CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment for the degree of Master of Arts in Gender Studies. in Gender ofArts ofMaster degree forthe In partialfulfillment Mobilization of Estonian andRussian-speaking women in contemporary Estonia. contemporary in women Supervisor: Professor Susan Zimmerman Department ofGenderStudies Central European University Central Erzsébet Kovács Erzsébet Budapest, Hungary Submitted to 2010 By CEU eTD Collection Estonian women’s NGOs do. logic ofdomination, admitting thesupremacy ofethnicity over gender –asthe also marginalize andneglect thegender issues, followingpatriarchal similar sex human rights based internationally fundedconsulting agencies, which position ofthe Russian minority. Theirneeds are accommodated only inboth- not pursue anopenly politicized gender agenda. This mirrors the inferior Russian-speaking women inturnform cultural organizations only which do needs. of Russian-speaking women, althoughclaim the universality ofwomen’s Estonian women’s NGOs. These organizations donot incorporate the agenda serious anti-Russianattitude thatcan be clearly depicted thein agenda of speaking women contemporary in Estonia. The Estonian society fullis of This thesis explores themobilization ofEstonian women andRussian- them do nothaveapassport at all. status, even though theydidnot changetheirplace of andsomeliving of itself being “economic immigrants” with seriously limited rights and legal With the fall ofthe Soviet Union ahuge Russian-speaking population found Abstract 2 CEU eTD Collection 6. 1. 5. 27 STATE...... 4. 3. 2. 5.2. 1.2. 1.1. 5.1. OCUIN...... 53 CONCLUSION...... NRDCIN...... 4 INTRODUCTION...... AGENDA OF ESTONIAN 33 AND RUSSIAN-SPEAKING ...... WOMEN’S NGOS. THE POSITION OF RUSSIAN-SPEAKING WOMEN VIS-À-VIS THE ESTONIAN 16WOMEN’S MOBILIZATION IN VARIOUS ...... CONTEXTS THE DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL 9 CONTEXT OF ESTONIA...... T T T T HE HE METHOD HE STRUCTURE HE R E STONIAN WOMEN STONIAN USSIAN SPEAKING WOMEN SPEAKING USSIAN ...... 5 ...... 5 ...... ’ S NGO Table of contents S ’ ...... 33 ...... S NGO 3 S ...... 41 ...... CEU eTD Collection consulting agencies. Theseagencies also do notincorporate thegender speaking men andseekhuman assistance in internationally rights funded point inEstoniaat this tounite both-sex is in NGOs togetherRussian- withthe activities, without having anactive political agenda. Theonly choicethey have women’s NGOs. Russian-speaking women on unite the basis of their cultural of Russian-speaking women arenotincorporated intotheagenda ofEstonian women’s NGOs,comingto theconclusion that thestand-point and interests search in the agenda ofEstonian women’s NGOsand in Russian-speaking Russian-speaking women context this ofdomination. Forthis in strategyI strategies. The main to taskofmy analyseresearch is find and thestrategy of Women invarious contexts ofoppression choosedifferent mobilization Estonians andthe anti-Russian approach ofthe whole Estonian society. differently vis-à-vis the Estonian state, reproducing the domination of ethnic willshow that Estonian andRussian-speaking women arepositioned constructionWomen playakeyrole is ofthestatemy identity. In researchI authorities will bediscussedin detailsinthis thesis. vis-à-vis theEstonianstate andhow integration isenvision bytheEstonian population thein Estonian society. The way how this minority is positioned The Estonian statemakes some effortstointegrate the Russian-speaking Estonia. minority, theaccommodationof which isaproblem that needsasolution in This independent country hasa huge population ofRussian-speaking With thefall oftheSoviet UnionEstonia became anindependentcountry. 1. Introduction 4 CEU eTD Collection I haveconducted in-depth, topical, open-ended andsemi-structured “womanhood.” “first-hand” accessto theirperception ofthesocial phenomenon of NGOs experience issues related to women’s rights, their experience gives studies Ihave involved phenomenological approach women’s NGOs andEstonianwomen’s NGOs.Inanalysing thesecase myIn researchIhave made intrinsic case studies of Russian-speaking NGOs. supremacy ofethnicityover gender asinthecase ofEstonian women’s both-sex mobilization, that isgender-blind andisbuilt onthesame logic ofthe in internationally fundedhuman consulting rights agencies onthebasis of the needs of Russian-speaking women atthispoint are accommodated only agenda ofEstonian andRussian-speaking women’s NGOs, concludingthat contexts ofoppression leadsmy research to the practical analysis of the nation, state andgender and mobilization strategies ofwomen various in internationalcontext ofcontemporary Estonia.Discussing the literature of analysis I introduce the methodology ofmy researchandthe domestic and Russian-speaking women’s NGOs inEstonia. But in ordertobuild-up the The mainpart ofthis thesis the is analysis of theagenda ofEstonianand gender interests. intra-community patriarchal male logic ofthe supremacy ofethnicity over the interests of the Russian-speaking women intotheiragenda, following the .. The 1.2. method. The 1.1. structure 5 1 , asparticipants these in CEU eTD Collection interviewer-interviewee situation hasits pre-established hierarchies. Inmy claims thatthe power relations thein interview cannot be equal and the understand my position as one of the means of communication. Portelli In this frameworkmy positionas the interviewer is problematic, asI experience”. researchers have uncovered previously neglected ormisunderstood worlds of phenomena accessible onlythrough sensitive interviewing, feminist membership inparticular social systems, andestablishingthe distributionof Reinharz betweengroups with diverse these backgrounds. opinion thus my researchfacilitates and maybe inducecommunication and Russian-speaking) were able toputdown thecornerstones of their cases men), thusI have created a virtual forum where bothparties (Estonian is thatI have listened and read the topical stories ofwomen (andinsome ofexperience thereality.From perspectivethis thespecificity ofmy research interviewer toexplain theconstructed political natureofthepersonal thein questionof the socialconstruction of the experience and the task of the In myresearch Ihavetakenaconstructivist approach, asIagree with Scott refining processas I haveconducted theinterviews. extremely valuable, asmy own questionsand focushasundergone through answered further questions that I have posted. Theircontribution hasbeen some alonge-mailingprocess, caseshasinduced where my interviewees unableto give Skypeinterview couldanswer thequestion. Thisanswering in my interviewees inwritten form that Isent to them. Thus, thosewhowere interviews onSkype and inperson. Beside that Ihave prepared question to 3 claims that“bylistening towomen speak, understanding women’s 6 4 2 CEU eTD Collection constructed inresponsetosocial voicestimulus my to taskhasbeentogive shows ofindividual specificities identity construction. thatidentity is AsIthink I thinkit. thisposition usefulfromis phenomenological perspectiveas it experience I have tried tosee ifthey victimize, rationalise or positivelyaffirm these positions varyaccording totheemotionalcontent ofmemory ofthe position thatthe interviewees areusing when speakingabout issues. As following the narration. Usingthese parameters I have tried todepict the and registered the voice levelsattached to stories, the emotions thatare the interviewee fromwhich she is speaking. In this senseIhave paidattention narration making itcomfortable and trying to get access to the perspectiveof interviewee onthelevel ofvoice,toneand vocabulary, paraphrasing the interactions psychoanalyticalrelation toreality andwill trytopayspecialattention to situation. Thus I have taken upa “mirror” position that is closer tothe My taskwas tocapturethesituated understandings created the in interview whenstate it Ianalyse thenarration. me with a symbolic bridge to my interviewees, enriched and improved the quality of our of quality the improved and enriched interviewees, to bridge my asymbolic with me Russian provided This knowledge of Russian. in some interviews conducted have I because alsoimportant issue is this ofthe research perspective From the secondhome. asmy Russia i connections to Russian people should beaware ofmybiased position asaperson,who hasvarious personal interview. Besides that,asIhave dealt with an ethnically divided countryI particular social groupthatneeds tobekeptinmind whenanalysingthe structures takenform the culturalrepertoire of the individualas amember ofa spoken to a broader “public” audience (Grele case itis important tonote,thatmy intervieweesthroughmemean asa have I have been socialized in a purely Russian community. Although I am Hungarian, Isee am I Hungarian, Although Russian community. a purely in have been socialized I 6 . Ihavesupported thecircle oftheinterview bymirroring the i . Thus,Ihave tokeep inmindmy biasand 7 5 ) through linguistic and literary CEU eTD Collection communication. as inofficial discourses inEstonia they are called“Russian-speaking special attentionto the word that is usedfor the Russian-speakingminority, womenminority and rights if ithasnot appeared automatically. Ihave paid answer bychannellingtheconversationto the issueofRussian-speaking particular issue. After this first question Ihave gone for a more concrete set uponly the direction ofthe answer without pushing the respondent to a please tell me aboutyour experience?”. As this was an open question I have contribute tothe improvement ofwomen’s position inEstonia. Could you interview by a channelling question: “I am interested how your NGO After the introduction partduring the interviews onSkypeIopened the professional duty. interview as they aremostly social actors andgiving interviews was their relationto Russians. Isupposed that my interviewees will notrefuse the about my backgroundandexplainmy biased position termsin ofclose working on.Inorder to build trust somein cases Ihave toldsome details which requiredchannelling some information abouttheproject Ihavebeen second taskhas been gaining ofthe informed consentfrom the interviewees, interviews tosuggest aquiet place for the interview if it notis suggested. The task havebeen arrangingthe appointments and case ofpersonalin I haveconducted one hour long interviews onSkype and inperson. My first The practicalities: individualnarration constructed. is reports that represent the social phenomenon in response towhich the In order to avoid generalization Ihave searched and referred to studies and these responses. 