity of potential impacts reduced by implementation of the management requirements and mitigation measures related to recreation identified above in Section 2. Potential visitors to areas in the vicinity of the proposed sites could be displaced during construction, choosing to visit an alternate location where construction is not taking place.

Cumulative Effects Table 2 lists actions within the vicinity of the project area which may have effects that spatially and temporally overlap with the projected effects of the project. Based on past experience, professional knowledge, and scientific understanding of stipulated mitigation measures and design features listed in Table 1, it is assumed that any potential negative effects of the Proposed Action on recreation resources would be minimized and that the primary effect to recreationalists would be temporary during project construction. It is expected that forest visitor use will continue similar to existing levels in the vicinity of the project sites. Visitors may be temporarily displaced by construction activities related to the Proposed Action. If other projects identified in Table 2 occur at the same time and in the vicinity of the project, this effect could be slightly increased. Projects listed in Table 2 that could potentially displace visitors during the same time period include the PSERN Phase I project at Maloney Ridge and Sobieski Mountain, vegetation management as part of the Hansen Creek Timber sale along the I-90 corridor and ongoing road maintenance, and BPA powerline road reconditioning. However, other projects on NFS land would require measures to limit impacts, such as road closure timing or workday restrictions. In the long term, there would be no measurable change to the recreation resource as a result of the project; therefore, there would be no cumulative effects.

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3.8 Visual Resources

3.8.1 Affected Environment

Existing Landscape Character and Existing Scenic Integrity Stevens Pass Scenic Byway (Skykomish Ranger District) The Stevens Pass Scenic Byway (U.S. Highway 2) is 69 miles long, stretching from the west slope of the Cascade Mountains starting from the community of Goldbar and crossing through a variety of mountainous landforms, canyons, and river-lined valleys until descending to the eastern terminus at Leavenworth. The Skykomish River flows along the Byway on the west portion and the Nason Creek parallels the route for 20 miles on the east side until entering the Tumwater Canyon, where the Wenatchee River enters and flows to Leavenworth and to the Columbia River in Wenatchee. The project area is on the west side. An important feature of the scenic byway is the Stevens Pass Historic District which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a district with national significance. The features are tied to the original route of James Hill’s Great Northern Railway, remains of tunnels, snowsheds, switchbacks, and constructions towns and camps cluster near the summit of Stevens Pass. In addition, the highly developed ski resort of Stevens Pass Ski Area is located at the pass and is a major destination in the winter and summer. There are major portals to the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail and two wilderness areas at the Stevens Pass Summit. The BNSF Railroad runs roughly parallel to U.S. 2, visible in areas. The Bonneville Power Administration powerline right-of-way corridor roughly follows U.S. 2 and is visible in places. Stevens Pass Scenic Byway is also a part of the Cascade Loop and is designated a scenic byway by the Forest Service. The State of Washington has recognized the Skykomish River as a Washington State Scenic River from Skykomish to Sultan. The Skykomish River is being considered for Wild and Scenic River Status under direction of the Mount Baker Snoqualmie Forest Plan. The following describes existing landscape character and scenic integrity for the six sites proposed along Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. Stevens Pass Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The proposed Stevens Pass site is at the crest of Stevens Pass in the Cascade Range located in the foreground zone of U.S. 2 and Stevens Pass Ski Resort. The site is located within a knob landform below the Skyline ridgeline framing the backdrop setting. Currently, there is an existing communications site that is small in scale and not visible; it blends in the landscape viewed from Stevens Pass Ski Resort and U.S. 2. The Skyline Lake Trail traverses around the northwest of the site next to the existing facilities on the existing gravel access road before transitioning to a more traditional trail. The landscape character is moderately developed with a small communication site with rustic building structures, small cell tower, utility poles, power vaults and boxes, gravel access road and parking. The landscape setting surrounding the proposed site is a mosaic of vegetation patterns with rock outcrops and brush fields intermixed with a range of densely vegetated tall evergreen trees, up to 165 feet tall and up to 36 inches in diameter, around the bench knob landform. The backdrop setting is natural appearing with opportunity to blend in the communication site facility. The view from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway meets the VQO of Retention.

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Wellington Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The Wellington site is located north of U.S. 2 in the foreground zone and is in the Stevens Pass Historic District. The site is accessed from the Old Stevens Pass Highway, NFS road 6099, the road is paved with rough gravel patches. Also known as the Old Cascade Highway, the narrow road follows the Tye River along the valley bottom until reaching the Wellington Trailhead which is accessed off NFS spur road 050. The Wellington trailhead provides access to the Iron Goat Trail 1074, a historic interpretive trail that follows the abandoned Great Northern Railway and connects to the Iron Goat Trailhead near Scenic, WA. Currently there are no existing communication tower facilities located in the area. There is a variety of evergreen Douglas-fir and cedars up to 45 inches in diameter mixed with tall cottonwood and other riparian vegetation in the valley floor that provides screening of the foreground for the U.S. 2 viewshed and Wellington Trailhead. The view from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway meets the VQO of Retention. Cowboy Mountain Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The Cowboy Mountain site is located south of U.S. 2 within the Stevens Pass Ski Area in the foreground/middleground of U.S. 2, Stevens Lake Trail, the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail, and is within the Stevens Pass Historic District. The proposed site is near the top of Skyline Express Chair lift below Cowboy Mountain on a flatter ridgeline running along the break. Cowboy Mountain peak provides a backdrop setting viewed from surrounding areas with over 500 feet of mountain backdrop to blend in the tower. Stevens Pass Ski Area and Cowboy Mountain are focal points highly visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. The ski area is valued as a sense of place year round destination for recreational activities. The landscape setting is considered natural appearing as viewed from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway even though the ski area is highly developed in an urban setting. Currently, there are no existing communication facilities at the site. The Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail traverses northeast of the Stevens Pass Ski Area, primarily in the base area where it crosses over a pedestrian bridge. Then travelling east around Cowboy Mountain, the proposed communication tower site is not highly visible from the trail except as viewed from the base of the ski area where it is more open. The setting near the proposed site is developed with several facilities associated with the ski area such as ski chair lift, buildings, power poles with lights, electrical box, transformer box, water tanks, and gravel access roads. The landscape surrounding the proposed site ridgeline is a mosaic of vegetation patterns ranging from densely vegetated tall evergreen trees up to 100 feet tall and 31 inches in diameter intermixed with brush fields, various landform ridges, breaks, rock outcrops and peaks. A small lake is located southwest of the Barrier Ridgeline along the proposed access road. The backdrop setting is natural appearing with opportunity to blend in the communication site facility with the variety of trees and landform breaks. The view of Cowboy Mountain currently meets Retention VQO as viewed from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. Scenic (Iron Goat) Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The Scenic site is located south of U.S. 2 adjacent to an existing private land parcel containing the BNSF Railway work yard and Puget Sound Energy step-down station. The site is located adjacent to a small developed industrial area in the foreground of U.S. 2 (within ½ mile distance) in the Stevens Pass Historic district. Scenic is approximately 60 feet below the Highway’s elevation. The BNSF service area includes an existing paved access road, buried fiber optic and above ground power lines, railway lines, existing cell tower that is lighted and is visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. After crossing the railroad tracks, the road transitions into a Forest Service gravel spur road that provides access to Surprise Creek Trailhead, Surprise Creek Trail 1060 and the Alpine Lakes Wilderness.

