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Hazards Induced by Groundwater Recharge Under Rapid Urbanisation

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Hazards Induced by Groundwater Recharge Under Rapid Urbanisation HAZARDS INDUCED BY GROUNDWATER RECHARGE UNDER RAPID URBANISATION GROWTH OF water-supply provision value for unsewered city without mains drainage aximmainsum sewerage installation WATER IMPORTED M FROM DISTANT SOURCE Lima 1000 GROUNDWATER Merida FROM WASTE DISPOSAL WASTE WAST WATER-SUPPLY AND WATER-SUPPLY Potential urban PEPERIURBAN recharger WELLFIELDS 500 (from mains leakage,le Santa urban drainagedrainag and GROUNDWATER Cruz FROM CITY NUCLEUSwastewater disposal)dis shallow wells deeper boreholes 200 INITIAL SETTLEMENT URBAN EXPANSION Hat Yai Water obtained Water obtained from Urban aquiferaq Water obtained from:- from shallow city city boreholes and largely abandonedab (i) peri-urban wellfield 100 WATER wells. wells. in favour of SUPPLY SUPPLY periurban wellfields. (ii) imported water Pr Natural (non-urban)se environmentob w abl ere e m - incipient contaminationd -i nurbanim waterw table - water table declines 50 city um value of urban aquifer wit h stabilisesstabilise but for outside city (cannot urbanmain aquiferaq meet increased water - possible urban well contaminatedcontamis drainage demand). yield reductions None due to water table - urban water-table Deep infiltration (mm/a) 20 decline. rises IMPACTS IMPACTS Recharge resulting - incipient contamination of from urbanization peri-urban wellfields 10 (Pre-urban recharge nil) Non-urban recharge- over exploitation - excess pollution - over exploitation loading ICAL ES - excess pollution - excess recharge 5 None loading (local to city centre) 2000 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 HYDRO- CAUSES - excess pollution GEOLOGICAL Rainfall (mm/a) loading between: between: between: - urban groundwater - urban water supply - peri-urban water-users HUMIDNone usersSEMI-ARID (private vs public) vs wastewaterARID (municipal, irrigation, disposal rural supply) - public supply - water supply vs POTENTIAL CONFLICTS (peri-urban) and wastewater irrigation disposal/re-use Q.4 - How do I assess the extent of urban groundwater use and the status of aquifer development? Lawrence AR, Morris BL and Foster SSD 1998. Hazards Induced by Groundwater Under Rapid Urbanisation, in Maunds JG and Eddleston M (Eds) Geohazards in Engineering Geology. Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications 15, 319-328. HAZARDS INDUCED BY GROUNDWATER RECHARGE UNDER RAPID URBANISATION A R Lawrence, B L Morris & S S D Foster British Geological Survey, Wallingford OX10 8BB, UK Abstract Urban population growth across most of Latin America and Asia is relentless. Rapid urbanisation has profound impacts on the hydrological cycle, including major changes in groundwater recharge. Existing infiltration mechanisms are radically modified, and new ones introduced, with evidence of an overall increase in recharge rates. There is also widespread diffuse pollution of groundwater by nitrogen compounds (normally nitrate, but sometimes ammonium), salinity (especially sodium chloride) and dissolved organic carbon. Groundwater contamination by petroleum and chlorinated hydrocarbons, and related synthetic organic compounds, and, on a more localised basis, pathogenic bacteria and viruses is also encountered. An analysis of the processes involved is made through citing detailed case histories. INTRODUCTION Urban Hydrogeological Cycle The provision of water-supply, sanitation and drainage are key elements of the urbanisation process. Major differences in development sequence exist between higher-income areas, where the process is normally planned in advance, and lower-income areas, where informal settlements are progressively consolidated into urban areas. However, common factors to most urbanisation are impermeabilisation of a significant proportion of the land surface and major importation of water from outside the urban limits. Sanitation and drainage arrangements, which are fundamental to consideration of the hydrological cycle (Lindh 1983), generally evolve with time and vary widely with differing patterns of urban development. In most developing towns and cities installation of mains sewerage systems lags significantly behind population growth and water-supply provision. Urbanisation causes radical changes in the frequency and rate of groundwater recharge, with a general tendency for volume to increase significantly and for quality to deteriorate substantially (Foster 1990). These changes cannot be measured directly and are thus difficult to quantify. The changes in recharge caused by urbanisation in turn influence groundwater levels and flow regimes in underlying aquifers. This can take considerable time, because the response constants of groundwater systems are normally the largest of all components of the urban hydrological