8 CEU eTD Collection On the 20 The domestic and international context of 2. Estonia. interpretations andconnection itwants if to. studies and offer it to the attention of the audience that is able tobuild up population and especially womenwith oralhistory and written interview case about thecontemporary situation Estonia in regarding theRussian-speaking maximum self-reflexive. Ihave therefore also tried tojuxtapose factualdata I am aware thatany interpretation againis a social construction even ifIam NGOs. chapters about the Estonia women NGOsandRussian-speaking women targeting them are the sources that I have documented anddescribed in the the position of the minority women andtheir opinion onthe official policies rhetoric, linguistic patterns, thetopicalpreferences, strategies, perception of that arediscussed in both texts. Thecommonalities anddifferences in compare and theEstonian caseordertodetect study in theRussian issues particular NGO I have worked with. After getting theanswers Ihadto in English or Russian, contextualized, targeting theexperience ofthat representatives ofEstonian andRussian-speaking NGOs, thequestions were my interviewees. AsIhave conducted interviews thiswaywith In caseofwritten interviews I have collected 10 questions and sent them to that iswhy issubstituted it in theofficial rhetoric. ties to the state and dismantles thenotion of the homogenised nation-state - immigrants” and not “minority.” I suppose that theword “minority” suggests countries, had tore-build itsdomestic relations, state apparatus, and structure Soviet central government. th ofAugust 1991, Estonia gained independence from the collapsing 7 ThusEstonia, withnumber a ofother“new” 9 CEU eTD Collection According toPeterGowan, this apatternofturning tothe “right”, establishing center-left Centre Party parties havegoverned short-termin government sweeping coalitions, the Soviet Union. Onthe 24 Contemporary Estoniahas historical rootsthat pre-date the collapse ofthe and finditsplace withinthe broader international agenda. Publica (Estonian: coalition ofthenational-radical alliance oft the pathofright-wing nationalistic orientation, embodied thegoverning in After thecollapse oftheSoviet Union, Estonia initsdomestic hastaken policy international law. occupation oftheSoviet Unionthat Estonia envisions ashumiliationof the 1934 introduced an authoritarianregime) which wasunderminedby tradition ofdemocracy (although former Prime KonstantinMinister Pätsin the international arena: the country’s leadership often claims thatEstonia has relations between Estonia andRussia. Italso influences Estonia’s position in the 1918independent nation-state. collapse oftheSovietUnion, itchosetorestore state its asthesuccessor of independencesymbolic in1918 ofa is importance forEstonia, asafterthe borders between thetwo countries. Thedate ofthedeclaration of Estonia’s the Soviets intheform of TartuPeaceTreaty in1920,which definedthe declared its independence asarepublic. This declarationwas recognizedby withdrawalof the Russian troops and arrival ofthe German troops,Estonia 9 Isamaa jaRes Publica Liit (Estonian: th ofFebruary 1918, thein time between the 8 10 Eesti Keskerakond Thisview isofkey importance in , or IRL). S he Union ofPro Patria and Res mall, fragmented political ) tothe opposition. CEU eTD Collection speakers, and 25% is ofRussianspeakers, and25% is ethnicity. also Ukrainians, (there are classified asnon-Estonian citizens, 32% of the population isnon-Estonian "ethnic card" thein multilateral forums, as17% ofthe population ofEstonia is the Russian-speaking population, just “without ethnic tincture assistance to pensioners, whom he promises thesamechange social asto votes andpower. Interestingly, Savisaar isalso thesupporter ofgovernment are understood to bepopulist rhetoric thatisdirected toward gainingmore population, and maintenance ofclose relationship withPutin’s “United Russia” largely vague promises ofwider social rights for theRussian-speaking the Russian-speaking population asthe“czar.” into theParliament. Itschairman -EdgarSavisaar - is frequently perceived by the purely Russian-speaking population could not collectenough votestoget agenda the issueof rights ofthe Russian-speaking population, as parties of The CentrePartyistheonly“mainstream”party thatincorporates into its follows most ofthepost-socialist countries. a numberparties, ofsmall thatally inshort-term coalitions istheonethat expect thatRussia -when itdeems itsinterests –willagain pulloutthe support inthefuture also.According toThompson, Estoniacontinuesto resisting Russia’s demand onthis issue, and Tallinn expects this strong granted to ethnic Russians residing inEstonia. TheEUsupports Estoniaon simplified process for the acquisition of citizenship that may beautomatically stateless status, the “improvement” minority ofthe status, and the of a issue the needto tacklethe issue ofRussians Estoniain –inparticular, the The Russian side thein bilateral relations with Estoniaconsiders important 11 10 11 His pro-Russian rhetoric, Hispro-Russian .” 12 CEU eTD Collection strategy, accordingVetik, to seeking to establish these ties via linguistic andcultural trainings. This which were designedtointegrate theRussian-speaking population, are population. To establish ethical integration of thesociety, thestate actions, This is for a number ofreasons problematic for the Russian-speaking knowledgeof the Estonian language andculture andbe loyalto thestate. speaking individuals should provetheir ties with Estonia,should haveactive According toPoleshchuk “home country.” such astoseek financial gain,and thuspotentially can bereturned totheir classification, Russians areseentoreside in Estoniaontheir own volition, the traditionalsense; rather treatsthem as “economic immigrants.” instruments. consider national Estoniadoesnot Russianstobeits minority it Moscow pressure sometimes applies using political andeconomic thesituation of Russian minority, inprotection oftheinterests ofwhich policy. Thesource ofpersistent tension inrelationswithRussia is the special historic importance bothterms in ofthe domestic policy and foreign According toHernád, theRussian minority intheBaltic Countries areof Belarusiansthe in country.) understandingof the roleof the language asameans ofpublic wishethnic of minorities to preserve their identity. Inthis sense, the three contradictions. First istheneed tohave a common spaceandthe public increased. According tohispoint, theIntegration Strategy should resolve proficiency in Estonian within theRussian-speaking population hasnot 14 , toqualify as“eligible” for minority status Russian- 15 hasanumber ofshortcomings, asthe level of 12 13 With this CEU eTD Collection interview with him as follows: contemporary nationalist radicals in political power. Veticexplains thisin my has unfortunately dismissed itsfunctioningwith the emergence of have incorporated variousinequality grounds,gender, like class, etc., but it This forum could havegone further than simplyminority rights, andcould member ofdifferent minorities could raise issues that were relevant for them. of national minorities consulting directly thepresident) was aforum,where of inequality. ThePresidentialRoundtable on NationalMinorities (acommittee homogeneousmass, itdoesnotreferneither to gender,nor toothergrounds say, thattheRussian-speaking population in thisStrategy is treatedasa they would bemore loyal and“sameminded” astheEstonians. Needless to terms iftheRussian-speaking population adapt tothe “mainstream” thinking, broader culturalrights instead of political inclusion. Heclaims long- thatin Vetik, one of the designers of the Integration Strategy 2008-2013, offers completely opposite views onthese issues than doEstonians. and relations between Estonia andRussian. Overwhelmingly, Russians hold sustainability based oncommon views aboutthehistory, internationalaims losing theirmother-tongue. The third contradiction is assuring thestate’s identity construction, which isperceived among theRussiansasathreat of transformation, inorder toestablish acommon educationthat shapes the private domain inquestion. is Second isthe necessary educational communication andthe understanding ofthe language as belonging tothe regularly, organized conferences etc., discussed laws andpolitical After thattherolehas been more orless symbolic, it gathered referendum on regional autonomy asananswer tothelaw onaliens. Summer 1993when Narva declared that they will carry out a a veryconstructive role forexample during thealiens law crises in “….the Roundtable was meant toconsult the Estonian President, it had 13 CEU eTD Collection Justice istheresponsible foracting incases of discrimination, buthis the EC Directive asrefusalto apply aninternationalnorm. Thechancellor of indirect discrimination based onethnicity andheseesnottotalconformity with Poleshchuk claims thatdisproportional language requirements can lead to should not beregarded as discrimination if it is indicated inthe Language Act. the Estonian legislation,unequal treatment basedonlanguage proficiency occupational requirements cases ofpositive orin discrimination. According to race, whereasthe Directive allows only it in casesordetermining special allows exception form the banondirectdiscrimination based onethnicity and legislation onequal treatment shouldconform the 2000/43/EC Directive, it those who areunequal must betreated unequally.” Poleshchuk interprets as “those who areequalmust betreated equally and One oftheseissues istheanti-discrimination legislation ofEstonia, which “attractive” citizenship. and Russian-speaking peoplethat cannot be overcome simply byamore suggests thatthere areadditionalrelevant issues inthe relation ofEstonians number ofnaturalizedcitizens ofEstonia hasslowed down eachyear.This Estonian citizenship. Russian-speaking population’s increasing interest the acquisitionin of membership, aswell asEstonia’s rapid economicgrowth, resulted in the According toHernád President ofEstonia, but now moreis orlessanindependent NGO.” affiliated to the Cooperation Council, which usedtobe affiliated to the there isan idea that the Roundtablewill berecreated anditwill be active minorityin policy, they thinkthat there is noproblem. Rightnow Estonians even do not think about it…..the current government is not not happy that the Roundtable is notfunctioning any more, but initiatives related tothe minority issue. I think thatRussianminority is Despite thatinterest, thetendencyof growing ofthe 16 , new opportunities related toEU and NATO 14 17 Although the Estonian CEU eTD Collection capacities, norcultural adaptation brings bettersocial position andhigher distributionof social benefits andchildcare. Accordingly, neither linguistic minority. Deriving from that, thesewomen aresegregated also inthe - thusthisstratum themost evenamongis vulnerable marginalized this required qualification, facedenial inthelabourmarket onthe basisof ethnicity labour market. Especially young women from aged who19-26, havethe speak Estoniawellwere and born the country,in arenottreated equally inthe Poleshchuk provedthat eventhose Russian-speaking youngpeople, who also geographically, residingnear theborder withRussia. protection hasnoaccess to medicalservices. Thesepeopleare segregated number ofunemployed areamong them,who becauseofthe lack ofsocial performed nearly almost byRussian-speaking people, and the highest a marginalizedin position. The low-qualification jobs (taxidiving, cleaning) are The socialsegregation ofthesociety locatesthe Russian-speaking population immigrants” that Estoniahas alarge in proportion.” Families, theconvention thatprotects the rightsoftheir “economic Protectionof theRights ofAllMigrant MembersWorkers and oftheir worth tonotice, thatEstoniadid notsign the InternationalConvention onthe nowadays ofthesigned thelist agreements nowadays is relatively long, it is accession was particularly reluctant to adopt these norms. Although internalization Estoniain has been slow. TheEstonian government beforeEU reports, According to European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) family andinheritance relations –the sphere ofprivate life. competencies arefalling outside the issues related topracticing offaith, 18 the diffusion of thediffusion internationalhuman normsrights andtheir 15 19 CEU eTD Collection organized first her neighbourhood community onwelfarethe in housing This social experience her led to the fight against harassment andshe apartmentmonitoring foul anddesigning howthemoney shouldbespent. soon became equitant with theharassment ofcaseworker, whowent intoher workingfamily she did not want torely onwelfare, but had to. That whyis she advised to seekwelfare andtakecare ofher children.Being socialized ina established byJohnnieTillmon, woman, ablack who becauseofbeingwas ill women`s organizations incontemporary organization Estonia. This was established in the US, I think has some parallels with Russian-speaking AnonymousCalifornia. in ofWatts This organization, although it hasbeen would tomention thecaseof like ANC only (AidtoNeedyChildren) Mothers discusses thesis I detailsvariousfeministGluck movements,this in butin neglected or ignored. movements historical thefeminist into discourse, which havebeenpreviously fighting oppressionor domination. This broad definition incorporates women’s as means andaims varyfrom context to context servingthe purpose of According to this definition, the range of possible forms ofmobilization aswell community (internal). disadvantaged) statusthe in society atlarge(external)theirand in own for change whose agendas and/or actions challenge women’s subordinate (or formal andinformal subcommittees communities, andcaucuses) organized givesGluck adefinition offeminist activism “women’s is that groups(including Women’s mobilization in various 3. contexts level of integrationfor theRussian-speaking populationof Estonia. 