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The landscape setting on NFS lands surrounding the proposed site is a mosaic of vegetation patterns with a range of densely vegetated layers of coniferous or deciduous trees, shrubs and groundcover surrounding the site (Douglas-fir, hemlock, cedar, cottonwood, alder). The evergreen trees are up to 165 feet tall, and tall cottonwood riparian vegetation in the valley floor provides screening for the lower half of the cell tower. The backdrop setting on National Forest System Lands is natural appearing with the foreground being developed. The middleground and background views from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway in this location meet the VQO of Retention. Deception Creek Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The Deception Creek site is located south of U.S. 2 and the Deception Falls Day Use recreation site, and is accessed with NFS road 6000-820. It is located in the foreground of U.S. 2 and Stevens Pass Historic District approximately ½ mile distance from the junction with U.S. 2 and the NFS road 6000-820, approximately 200 feet above the Highway’s elevation. The travel route is densely vegetated with mature trees and winds its way to provide access to Deception Creek Trailhead and Deception Creek Trail 1059. The proposed tower site is located to the west of the travel route in a narrow stream lined valley with dense forested vegetation enclosing views from the travel route. The site would be in a new location with large trees dominating the area. A smaller scale rustic powerline corridor follows U.S. 2 creating a cleared linear corridor; it is well screened from the Highway, with glimpses of the powerline along the way. In addition the BNSF Railroad corridor also travels along the foreground of U.S. 2 and is mostly screened. Close to the Deception Creek Trailhead the BPA powerline corridor cuts through the landscape creating a large cleared linear corridor. The powerline corridor is visible in places along U.S. 2 due to the large scale, but is mostly screened from the Highway. The landscape setting on NFS lands surrounding the proposed site is a mosaic of vegetation patterns with a range of densely vegetated layers of coniferous trees and shrubs. The evergreen trees are up to 165 feet tall along the U.S. 2 travel corridor and provide screening for the proposed site. The landscape is natural appearing and meets Retention VQO viewed from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and Deception Falls Day Use Site. Highway 2 West (Jennifer Dunn) Existing Landscape Character & Scenic Integrity The proposed site is located midslope on the northeastern side near Beckler Peak (at approximately 2,800- foot elevation) near Jennifer Dunn Trailhead. The Jennifer Dunn Trailhead is located in a streamlined enclosed valley that dissects U.S. 2. The site is approximately 500 feet from the trailhead in an area that has been clear-cut and is reproducing with young trees, approximately 20 feet tall that would provide vegetation screening. The site is not visible from the Jenifer Dunn trailhead, Beckler Peak trail, or NFS Beckler Peak Road 6606. The road is a winding gravel two-lane road that ends at the Jennifer Dunn trailhead, located approximately 8 miles from the U.S. 2 junction. Views from the travel route are enclosed with layers of vegetation ranging from a variety of colorful shrubs such as alder and vine maple transitioning to silver fir and other conifer trees at higher elevations and meets a natural appearing forested setting. An occasional distant view is opened along the upper reaches of the travel route, the site is located in the middleground of the Stevens Pass Scenic Viewshed and is not visible. The view from the Stevens Pass Scenic Byway meets the VQO of Retention. I-90 Mountain to Sounds Greenway (Snoqualmie RD) Interstate 90 begins in Seattle and travels west crossing over Snoqualmie Pass through the Cascade Range with summit elevation at 3,015 feet. I-90 is the major east-west travel corridor in the state providing commercial access and easy access for people seeking year-round outdoor recreational activities in the area. There are numerous developed recreational facilities along the travel route within the project area including the Snoqualmie Summit Ski Area, snowmobile routes, campgrounds, , John Wayne Iron Horse Trail and the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail all within an hour drive from Seattle.

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The Mountains to Sound Greenway was organized in 1991 to preserve and create a greenway following the I-90 travel corridor. The goals are to accommodate a network of recreational trails, rest area and wildlife corridors; a location for truck stops and high-tech businesses; and a landscape of working farms, forests, and communities. Enhancing scenic beauty along the highway is a priority. The following describes existing landscape character and scenic integrity for the communication site proposed on the Snoqualmie Ranger District (I-90 Repeater) along the I-90 Mountains to Sound Greenway. I-90 Repeater Existing Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The site is located near the top knob of the landform rising before McClellan Butte at approximately 2,230 feet on the south side of I-90. This area of the travel route is a fairly enclosed straight stretch travelling through the S.F. Snoqualmie River lined valley approximately 10 miles west of Snoqualmie Summit Ski Area. McClellan Butte provides the forested natural appearing backdrop setting on the south side of I-90 foreground with a peak elevation of 4,800. The Iron Horse John Wayne Trail winds around the knob in the valley floor on the south side of Snoqualmie River, the trail setting is well screened with topography and vegetation. In addition, the McClellan Butte trails in the area would also be well screened. Currently there are no existing communication tower facilities located in the immediate area; the nearest existing tower is located near I-90, Exit 42, about a half mile from the I-90 Repeater. There is an existing access gravel road that traverses along the valley bottom and up McClellan Butte (NFS road 9020). The view from I-90 Mountain to Sounds Greenway primarily meets the VQO of Retention with some slightly altered areas recovering from past vegetation management activities related to clear cutting where evidence of uneven forested edges contrast with the evenly highly textured landscape. The riparian vegetation in the valley floor provides screening of foreground for the Iron Horse Trail and I-90.