cycle (Van de Ven 1990). It will usually be decades before aquifers reach equilibrium with the process of urbanisation. Abstraction frequently masks changes in recharge regime, especially when groundwater levels are falling due to local resource overexploitation. The most troublesome groundwater mounds are likely to develop under low-lying urban areas on relatively low-permeability unconfined aquifers, especially if they are not exploited for water-supply, as a result of poor water quality. Rising groundwater levels can affect the stability, integrity and operation of subsurface engineering structures and installations. Thus, while the hydrogeologist tends to speak of 'the impact of urbanisation on groundwater' in terms of large- scale, long-term, temporal changes, the geotechnologist tends to think in terms of 'the impact of groundwater on urban structures' in a site-specific, steady-state sense. 1 ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS ON GROUNDWATER A general summary of the principal urban processes affecting groundwater, and their relative impact, is given in Table 1. The impact of any given process will vary significantly with climatic regime, hydrogeological environment, and with the pattern of urban development itself. Table 1: Summary of impact of urbanisation processes on groundwater Process Effect On Subsurface Infiltration Implications Principal Rates Area Time Base For Quality Contaminants MODIFICATIONS TO NATURAL SYSTEM Surface impermeabilisation & drainage - roofs, paved areas Reduction Extensive Permanent Minimal None - stormwater soakaways Increase Extensive Intermittent Marginally Cl, HC, CHC negative - mains drainage Reduction Extensive Continuous None None - surface water canalisation Marginal Linear Variable None reduction Irrigation of amenity areas Increase Restricted Seasonal Variable N, Cl INTRODUCTION OF WATER- SERVICE NETWORK Water-supply system Increase Extensive Continuous Positive None Sanitation measures - unsewered Increase Extensive Continuous Negative N, FP - mains sewerage Marginal Extensive Continuous Marginally N, FP, DOC increase negatiive Cl chloride and other major ions DOC dissolved organic carbon N nitrogen compounds (nitrate or ammonium) HC hydrocarbon fuels CHC chlorinated hydrocarbons FP faecal pathogens Modifications to Natural Systems Surface Impermeabilisation and Drainage Urbanisation results in land-surface impermeabilisation, which reduces direct infiltration of excess rainfall, but also tends to lower evaporation and thus to increase, as well as accelerate, surface runoff. Pluvial drainage arrangements determine whether there will be a net change in overall groundwater recharge rate, but anything from a major reduction to a modest increase is possible. Surface impermeabilisation processes include the construction of roofs, and of paved areas, such as major highways, minor roads, parking lots, industrial patios, airport aprons, etc. While the proportion of the land area covered is a key factor, it should be noted that some types of urban pavement, such as tile, brick and porous asphalt, are, in fact, quite permeable and, conversely, that some unpaved surfaces become highly compacted with reduced infiltration capacity (Bouvier 1990). If no pluvial drainage system is installed, runoff will either infiltrate at the edge of impermeable surfaces or via soakaways, enter river channels, or accumulate in land-surface depressions. If pluvial (so-called storm water) drainage is installed, the mode of drainage-water disposal will exercise an important influence on urban groundwater recharge rates. The reduction in direct groundwater recharge, as a result of land-surface impermeabilisation, is quite commonly offset by increases in indirect recharge, when drainage is routed to soil soakaways or infiltration basins. 2 Although this is excellent water conservation practice, where drainage from major highways and industrial patios is included, it will represent a significant increase in the risk of groundwater pollution, due to spillages of hydrocarbon fuels and industrial chemicals in particular. Soakaways are also all too often used for the casual disposal of liquid waste from residential areas, such as used motor oils or for the illegal connection of septic-tank overflows. Urbanisation also involves radical modification to the condition of surface water courses, which in turn can affect either the recharge and quality, or the discharge, of groundwater. The effects vary widely with hydrogeological environment and climatic type. Irrigation of Amenity Areas In climates where irrigation has to be continuously or intermittently practised, excessive application is commonplace in parks and gardens, especially if water is applied by flooding from irrigation channels or hose pipes, as opposed to more efficient methods, such as sprinklers, which are more often used on sports fields.
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