20 16 CEU eTD Collection that povertywas a“women’s issue”. movements by incorporation the standpoint of the “poor” women, claiming scrutiny. and how authorities abusethem toestablishin order thegovernmental how the welfare system controls andmonitors the ofwomenlives welfare, on community survival rights incooperation with men. Butevenwithin these articulate gender interests, butthey often do thatframingit through the claimsGluck thatwomenwho ethnic havesocialized in communities do ethnically andclass bounded community based organization. wasof Watts thattheydid mobilize togethermen, with thusitwas aboth-sex, One ofthe peculiarities ofANC (Aid toNeedy Children) Mothers Anonymous national feminist women’s agenda. preserving of dignity, social justice and incorporation of the agenda to the deserve and to survive, the range of priorities step by stephas moved to important issue forthesewomenwas access tobenefits andeducation they has turned into ahuman movement. rights Although thefirst and most and basedstarted itswork class organization,itstepby asanethnicity Although theANC (Aid toNeedyChildren) Mothers Anonymous of Watts Issue,” published in contribution to the movement hasbeen her article “Welfare Is a Women’s deserve, dignity, justice anddemocratic participation. Tillmon’s extraordinary leadership. Their unionas welfare mothers foughtfor toget what they part of the National RightsWelfare Organization (NWRO) with Tillmon atthe Anonymous Thislocal ofWatts. initiative soon began tospreadand become a project in 1963 establishing the ANC(Aid toNeedy Children) Mothers 21 According tothisarticle her agenda was toredefinefeminist Ms. Magazine , where she sheds the light on the issue of 17 CEU eTD Collection This difference of the hegemonic/majority andsubordinated/minority money gainedthrough wealthy men. whereas whitewomen patronizes the “needy” andthe“deserving it”from building activities withstrong moral andfinancial involvement ofthechurch, also different. Black women engageinsmall scale volunteer community claim that home the is natural place of women. Themeans ofmobilization are womenblack donotprotestagainst thewomen’s work,whereas white women vision oftheplace ofwomen apointofdifference isalso among them – the community, areoriented toward means-tested project based programs. The the equal rights demand, whereas whitewomen about careless the claims focusonlegalentities. These claims aretoalargeextend similar to sensitive, seektoachieveuniversal, federal level programs welfare andtheir assumption ofthe race responsibility black women are more community white womenwelfare activities in1960s US claims, thatbecause ofthe Gordon, shapes the ways inwhich womenmobilize. ethnicity, socio-economic status,and relationship with the(welfare) state women ethnicity.a dominant Insuchcases, from theintersections ofgender, norm of thewelfare state, butalso the “welfare chauvinism” ofmiddle-class means that,women (andmen) areabletochallenge not only thepatriarchal heart andprovides themmore thein visibility society.Insome cases,this segregated women inalliancewith men increases theirchances of being I think,particularly in caseof Estonia, the mobilization ofethnically andclass confrontationwithmen ongender issues and become thedominantforce. both-sex organizations women challengepatriarchaloppression through 22 countingthenumber ofdifferences between theblackand 18 CEU eTD Collection broader context, represented by the politics and the economy. Thisdynamic upon and derives from the dynamic between the local context andthe worsebelonging toit.Thus,Ithink of thisa form is of self-reflection that draws legitimate tobeacommunitymember andalsoexcludes thosewho arenot defines herself, theworld around, builds coalitions with thosewho are felt experience of community construction should be learnt. This human-being disability orage andsoon,creating a unique human-being, whose are also individual, asthesebasic forces can intersect with sexuality, from the intersection ofbasicsocial forcesas race, class and gender, butthey construction of race. These positions contain some common deriving points, groups differently, how class embodies andisanimportant aspectofthe Naples also claims, thatracial processes positions people ofdifferent ethnic constructed bythepolitical agenda leaving spear spaceforthat activism. betweenindividuals the involved, buttheyareagainsocialconstructs thatare The collective responses are developed through discussions and dialogue individual constructed is through broadsocial forces. responses, but theyare socially constructed, as theculturalrepertoire ofthe responses toinjusticeand inequality. These responsesare individual synonymous with classby ethnicandbackgrounds. This political through socialization, social networks, the culturalcontext ofwhich shapedis Naples women’s activism willbe traced in asubsequent chapter. represented the case ofin Estonia. This difference of thedynamics of dynamics ofwomen’s welfare activism from contextsdifferent alsois 23 claims thatcommunity activists develop theirpolitical sensitivity awareness oftheirdominated position thatconstructs 19 sensitivity, I think, is CEU eTD Collection structure construction. feminist movement tomake it more effective in fighting injustice of the social This open and honest communication seeks tocreate unity among the asas well respecting and learningeach other’s culturaland ethnical heritage. movement, promoting diversity and cooperation within the feminist movement ethnic background, this communication should “update” the feminist open and honest communication between womenwith differentsocialand The basis fordeveloping an inclusive type of feminism according toher is - power. performed bytheactualstructures,institutions, actorsofthehierarchy of willnot exist anymore, asother dimensions ofoppression are produced and and just society. But this step does not mean thatoppression and domination and challenging it means thataserious step taken inorder tobuild amore fair sexist oppression isthe one from which allother forms ofoppression derives the basis andthe driving force ofexisting social order. Hooksclaims, that This typeofoppression practice the is onethatmost peopleexperience; it is establish andconstantly re-establish thesuperior/inferiordivide in thesociety. traditionally supported by culture,Western philosophy and religion in order to claimingthat the basic practice ofoppression isthesexist oppression, broad-scale social issues. She gives atheory ofoppression hierarchy, movements anditsgoals, steppingasidefrom the“individual interest” to Bell Hooks which form the community agenda. construction ofthecommunity, asaparticipant inthebroadpower relations, gives afeed-back to the self-construction ofthehuman-beingand the 24 provides an inclusive and wide perspective onfeminist 20 CEU eTD Collection oppression. about theirsolidarity with blackmen fight against intheir theracial challenge the patriarchal construction of the black community and forget black” forthe black community, astheypush white, feminist ideas that and commonwith blackmen –black interests, andthey are also not “enough are not“enough white” forthewhite feminists becausethey have particular, To make itsimple, according toHook, black womenwho tookupfeminism, dominate theblack community andthatwere taken from the whites. within their own community for being in solidarity with ideas, that seeks to community throughtheirwhite feminism; andtheyareneglected orbattered whitefeminists who because of their racial supremacy dominatethe black confronted within theirown community because oftakingupsolidarity with Accordingly, black women facesome sortoftrap,which means, thattheyare racialized hierarchy between theblack and thewhite communities. women’s agendathatwould challenge the white supremacy andthe as wellas minorityand race, related issues, white neglect feminists theblack gender issues, or more precisely, whencomes it totheintersection of gender feminists are also reluctant to incorporate the agenda of black women beyond common fightagainst white domination. Based onracialoppression white community, theyaccusethem being not in “loyal” totheir community, totheir movement comes andit to challengingthe patriarchalrelations within their claims, men, they thatblack seeblack if women feministin involved white feminist women of theposition ofblackwomen tothemen inrelation ofthecommunity andto Hooks makes thispowerfulargument, because sheelaborates the complexity 25 . Basedon the primacy ofthesexist oppression she 21 CEU eTD Collection difference between the realsolidarity andthe “support group” wouldbe the social interests orderin totransform order. Agoodexamplethe social for the justice basedonreal solidarity, feminist eradicating individual, groupand temporary perceived “commonenemy”, instead oftheunitedfight feminist solidarity an occasionalinto “support group”, unitedto fight women’s socialrole prevents real solidarity among women andturnsthe through men andbymen,thus -inopposition toall otherwomen. This subordinated, weak non-adult position, in which theydefine themselves should “unlearn”prescribed their social role,that putsthem theinto position of Second, in thesame model family (white, middle-class, heterosexual), women that havebeenpreviously silence. in new andmaturethatvoice isuniversal asense, in that incorporatesit voices – equalone andtoset upthenegotiation ofissues from that positionusinga of women thiswould mean tomove from the dependantposition to theneutral shape directlythe characteristics ofthe authorities (socialinstitutions). Incase internally drivenself-esteem motivation,and we beablewill tofind the way to our actualcontext. Sincewe will beable to act as independent “adults” with that kindof self-esteem,which would be independent from the messages of that ouropinion matters andwe canmakea change, wewillnever develop authority (in family context – parents), should be “unlearnt”. If we donot learn punish and shame toaccept bothsexes learn and internaliseorders the ofthe First, thefamily social model, which childhood in from throughearly means of should betaken and some coreideology shouldbe