3.8.2 Environmental Effects

Alternative 1 – No Action Under the No Action alternative, none of the communication sites would be developed. There would be no change from the existing conditions described above.

Alternative 2 – Proposed Action Effects Common to All Full Communication Sites with Equipment Buildings The proposed equipment buildings would meet the Cascadian Architectural Style (Figure 5), mitigating for aesthetic value by using a prefab concrete building stained a dark brown with hardiplank (or similar) lap siding and a dark charcoal gabled metal roof to help the facility blend in with its surroundings. Stevens Pass Scenic Byway (Skykomish Ranger District) The following describes the proposed landscape character and scenic integrity for the six sites proposed along Stevens Pass Scenic Byway on Skykomish Ranger District at Stevens Pass, Wellington, Cowboy Mountain, Scenic, Deception Creek, Highway 2 West. Stevens Pass Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The variety of vegetation patterns would provide visual screening and blend the communication site facility into the landscape, except for the very upper end of the tower. Due to the proposed height of 170 feet, the proposed upper portion of the cell tower (20 to 30 feet) and microwave dishes would be slightly visible from Stevens Pass Ski Area and Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. The form, color (dark forest evergreen) and height of the new microwave dishes and lattice tower would introduce some slight form

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Figure 5. Illustration of Building Architectural Style changes at the full height where the microwave antennas would be attached and is positioned just above existing tree height. It would be sited away from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and partially screened with landform and vegetation. The form, line, color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high, meeting Retention VQO. The 12-foot by 30-foot shelter, fencing and other on the ground facilities of the communication site would not be seen. The proposed Stevens Pass site would be visible from the Skyline Lake Trail and would add to the moderately developed landscape character reflective of a communication site. The proposed Stevens Pass site would be slightly visible viewed from the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail, in the foreground and middleground north from Stevens Pass Ski Resort area (see photos, Appendix A). Wellington Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The communication site facilities, including the shelter, fencing and other on the ground facilities of the communication site would not be seen from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and would be visible from the Old Stevens Pass Highway since it is within the immediate foreground zone (up to 300 feet). Visual simulation (Appendix A) displays the existing and proposed view. The variety of vegetation patterns and location of communication site out of highly visually sensitive areas would provide visual screening and blend the communication site facility into the landscape. As viewed from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway, the tower would not be visible. The form, line, color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high, meeting Retention VQO. Cowboy Mountain Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity Due to the proposed height of 190 feet, the proposed upper portion of the tower (50 feet) and microwave dishes would be slightly to moderately visible from Stevens Pass Ski Area and Stevens Pass Scenic Byway, but they would still meet Retention VQO because they are in the foreground sited away from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and are partially screened with landform and vegetation. The form, color and height of the new microwave dishes and lattice tower would introduce some slight form changes at the full height where the microwave antennas are positioned above existing tree height at the ridgeline. The shelter, fencing and other on the ground facilities of the communication site would be located on a flatter

72 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA bench approximately 300 feet southwest and up in elevation 30 feet from Skyline Chair lift unloading area, and would not be seen from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and Stevens Pass Ski Area at the Skyline Chair lift. The form, line, color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high, meeting Retention VQO. Scenic Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The proposed upper half of the 245-foot tower and microwave dishes would be visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and would meet Modification due to the height of the tower and lighting requirements from FAA. Design measures of painting the tower a dark slate grey to blend in the sky would soften some of the color contrast, however introducing the large tower form, line and texture and flashing medium intensity white light during the day changing to a slow flashing red light at night as viewed from the highway would still be noticeable, meeting Modification VQO in the foreground and Partial Retention as viewed from a distance where the color would blend into the background but lights would be seen. Deception Creek Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The communication site facilities including the shelter, fencing and other on the ground facilities of the communication site would not be seen from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and would be slightly visible from NFS road 6000-820 because it is within the immediate foreground zone (up to 200 feet), but would be well screened. The visual simulation (Appendix A) displays the existing and proposed view. The variety of vegetation patterns and location of the site located approximately 200 feet above U.S. 2’s elevation and along a straight section of the highway confines views mainly in the direction of travel. This would provide visual screening and blend the communication site facility into the landscape, thus it would not be visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. The form, line, color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high, meeting Retention VQO, not visible from the Byway. Highway 2 West Proposed Landscape Character & Scenic Integrity The visual simulation (Appendix A) displays the existing and proposed view. The location of the proposed communication site is located out of view of the U.S. 2 viewshed in a vegetatively enclosed straight section of the highway. Views are mainly confined in the direction of travel. The lattice tower would be painted dark forest evergreen to blend into the forested conifer backdrop.The form, line, color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high, meeting Retention VQO. The site is not visible from U.S. 2. I-90 Mountain to Sounds Greenway (Snoqualmie RD) The following describes proposed landscape character and scenic integrity for the proposed site along the Interstate 90 Mountains to Sound Greenway. Three other PSERN tower locations planned for construction on non-NFS lands along I-90 at Bandera, Tinkham and Olallie are discussed in the Cumulative Effects section. I-90 Repeater Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity The visual simulation (Appendix A) displays the existing and proposed view. The proposed I-90 tower on the butte as viewed from the I-90 travel corridor would meet the VQO of Retention with just the top 20 to 30 feet being slightly visible. The tower, microwave dishes and antennas would be painted a dark slate grey color and blend into the backdrop setting. The I-90 Repeater on NFS lands would meet Retention VQO of the Mountains to Sound Greenway with design measures of painting the tower a dark slate gray and the site being located above and away from the I-90 freeway, in the far foreground. The form, line,

73 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA color and texture change would be subordinate to the existing landscape character and scenic level would be moderately high. Proposed Landscape Character and Scenic Integrity Level after implementation The viewing duration, location and angle of viewing are crucial elements in managing to blend the communication facilities into the landscape. The viewing duration is primarily from people travelling along the viewsheds of I-90 or U.S. 2 and from recreationists using the landscape areas for a variety of year-round activities. The duration is primarily one of passing through the scenic viewsheds year-round except for the Cowboy Mountain site and Stevens Pass site. The Cowboy Mountain vicinity has a higher duration of viewing as people are gathered in the Stevens Pass Ski Resort for a fixed period of time and Cowboy Mountain is viewed from within the ski resort. Stevens Pass site has the Skyline Ridge Trail passing right next to the site. The location and angle of viewing are seen as foreground and middleground. By managing the new communication facilities to meet Retention VQO from the foreground and the middleground view, Retention VQO would be met in the built environment from all the sites except for the Scenic site in Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. The Scenic site would meet Modification from the foreground of U.S. 2 and Partial Retention as viewed from a distance where the color would blend into the background but lights would be seen.

