Palgrave Studies in Cultural Heritage and Conflict

Palgrave Studies in Cultural Heritage and Confict

Series Editors Ihab Saloul University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Noord-Holland, The Netherlands

Rob van der Laarse University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Noord-Holland, The Netherlands

Britt Baillie Wits City Institute University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg, South Africa This book series explores the relationship between cultural heritage and confict. The key themes of the series are the heritage and memory of war and confict, contested heritage, and competing memories. The series editors seek books that analyze the dynamics of the past from the perspective of tangible and intangible remnants, spaces, and traces as well as heritage appropriations and restitutions, signifcations, musealizations, and media- tizations in the present. Books in the series should address topics such as the politics of heritage and confict, identity and trauma, mourning and reconciliation, nationalism and ethnicity, diaspora and intergenerational memories, painful heritage and terrorscapes, as well as the mediated reen- actments of conficted pasts.

More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14638 Karel Nováček • Miroslav Melčák Ondřej Beránek • Lenka Starková Mosul after Islamic State

The Quest for Lost Architectural Heritage

with contribution by Lucie Pospíšilová Karel Nováček Miroslav Melčák Department of History Oriental Institute Palacký University The Czech Academy of Sciences Olomouc, Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic

Ondřej Beránek Lenka Starková Oriental Institute Department of Archaeology The Czech Academy of Sciences University of West Bohemia Prague, Czech Republic Plzeň, Czech Republic

ISSN 2634-6419 ISSN 2634-6427 (electronic) Palgrave Studies in Cultural Heritage and Confict ISBN 978-3-030-62635-8 ISBN 978-3-030-62636-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62636-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifcally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microflms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affliations.

Cover illustration: Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din, Mosul, digital reconstruction model of the interior. © Nyx Alexander Design

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland “After a long uneasy transit, Mosul is seen from a hilltop … In the distance, its minarets crazily slanting over its fat roofs and squat domes, Mosul looks a fair and gracious place.” —Ethel Stefana Stevens, By Tigris and Euphrates (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1923), pp. 151–2

“Mosul’s unusually favourable geographical position gave it uniquely priv- ileged access to a remarkably varied series of cultural zones, each with its own distinctive character. There was literally no other city of comparable size in the medieval Middle East that could so naturally draw on such a richly varied cultural heritage.” —Robert Hillenbrand, The Frontispiece Problem in the Early 13th-Century Kitab al-Aghani, 2017, p. 213

“Every age has the architecture it deserves … The architecture of each epoch contains more than its builders believe: buildings tell about them- selves and their time also things whose existence and meaning architects and residents may not have any or clear idea about.” —Karel Kosík, Win of the Method over Architectonics, in: Antediluvian Refections (Prague, 1999), p. 53 Note on Transliteration and Dating

The dates of historical events, architecture, or artifacts are given in the format AH (Anno Hegirae)/AD (Anno Domini); if isolated, the date is always in AD unless stated otherwise. Arabic names and terminology are transliterated according to the IJMES transliteration system with several modifcations: long vowels are shortened and dots below emphatic consonants are not applied.

vii Acknowledgments

Our work on this book would not have been possible without the kind help of many of our colleagues and friends. First and foremost, we would like to thank Paula Ion for her contribution to a discussion about the original form of al-Nuri Mosque, accompanied by her original 2D and 3D documentation, kindly provided for the book. We would also like to thank Yasser Tabbaa, Andrew Petersen, Edward Jones, Petr Justa, Bruce Wannell, and Axelle Rougeulle, who kindly provided us with their photographs from Mosul. We are grateful to the Embassy of the Czech Republic in Baghdad, namely Ambassador Jan Vyčítal, who personally took an invalu- able photoset of selected monuments in Mosul for us in July 2018, and Deputy Chief of Mission Lukáš Gjurič, who photographed objects that originated in Mosul in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Ludvik Kalus, Sheila S. Blair, and Yasser Tabbaa kindly helped us with a problematic reading of an inscription crucial for our reconsiderations. Thanks must also go to Richard McClary, Sara E. Wolper, Martina Müller-Wiener, and Andreas Hoffschildt for diverse information and sources which they kindly shared with us. The completion of the project and the writing of the book would hardly have been possible without help of our informants and collaborators in Mosul and Iraq: Layla Salih and Faisal Jabar (Gilgamesh Centre Baghdad), Barnadet Almaslob (former curator of Mosul Museum), Marwan S. al- Sharif (University of Mosul, Dept. of Archaeology), Musʽab M. Jasim al- Juboury (Ninawa Directorate of Antiquities), Omar Mohammed (Mosul historian), Othman Al-Hayali, Omar Taqa, Zaid Issam, Momtaz Hazim,

ix x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ali I. Al-Juboury, Narmin A. M. Amin, Gilgamesh Nabeel, and many anonymous Mosulis who shared their knowledge with us on social media. We owe special thanks to Inka Tesařová and Arc Data Company Prague for their collaboration in the purchase and processing of satellite imagery. We also wish to thank Kateřina Vytejčková and Emily Neumeier for their translations from Turkish and our proof-reader James Raymond, who helped us to improve the linguistic quality of the text. Last but not least, we are grateful to our families for their never-ending patience and support. The project Monuments of Mosul in Danger has been fnancially sup- ported by the Strategy AV21, a special instrument of the Czech Academy of Sciences supporting excellent research projects based on cooperation across scientifc felds and institutions. The project has been further sup- ported by the Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences. Contents