re-thought. the basis ofan inclusive feminism, butforsake according to her some steps As asolutionfor the“trapproblem” women, ofblack Hooksseekstoestablish 22 for against social a CEU eTD Collection by runningthe“darkeconomy”,the serving capitalist economy. strata topush down thewages, increase the demand andenrich thewealthy order tosurvive andwhose exploitation will increase thegapbetween the the strataof“unprivileged”, whowillvoluntary serveasthe“oppressed” in unjust redistribution ofthewealth andkeeping theeconomy goingbycreating toWhites reinforce the binary opposition ofthesociety, contributing to the from the rulesthe fact,that ofthesociety all were andaredictated bythe on prejudice, thesecond one is passive andfrequently unconscious, deriving between racism and “white supremacy” isthat the first one is hostile and built another task to “unlearn” racism or the“white supremacy”. The difference This win-win game canbeestablished ifthefeminist movementincorporates women thefight in forsocial justice inawin-win game. and unitedtime structuring, instead – about invisible tiesthatconnects entirely. Feminist movement Ithinkshould be notabout temporary interests same topicwith thefellow mothers –asthe topic ends, the friendship ends frequently “gooutofthe playground” and lastuntilthe mother sharesthe between themothers ofsmallchildren on the playground, butthey not someone– if haseverachild knows,that close friendships can emerge structures and re-creates the mothers’ shared temporary interests (and time!) precisely thesame interests asthefellow mothers. It topicalis a friendship; it located (even territorially) onthe playground while themother shares “support group”, myin examplethe playground mothers’ friendship -is awarethe sexist of nature ofthe society – even when itis invisible. The transcend individualsocial boundaries andinterests, would be constantly playground mothers temporary or topic friendships. The real solidarity would 23 CEU eTD Collection Parkinson Stern the complexity ofthesetwo ways oppressionisgiven ofclass bySusan second field ofclass oppression welfare chauvinism. Apracticalexample for oppression that is reproduced within thedominated group. I wouldcall this serves asthebasisofcapitalist economycoexists with theclass also divided intotwo types,namely thatthewell-known classoppression that The next essential point, that Hooks makes thatclassoppression is can be andheart everybodyisincluded inredistribution equally. politicalagenda inatransformed andjust whichthe voices society, in all are on equal termswith thedominant onesenriching and diversifying theactual an inclusive andjust society.The oppressed should negotiate theirposition moreis no aboutthedominance, oppression andwhite ideology, rather about reshape all thesocial institutions, the connected services should reflect that it that thedominant should group acknowledge itssupremacy andshould the “oppressed” in ordertoset up awin-win game. game This would mean claims thatoneofthebasic battlesof feminists istoresist thisassimilation of the white ordominant norms inthename ofhighereconomic Hooks choices. veto. The“oppressed” voluntary accept that they should be “assimilated” to otherwise thesocietywill legitimize theirongoing exclusion without theright to express solidarity with theirgroupand with otheroppressed groups or state clearly, that those who aredifferent should bemobilized and should the strategyofassimilation istheway thewhite tolegitimize supremacy, to group and to become exploited ina visibleless manner. According toHooks providing the“oppressed” people thechance toassimilate tothedominant The social policies serve to the capitalist project of economic growth, 26 ’s studyonschooling ofa middle-class Black community. In 24 CEU eTD Collection the prosperity ofuniversal womanhood. it isnever obvious that these male-type leaders would doanything tangible for women follow leaders male-type of leadership model andaccording to Hooks and disrespect the position and interests of thelower-class peers. Thus movement leaders, who when in power follow their own personal career goal Within the feminist movement welfare this chauvinism performedis bythe thein caseofdominant/oppressed society. discrimination recreates the same dichotomy ofthe oppressor/oppressed as privileged peers theirin ethnic community andthis devaluation and dominantsociety -oppress and devaluate the less-adapted and economically communities where “honorary whites” –those whobecame assimilated tothe The welfare chauvinism is apeculiar phenomenon ofthedominated ethnic (black orwhite) active the in dominant society. requirements, andthis transformation would not beverified by intellectuals transform the schoolrequirements intoequalwiththe whiteschool intellectual capacities will remain until community activism would not with teachers)by parents and themselves.White Theperception ofthelower these teachers is thattheywork theirin own community withlow connections internally bytheBlack teachers intheir(in school this caseonefeature of only imposed from the dominantsociety asracial oppression, butalso having lower intellectualcapacities thenthe Whites, and thisperception isnot children avoid studying together with blacks. Blacksperceive themselves of thecommunity. Thiscommunity remains segregated racialin terms, white economic choices, this improvement doesnotaffectdirectly the socialization this study she shows, thateven weif takea Black community with improved 25 CEU eTD Collection nationalistic social existence outside. difference, defining itself inopposition tothediscriminatory, oppressive and silenced –race,class and sexuality –and shouldit develop unity despite of social reality, it should give voice to all every experience that has been neutral a sense,in that it should not reproduce within itself the existing model Finally, Hooksmain argument isthatfeminist solidarity should besocially movement as“comrades struggle”. in is primarily -theywould basedonit fruitfully contribute tothefeminist of theirdispossession bytheexisting social order andthe economicthat order transformative powerthat feminist movement canbring and if they get aware try togetadapted totheunjust social order.If menwould standforthe prosperity of the family towards women. Alltwo strategies show that they also disadvantaged, or they become passiveby pushing the responsibility for the her themalerole hasundergone changes, men eitherbecome vulnerableand existing capitalist game, who choosevarious ways tosurvive. According to opposition. Hooksapproaches men as vulnerable firstly also players the in form of thesocialconstruct that is needed for reproduction ofthebinary wouldnever agree with anykind of “labelling”, she would say that it is another feminist movement astheyhavebeen labelled previously. I thinkHooks interests of thedominant group,claims thatmen arenot“enemies” ofthe society constructedis anunjustin manner servingfirst ofallthe economic and claimingthat all theabovementioned oppressionhappens because the the position of men in the feminist struggle. Hooks, using a wideperspective The lastpowerfulargument ofHooksthatIwould like tousehere isrelated to 26 CEU eTD Collection employer haspaid all the taxes tothestate. permanent residentsof Estonia, whohave hadlegal employment, andthe According tothe “mother salary” legislation, benefits canbe issued toall over theothers. that thispolicy was designedto support reproduction ofcertain ethnic groups countries, ithasa number ofshortcomings, whichchannels theconclusion living conditions foryoung families incomparison toother European Although this regulation seems tobesupporting andindeed providing better Euro). provided iftheperson hassmallearnings, that is4350kroons (about 268 previous yeardivided by12. There isalso aminimum salary thatshould be This benefit being calculated is onthebasis oftheaverage salaryofthe of hissalary asachild-case benefit during 535 days. policy themother orthefather ofanew born childcanget upto100% of her priority andlong-term objective oftheEstonian state. to thoseonparentalor maternal to increase leave thebirth rates, which is a In EstoniatheParentalBenefit Act regulates the “mother given salary” thatis mothers. theis this ParentalEstonian Act, which categorizes different “kinds” of à-vis thestate andother groups amongwomen. Onepractical exampleof like women andethnic or religious minorities, positioningthem differently vis- policies and legislations. These state policies target specially defined groups, Yuval-DavisNira The position of women Russian-speaking vis-à-vis the Estonian 4. state. 27 arguesthatwomen’s positionisconstructed throughstate 27 28 According to this CEU eTD Collection lower-class population providing the above-mentioned minimum salary, thethere isnofearoflosing position. The“mother isgiven alsoto salary” high positions andwho canget out ofthelabour market forhavingachild as the statesupports the reproduction ofthewealthy womenwho havestable As it is obvious, the in above-mentionedcase of theEstonian “mother salary” calculated and provided. workRussia in even for ashort period, the “mother salary”cannot be provides thebasis ofcalculation. Accordingly, ifaperson has left Estonia to European Union, Norway, Liechtenstein, Iceland orSwitzerland, thatalso benefit isbased only onwork performed Estonia in withthe exception ofthe who havetemporarily left Estoniafor working abroad. Thecalculationof the unemployment doesnotcountaseligible. The fourthgroup consists ofthose benefits, who haveworked. Thecase the if state paystaxes asin caseof maternalbenefits, as the in “mother salary” program only thosecan get third group refers to unemployed people,who arenoteligible tohave any where Russian-speakingcannot getbased on ethnical discrimination). The beconsiderablywould also lower, thenthat managersof the (theposition, salary accordingto the options oftheemployment, thusthe “mother salary” speaking peopleare frequently employed). Thissector islikely toget minimal employees (forexampletaxidrivers or the service sector, where Russian- protection. The second disproportionally benefiting group is the group of self- pointed out our in interview, lackofstatus meandoes not ofsocial lack maternity benefits, although the in officialrhetoric according,as Poleshchuk The ‘stateless’or‘illegal’ mostly Russian-speaking population receivesno Benefits are distributed according tofour different groups. 