Scenery Cumulative Effects In addition to the seven communication sites included in the Proposed Action and considered in the analysis for Forest Service approval, King County would also construct three other PSERN towers, and related facilities, on non-NFS lands along I-90 at Bandera, Tinkham and Olallie. From a scenery resource perspective, adding six new communication sites in Stevens Pass Byway and four new communication sites in Mountains to Sound Greenway could affect the landscape character and scenic integrity of the viewsheds depending on how visible they are. Design features and mitigation measures are proposed to help “blend in” the communication sites with the surrounding mountainous, forested terrain, to reduce visual impact in the Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and I-90 Mountain to Sounds Greenway as much as feasible. By designing the facilities to be visually subordinate, the future needs for communications into the short and long term would be met while achieving the Retention VQOs prescribed by the Forest Plan on National Forest System Lands. In the Stevens Pass Scenic Byway, the six communication sites and cell towers are located over the U.S. 2 travel corridor for approximately 15 miles from Skykomish to Stevens Pass Summit, primarily in the foreground distance zone or immediate foreground zone. The communication sites that would be located away from the immediate foreground would blend into the landscape topography and vegetation patterns; they would not be noticeable and would meet Retention from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway. The towers that would be slightly visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway include Cowboy Mountain and Stevens Pass sites, but they would still meet Retention since they are in the foreground sited away from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and are partially screened with landform and vegetation. The Scenic site would be highly visible from Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and would meet Modification VQOs due to the height of the tower and lighting requirements from FAA. Design measures of painting the tower a dark slate grey to blend in the sky will soften some of the color contrast. However, introducing the large tower form, line and texture and with medium flashing white lights during the day, and changing to a slow flashing red light at night will still be noticeable in the skyline as viewed from the highway. This would meet Modification VQOs from the foreground of U.S. 2 and Partial Retention as viewed from a distance, where the tower’s color would blend into the background but lights would be seen.

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In the I-90 Mountains to Sound Greenway, four communication sites would be located along the travel corridor for approximately 6 miles, with the I-90 Repeater on NFS lands being in the far foreground. The three communication sites located on private/other lands would be located in the immediate foreground. The I-90 Repeater on NFS lands would meet Retention VQO from the Mountains to Sound Greenway with design measures of painting the tower a dark slate gray and the site being located above and away from I-90. The proposed tower at Bandera (Iron Horse State Park) would be lighted and painted orange/white per FAA requirements due to its proximity to Bandera airstrip. However, the tower would be screened by trees in the middleground viewshed and would not be visible as viewed by travelers on I-90. Two communication sites located on State lands (Olallie and Tinkham) would be located in the immediate foreground of I-90 and would be visible. The Olallie and Tinkham sites are highly visible from I-90 being located right in the immediate foreground zone (300 feet) with no vegetation screening available and open valley floor directing the view towards the area. Due to the height (250 feet) of the Tinkham tower, FAA lighting requirements for obstruction marking would apply to the Tinkham tower. To reduce cumulative visual effects in the Mountains to Sound Greenway, the Forest Service has recommended that the tower at Tinkham be painted a dark slate grey, with white strobe lights during the day and slow flashing red lights at night, similar to the proposed tower at Scenic. While the Tinkham site is outside of Forest Service jurisdiction, King County confirmed their intent to implement this recommendation subject to jurisdictional concurrence. Design measures of painting the Ollalie and Tinkham towers a dark slate grey to blend them into the skyline would soften some of the color contrast, however introducing the large tower form, line and texture viewed from the highway would still be noticeable and meet Modification VQO within the foreground of I-90, and Partial Retention as viewed from a distance where the color would blend into the background but lights would be seen. By managing the new communication facilities to meet Retention VQO from the foreground and the middleground view Retention VQO would be met in the built environment from all the sites except for Scenic site in Stevens Pass Scenic Byway and the Bandera, Tinkham and Ollallie sites in the Mountains to Sound Greenway. These sites would meet Modification from the foreground of U.S. 2 and I-90, and Partial Retention when viewed from a distance, where the color would blend into the background but lights would be seen. Most of the other projects identified in Table 2 would not contribute to the cumulative effects with this project because they are activities that either would not change the existing condition (such as road maintenance) or would not overlap spatially with the effects of the project. Expansion of resort facilities at Stevens Pass would contribute to the effects of the Cowboy Mountain and Stevens Pass sites; though resort facilities are also required to match the Cascadian architectural style. Helicopter thinning of trees near the I-90 Repeater would occur under the Hansen Creek Timber sale, but visual effects would be mitigated by leaving an un-thinned zone along visually sensitive roads, trails, and Interstate 90 and other measures and, as a result, the project would maintain or improve visual quality within the Hansen Creek Vegetation Management Project area and thus there would be no contribution to cumulative effects of the PSERN Phase 2 project.

3.9 Civil Rights and Environmental Justice Environmental justice is defined as the pursuit of equal justice and equal protection under the law for all environmental statutes and regulations, without discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic

75 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA status. Minority and low-income groups living in King and Snohomish Counties work in diverse occupations. Some minorities, low-income residents, and Native Americans may rely on forest products or related forest activities for their livelihood. Under the no action alternative, there would be no change to motorized access, nor would there be any removal of forest products, recreation access, or related activities. Under the action alternative, there would be no change to motorized access, nor would there be any removal of forest products or related activities except for clearing within the footprint and adjacent to the proposed facilities. Only the gated perimeter of each facility site would have restricted access to the public. Access to forest product on lands surrounding the tower sites would be unchanged. Thus, the proposed action would not pose any adverse effect on minority, low-income communities. Once completed, the project will benefit all nearby communities and forest visitors by improving overall safety through expanded and improved emergency response communications.