1 A City Destroyed 1 1.1 Islamic State’s Evolution 1 1.2 Mosul Conquered 6 1.3 Islamic State’s Demolition Campaign 10 1.4 Typology of Destroyed Heritage 20 1.4.1 Mosques and Tombs of Awliya’: Pious Shaykhs and Sufs 20 1.4.2 Mosques and Shrines of Awliya’: Descendants of the Prophet Muhammad 23 1.4.3 Mosques of Prophets 26 1.4.4 Cemeteries 28 1.4.5 Christian Monuments 29 1.4.6 Ancient Assyrian Heritage 31 1.4.7 Other Monuments 31 1.5 Islamic State’s Ideological Attitude Toward Historical Monuments 34 1.5.1 Sources of IS’s Religious Ideology 36 1.5.2 Quranic Verses 40 1.5.3 Prophetic Narratives 41 1.5.4 Medieval Classics: Ibn Taymiya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya 42 1.5.5 Educational Leafets to Sway the Discourse on Destruction? 43

xi xii Contents

1.5.6 IS’s Video Production 47 1.5.7 Last Remnants of Idolatry: Ancient Assyrian Heritage and Shiʽi Mosque 48 Bibliography 63

2 A City Explored 69 2.1 Sources and Methodology 69 2.1.1 Arabic Primary Sources 69 2.1.2 European Travelogues 71 2.1.3 Scholarly Research on Mosul’s Architecture 71 2.1.4 Vedutas and Cartographic Sources 73 2.1.5 Archival Aerial and Satellite Images 75 2.1.6 Methodology 78 2.1.6.1 Dataset Description and Image Processing 80 2.1.6.2 Topographic Data Analysis 81 2.1.6.3 Digital Elevation Model of the City and Geomorphometry of the City 86 2.1.6.4 Summary of Spatial Analysis 95 2.2 The Catalogue and Analysis of Destroyed Buildings 98 2.2.1 Congregational Mosques 98 2.2.1.1 Great Mosque of Nur al-Din (al-Nuri) and Minaret al-Hadbaʼ (I01 and I03) 98 2.2.1.2 Al-Mujahidi Mosque (al-Khidr) (I06) 113 2.2.1.3 Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Yunus (Prophet Jonah) (I07) 125 2.2.1.4 Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Jirjis (Prophet George) (I08) 135 2.2.2 Shrines of Imams and Adjacent Mosques 144 2.2.2.1 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim— Madrasa al-Badriya (I04) 144 2.2.2.2 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din Ibn al-Hasan (I05) 156 2.2.2.3 Mosque and Shrine of Imam Ibrahim (I16) 185 2.2.2.4 Shrine of Imam ʽAli al-Asghar (I28) 190 2.2.2.5 Shrine of Imam ʽAbd al-Rahman—Madrasa al-ʽIzziya (I34) 195 2.2.2.6 Shrine and Mosque of Imam al-Bahir (I35) 199 Contents xiii

2.2.2.7 Mosque and Shrine of Imam Muhsin— Madrasa al-Nuriya (I37) 209 2.2.3 Mausolea and Mosques with Tombs 215 2.2.3.1 Mosque and Tomb of Shaykh Qadib al-Ban al-Mawsili (I10) 215 2.2.3.2 Mosque and Tomb of Shaykh Fathi (I18) 219 2.2.3.3 Mosque of Sultan Uways (I29) 224 2.2.4 Other Sites 228 Bibliography 272

3 A City Contextualized 283 3.1 Urban Morphology and Development 283 3.2 The Islamic Building Production of Medieval Mosul: Forms, Patronage, and Dynamics of Meaning 303 Bibliography 324

4 Epilogue: A City Resurrected? 331 Bibliography 337

Index 339 List of Figures

Figures authored by Karel Nováček, Nyx Alexander Design, or Lenka Starková, if not stated otherwise. Fig. 1.1 Current state of the site after the demolition of the Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim, view of the southern aspect, the ruin of the Bashtabiya Fortress in the background. Photo by Bruce Wannell 13 Fig. 1.2 Mosque of the Prophet George (Nabi Jirjis) in satellite images before destruction (A), after explosion (B), and after razing (C). WorldView-2 and WorldView-3© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. 14 Fig. 1.3 Demolition of Imam al-Bahir Shrine on 2 September 2014. Anonymous author, Facebook group Jamiʽ al-Imam al-Bahir, posted 3 September 2014 15 Fig. 1.4 Mosque of al-Khidr (al-Mujahidi Mosque) in satellite images before destruction (A), after razing (B), and during the building of a new structure (C). WorldView-2 and WorldView-3© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. 17 Fig. 1.5 Minaret al-Hadba’ after demolition (2018). Photo by Jan Vyčítal 18 Fig. 1.6 Ruin of the Shaykh al-Shatt Mosque (targeted during the liberation operation in 2017) in the completely destroyed historic district of al-Shahwan. Photo by Jan Vyčítal 19 Fig. 2.1 Mosul panorama in the middle of the nineteenth century, a view from the eastern bank of the Tigris: (a) al-Qulayʽat hill, (b) Mosque of al-Qalʽa, (c) Mosque of Shaykh al-Shatt, (d)