28 CEU eTD Collection Ethnical groups are established by natural right ofbelonging, the common can becharacterized bythe interwoven nature ofclass, gender andethnicity. majority group. The “national” interest thein project ofnation-state building concerned, butrather are aform processof socialthat is alsorelevant forthe According toYuval-Davis, ethic processes are related notonly to those ideological executive and power. “machinery” acts through coercion andrepression through thejuridical, depends on thekind of government andthekindofgoverned. The (territorially and nationally) population and the kind of that “machinery” is rathera“machinery” ofgovernment overabounded and defined who possessesthebiggest influence. capital possessors arecompetingwith eachother and thewinner isthe one oppression to the vision of the state as a domainwhere interests of different from viewing thestateasamanagerial structure, orasacentral forceof describes the conceptions of the state. She claims thatthere has been a shift communities,” “imagined of conceptAnderson’s on based, Yuval-Davis thus theyshould reproduce alowerin numbers. that itdoesnot envision them of thesamevalues as the Estonian women, The statehassentan imaginative message toitsRussian-speakingwomen restricted, financially limitedor even prohibited. the accessof Russian-speaking women tothis benefit sociallyis are peculiar onlyfor middle- and upper-class ethnicEstonians. Accordingly, Thus, thisgroup isclearly bounded bysocial factors,andthese socialfactors the reproduction ofthe lower-class without stable positions intheirjobs. although the amount givenduringsuch ashort term is less likely tosupport 29 29 According toher definition, the state it CEU eTD Collection responses ofthestate tothem creates diversity within thegroup, the main position vis-à-vis thestate,asother forms socialcharacteristics of andthe shared relationship tothe subject ofthestate doesnot grant them a unitary are gendered constructions andtheir gender is predominantly male. Although women havesuch acomplex thesubjectsrole, ofthewelfare state economically, thusconstitution aspecialsocialcategory. acted upon, expected to reproduce the state both biologically and to Yuval-Davis women haveaspecialrole inrelationto the state, astheyare ethnic groupand the minority bythe means ofdistributionof rights. According to what thenation-state creates an invisible border line between itsdominant description ofthedifference between thecitizen andthedenizen, according the stateand the nation, andthe state and economy. Brubaker`s One issue concerning “ethnicity” the is delineation oftheboundariesbetween signifier ofsocial relations. a particularminority groupwithin acertainstate context, ratherit is aneutral inheritedcommunity. Inthis casethischaracteristic isnotapplied limited or to “ belonging anditscharacterizing connection tocitizenship. The word The Russian language hasaninteresting solution ontheissue ofethnical not share theethnic originof the dominant group. to citizenship, ascertain ethnicgroupscan be“second-class” citizens theyif connotation, synonymous tooppressionorinferiority andaparticular relation citizenship. This ethnicalstatus frequently has a negative, minority associated understood in relation to the “nation-state” andnational identity and culture, history and fate.Beside that “ethnicity” and“nationality” isalways natsional’nost’ ” in Russian is a neutral signifier of belonging to a biologically 30 31 This 30 CEU eTD Collection reproduction incomparison tothe Estonian. Rather it a culturalis issue, as reproductionof the Russian-speaking population order tolimitin their high population controlin theEstonian case it isnotjust aboutrestricting the Estonia, asother nation-states, follows thelastmentioned tool. This “right kind” ofpopulation. control though limiting the social wellbeing and encouraging the growth ofthe be performed with various tools ranging from forced sterilization topopulation ethnically boundedones. This differentiation, or inclusionand exclusion can certainethnically boundedgroup ofwomen andrestricting others in other constructs these roles differently, putting emphasis onsome ofthem within a historicalThe context the and constructed stateidentity positions and nationalprocesses and their relation inthestate practices: Yuval-Davis summarizes theways which in women ethnicin and participate oppressed. differently positioned vis-à-vis thestate – those who aresupported of line lies in the bodies ofwomen, those of different ethnicity, who are feature of which ethnicity. is Thus onecan argue, that Brubaker’s imaginary as biological reproducers of members of ethnic - collectivities as participants in national, economic, political and - military struggles. as signifiers of ethnic/national differences – as a focus and symbol- in as participating centrally in the - ideological reproduction of the as reproducers of the boundaries of ethnic/national- groups transformationof ethnic/national categories ideological discourses used in theconstruction, reproduction and transmitterscollectivity andas ofitsculture 33 31 32 CEU eTD Collection other European nation-states, appliesit itsnational projecta very in dynamic construction. nation-state AstheEstonian is relatively new comparison to in and naturalization shows just thedynamic ofnational identity andcollectivity reconstructionof the state boundaries through socialpolicies, immigration phenomenon. Inthewelfare nation-state building project theconstant differently vis-à-vis thestateandethnic Estonianwomen isnotaunique As itisshown, theEstoniancase of positioning Russian-speaking women and prevented through policy andmoral instructions. sexism intersected, themixing ofethnicand non-ethnic British was restricted British” has been performed andachieved national laws inwhich racism and to this, theconstruction ofthecollective British identity as“Britain forwhite dependants, particularly intheircapacity aswivesmothers”. and women members areits essentiallyinandthrough their relations with men, as claims, that“….the “myth oftheoneBritish nation” haspostulated that Yuval-Davis, describing theconstruction of the British nationalcollectivity subordination ofthe minority women. contributing (evensilently throughexception ofthestate policies) tothe bourgeoisie and working-class, wealthy and poor, the majority women reproduce theMarxist dichotomy oftheoppressors andoppressed, roles of other women. Ithink thisin sense, majority and minority women reproductionof their constructed roles, modifying them and restricting the according toYuvalDavis women contributing actively, participate tothe long-term strategyethnic oftheEstoniannation-state building. Inthisprocess ideology, historical thinking andbehaviour istransmitted, thatfalls outside the through Russianwomen thetransmission of the Russian language, culture, 32 34 According CEU eTD Collection conducted witha representative ofENUT weaknesses indicated thatin report. Iwill use interviews thatIhave report onEstonia (2007) and responsesof Estonian women’s NGOstothe Committeethe Elimination on ofDiscrimination Against Women (CEDAW) This discussion of the agenda of Estonian women’s NGOs Iwillbase on the Agenda of Estonian and Russian-speaking women’s NGOs. 5. thewhich is sourceof interethnic tensions. typology, Ithink Estoniahas chosen the last type ofnation-state building, excludes even among its citizens based on ethnic origin) ethnically bounded project ofnationbuilding, which differentiates and building thatIseeasaborderstransgressing project) andthe state building), the into three types: the These different types of national collectivity construction Yuval-Davis divide construction. common the goals, perceived interwoven future isalsoa big motivator ofthat values can construct the “imagined community” ofthe nation, the shared only theshared common tradition historical and culture,the imagined shared manner. AccordingtoYuval-Davis, theexplanationfor thatcan be that not and researchcentre will me give to findsome achance Russian-speaking gender equality inEstonia, andusing ENUT as abigEstonian women’s NGO responses to providesit some insights tothe official rhetoricsituation and of Resource Centre).I usethese sources because theCEDAWreport and the .. The Estonian women’s NGOs. 5.1. Kulturnation Staatnation (theculturally bounded project ofnation- (theterritorially bounded project ofnation- 33 36 (Estonian Women's Studiesand 35 . Following this Volknation (the CEU eTD Collection private domain, women’s educational choices, andtheir underrepresentation society (stereotypes regardingthe roles ofmen andwomen the public in and continues to beconcerned with thepatriarchal attitudes ofthe Estonian been increased by dealing withdiscrimination is other areas. The Committee financialresources tocarry outhis/hertasks, furthermoretasks has these as the Gender Equality Commissioner lacks sufficient authority, human and sufficient strategy onimplementationthe of Convention oninstitutional level, The CEDAWCommittee recommend also thestate to establish amore fact, thatthere havebeen no court cases referring tothe Convention remedies available forviolation oftheir rights. This canbesupported bythe been sufficiently disseminated, evenwomen themselves arenotaware ofthe Act. Theinformationabout therecommendations oftheConvention hasnot the stateapparatus has no adequate practices indealing withprovision ofthe transferred tothe level of localdecision-making, the juridical authorities and these positive steps,CEDAWclaims thatthe provisions oftheAct arenot has beenestablished inorder tomonitor thecompliance withthe Act.Despite is notcoincidental) and that the status of the Gender Equality Commissioner domestic violence legislation from other CEEcountriesshows timing thatthis on the1 CEDAWacknowledges thatEstonia has implemented itsGenderEquality Act Estonian women,the issueofprotection and ofstateless. institutionalization ofgender equality, the disproportional focus on urban Discrimination against mainly focusingWomen are ontheweakness of The recommendations made bytheCommittee ontheElimination of women itsagenda. itselforin in st ofMay 2004 37 (studies ontheadoption ongender equality and 34 38 . CEU eTD Collection All Migrant Workers and Members ofTheir Families, asmentioned previously yet –namely, theInternationalConvention on theProtection ofthe Rights of speaking population) human instruments, rights whichEstonia hasnotratified (and the most important from the perspective of the rights of the Russian- to thestateless women Estoniaand itscall in uponthe ratification oftheone the perspective of this thesis is its explicit demand of providing full-citizenship One of the most important recommendations of the CEDAWCommittee from women’sdisaggregated health byethnicity, geographical location andage. not adequately addressed by the Estonian state; even there are no data on field again shows thattheissuesrelated tothe Russian-speaking women are the Russian-speakingwomen ofEstonia. The request ofthe CEDAWthisin target group oftheabove mentioned health provision recommendations are health specificities ofthe Russian-speaking population it isclear, that the family planning andprevention ofunwanted pregnancies. As indiscussing the perspective policiesin related to HIV/AIDS, topromote awareness about need ofwomen, particularly in ruralareas, andto implement agender The Committee alsocalls thestate upon the constant monitoring of the health paying particular attention tothe rural areas. empowerwomen, suchasvocational trainings andtocollect dataonthat women andmen the in labour marker, to ensure availability ofmeans to The Committee calls also the state upon to combat segregationbetween mediato promote positions equal of men andwomen allspheresof in life. programs ofgenderequality andimplementa strongcooperation with the it calls the state to revise its educational textbooks, establish teachers training thein decision-makingposition inthelabour market orpolitical sphere). Thus 35 CEU eTD Collection national reproduction (that is, thereproduction ofmiddle-class, ethnic not intend to deal with this gap,at the same time it expects to increase the The wage gapbetween men andwomen in Estonia is25%. Thestate does women’s –thatisinthis caseclearly issues Estonian women’s issues. sexuality, disability. This, according to the statement further will marginalize office of the Commissioner other equality grounds, such as ethnicity, perceive thisvictory being under threat, as the state intents toadd to the victory for Estonian women’s NGOs, but it is important to notice, that they establishmentThe the Gender of Equality Commissioner perceivedis as the publichas beensent that genderequality is not important. to establish aseparate institutionfor gender equality, thus, themessage to high. Additionally, theNGOreport emphasizes that thestatehas decided not stilllevel takesplace, theincompetence of thestateofficials thefieldin stillis equality law continues, the failure to implement the provision from the highest the pressure ofinternationalorganizations, the ignorance ofthe gender that progress hasbeen made inthefieldofgender equality –mainly thanksto Estonian state to address gender equality. The NGOsdo recognize, however, Associations Roundtable negatively assesses thesteps made bythe betweenmen andwomen, thestatement oftheEstonian Women’s institutionalmechanism and theinadequately addressed issue ofequality following. Inresponse tothe weaknesses of thegender equality related Committee Analysing thestatement ofEstonian women’s organizations this in thesis. 