3.10 Air Quality and Noise General weather patterns for the sites are typical of the Northern Cascades with mild, wet winters with snow accumulations at elevations above 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and generally dry summers. Prevailing winds are usually northwest to southwest with some periods of east winds mainly during the spring and fall. Strong inversions are not common but may have an effect on sites located in valleys, especially on warm summer days. Existing air quality in the project areas is generally good with little impact from industrial sources, pollution, or wood stoves. The primary effects to air quality with the implementation of the action alternative would be short term. Contaminants that would be generated by construction are dust, exhaust smoke, and noise; however, these pollutants would mainly be confined to the immediate area and would be of short duration. Since construction is short term, it is anticipated that any effects from these pollutants would be minimal. It is anticipated that the five sites requiring power would be connected to line power via underground lines. As such, backup generators will only run during periodic testing, and in the event of power disruptions. The pollutants that would be created by generator use are noise, exhaust smoke, diesel particulates, and sulfur deposition. It is anticipated the developed and dispersed use forest visitors would generally be far enough away from the tower sites that noise emitted from the generator(s) would not be apparent. The emissions from a diesel generator are minor enough (in these settings) that they should not be a real concern. Though there would be probably be a visible (though small) smoke plume and particulates and sulfur being emitted, the amounts generated from this engine are too small to be “plugged” into any of the dispersion models that are used to analyze effects. Since the general public would not have direct access to the site and the only time employees would visit the site is for maintenance purposes, long-term exposure to the different pollutants should not be a factor. It is possible that line power may not be available at all sites. King County is currently working with power suppliers to determine the feasibility of line power at the Wellington, Scenic, and Deception Creek sites. If it is determined that line power is not available for one or more of these sites, then primary power generators would run continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Even with a generator running continuously, it is anticipated that pollution would be nominal. Whether the generators are used for emergency power or primary power, all generator engines would comply with EPA emissions standards for stationary diesel engines. All of Washington state meets

76 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA national air quality standards, so there would be no effect to non-attainment areas. Finally, none of the sites are within a Class I Airshed; thus, there are no State or Federal visibility or deposition standards that apply. No power is needed at the I-90 or Highway 2 West sites, thus, there would be no pollution from generator use.

3.11 Climate Change This proposed action would affect about 1 acre of NFS managed land, spread across seven sites on the Skykomish and Snoqualmie Ranger Districts, by removal of existing vegetation for the development of the communications sites and access routes. This scope and degree of change would be minor relative to the amount of forested land being present on these Districts as a whole. During operations, five of the facilities would include diesel generators for either primary or backup power. Climate change is a global phenomenon because major greenhouse gases mix well throughout the planet’s lower atmosphere (IPCC 2013). Considering emissions of greenhouse gasses in 2010 was estimated at 49 ± 4.5 gigatonnes globally (IPCC 2014) and 6.9 gigatonnes nationally (EPA 2017), a project of this magnitude makes an infinitesimal contribution to overall emissions. Therefore, at the global and national scales, this proposed action’s direct and indirect contribution to greenhouse gasses and climate change would be negligible. In addition, because the direct and indirect effects would be negligible, the proposed action’s contribution to cumulative effects on global greenhouse gasses and climate change would also be negligible. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has summarized the contributions to climate change of global human activity sectors in its Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC 2014). In 2010, anthropogenic (human-caused) contributors to greenhouse gas emissions came from several sectors:

• Industry, transportation, and building – 41%

• Energy production – 35%

• Agriculture – 12%

• Forestry and other land uses – 12% There is agreement that the forestry sector contribution has declined over the last decade (IPCC 2014, Smith et al., 2014, FAOSTAT 2013). The main activity in this sector associated with greenhouse gasses emissions is deforestation, which is defined as removal of all trees, most notably the conversion of forest and grassland into agricultural land or developed landscapes (IPCC 2000). This special use project for an emergency services network, does not fall within any of these main contributors of greenhouse gas emissions. This infinitesimal contribution from this special use project to global conversion of forest and grasslands would be negligible.

3.12 Transportation Development of the proposed facilities (Alternative 2) would have negligible effects on transportation. Portions of NFS roads and non-System roads leading to each of the communication sites may require general maintenance to accommodate heavy equipment, prior to mobilization. Such maintenance could include: brushing, blading, adding spot rock, and cleaning ditches and culverts to correct drainage problems; however, these activities are the same as ongoing road maintenance that regularly occurs

77 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA throughout the Forest. During construction, several construction vehicle trips on NFS roads would occur daily on weekdays; however, roads would remain open to the public and access to trailheads would be maintained. Temporary delays of up to 1 hour could occur during large equipment delivery or operation on weekdays (construction would not occur during weekends or federal holidays). King County would provide traffic flaggers during these times. Roads that may be impacted include:

• NFS road 6066 accessing the Jennifer Dunn Trailhead and Beckler Peak Trail (#1240)

• NFS road 6000-820 accessing the Deception Creek Trailhead and Trail (#1059)

• NFS road 6000-840 accessing the Surprise Creek Trailhead and Trail (#1060)

• NFS road 6099 accessing the Wellington Trailhead and Iron Goat Trail (#1074) Negligible road use would occur in association with maintenance visits and fuel delivery. Non-system roads that would be used include the Cowboy chairlift access road and the Lower Skyline Ridge Road at SPMR. There would be no road or trail use or closures due to project traffic for the I-90 Repeater, as all materials would be delivered by helicopter.

3.13 Public Safety Development of the proposed facilities (Alternative 2) would improve public safety along the U.S. 2 and I-90 corridors as part of King County’s current modernization and expansion of its regional emergency services network used by 911 dispatchers, emergency service providers (police officers, fire fighters and emergency medical staff), and incident response teams. Dispatching and first-responders’ radio coverage and reliability would be improved. The tower at Scenic (along U.S. 2), and Olallie, Tinkham and Bandera towers along I-90 would require lighting for safety purposes as required by the FAA. If not implemented (Alternative 1, No Action) King County would not upgrade or replace the emergency radio communication system along the U.S. 2 and Snoqualmie Pass I-90 corridors. Coverage would not be expanded to these areas where it is needed, including parts of the National Forest, and system capacity would remain too low for King County’s needs in the event of a large-scale disaster or incident. King County anticipates that parts needed to maintain and operate the current system will soon become scarcer, decreasing its ability to repair and maintain the network and increasing the risk of system failure in the future. As a result, there would be an adverse effect on public safety if the project is not implemented.