xv xvi List of Figures

Qara Saray Palace, (e) Chaldean al-Tahira Church, (f) Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim Shrine, (g) citadel, (h) Minaret of al-Aghawat Mosque, (i) Minaret of al-Basha Mosque, (j) Minaret of al-Khazam Mosque (?), (k) al-ʽUmariya Mosque (?), (l) unknown structure, (m) Mosque and Shrine of Nabi Shith, (n) Mosque of al-Mujahidi, (o) Ottoman administrative complex and garrisons. Lithograph by F. C. Cooper based on a drawing by G. P. Badger from 1842 to 1850 74 Fig. 2.2 Overview of historical satellite and aerial photographs, obtained through the global archives of remote sensing data, for Mosul historical city center. Comparison of image resolution. From the left side—CORONA KH-4B; CORONA KH-7 Gambit; Luftwaffe; U2 aerial spy system photograph; OrbView-3 76 Fig. 2.3 Detailed preview of the Mosque of al-Mahmudayn (I68) on the historical aerial photographs, taken by the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the years 1920 and 1924. Source: https:// www.fickr.com/photos/apaame/sets/721576855 40281436/, copyrights: Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East (APAAME), University College London (UCL) 79 Fig. 2.4 The working area of the GIS database 82 Fig. 2.5 Workfow of data processing in the project “Monument of Mosul in Danger” 83 Fig. 2.6 General workfow of remote sensing data processing 84 Fig. 2.7 Process of the image multilevel segmentation, based on the satellite image World-View 2, year 2013 (left), fnal topographic plan of Mosul city center (right). Drawing by Lenka Starková and Petr Vavrečka 86 Fig. 2.8 Vextractor software environment. Process of automatic vectorization of features, based on the historical plan of Mosul 87 Fig. 2.9 Hakki’s Ottoman topographical plan of Mosul vectorized and orthorectifed 87 Fig. 2.10 Digital elevation model in hill shade visualization, created by the stereoscopic photogrammetry tool 91 Fig. 2.11 Comparison of the created categories of DEM: (a) digital surface model (DSM), (b) digital terrain model (DTM) with fltered buildings, (c) digital terrain model (DTM) with flled gaps after building fltering (the height value is counted from the nearest pixel values). The resolution was set to 1 m 92 Fig. 2.12 Hypsometric map of Mosul based on the DTM 94 List of Figures xvii

Fig. 2.13 Comparison of density and distribution of ground points: point cloud extraction using the Extended Terrain Matching (ETM) algorithm (left), and semi-global matching (SGM) algorithm (right) 95 Fig. 2.14 Hydrological reconstruction map of Mosul 96 Fig. 2.15 3D reconstruction model of Mosul city (data from 2013). Data processed by Petr Vavrečka, visualized by Lenka Starková 97 Fig. 2.16 Mosque of al-Nuri. General view of the mosque from the northwest. Photo by Petr Justa (2012) 98 Fig. 2.17 Mosque of al-Nuri. Minaret al-Hadba’ from the south. Photo by T. J. Bradley (1928–29). Source: https://www.fickr.com/ photos/jones_in_chester/12564398133/in/album- 72157641061121185/, ©Edward Jones 99 Fig. 2.18 Mosque of al-Nuri. Reconstruction model of the mosque area in the state before 1940, view of the southwest. © UNESCO, Othman Al-Hayali and Omar Taqa (2020), and Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences with Petr Vavrečka 102 Fig. 2.19 Mosque of al-Nuri. Reconstruction of the plan and transversal section of the mosque before its demolition in 1940–1944: (1) pillars of Types 1A and 1B, (2) pillars of Type 2, (3) pillars of Type 3, (4) approximate location of destroyed pillars in front of the northern facade, (5) medieval constructions, (6) Ottoman-period constructions, (7) conjectural medieval walls, (8) axis of the original structure, (9) axis of late Ottoman reinforcements. M1, M3–M5 mihrabs. Drawing by © UNESCO, Paula Ion (2020), according to analysis by Paula Ion and Karel Nováček, after earlier plans by E. Herzfeld (Sarre and Herzfeld 1911b, Taf. LXXXVIII), S. al-Diwahji (1963, 53, Fig. 13) and E. Herzfeld’s sketch book 104 Fig. 2.20 Mosque of al-Nuri. Reconstruction of the original appearance of the mosque of Nur al-Din in 568/1172—plan and 3D model viewed from the north. Drawings by © UNESCO, Paula Ion (2020), according to analysis by Karel Nováček and Paula Ion 106 Fig. 2.21 Mosque of al-Nuri. Reconstruction of the south and north elevations of the maqsura dome in the original state (late sixth/twelfth century) with known position of stucco decoration. Drawing by Karel Nováček with use of a photograph by General Directorate of Antiquities Baghdad and a drawing by © UNESCO, Paula Ion (2020) 107 Fig. 2.22 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. View of the porticoed north facade during the renovation. Photo by Yasser Tabbaa (1983) 114 xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.23 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. Comparison of two views from the east: left E. Flandin (1841), right an anonymous postcard (1908) 116 Fig. 2.24 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. Plan of the mosque complex: medieval nucleus (blue), early Ottoman (dark gray), late Ottoman (light gray), and modern or undetermined (white) constructions; a non-realized version of late Ottoman ziyada by dotted line. After two anonymous Ottoman-period projects, plans by A. Uluçam (1989, res. 25) and E. Wirth (1991, Abb. 4), redrawn with additions and interpreted 119 Fig. 2.25 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. North elevation and longitudinal section. The hypothetical level of the roof of the medieval prayer hall by dashed line. After A. Uluçam (1989, res. 25), redrawn with additions and interpreted 120 Fig. 2.26 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. A 3D reconstruction model of the state before reconstruction in the 1970s—a view from the northeast 121 Fig. 2.27 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. A 3D reconstruction model of the state before reconstruction in the 1970s—an interior view (maqsura dome) 122 Fig. 2.28 Mosque of al-Mujahidi. Stucco panel in the mihrab’s conch. Photo by Yasser Tabbaa (1983) 123 Fig. 2.29 Mosque of Nabi Yunus. View from the north. Drawing by Eugene Flandin, 1841–1842. Source: Flandin 1861; https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Le_Tour_ du_monde-04-p072.jpg 126 Fig. 2.30 Mosque of Nabi Yunus. Plan of the complex: (1) medieval period (before 767/1365–1366), (2) medieval period (after 767/1365–1366), (3) earlier Ottoman period, (4) later Ottoman period, (5) modern. Conjectural dating by lighter shade. Outline of the buildings in the aerial image (by RAF, 1924) by a purple dashed line. Numbering of parts, mihrabs, and relative leveling added. Redrawn from al-Diwahji 1954 132 Fig. 2.31 Mosque of Nabi Yunus. Quasi-muqarnas vault in the Nabi Yunus tomb chamber. Photo by Yasser Tabbaa (1983) 133 Fig. 2.32 Mosque of Nabi Jirjis. The earliest view of the complex from the east. Unknown author, a postcard print (1908) 136 Fig. 2.33 Mosque of Nabi Jirjis. Plan of the complex before its last renovation: (1) the Prophet Jirjis mausoleum, (2) eastern vestibule, (3) the main mosque, (4) the Hanaf musalla, (5) the Shafʽi musalla, (6) the women’s musalla, (7) arcades and iwans, (8) well, (9) minaret, (10) the school over the passage, List of Figures xix