39 inresponse tothereport’s critique, Iwould tohighlight like the 36 ii ` to the CEDAW CEU eTD Collection ii who areactive members ofthe ethnic Estonian civil society (and civilsociety This logical duality isreproduced alsobytwo ofmy interviewees particular,in expanded anyfurther. rhetoric/experience, urban/rural, majority/minority persists and can be experience, showing thatinEstonian thedivision betweenthe center/local, serious contradiction exits between the official rhetoric, factualdata and lived gender equality andthe Estonian women’s NGOs collective opinion, that a documents. Thatistheduality between the state rhetoric ofprogress in Another peculiarity oftheEstonian society also reproducedis these in with theposition and perspectives ofRussian-speaking women particular. in This Ithinknicely correlates with theminority rightsinEstonian ingeneral and Protection ofRights ofImmigrant andMembersWorkers ofTheir Families. contain evenaword about stateless people orInternational Convention on particularly women, theresponses of the Estonian women’s NGOs, donot highlights the need of providing full-citizenship to the stateless people, different social stratum. Itisimportant to notice, that while theCEDAWreport middle-class Estonian women, astheRussian-speaking women a constitute problem womenfor ofbothethnicities, but however ismore actualforthe to them. Theproblem of reconciliation ofwork andfamily is Ithink acommon provide programs onaproject-oriented basis thatisnot thesolution according institutionalbasis for elimination ofsegregation in labour market andfamily, it problem of Estonian women’s NGOs is,thatthe state does not provide the statement oftheEstonian Women’s Associations Roundtablethe main Estonians), asI have shown usingthe“mother-salary” example. Accordingto Estonian Women’s Associations Roundtable, which consists ofalmost 170 37 CEU eTD Collection different women’s groups. (Estonian) and ‘them’, (non-Estonian) women, which inaway shows the alsoactive inculturalissues. “are definitely notleft asidebecause of their ethnic background”, andtheyare interests are also thesame. Thusaccording toher,Russian-speaking women raising, gender equality, engendering education, genderagegap) andtheir related to them are similar toEstonian’s ones (gender equality awareness that theyareproperly targetedbyEstonianwomen’s organizations, theissues actively. Her mainconcern about theRussian-speakingwomen Estonia in is they areincorporated intogeneralEstonian women’s less NGOs, although nearly 20yearsandmade friends with of non-Estonian lots women…”, and also claimed, that“with Russian-speaking womenwe’ve beenaroundfor get lotsofdiverse opinion, each group would express differentviews.” She speaking women, democratic, whichis asthestateitself means that“youcan women’s NGOsdointendandmake lots ofeffortsto integrate Russian- Estonian isthattheEstoniancivil society isdevelopingwell, theEstonian questions indetail. Hergeneralposition ontheagendawomen’s NGOs in provided mewith anumber ofuseful internet links, but did not answer tomy The representative of the state officialrhetoric inresponse tomy questions represents factualdata onthese issues. of one the biggest Estonian women’s umbrella organizations, who rhetoric on Russian-speaking population; the other one is amiddle manager Presidential Roundtable onMinorities who clearly, represents the state official woman anumber activein ofwomen’s isaformer NGOs, member ofthe is, asmyfindings show, andethnically divided sphere): oneofthem, a Clearly, shedrew a distinction between ‘us’ 38 CEU eTD Collection established NGOs are prioritiesgetting in funding andthey have access also regarding Estonian NGOs ingeneral suggest, thatbig andlongago unite toruntheirhouse-block legally together. This particular situation that peoplegather toperform or doactivities together their in leisure-time, or the new NGOs areand small “cultural or club” “housing project” like,meaning the same time toensuresalaries ofthestaff. This means, thatthe profile of to donors,donot havehuman andfinancial capacities to run 3-4projects at from project toproject, donothaveasurplus 10% of thefundingtogiveback gettingfunding for smalland new NGOs, as they wouldnot be ableto survive project-oriented manner She claimed thatthe Estonian civil society isdeveloping, but it does it a in about the concerned.issues interviewee; she hasmore “hands-on” andlocal experience andfactual data statements ofmy first interviewee. She is notanNGO leader, as the former My second interviewer gave answers toa large extent contradicting tothe although the gender interests are thesame. involve and represent theagenda ofwomenof otherthentheir own ethnicity, conclusion, that Estonian women’s NGOs arenotreaching outtotarget, speaking women a in concrete and detailed manner, channelling the Ironically, shewas not able tospeak about engagement with Russian- intersections of ethnicity/gender/socio-economicstatus. statusandlegal has proposed that the gender equality efforts can cure all, while ignoring the (ethnicity) hasbeentranslated differentinto experiences and demands. She within a shared gender (women), shedid notthink that this difference ethnic Estoniansupremacy. Interestingly, while recognizing a“difference” 40 . Thispeculiaritydoes notgiveevenachance of 39 CEU eTD Collection policies toward, anddefining of,“non-Estonians.” However, Estonian NGOs women faceparticular challenges that have emerged becauseofthestate’s and gender(andsocio-economic status), andlegal andthatnon-Russian second interviewee wasmore aware oftheintersections between ethnicity equality” alonewill solve theproblems thatwomen as agroupface.The Estonian andnon-Estonian women, effortstopromote andthat “gender “us” and“them,” statedthat there is “no difference” intheexperience of agenda. The first interviewee, while clearly recognizing adifference between represented in the Estonian women’s NGOs, noteven on the level oftheir needs orinterests ofRussian-speaking womennot are incorporated into and Thus, indifferent ways, these two interviews have shown thatthespecific women’s NGOs aredeaftothe needs ofRussian-speaking women”. women constructed ethnically subordination, butshesaid, that “Estonian ‘priorities’. According toherrhetoric, sheissincerelyaware ofRussian- members, as‘targets’ (despite the response ofmy firstinterviewee) oras speaking womennot are included into Estonian women’s NGOsnot even as Nordic model ofgender equality. She acknowledged that the Russian- reconciliationof work andfamily andthat they wouldlike toimplement to regard sheclaimed, thatEstonianwomen’s issue gender are mostly relatedto EU accession would nothavegenderequality they inanyform today. Inthis About thegender equality agenda, my interviewee claimed thatwithout the and thusgetfunding. only Estonia’s citizens orthosewith residence permit canregister anNGO NGO a fundable under these options, in large part(but notsolely) because to EU donations. Moreover, it is difficult for a bunch of stateless women to run 40 CEU eTD Collection but she denied my suggestion, claimingthat in this topic herworking important to notice, thatIhave suggested her todothe interview inRussian, equality when comes it tothe“Russianquestion” inEstonian. Second, it is Russian approachofmany and EstoniansasItookastanceofsolidarity into contact her, that I didnot intent to reproduce the nationalistic anti- issue ofherRussian origin, although Imade clearimmediately it after getting First ofallit isinteresting, that my interviewee have notdiscussed withme the references previously. research on the situation ofminorities inEstonia ofwhom I havemade speaking population, theother one is Vadim Polechshuk, the author tothe Human RightsConsulting agency Estonianin closely workingwith Russian- One ofmy interviewees isaRussian-speaking women, representative ofa both indomestic and international terms. also tosee how this phenomenon fitsinto the Estonian-Russian relationship Estonia,in tosee how the existing ones mobilize, what is theiragenda and The taskofthis chapter todescribe is theRussian-speaking women’s NGOs because NGOs approach itfrom the practical side,than ofEstonian women’s NGOs, mostly The agendaof theRussian-speakingwomen’s NGOs ismuch simpler ifwe Accordingly, ethnicity overcomes gender in the Estonian context. ethnically evenifsome sortof“unification” occurs onthe basisof gender. these challenges. Thus this stratum (of Russian-speakers) marginalizedis have notadequately workedwith theRussian-speakingpopulation toaddress .. The Russian speaking women’s NGOs. 5.2. specifically forRussian-speaking women 41 arerareinEstonia. CEU eTD Collection framework, statewill care about it the if organization has a punishing function internationalorganization issues acritique onEstonia inthehuman rights that allcurrentpolicies ofEstoniashould beseenwiththis logic.Ifan order tomake Russian-speaking people work hardto deserve it. She claimed She claimed thattheEstonian state hasdefined citizenship its as “privilege” in transcending borders, empires and nationalisms. – somethingneutral, internationaland universally truefor everyone, expert, forwhich shecannotbeconfronted and thatbelongs tothefieldof law and blackin malecommunity she –and takes upa neutralposition of an “ethnicity” – liketheproblem of theblackwomenmobilizing inwhite feminist women Estonia. in She follows thestrategy of having no “gender” and no Her background status overlaps with theproblem mobilizationof ofRussian from mixing withany of the two, keepingher in hersupremacy. both ofwhich she is inaposition of a neutralexpert andthat preserves her “genderless” strategy makes herbaggingin-between thetwo communities, in Russian one, as both obviously limits thechances. Thus I think her problem in Estonian community andbeing a womanwas aproblem within the her personal path of life andcarrier trajectory beingof Russian origin wasa supremacy, thatcombines elegant discretion withcoldneglect. Ithink that in community andItendtothink that establishing her “intra-community” establishing distance from the topic,from the problem and from the circle ofmy genderrelated topic taking up a position of a neutralexpert, with aword.Itendto think, thatsee has strategically goneoutside ofthe gender issues inEstonia, butshedidnot herrefer oninvolvement noteven language is English.Third,shehasbeen previously workingprecisely on 42 CEU eTD Collection labour market achieved if women updatethemselves tobeablecompete withmen inthe women inthepatriarchalis defined society,inwhich genderequalitycanbe Fraser’s civilsociety, theyhave no