3.14 Other Disclosures Congressionally Designated Areas: None of the seven proposed communications sites would be located within or affect congressionally designated areas (e.g., Wilderness). Wild and Scenic River Act: No designated or potential wild and scenic river sections would be affected by the implementation of this project. The MBSNF Forest Plan recommended the Tye River, S.F. Skykomish River, and Deception Creek for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System as recreational segments. The values contributing to the proposed classifications are to be protected until a final designation decision is made by Congress. The “outstandingly remarkable values” identified for the S.F. Skykomish River and Tye River are recreation, fisheries, wildlife, and scenic (Forest Service 1990, EIS Appendix E); the Tye River also has historical/cultural value. The “outstandingly remarkable values” identified for Deception Creek are wildlife and historical/cultural. The S.F. Snoqualmie River was found

78 PSERN Phase 2 Draft EA to be not suitable for inclusion in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System and was not recommended for designation. None of the towers located in the vicinity of recommended Wild and Scenic rivers would measurably affect the values contributing to the proposed classification because they are either located away from the rivers or project effects have been reduced to negligible levels by siting, project design measures or through implementation of measures identified in Table 1. Roadless Areas: The proposed communication sites are not within Inventoried Roadless Areas. Prime farm lands, range lands, and forest lands: None of the seven proposed communications sites would be located within or affect prime farm lands or range lands. All of the proposed communications sites would be located within forest lands. While small in area, there would be a minor, but permanent (as long as the facilities exist) conversion of forest lands to develop sites; however, this would not measurably impair the ability of the United States to produce sufficient wood to meet its domestic needs. Floodplains and Wetlands (EO 11988 and 11990): None of the facilities would be located in floodplains. One wetland is present only at the Cowboy Mountain Site. This small wetland is located approximately 30 feet southeast of the construction footprint for the proposed access driveway, and small drainage bordered by upland plants runs from this wetland to the northwest through the footprint of the proposed driveway. The access driveway would be constructed to maintain the flow capacity of this drainage and not alter the wetland drainage. Potential or unusual expenditures of energy: There would be no unusual expenditures of energy. All of the powered sites would include a backup generator that is necessary for continued operation of emergency communications in the event of a power failure. Standby generators would be tested periodically to ensure system readiness. Conflicts with Plan, Policies, or other Jurisdictions: There are no known conflicts with other Plans, Policies or other Jurisdictions. The sites analyzed in this EA would be located on NFS managed land administered by the MBSNF, situated within King County, and King County is the project proponent. The proposed towers are part of the County-wide PSERN Project that was approved by King County voters in April 2015.

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4. List of Preparers and Contributors

Name Role Forest Service Eric Ozog Team Leader Melissa Shelley NEPA Coordinator Shauna Hee Vegetation Barbara Jackson Visual Resources Andy Bryden Soils and Hydrology Sonny Paz Wildlife Paul Alford Heritage Resources Karen Chang Fisheries Tom Davis Recreation Santino Pascua Road Management Brian McNeil Recreation

Tetra Tech David Cox Project Manager/Soils and Hydrology Matt Dadswell Recreation and Environmental Justice Karen Brimacombe Vegetation Brita Woeck Wildlife Sierra Marrs Geographic Information Systems Carlos Caballero Visual Simulations

5. References

Aubrey, K.B., K.S. Mckelvey, and J.P. Copeland. 2007. "Distribution and broadscale habitat relations of the wolverine in the contiguous United States." The Journal of Wildlife Management 71.7 (2007): 2147-2158. Becker, S.A., T. Roussin, E. Krausz, Resource Management Plan D. Martorello, S. Simek, and B. Kieffer. 2015. Washington Gray Wolf Conservation and Management 2014 Annual Report. Pages WA-1 to WA-24 in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Rocky Mountain Wolf Program 2014 Annual Report. USFWS, Ecological Services, 585 Shepard Way, Helena, Montana, 59601. BPA (Bonnevillie Power Administration). 2003. Kangley-Echo Lake Transmission Line Project Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement. January. Brown, E. R., ed. 1985. Management of wildlife and fish habitats in forests of western Oregon and Washington. U.S. Dept. Agric., Forest Serv. No. R6-R&WL-192-1985.. Bryant, R., E. Gehr, and J. Flenniken. 1982. The Effects of Yarding Operations on Archaeological Sites. Eugene, OR: Professional Analysts. Cleator, F.W. 1926. Report on Stevens Pass Road Recreation Unit. U.S. Forest Service.

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Crisafulli, C. M., D. R. Clayton, and D. H. Olson. 2008. Conservation assessment for the Larch Mountain salamander (Plethodon larselli). Version 1. USDA Forest Service Region 6, and USDI BLM, Interagency Special Status and Sensitive Species Program. 36 pp. Davis R., D. McCorkle, and D. Ross. 2011. Survey Protocol for Johnson’s Hairstreak Butterfly (Callophrys johnsoni) in Washington and Oregon (v1.2). Unpublished report. On file with: Interagency Special Status Species Program, USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR. Accessed at: http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/sfpnw/issssp/. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2017. US Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990 – 2015. Executive Summary. EPA 430-P-17-001 United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2013. FAOSTAT database. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FEMAT (Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team). 1993. Forest ecosystem management: an ecological, economic, and social assessment. Portland (OR): USDA, USDI [et al.]. Forbes, R. 2017. Ryan Forbes, VP Mountain Operations, Stevens Pass Mountain Resort. Email communication with David Cox, Tetra Tech. June 14. Forest Service (USDA Forest Service). 1990. Final Environmental Impact Statement, Land and Resource Management Plan. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, Mountlake Terrace, WA. Forest Service. 1994. Tye River Watershed Analysis, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. Pacific Northwest Region. Forest Service. 2001. Forest-wide Late Successional Reserve Assessment. Mountlake Terrace, WA: Mt. Baker Snoqualmie National Forest. Forest Service 2004. Fisheries Biological Analysis of Ongoing Maintenance Activities at the Stevens Pass Ski Area for the Tye River and Nason Creek 5th-field Watersheds. Lake Wenatchee and Skykomish Ranger Districts, Pacific Northwest Region. Forest Service. 2011. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Management Indicator Species Assessment. Everett, WA. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. Forest Service 2012. National Best Management Practices for water Quality Management on National Forest System Lands. Volume 1. FS-990a. Available on line at: http://www.fs.fed.us/biology/resources/pubs/watershed/FS_National_Core_BMPs_April2012.pdf. Forest Service. 2014. Threatened, Endangered and Sensitive Plants Survey Protocol and Field Guide. Rangeland Management Staff. Washington, DC. Forest Service. 2015a. Record of Decision for the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Invasive Plant Treatment. Seattle, WA. Forest Service. 2015b. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest Forest-wide Sustainable Roads Report. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. Everett, WA. Forest Service. 2015c. Regional Forester’s Special Status Species List, July 21, 2015. Pacific Northwest Region, Portland, OR.