(11) Madrasa of Ismaʽil al-Jalili, (12) Madrasa of Muhdir Bashi, (13) a cemetery, (14) deserted structures and masoned enclosures visible in the air photograph from 1959, (15) the entrance courtyard. Sources: al-Diwahji 1961: attached plan; Dhunnun et al. 1982, Plan 1; aerial photograph of the U2 mission from 1959; Wirth 1991: Abb. 2; redrawn with adjustments and additions 139 Fig. 2.34 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Reconstruction model of the shrine, views from the east (a) and north (b) 146 Fig. 2.35 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. View of the southeastern corner of the interior during the dado repair. Photo by Yasser Tabbaa (1983) 147 Fig. 2.36 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Plan and section of the shrine. Sources: Sarre and Herzfeld 1911b, Taf. C; Pagliero 1965, Fig. 7, redrawn and interpreted 148 Fig. 2.37 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Geometry (a), and 3D drawing (b) of the muqarnas vault 149 Fig. 2.38 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Plan sketch of the al-Badriya complex. Drawing after the city plan by Ismaʽil Hakki (1322/1904–5) and E. Herzfeld’s photographs (1907) 151 Fig. 2.39 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Architectural slab with palmette decoration found in the area of the shrine. After Mawsuʽat al-Mawsil al-Hadariya 1992, II, 101 152 Fig. 2.40 Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim. Fragments of the marble intarsia panels from Madrasa al-Badriya. Image processed from photos by B. Almaslob (2009) 154 Fig. 2.41 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. The view from the west after the last restoration (left) and after the destruction. Sources: Unknown author before 2013, accessible at http:// alialagamosulpic.blogspot.com/2018/06/320.html (left), Jan Vyčítal, July 2018 (right) 156 Fig. 2.42 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. General situation of the shrine in the urban neighborhood. Redrawn from Hakki’s plan (1322/1904–5) 160 Fig. 2.43 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. State after destruction—an interior view. Photo by Jan Vyčítal (2018) 162 Fig. 2.44 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Analysis of the northern and eastern facades: (1) non-faced wall, (2) a staircase trace?, (3) a muqarnas niche with adjacent plastered areas, (4) a roof trace?, (5) barely faced wall, (6) a vaulted niche with plastered right jamb, (7) a plastered niche or void, blocked by masonry (visible in Herzfeld’s photo only), (8) a roof trace, (9) a xx List of Figures

plastered stone wall, (10) a fragment of a wall bounded with the shrine, heading north, (11) brickwork, (12) hazar baf, (13) brickwork, (14) molded terracotta frieze, (15) epigraphic frieze, (16) molded terracotta frieze, (17) brickwork frieze with lozenge pattern from glazed tiles, (18) limit of a facade reparation in Herzfeld’s photo, (19) approximate corners edge in Herzfeld’s photo, (20) a stone reinforcing wall (from the 1964 repair), (21) lateral funeral space, shortened in 1964, (22) stone masonry of the shrine, (23) a vertical joint in the stone wall, (24) inflled and plastered void, trace of medieval wall running to the east, (25) void after a roof (al-Barma?), (26) a bottom edge of the brick wall, (27) hazar baf (different of 12), (28) brick masonry of the shrine, roughly plastered during a recent repair, (29) ditto 28, fne gypsum plaster, (30) a brick superstructure from the 1964 repair, (31) al-Barma vault spring (destroyed). Analysis and drawing based on orthorectifed and adjusted photographs by E. Herzfeld, Y. Tabbaa, A. Uluçam and J. Vyčítal 163 Fig. 2.45 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Reconstruction model of the shrine after the recent reconstructions, view from the northeast 166 Fig. 2.46 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Reconstructed fragment of monumental inscription on the eastern facade 167 Fig. 2.47 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Plan and section of the shrine: a ground-foor plan (a), a plan in the level of wall decoration (b), an east-west section viewing north (c). Drawing based on Uluçam 1989 and al-Jumʽa in Mawsuʽat al-Mawsil al-Hadariya (1992, III) 168 Fig. 2.48 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Portal A (left) and portal B (right), graphic reconstruction 170 Fig. 2.49 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. A 3D reconstruction drawing of the mihrab 172 Fig. 2.50 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. West interior face, stratigraphic analysis of the mihrab (older layer of plaster by pink color, later layer yellow). Drawing with use of Herzfeld’s original photograph (1907) 173 Fig. 2.51 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Bottom part of the interior on the digital reconstruction model, a north view 174 Fig. 2.52 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Muqarnas vault on the digital reconstruction model 175 Fig. 2.53 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Reconstruction of the strapwork decoration panels with a degree of reconstruction accuracy: (1)–90% accuracy, (2)–70% accuracy, (3)–50% accuracy, (4)–not reconstructed 176 List of Figures xxi