funding and because Russian-women support a minority arenot active theNGO’sworld,in becausethey lack a “culture” the About theposition ofRussian-speaking women sheclaimed, thatRussiansas – in other casesnever. not name evenone active Russian-speaking women’s or evena minority speaking people onthe basis ofinternationalfunding, my interviewee could activity isperformedboth-sex bya NGOs (men andwomen), runbyRussian- media awareness raising onhow to protect oneshuman rights.But this services for victims ofdiscrimination, provision of legal aid,consultation, are themost usefulamong theRussian-speaking community, suchashotline The experience of my interviewee shows, thatpractically-oriented activities officials. community –andwhichobviously falls outside ofthe interest ofthe Estonian and fundedfor issues, which arespecifically applicable forthe minority still wouldneedtohaveastrong political influence inordertobe supported aRussian-speakingNGOs. Evenfollowing if NGOpassesallthe barriers, it in Estonian orEnglish ortonetwork with authorities andother Estonian language barrier, meaning that members are often unable to follow trainings Russian-speaking NGOsfacenumerous challenges. specific Theyfacea allowing eventhe existence ofeven aweak counter dynamic. a strongstate, which pushes its agenda in anauthoritarian manner without 41 UniversalBreadwinner model, according towhich theposition of 42 . The lacktheculture ofthecivil Ithinksociety ispeculiar of to . The 43 CEU eTD Collection NGOs structureswith thefollowing results: there were efforts to locate and mobilize minority women women’s within framework, seeing gender equality agenda as a minor issue.Accordingto her are united with men community in based manner the within human rights Regarding Russian-speaking women activism my interviewee said,that they that areactive. of Estonian theatres andgalleries are runby Russians,with mostlywomen guarantee theirstaying inEstonia. Itisinteresting toconsiderthat anumber institution established for Russian-speaking artists andsportsmen to citizenship for their extraordinary achievement culturein or sports – an is why afewpeoplefrom Russian backgroundcanbe granted “free” rhetoric, that practicein means, thatEstonian culture isrunbyRussians, that theonly culture preservation hassome accordance in withthe basis official but also to develop their citizenship affiliations. She claimed, that in Estonia availability offunds allocated fortheminority notjust topreservetheirculture, be tofollow the Finish modelwith twoofficialstate languages existing and civilsociety to be a “watchdog.” Accordingto her, for Estonia, the best would creditable leader, to compromiseEstonians, the independent mediaand a She saidthatthe Russian community not is united;theyneed anactive and management. NGO as“Russian”, Ithink because of the international fundingand deals withRussian-speakingpopulation’s issues, shewouldnot labelher NGO besides them. Although my interviewee herself works inan NGO that backgrounds andcreate acommon tablefor discussion and problem women. main Their women aim is to unite of differentethnic ( “…the International association of national cultural societies LYRA Lüüra Naised 43 several years agoformedroundtable aofminority 44 CEU eTD Collection Women's Club oftheorganization Lüüra human agency, rights building on universal neutral issuesnot challenging ethnicity overcomes gender andtheremedy forall–internationally funded internationally-supported NGOspushing theminority rights agenda –again based manner relying ontheircultural background or inboth-sex not particularly politically active,they do participate incivil life inacommunity- 2007, it isclearthat contemporaryin Estonia, Russian-speaking women are identify, although even this NGOhas updated its website the last time in organization that I have found on the internet andmy interviewees could aggressionthe society. in AsthisistheonlyRussian-speakingwomen’s nationalistic best-sellers in Estonia,kind a ofasilentresistance tothe taking and not making harm represents an opposition forexampleto the rhetoric hasnotexplicit political meanings, butI think the rhetoric oncare women-members, andtheir mainactivity is singing. This self-colonizing unite, take care, protect and make happy multicultural Russian-speaking on thewebsite oftheorganization itisestablished nottoharm each other,to with Russiansdo not have even a Russian name. According tothe statement only and exclusively cultural associations, such asthe In searching for Russian-speaking womenNGO Ifound out that they form general rhetoricthe general perception would berathernationalistic.” attitudes ofthe caseleader i.e. in she/heis rathernationalisticthe and moreover thepositionof organization isoftendependent from the discrimination” (i.e who is more discriminated rural women orminority) as theyoften tend tobeworking with so called “comparative because cooperation withEstonian women’s NGOsisextremely hard, practicallyexistthey donotreally (theoretically do).Also indeed they project for both sides (Estonian and Russian) and at the moment cooperate with theEstoniansimilar structures. However itwas a project thatwould united minority women NGOsandwould tryto agenda somediscussion. issues forthe was a specific There also solving. Being apart of LYRA in generalthey are able toput on the 45 44 . This club, although deals explicitly Lüüra Naised - the - CEU eTD Collection generations thinking about thedemocracy andhuman rights: internationalpublicity tothehuman violations rights and toshape theyoung The projects runbymy interviewee’s NGO follow a strategy ofgiving According tomy interviewee: internal“enemies“ thein ethnicalfight of theRussian men. structure oftheRussian societyand itwouldmake theRussian women that would elaborate the issue because it wouldnot fit intothe existing that there problem,is no aswe just haveseen,it means thatthereisnoforum Russian community, asnoneexistence ofthe active NGOdoesnot mean Estonian women’s NGOs andnotchallenging thepatriarchal structure ofthe neither the ethnical hierarchy of oppression, that we haveseen not doing the rights andobligations, equal treatment including gender equality, set of sessions that aimed attheir improved understanding of their children. Because thekidsliked weit havecontinued with thewhole school and do some interactive classes for the secondary school been contacted by severalof the teachers and asked to come totheir use informaleducation atschools. Asaresult of this training Ihave civics about fundamental rightsand equaltreatment andalso how to in oneoftheprojects we haveeducated Russian-speaking Teachers of indeed thebigger andstronger will beinvited.” authorities or bodies asagain the competitionmight beverybig and or invited to international meetings thatare regulated bythelocal having better contacts.It is alsoachallenge tobeasked for anopinion paying attention tothosestructures that arebigger andbetterseen able tomake yourwork seenamongst locals that are unintentionally is eithergender orjust minority. The biggest challenge isalso tobe would bejustgender –minority related. Inmost ofthecases if exists it is hardto do, especially due to the lack ofstatistics and research that to separateable genderissues from general minority issueasoftenit particular believe in gender equality. Second challenge wouldbe tobe find alliances within theco-workers, especially ifthe leaders do not in however, would betopersuadethisorganization tobeinvolved and change and have their interests mentioned. The mainobstacle, achieve highresults, butat least they would have achance to work for promotionof minority rights. They would not apparently be able to represented bythegeneralorganization that isdeeply involved with “The easiest option forthenon-Estonian womenwould beto 46 CEU eTD Collection internationalorganizations with human rights violations that the localEstonian based discrimination (Russian-speaking peoplemore frequently approach international organizations, providing legal aidandremedying ethnically community building, second isaminority rights consulting agencydonated by formed way this –firstisculturalclubs asaleisure-time activity and mean or organizations onethnical basis. Theretwotypes of organizations thatare importance togender equality agenda. Instead, theyunite both-sexin participate Estonianin women’s NGOsand theydo not pay particular Accordingly my interviewee confirmed thatRussian-speaking women donot claimed thefollowing: About thepriorities ofissuesRussian-speaking population my interviewee pensioners. the pensions ofthosewho everworked outsideEstonia and military social issuesthatarebeingdiscussed, themostimportantwhich is of in access toemployment, education, services. There are some certain could beimplemented). also We askforthe treatmentequal provision we donotcarethatinfactthis level isnotneeded, and alower level concrete employment (notjustwe is this sayit levelofproficiency and language proficiency to be proportionate towards therealneeds of to health, education andoften services. It is also request for the used athome possibilities andproviding to inaccess usethelanguage population considers Russianto be its mother tongue orlanguage the only remedy, butatleasttaking intoconsiderationthat 1/3ofthe rights. It is important that it notis that bilingual state is being seen as to be mostly articulated. Then it is definitely citizenship rights, Linguistic If we aboutthe that talk issues Russian-speaking community considers have beenpublished asa result. severalvery good articles onvarious issues related to Human Rights to trywrite for the localweekly newspaper. Ishould admit that have also supported those of participants and motivated them as well opinion onvarious processes taking place inEstonia andEurope, they they used interactiveworkshops, supported young people shapetheir speaking kids. Itwas ayear-long (if Iam not mistaken) project where which they have created aschoolof democracy for theRussian- rights etc.There was anotherproject runbytheYouth UnionSiinin democracy, VAW, mechanisms ofprotection against violation of their 47 CEU eTD Collection ethnicity, i.e.the relevance of ethnicity isneglected oractively denied, inhis the Estonian women’s NGOs: theWhile in latter case gender comes before Russian-speaking women, hedoes something structurally similar ... that of black communities. By neglecting the recognition ofthe specific needs of thus representinga patriarchal stand-point, similar tothatofblack men in Poleshchukthis wayin (implicitly) deniesthe relevance ofgender interests the Russian community. But weif lookcloser, it isclearly traceable,that men. highly This romanticized view wouldfirst look like something uniquefor a particular group thein civilsociety –they share all the difficulties of life with Poleshchuk claimed thatRussian women cannotbeseparated from men into international perspective. Poleshchuk, who goes one step backward andsees the puzzlefor broader In thenext sectionIwill provide extracts for the written responses ofVadim Estonian one. Russian-speaking NGOthatcantargetwide strataofsociety,eventhe agency), that means thatthetransition is notdoneyetandthere is stillno Naised), andthe end (the internationally donated minority rights consulting –the beginning asalocalcommunity activity basedorganization (astheLüüra the Russian-speaking NGOs we haveonlythe two corestonesofthe former local organization into ahuman protectingorganization. rights Inthecaseof sex basis. In case of the ANC we have a slow transformation from the small improvesocialcircumstances, the togiveback thepeopledignity onaboth- chapter 3insomepoints. Bothofthem are initiated bytheneedtosurvive, to This typeofmobilization correlates with the ANCmovement in discussed authorities), running projects onminority rights awareness raising. 