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Forest Service. 2015d. Stevens Pass Mountain Resort Phase III Projects Environmental Assessment. Skykomish Ranger District, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, King and Chelan Counties, Washington. September. Available online at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprd3855617.pdf. Forest Service. 2015e. Climate Facts from the Pacific Northwest: The Big Picture. https://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/news/pacific-northwest-r6-climate-change-factsheets. Forest Service. 2016. Visitor Use Report. Mt Baker-Snoqualmie NF. Region 6. National Visitor Use Monitoring. Data collected FY 2005. Forest Service. 2017a. Beckler Peak Trail 1240. Available online at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/mbs/recarea/?recid=75372. Forest Service. 2017b. Deception Falls Picnic Area. Available online at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/mbs/recarea/?recid=17932. Forest Service. 2017c. McClellan Butte Trail 1015. Available online at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/mbs/recarea/?recid=18002. Forest Service. 2017d. Tinkham Campground. Available online at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/recarea/mbs/recreation/camping-cabins/recarea/?recid=18036&actid=29. Forest Service and BLM (USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management). 1994a. Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Portland, OR. Forest Service and BLM. 1994b. Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Management of Habitat for Old-Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Portland, OR. Forest Service and BLM. 2001. Record of Decision and Standards and Guidelines for Amendments to the Survey and Manage, Protection Buffer, and Other Mitigation Measures Standards and Guidelines. Portland, OR. Forest Service and USFWS (USDA Forest Service and USDI Fish and Wildlife Service). 1997. Grizzly bear recovery–North Cascades ecosystem. File code 2600, dated August 12, 1997. Memo to the Regional Forester, Pacific Northwest Region, from the Forest Supervisors of the Okanogan, Wenatchee, and Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forests. Mountlake Terrace, WA. Gaines, W. L.; P.H. Singleton, and R.C. Ross. 2003. Assessing the cumulative effects of linear recreation routes on wildlife habitats on the Okanogan and Wenatchee National Forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-586. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, 79 pp. Goulson, D. 2003. Bumblebees-Behaviour, Ecology, and Conservation/Bumblebees-Behavior, Ecology and Conservation. Oxford University Press. Haeberlin, H., and E. Gunther. 1930. "The Indians of Puget Sound." University of Washington Publications in Anthropology (University of Washington) IV (1). Haugerud, R. and R.W. Tabor. 2009. Geologic Map of the North Cascade Range, Washington. Nontechnical pamphlet to accompany Scientific Investigations Map 2940. U.S. Geological Survey.

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Henderson J.A, R.D. Lesher, D.H. Peter, D.C. Shaw. 1992. Field Guide to the Forested Plant Associations of the Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest. USDA Forest Service Tech. Paper, R6-Ecol-TP-028– 91. Hollenbeck, J. 1987. A Cultural Resource Overview: Prehistory, Ethnography and History, Mt. Baker- Snoqualmie National Forest. US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2000. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Special Report on Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry, Summary for Policy Makers, 2000. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. 20 pp. IPCC 2013. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. IPCC. 2014. Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.). IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp. Jones LLC, Raphael MG. 1990. Marten ecology and management in fragmented habitats of the Pacific Northwest. Olympia, WA: USDA, Forest Service. 44 p. Available from Pacific Northwest Research Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 3625 93rd Avenue SW, Olympia, WA 98512. K.H. Hewitt Forest Resources. 2016. King County Puget Sound Emergency Radio Network (PSERN) Proposed Radio Facilities on U.S. Forest Services Land. Botanical Survey Report. Bellingham, WA. Kline, R. 2017. Randy Kline, Statewide Trails Coordinator, Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission. Email communication with Matt Dadswell, Tetra Tech. June 20. Krebs, J., E. C. Lofroth, and I. Parfitt. 2007. Multiscale habitat use by wolverines in British Columbia, Canada. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:2180–2192.Aubrey, Keith B., Kevin S. Mckelvey, and Jeffrey P. Copeland. "Distribution and broadscale habitat relations of the wolverine in the contiguous United States." The Journal of Wildlife Management 71.7 (2007): 2147-2158. Marshall, D.B. 1994. Status of the American marten in Oregon and Washington. Audubon Society of Portland. Mech, L.D., S.H. Fritts, G.L. Radde, and W.J. Paul. 1988. Wolf distribution and road density in Minnesota. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 16(1):85-87. Accessed at http//www.jstor.org/stable/3782360. Mellen, T.K., E.C. Meslow, and R.W. Mannan. 1992. "Summertime home range and habitat use of pileated woodpeckers in western Oregon." The Journal of Wildlife Management (1992): 96-103. Olson, D.H., and C.M. Crisafulli. 2014. Conservation Assessment for the Van Dyke’s Salamander (Plethodon vandykei). Version 1.0. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of the Interior, Interagency Sensitive Species Program. 55 p. Pacific Crest Trail Association. 2017. PCT Visitor Use Statistics. Available online at: https://www.pcta.org/our-work/trail-and-land-management/pct-visitor-use-statistics/.