Fig. 2.54 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Muqarnas geometry 176 Fig. 2.55 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Typology of the muqarnas cells 178 Fig. 2.56 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Decorative patterns of the muqarnas cells 179 Fig. 2.57 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Muqarnas vault, comparison of its spatial design (in back) with muqarnas in Imam Yahya Shrine (in front) 180 Fig. 2.58 Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din. Digital reconstruction model of the shrine’s appearance in the eighth/fourteenth century 181 Fig. 2.59 Mosque of Imam Ibrahim. The inscribed commemorative slab, stored in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Photo by Lukáš Gjurič (2016) 189 Fig. 2.60 Shrine of ‛Ali al-Asghar. Recent views of the north (left) and south (right) fronts of the shrine. Photos by anonymous authors 191 Fig. 2.61 Shrine of Imam ‛Abd al-Rahman. Plan of the mausoleum 197 Fig. 2.62 Shrine of Imam ‛Abd al-Rahman. Mihrab, currently stored in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Photo by Lukáš Gjurič (2016) 198 Fig. 2.63 Mosque of Imam al-Bahir. Elevations of the shrine, from left to right: the south, north, east, and west front 202 Fig. 2.64 Mosque of Imam al-Bahir. Reconstruction model of the structure—a view from the northeast 202 Fig. 2.65 Mosque of Imam al-Bahir. Plan and south–north section of the structure: medieval nucleus (blue), Ottoman (gray), and modern or undetermined (white) constructions. Source: Uluçam 1989, Fig. 39; redrawn and interpreted 203 Fig. 2.66 Mosque of Imam al-Bahir. Reconstruction model of the structure—a view from the bottom 204 Fig. 2.67 Mosque of Imam al-Bahir. Marble panel stored in the Iraq Museum in Baghdad. Photo by Lukáš Gjurič (2016) 206 Fig. 2.68 Mosque of Imam Muhsin. The view of the complex from the north. A detail from a photograph taken by an unknown author during World War I 210 Fig. 2.69 Mosque of Imam Muhsin Fragments of the marble intarsia panels. After al-Diwahji (1957; 2013) 214 Fig. 2.70 Mosque of Shaykh Qadib al-Ban. View from the southeast in 1930, before rebuilding. After al-Diwahji (1963, Fig. 51) 218 Fig. 2.71 Mosque of Shaykh Fathi. View of the entrance facade (1960). Photo by unknown author (1960) 220 Fig. 2.72 Mosque of Shaykh Fathi. A plan of the structure before rebuilding in 2001. A possible medieval nucleus (blue) and early/late Ottoman constructions (dark/light grey). After Sarre and Herzfeld 1920a; Uluçam 1989; U2 aerial photograph, 1959; redrawn and interpreted 221 xxii List of Figures

Fig. 2.73 Mosque of Sultan Uways. The situation of the mosque compound in the satellite image (November 2013) and reconstructed plan sketch of the mosque. White outlines and dashed line: ruined funeral (?) structures and a path visible in the historical aerial images. Drawing with use of satellite image WorldView-2© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. 227 Fig. 2.74 Mosque of Hamu al-Qadu. A view of the mosque dome, around 1312/1895. Photo by an unknown author 229 Fig. 2.75 Takiya and Tomb of Muhammad al-Afghani with Mosque of Shaykh al-Shatt. A view from the northwest, the takiya on the right side of the mosque. After al-Diwahji (2013) 234 Fig. 2.76 Mosque of Bayt Shahidu (Banat al-Hasan). Mihrab in Mosul Museum, state before 2014. Photo by Barnadet Almaslob (2009) 245 Fig. 2.77 Al-Tahira Syriac Orthodox Church. A plan sketch of the church compound. Structures destroyed by IS in grey. Drawing with use of a satellite image and a photoset taken by Petr Justa in June 2012 252 Fig. 2.78 Al-Tahira Syriac Orthodox Church. The west front of the church. Photo by Petr Justa (2012) 253 Fig. 3.1 Old city of Mosul, a digital elevation model over the satellite map from 2013 with recorded depths of historic interiors under the present-day surface (in cm). Important elevations and tells outlined by purple line. Sites: (1) Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim Shrine, (2) Sheykh Fathi, (3) Imam al-Bahir Shrine, (4) Imam Ibrahim Mosque and Tomb, (5) Nabi Jirjis Tomb, (6) al-Tahira Syriac Orthodox Church, (7) Sitt Nafsa Mosque, (8) Umm al-Tisʽa Mosque, (9) Mar Tuma Church, (10) Mar Guorguis Church, (11) Imam ʽAli al-Hadi Shrine, (12) Shimʽun al-Safa Church, (13) Mosque of al-Hajj Mansur, (14) Mar Petion Church, (15) Imam ʽAwn al-Din Shrine, (16) Mar Hudeni Church. Sources: Sarre and Herzfeld 1920a; Fiey 1959; Dhunnun et al. 1983; Habbi 1980. Drawing with use of satellite image WorldView-2© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. 286 Fig. 3.2 Old city of Mosul, topographic clues of the early Islamic city: red points—structures of the frst/seventh and second/eighth centuries, yellow points—structures of the third/ninth–ffth/ eleventh century, brown dashed line—minimal extent of misr, List of Figures xxiii