48 CEU eTD Collection position: According toPoleshchuk Russian-speaking womenparticularly are in difficult an opinion within the Russian-speaking elite, that mostly ones.Russia helps cultural justa rhetorical inmanner, has led to this with authorities, the cooperation between the countries isproject-based, Russian-speaking people donot rely on Russia’s help even when arguing also anactionalso case. inthis the patriarchal hierarchy of theRussian-speaking community. Notacting is case ethnicity comes beforegender, especially when itcomes tochallenging “…women inthelabourmarket are more vulnerable thanmen, and that hadsocializes after 1991.” alienation). alsoThis peculiar is forthatpart of theyounggeneration political alienation from Russia (we cannot speak about cultural stand alotofthingsmodest for economic preferences. theirThey fill generationfirst immigrants to countries,sotheyaready in Western population have an “immigrational” mindand arevery much like the influence themood oftheDiaspora. Beside that apart ofthe Russian Russian public actors toact like “through Russia”. Butthey donot OECD. Thisofcourse does not change the fact,that a range of critic on the question of minority rights Russian will raise in UN or Their opinion would notchangeeven ifsmall project orenviouspublic forgot the local Russians and they must takecareof themselves alone. “…the Russian elite has spread a commonopinion, that Russian has of EUanti-discrimination legislationhas taken place.” Estonia, although its influence hasbeenperceptible when thediffusion women organizations. There is no even astrong women lobby in Russian women arenotfalling within interests ofthe “mainstream” There areno “strong” women organizations, special problems of theEstonia society isethnicallydivided, aswellas social institutions. particularly rarely the political processes onthe national level. a historical tradition. Russian women (asRussian men) influence press. caseoflocal is Inbothcasesthis in seenalso role ofwomenis intuitions dealing with women, therearemostly womenworking. The organizations”). The institution ofschoolshouldbe mentionedwithin exclusively Russian women of (instead so tosay“women “There arenopartiesbigand or influentialNGOs, that wouldrepresent 46 49 45 CEU eTD Collection to aspecific fight, that Poleshchuk describes the following way: with thethe minority institution of“statelessness”. Thisbalanceofforces lead “solution” tothe preservation ofthe majority privilege bythe subordination of Poleshchuk clearly argues,thattheBaltic countries hasinvented aspecial think reflects those ofRussia andEstonia also: This subordination is supported by the state withthe following rhetoric that I rights and rights ofnationalminorities.” introduced totheeveryday livesofthepeople thediscourseofhuman “ethnical” self-identification ofnon-Estonians and non-Latvians, have and finally theactivities oftheinternational organizations activated as the artificial division, re-ethnification of Russian-speaking population), linguistic minorities bythe “mainstream” politicians (sotheinitiative of status, thecategorical rejection ofdeclarationof existence ofthe their group, andderiving from that setofrightsconnected tothat The fight oftheRussian-speaking elitefor the “acceptable” status for colonizers, former army but ofcitizens, not nationalminorities. population asthe countries organic part–they couldbeoccupants, the national elite against accepting oflocal Russian-speaking Russian media very rarely.” histories totheofficial rhetoric. Ingeneral, Estoniaismentioned inthe nowadayscase ofRussiansalso families in in therearealternative mediaissue, that a one.As caseofEstoniansin soviet times,in not absolute. Forexample, therelation tothe II. Is rather WW a family supported bytheRussianmedia, that has its certain influence butitis Russians arethesame many (butnotinall).This in is issues indeed theview ofthelocaland positions RussiansandRussian based onthesociologicalresearch. With respect tothe last one, Russian propaganda. Thefirst two statements areeasyto oppose not is loyal, isorientedtoward Russiaand repeatingis the ideas of the “The Estonian authorities frequently claim, thattheRussian population brings less income.”brings less or position inthelabor marketmore nowadays is stable,although jobs more frequently thanwomen non-Estonians. Thewomen`s place contemporary economic crisis non-Estonian men have loosed their when theeconomic situation gotsomewhat better.During the policy), many women haveleftthelabormarket, butgot thereback Estonians thein labor marker (alsobecause oftheofficial language beginning ofthe1990s, after ahugeworsening oftheposition ofnon- smallersalary thenmen, butthelevelof vulnerability higher.is In the non-Estonian womenmore theEstonian. In recent years they have “… Estonia andLatviathe main issueofthe 90s was thefight 47 48 50 49 CEU eTD Collection This threat frequently is followed bynationalistic rhetoric of various actors. huge “immigrant” population isapproached as athreatofdenationalization. which,size, despiteitssmall hasadeveloped nationalconsciousness. Its to definethestate’s state identity asanethnically boundednation-state political leadership particular in in independent Estoniahas used various tools As inothersuccessorstatestotheSoviet Union, asBrubaker describes, the the national andinternational level. are likely tobe fixed at least for theupcomingyears reproducing itself both on Russian-speaking minority and the anti-Russian nationalistic mood ofEstonia speaking populationEstonia. in Thus,the subordinated position ofthe of bitterness towards theshortandmiddle-term perspectives of theRussian- problem of ethnic discrimination andnationalism Estonia,in he remained full Although Poleshchuk provided some alternatives to the solution of the law: Poleshchuk envisions the solution ofthe ethnic discrimination using thetool of strategy can berecommended to also women organizations.” organizations also, that are notafraid of criticizing thepower. This development ofrecommendations. Thisstrategy isfollowed byother writing “shadow” reportsoftheUN, European Council andEU, withmonitoring of the legislationand practices of law application, humanminority and rights. Because ofthatfor us itwas natural todeal changed in Estoniausing the international norm and standards of intention, thattheposition of Russians and other minorities canbe company (Informational Center onHumanRights) were basedon with permanent (adequate)meaning. Practically all projects ofour the lawterminus “ethnicaldiscrimination” isless likely tobefilled reference totheproblem of ethnicdiscrimination. Outside thefield of Russian speakingpopulation isthatitcanbedemonstrated with value“The ofusing law definitions in researching theposition ofthe 51 50 51 CEU eTD Collection in ordertoget reasonable accommodation and remedies fortheir inequality them – thewomen have to -will take up an“international”or “neutral” gender, Would these people be still men andwomenor the most vulnerable among wouldnot accommodate them properly? Don’t you have a feeling ofdéjà vu? together bedeported toa particular place in the theWorld if target-country international and international law structures? And ifsowould theyall nationality” that can and should be reasonably accommodated only by oppressed “economic immigrants” andrepresent together an“alien passport atall? Ifsowouldstance of theytakeasolidarity with other “economic immigrants” ofthe restoftheWorld -evenwithout havinga changed behind their legs…Ifso,would they havetostep inarowwith the samepiece oflandsince their birth,just thebordersand countrynames have country? Although most ofthem did not emigrate at all –they live on the they have connections with as “economic immigrants” whohaveno “home” thisWould mean thattheywill beused and abused by any politicalpower stepping aside from the internal issues and from the bilateral matters. speaking population (in this case women), doesrepresent a third domain – internationaldomain of human rights law, asremedy forthe Russian- European democratic, morality basedvalues, Iwould becurious if the If Estoniadiscriminates itsRussian-speaking populationpromotes andifit interests above democratic, environmentalor moralcommitments. what ismore, accuses it other EUstates in prioritizing theireconomic economic defines sizewould seem itself asdemocratic;to suggest.Itclearly as arelevant actor, aimingto achieve more influence than its territorial and In theinternational arena, as I have already discussed, Estonia, views itself 52 52 CEU eTD Collection of law and human rights. These both-sex organizations marginalize gendered the internationally fundedconsulting agencies, which operatedinthe domain statusandminority discrimination onthisground theyseek assistance form together with Russian-speaking menminority organizations. in Based ontheir Russian-speaking women, beingmarginalized inwomen’s NGOs, mobilize against which they fight asfeminists. the samedominant/oppressed dichotomy, in which theythemselves and live equality with Russian-speaking women. TheseEstonian women reproduce domination, theydo not practice all- embracing women’s solidarity and Estonia. Thusalthough they argue against thepatriarchy and men’s nationalistic inthe samemanner as the dominant society in contemporary claiming theuniversality ofgender based women’s needsishighly into account the needsofRussian-speaking women atthesamewhile time women’s “unfair” approach when they marginalize or even do not even take of women appearedtorepresent thedominantEstonian ethnicity only. These would incorporate women from different ethnic backgrounds. Rather the voice turned out that Iwill notfind acommon,whole embracing NGOstructure, that stepsfirst thisin research Irealized, thatI need toexpand my topic,asit different ethnical background within them. Immediately after having donethe women NGOs in Estoniaandgivevoice tothe experiences ofwomenwith IstartedWhen to work onthistopic my first intention was to searchfor 6. Conclusion community/society and bymen oftheirown one? grounds accepted both by the feminists ofthe white or dominant 53 CEU eTD Collection law, UN-racialized andUN-gendered. remedy atthis pointthey have is theset of tools provided by the human rights and strong Russian-speakingwomen’s NGOsfrom the ground. The only gender, does seriously hinderatthis point the creationof active, self-formed and Russian-speaking men, according to which ethnicitycomes before This doubleoppression, based in a perspective shared by Estonian feminists but also tomen oftheir own community. have to prove notonly tofeminist and other Estonians their “harmlessness”, inferiority ofthe position ofRussian-speaking women Estonia, in where they put emphasis onpeaceandtheirharmless intentions. Thisactivity shows the Russian-speaking womenunite incultural organizations; singtogether and gender interests. needs – according to their stand-point the ethnic interests comes before women’s NGOsdo,inthatthey simply donotadmit thedifference intheir needs ofRussian-speaking women as in similar way asthe Estonian 54 CEU eTD Collection (http://www.vm.ee/?q=en/taxonomy/term/152 12 11 Left” in 10 9 States” in 8 Oldenburg, p.7. 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