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Raphael, M.G., and LLC Jones. 1997. Characteristics of Resting and Denning Sites of American Martens in Central Oregon and Western Washington. Martes: taxonomy, ecology, techniques and management. Edmonton, AB: Provincial Museum of Alberta: 146-165. Reynolds, R. T., R. T. Graham, M. H. Reiser, R. L. Bassett, P., L. Kennedy, D. A. Boyce, Jr., G Goodwin, R. Smith, and E. L. Fisher. 1992. Management recommendations for the northern goshawk in the southwestern United States. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM- 217:90 pp. Reynolds, R.T. 1983. Management of Western Coniferous Forest Habitat for Nesting Accipiter Hawks. U.S. Dep. Agric., For. Sen. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-102. Rice, C. G. and D. Gay. 2010. Effects of Mountain Goat Harvest on Historic and Contemporary Populations. Northwestern Naturalist 91:40-57. Smith P., M. Bustamante, H. Ahammad, H. Clark, H. Dong, E. A. Elsiddig, H. Haberl, R. Harper, J. House, M. Jafari, O. Masera, C. Mbow, N. H. Ravindranath, C. W. Rice, C. Robledo Abad, A. Romanovskaya, F. Sperling, and F. Tubiello, 2014. Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 121 pp. http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment- report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter11.pdf. State Parks (Washington State Parks). 2017. Iron Horse State Park Trail. Available online at: http://parks.state.wa.us/521/Iron-Horse. SWIFD (Statewide Washington Integrated Fish Distribution). 2017. Statewide Washington Integrated Fish Distribution layers at http://geography.wa.gov/data-products-services/data/data-catalog. Taber, R.D. and K.J. Raedeke. 1980. Status report, Roosevelt elk of the Olympic National Forest. University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. Seattle, WA. Tweddell, C.E. 1953. "A Historical and Ethnological Study of the Snohomish Indian People: A Report Specifically Covering Their Aboriginal and Continued Existence, and their Effective Occupation of a Definable Territory." In Coast Salish and Western Washington Indians II, by David Agee Horr, 1- 216. New York: Garland Publishing. USFWS (USDI Fish and Wildlife Service). 1993. Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan. Missoula, Montana. USFWS. 1997. Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan Supplement: North Cascades Ecosystem Recovery Plan. Missoula, Montan. USFWS. 2011. Revised Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon. xvi + 258 pp. http://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/Species/Data/NorthernSpottedOwl/Recovery/Library/Documents/R evisedNSORecPlan2011.pdf. USFWS. 2012. Revised designation of critical habitat for the northern spotted owl. Proposed rule. May 8, 2012, Federal Register 77 FR 27010.

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USFWS. 2016. Final determination. Critical habitat for the marbled murrelet. Final rule. August 4, 2016, Federal Register 81 FR 51348. Vekasy, M. S. and G. E. Hayes. 2016. Periodic status review for the peregrine falcon in Washington. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Olympia, Washington. 16 +iii pp. VGP Destination Marketing. 2015. Washington State Scenic Byways and Road Trips. Available online at: http://media.scenicwa.com/sbrtguide15. WDFW (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife). 2017. Salmon Stock Inventory (SaSI) reports at http://wdfw.wa.gov/conservation/fisheries/sasi/. WDFW. 2017. Salmon Conservation Reporting Engine (SCoRE). Salmon and Steelhead Species in Washington. Accessed at https://fortress.wa.gov/dfw/score/score/species/species.jsp WDFW. 2017. SalmonScape, – Explore Salmon Species in Washington. Accessed at http://apps.wdfw.wa.gov/salmonscape/. WDOE (Washington Department of Ecology). 2008. Snoqualmie River Basin Fecal Coliform Bacteria, Dissolved Oxygen, Ammonia-Nitrogen, and pH; Total Maximum Daily Load Water Quality Effectiveness Monitoring Report. Publication No. 08-03-005. WDOE. 2017. Water Quality Improvement Projects Snoqualmie River Basin website. http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/tmdl/SnoqRvrTMDL.html Accessed 7/6/2017. WDGER (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources). 2016a. Surface geology, 1:100,000-- GIS data, November 2016: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Digital Data Series DS-18, version 3.1, previously released June 2010. WDGER. 2016b. Landslides and landforms–GIS data, July, 2016: Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Digital Data Series 12, version 4.2, previously released February 2016. Accessed at: http://www.dnr.wa.gov/publications/ger_portal_landslides_landforms.zip. WDNR (Washington State Department of Natural Resources). 2017. Activity map layer. Forest Practices Application Mapping Tool. Accessed at https://fortress.wa.gov/dnr/protectiongis/fpamt/index.html Williams, P. H., R. W. Thorp, L. L. Richardson, and S. Colla. 2014. An Identification Guide. Bumble Bees of North America. Princeton University Press. Williams, R.W., R.M. Laramie, and J.J. Ames. 1975. A Catalog of Washington Streams and Salmon Utilization. Puget Sound Region. Olympia, WA: Washington Department of Fisheries. Vol. 1. Wisdom, M.; R.S. Holthausen, B.C. Wales, C.D. Hargis, V.A. Saab, D.C. Lee, W.J. Hann, T.D. Rich, M.M. Rowland, W. Murphy, and M.R. Eames. 2000. Source habitats for terrestrial vertebrates of focus in the Interior Columbia Basin: Broad-scale trends and management implications, Volume 2 – Group level results. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-485. pp. 157-434.

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Appendix A – Visual Simulations

PSERN Phase II – Cowboy Mountain Skykomish Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking southwest from Stevens Pass Mountain Resort Parking Lot

PROPOSED

TOWER PSERN Phase II – Stevens Pass Skykomish Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking north from pedestrian bridge over U.S. Highway 2 at Stevens Pass.

PROPOSED

TOWER PSERN Phase II – Wellington Skykomish Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking northeast from Wellington Trailhead parking area. Tower not visible.

PROPOSED PSERN Phase II – Deception Creek Skykomish Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking southeast from Deception Falls Picnic Area. Tower not visible.

PROPOSED PSERN Phase II – Highway 2 West Skykomish Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking west from U.S. Highway 2. Tower not visible.

PROPOSED PSERN Phase II – Bandera Snoqualmie Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking southwest from westbound I-90.Tower not visible.

PROPOSED PSERN Phase II – Olallie Snoqualmie Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking southwest from westbound I-90.

PROPOSED

TOWER PSERN Phase II – Tinkham/I-90 Snoqualmie Ranger District

CURRENT

Looking northwest from westbound I-90. Tinkham tower in foreground; I-90 tower in background.

PROPOSED

TOWER

TOWER