black dotted line—reconstruction of outline of the Hamdanid city (“taylasan”), hatched areas—extent of cemeteries according to Hakkiʼs map from 1323/1904–1905 and additional sources. Sites: (1) Mar Ishoʽyab, (2) Syriac Catholic Tahira al-Qalʽa, (3) Dayr al-Aʽla, (4) Mar Tuma Syriac Catholic Church, (5) Mosque of Banu Sabat al-Sayraf (Masjid Khazraj?), (6) Mosque of Tell al-ʽIbada, (7) Mosque of Abu Hadir, (8) Tomb of al-Anaz, (9) Mosque of al-Hurr ibn Yusuf, (10) al-Thaqif Mosque, (11) Mosque of Saʽid ibn ʽAbd al-Malik, (12) al- Manqusha Palace, (13) Umayyad Mosque and dar al-imara, (14) Shimʽun al-Safa Church; (15) Mosque of al-Husayn ibn Saʽid ibn Hamdan, (16) Mashhad of al-Khuzaʽi, (17) Mashhad of al-Sitt Fatima, (18) Mosque of al-Mulla ʽAbd al-Hamid (?), (19) Masjid of Mansur al-Hallaj (?), (20) Mar Guorguis Chaldean Church, (21) Mar Petion Church, (22) Dar al-mamlaka. Drawing with use of satellite image WorldView-2© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o. 287 Fig. 3.3 Old city of Mosul, detail of the fortifed nucleus of the misr (large dashed square) and hypothetical related sites: (1) Umayyad congregational mosque, (2) Hesna ʽEbraye/dar al-imara, (3) Mar Ishoʽyab Cathedral, (4) Ancient Syriac al-Tahira Church in al-Qalʽa (the church “ad latrinas ante nostrae urbis portam”?), (5) al-Quraysh Cemetery (later Nabi Jirjis Mosque and Tomb). Cemeteries by hatched areas. Drawing with use of the vectorized city plan by I. Hakki (1323/1904–5) 288 Fig. 3.4 Old city of Mosul during the Atabeg period: red line—late ʽUqaylid and Seljuq city fortifcation with citadel, orange line—later extension of the city wall during ʽImad al-Din Zengi, brown point—Nabi Jirjis Shrine (1), red points—Badr al-Dinʼs shrines with depicted access from the nearest city gate: (2) Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim, (3) Imam al-Bahir, (4) Imam ʽAwn al-Din, (5) Imam Zayd ibn ʽAli (?). Drawing with use of the vectorized city plan by I. Hakki (1323/1904–5) 291 Fig. 3.5 Ground plans of medieval shrines and mausoleums in Mosul: (a) Shaykh al-Shatt, (b) Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim, (c) Imam ʽAwn al-Din, (d) Imam al-Bahir, (e) Imam ʽAbd al-Rahman, (f) Shaykh Fathi, (g) Imam Ibrahim, (h) Nabi Jirjis, (i) Imam ʽAli al-Asghar. Blue–medieval nuclei, grey–Ottoman phases, white–modern constructions 306 Introduction

On 10 June 2014, groups of militants belonging to the self-proclaimed Islamic State (hereinafter referred to as IS) occupied Mosul, the largest city in northern Iraq. When this force was compared to the more numer- ous and better-armed Iraqi army, few outside observers would have imag- ined that the occupation could have become anything more than a short episode in the Iraqi civil war. In fact, it developed into a full three years of tyranny, killing thousands of civilians, totally breaking the coexistence of both Sunni and Shiʽi Muslims with Christians, Yezidis, and other cultural and religious minorities, and devastating the city to such an extent that its center would be completely uninhabitable for several years. Shortly after taking control of the city, IS began, among other changes, to implement a program of systematic destruction of historic buildings containing graves, be they real or symbolic. During the occupation, nearly 50 monuments fell victim to this cultural genocide, among them the most precious pieces of medieval architecture, once symbolizing the multifari- ous ethnic and religious tradition of the city (Fig. 1). In the recent history of the world, one rarely fnds a similarly serious case of deliberate annihilation of a city resulting from a sectarian confict. This book is dedicated to these architectural monuments and the circumstances of their destruction. It aims to fll a signifcant gap in our knowledge about them, as their unfortunate fate is exacerbated by the fact that most of them have not been systematically documented or subjected to in-depth research. Although it started promisingly with the work of

xxv xxvi Introduction

Ernst Herzfeld in 1907,1 research into Mosul’s architecture remained lim- ited to a narrow selection of buildings and effectively stopped at the turn of the 1980s.2 In most cases, therefore, the real architectural and artistic value of losses caused by cultural violence on the part of IS can only be estimated. This book is a result of the Monuments of Mosul in Danger project, which was launched by the Oriental Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Prague in 2015. Its original goal, which was to document IS’s destructive attacks on the architectural heritage in Mosul, was gradually extended to encompass systematic multidisciplinary research that aimed to examine the destruction in all its complexity including its underlying ratio- nale and ideological background, architectural and historical analysis of Mosul’s built environment on the basis of all pertinent visual and written sources, and 3D reconstructions of selected, suffciently documented monuments. From the beginning, the research was very specifc in its method of working with data, as these could not be obtained or verifed in the feld. Thus, data collected from open sources (media reports, social networks, testimonies of local informants, published material) were cor- roborated by analysis of a regularly updated set of satellite and historical aerial imagery. The remote sensing data, however, had to be subjected to substantial refnement to enable us to work with suffcient precision in the complex environment of the densely built-up area of the old town and follow its development in the long-term perspective of the last century. The methodological and factual contribution of this specifc research goes beyond the aims of this book and we assume that its results can be developed in other ways in the future. Some of the results of the project have already been preliminarily published (Melčák and Beránek 2017; Nováček et al. 2017; Nováček 2019). The aim of the book is threefold: (a) to analyze the reasons, course, and consequences of IS’s deliberate destruction of monuments in Mosul; (b) to reconstruct systematically the architectural history of those buildings that were destroyed; and (c) to place the results of architectural and historical analysis into the context of Mosul’s architectural and urban development and try to capture the changing signifcance of medieval building production in the city. The structure of the book corresponds to these goals. In the frst chapter (“A City Destroyed”), we narrate in detail the course and circumstances of the systematic destruction of Mosul’s architectural monuments. By typological analysis of destroyed sites, we are able to pre- cisely defne IS’s main goals. The subsequent analysis of its religious Introduction xxvii propaganda material enables us to place their actions in the broader frame- work of radical Jihadi Salafsm, from which the ideology of IS stems. In the second chapter (“A City Explored”), after introducing the sources and methods of working with data, we present historical and architectural analyses of buildings destroyed by IS (buildings destroyed during the liberation operation were not the subject of our research, but an overview is presented in Fig. 2). The quality of the analyses naturally depends on the amount of preserved documentation. Thus, in the frst part of the catalogue we focus on the 14 buildings of medieval origin whose histories are best refected by the available sources. The architectural value of these sites was usually commensurate with their outstanding signifcance both as religious areas and as places of social memory. The sites are divided into categories according to their function and the systematically structured entries are supplemented by a selection of the most important documentation, adapted from other sources or created specifcally for the project. The analyses of other, insuffciently documented buildings, or buildings whose destruction, in isolated cases, could not be verifed, are presented within one subchapter at the end of the catalogue (see Sect. 2.2.4). All destroyed buildings are linked to the map (Fig. 1) by an alphanumeric code, which is always quoted after the name under which the same structure appears in our GIS database and on the project web- site (www.monumentsofmosul.com), where additional documentation, including 3D models of selected monuments, can be found. The subject of the third, interpretive chapter (“A City Contextualized”) is the observation of destroyed buildings in the context of the historical and architectural development of the city. We present a reconsideration of the city’s urban development from its foundation in 641 to the ffteenth century on the basis of a critical revision of historical topographic data. We focus on the formal and spatial characteristics of architecture and revise some deep-rooted interpretations of the patronage and meaning of Mosul’s medieval architecture. In addition to summarizing the results, the epilogue (“A City Resurrected?”) considers perspectives on the post-war reconstruction of the destroyed heritage and the possibility of further research under the current conditions. Unfortunately, it was not within our power to address the problem of Mosul’s historical architecture in its broadest contours. The priority ques- tions resulted naturally from the nature of the available sources and from the professional specializations of the team of authors. The basic xxviii Introduction

Fig. 1 Old Mosul with architectural monuments deliberately destroyed by IS (June 2014–July 2017), marked by religious denomination. Identifcation codes of the monuments are in brackets. 1. Shrine of Imam Yahya ibn al-Qasim (I04)— razed, 2. Shrine of Imam ʽAwn al-Din (I05)—ruined, 3. Mosque of al-Khidr (al-Jamiʽ al-Mujahidi) (I06)—razed, 4. Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Yunus (I07)— razed, 5. Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Jirjis (I08)—razed, 6. Mosque and Tomb of Qadib al-Ban al-Mawsili (I10)—ruined, 7. Mosque of Hamu al-Qadu (I11)— ruined, 8. Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Shith (I12)—razed, 9. Mosque and Husayniyya Rawdat al-Wadi (I14)—razed, 10. Tomb of Ibn al-Athir (Qabr al- Bint) (I15)—razed, 11. Mosque of Imam Ibrahim (I16)—ruined, 12. Mosque and Tomb of Shaykh Fathi (I18)—razed, 13. Mosque of Abu al-ʽAlaʼ (I19)— ruined, 14. Mosque and Tomb of Nabi Daniyal (I21)—ruined, 15. Tomb of Shaykh al-Shatt (I22)—razed, 16. Shrine of Imam ʽAli al-Asghar (I28)—ruined, 17. Mosque of Sultan Uways with cemetery (I29)—ruined, 18. Shrine of Imam ʽAbd al-Rahman (I34)—ruined, 19. Mosque and Shrine of Imam al-Bahir (I35)— razed, 20. Mosque and Shrine of Imam Muhsin (I37)—ruined, 21. Tomb and cemetery of ʽIsa Dadah (I44)—ruined, 22. Mosque of ʽAjil al-Yawar (I47)— ruined, 23. Hammam al-Saray Mosque and Shrine of al-Sitt Nafsa (I50)—ruined, 24. Hammam al-ʽUmariyya (I69)—razed, 25. Mosque of al-ʽAbbas (I54)— ruined, 26. Shrine of Imam Zayd ibn ʽAli (I55)—ruined, 27. Cemetery adjacent to the Mosque of Umm al-Tisʽa (I57)—ruined, 28. Madrasa of the ʽAbdal Mosque Introduction xxix determination is the composition of the set of destroyed buildings: the vast majority are Islamic funeral or commemorative structures (tombs, shrines) and the four most important congregational mosques of medieval origin in the city. The topic of Islamic funeral architecture resonates very strongly in the current scholarly discourse, and in the last decade there has been an intensifcation of research, related to the quest for new, ecumenical interpretations and the enrichment of art-historical analysis with archaeological methods (e.g., Mulder 2019; Petersen 2018). We tried to develop and deepen this approach—within the limitations imposed by Mosul’s inacces- sibility for intensive feld research for security reasons—which often meant that we had to work with poor-quality data obtained unsystematically at distance and with methodologically outdated procedures. The time focus of the historical-archaeological part of the book lies in the period of the twelfth to the fourteenth century. While only a minimum of material sources have survived from Mosul’s earlier historical phases, the later period of Ottoman supremacy was so complex in terms of architecture that it was not possible to research it satisfactorily on the basis of the poorly documented monuments in our analyzed set. Yet another important aspect also remained outside of our focus: the relationship

Fig. 1 (continued) (I58)—razed, 29. Shrine of Imams Hamid and Mahmud (I68)—razed, 30. Shrine of Imam ʽAli al-Hadi (I36)—ruined, 31. Tomb of Shaykh Mansur (I61)—ruined, 32. Tomb of Abu al-Hawawin (I62)—ruined, 33. Mosque and Shrine of Awlad (or Banat) al-Hasan (Mosque of Bayt Shahidu) (I63)—razed, 34. Mosque of al-Sabʽawi (I64)—ruined, 35. Tomb of Shaykh Rashid Lolan (I67)—razed, 36. Al-Tahira Syriac Orthodox Church (al-Tahira al-Kharijiya) (C14)—razed, 37. English War Cemetery (C27)—ruined, 38. Al-Saray Police Station/Madrasat al-Sanaʼiʽ (P16)—razed, 39. Great Mosque of al-Nuri and Minaret al-Hadbaʼ (I02–I03)—ruined, 40. Mosque and Madrasa of al-Ridwani (I48)—ruined, 41. Mosque of al-Abariqi (I51)—ruined, 42. Tomb of Shaykh Ibrahim (I70)—ruined, 43. Mosque of Mahmud ʽAbd al-Jalil al-Khidri (I71)— razed, 44. Shatt al-Jumi Mosque—Tomb of Shaykh Ibrahim al-Naqshbandi (I73)—ruined, 45. Mosque of al-Kharrazi (I74)—ruined. Ancient Nineveh with sites Nos. 4 and 35 are 1 km beyond the eastern boundary, site No. 22 is 1 km beyond the southern boundary and site No. 45 is 3 km beyond the northern boundary of the map. (Drawing by Lenka Starková and Karel Nováček with use of satellite image WorldView-2© DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s.r.o.) Fig. 2 Old Mosul with architectural monuments destroyed or severely damaged during the liberation of the city (February to July 2017), marked by religious denomination. Hatched area was completely destroyed in June–July 2017. Identifcation codes of the monuments are in brackets. 1. Mosque of Rabiʽa Khatun (I59)—partly ruined, 2. Mosque of al-Khazam (I27)—partly ruined, 3. Mosque of Shaykh al-Shatt (I22)—ruined, 4. Mosque of Bab al-Jadid (al-Bashir Mosque)—ruined, 5. Masjid of al-Shaʽuri—razed, 6. Mosque of al-Kawazin— razed, 7. Al-Khalal Mosque—ruined, 8. Al-Mutaʽaf Mosque—razed?, 9. Mosque of ʽUthman al-Khatib—ruined, 10. Mosque of Shaykh Muhammad—ruined, 11. Mar Guorguis Chaldean Church—ruined, 12. Mar Ishoʽyab Chaldean Church (C1)—ruined, 13. Ancient Church of the Virgin Mary—ruined, 14. Syriac Catholic Church—ruined, 15. Sharif al-Dabakh House—razed, 16. Hana Jirjis House—ruined, 17. Bashir Munir House—razed, 18. Hana Michel Hana House— razed, 19. Dawud Ishak House—razed, 20. ʽAbd al-Rahman House—ruined, 21—Bahnam Raban House—razed, 22. Anes Kamas House—razed, 23. Ziyada House—ruined, 24. Al-Sharabi House—ruined, 25. Al-Tutunji House—ruined, 26. An unknown heritage house—razed. Drawing by Lenka Starková and Karel Nováček with use of satellite image WorldView-3 from 12 July 2017 (source: WorldView-3 © 2017, DigitalGlobe, Inc., distributed by European Space Imaging GmbH/ARCDATA PRAHA, s. r. o.) Introduction xxxi between Christian and Islamic building and sculptural arts. Its signifcance for understanding Mosul’s medieval architecture is indisputable, but the data set we have collected (with a few exceptions; see Sect. 2.2.2.6) does not bring any new arguments to the ongoing discussion (Snelders 2010). In the analysis of buildings, the formal and developmental (stratigraphic) points of view were emphasized; to a lesser extent, we focused on the typology and development of decorative techniques and motifs, which were, in the context of Mosul, more thoroughly addressed by previous generations of researchers. The architectural parts of the book (Sect. 2.2), as well as the interpretive chapters (Chaps. 3 and 4), were written by Karel Nováček, an archaeologist with a background in architectural history, and Miroslav Melčák, a historian of the Middle East. The analysis of IS’s cultural violence in Mosul (Chap. 1) is the joint work of Miroslav Melčák and Ondřej Beránek, a specialist in the current history of the Middle East with a focus on radical Islamic movements. Lenka Starková, a landscape archaeologist and remote sensing specialist, Miroslav Melčák, and Karel Nováček wrote the introduction to sources and methodology (Sect. 2.1). Lucie Pospíšilová, aka Nyx Alexander Design, enriched the graphic and interpretive dimensions of the project with digital reconstructions of selected monuments and co- authored the appendix to Sect. 2.2.2.2.

Olomouc, Czech Republic Karel Nováček Prague, Czech Republic Miroslav Melčák Prague, Czech Republic Ondřej Beránek Plzeň, Czech Republic Lenka Starková

Notes 1. Last year (2020) marked the centenary of the publication of his essential contribution to our knowledge of Mosul’s architecture. 2. The last broader works based on feld research were those of Dhunnun et al. (1982a, 1982b, 1983; al-Janabi 1982; Uluçam 1989—researched in 1983; al-Kubaisy 2010—researched in 1978). See Sect. 2.1 for details. Afterward, only general essays or isolated studies devoted to individual monuments were published. xxxii Introduction

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