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At-Risk Children's Metacognitive Growth During Reading Recovery

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At-Risk Children's Metacognitive Growth During Reading Recovery At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth During Reading Recovery Experience: A Vygotskian Interpretation Beverly E. Cox, Purdue University Zhihui Fang, University of Florida Maribeth Cassidy Schmitt, Purdue University Abstract Metacognition (i.e., self-appraisal and self-management) implies the process of active control over one’s own cognition (Brown, 1980; Jacobs & Paris, 1987). This study described 17 at-risk first graders’ metacognitive growth in an early literacy intervention program—Reading Recovery. Each child was encouraged to relate an oral tale based in experience and then asked to dictate that oral monologue as a writ- ten-for-others text. Per Vygotsky’s (1962) developmental theory which relates speaking and thinking through the regulatory function of language and the internal- ization of others’ discourses, metacognition was observed in the children’s sponta- neous speech as they engaged in a challenging literacy task such as adapting an oral tale to a literate register text. Data were collected at the entry and exit of the Reading Recovery experience. Linguistic, statistical, and qualitative analyses were performed using Cox’s (1994) guidelines. Results revealed that the children exhibit- ed statistically significant and qualitatively distinct growth during the enrichment experience, not only in their knowledge about self, literacy task, and task related strategies, but also in their regulatory capacities to gain control over text content and to accommodate audience needs. Limitations and implications of the study are also discussed. In recent years, the literacy problems implementation of Reading Recovery. of educationally disadvantaged popula- Reading Recovery (RR) is an early litera- tions have received added attention (e.g., cy intervention program developed by Smith-Burke, 1989) due to the projected New Zealand educator Marie Clay (Clay, shift in the demographics of school-age 1993a) to assist at-risk first grade chil- children in the coming decades (Pallas, dren in developing effective literacy Natriello, & McDill, 1989). One of the skills typical of successful learners. more significant developments in Research at the local, state, national, and addressing the literacy needs of at-risk international levels has demonstrated that children has been the introduction and RR is a viable alternative to traditional An International Journal of Early Reading and Writing™ An Official Publication of the Reading Recovery Council of North America Literacy Teaching and Learning 1998 Volume 3, Number 1, page 55 At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth remedial (e.g., Chapter 1) instruction metacognition refers to “one’s knowledge ous tasks and the different demands of metacognition. Vygotsky contends self- (e.g., Clay, 1990; Hiebert, 1994; Pinnell, concerning one’s own cognitive processes tasks), learning strategy variables regulatory speech is a universal phenom- Lyons, DeFord, Bryk, & Seltzer, 1994; and products … ” and to “the active mon- (Flavell, Green, Flavell, 1995; Schmitt, enon through which thought and lan- Schmitt, 1995). For example, Pinnell et itoring and consequent regulation and Younts, & Hopkins, 1994), and the regu- guage unite to exert control over behav- al. (1994) compared Reading Recovery orchestration of the processes in relation latory functions of planning, monitoring, ior. Specifically, young children talk to with three other instructional models and to the cognitive objectives on which they checking, evaluating, and revising (Baker themselves and to others as they engage found that the former was more effective bear … ” (p. 232). In other words, & Brown, 1984) one’s reading compre- in literate activities. Such “spontaneous than the latter. Specifically, the study metacognition encompasses two aspects: hension or construction of comprehensi- utterances” (Dahl, 1993) or “private reported the RR children’s performance self-appraisal (i.e., awareness) and self- ble text for a reader. speech” (Berk & Spuhl, 1995) on four measures (sentence dictation, management (Jacobs & Paris, 1987; Metacognition is important in educa- express(es) inner cognitive processes and basal-adapted text reading, Gates- Paris, Wasik, & Westhuizen, 1988). The tion for at least four reasons. First, effec- serve as a “directing force” for action. MacGinitie, and Woodcock) was statisti- first refers to children’s declarative tive learning depends on successful For example, children routinely use oral cally significantly better than any other knowledge (knowing what), procedural orchestration of cognitive operations language as a vehicle for discovering and treatment groups (Reading Success, knowledge (knowing how), and condi- (Dembo, 1994). Second, numerous stud- negotiating emergent written language Direct Instruction Skills Plan, tional knowledge (knowing when and ies have reported that metacognition is understandings and for getting meaning Reading/Writing Group) and the control why). The second aspect, often equated closely related to being a more proficient on paper (Cox, 1994; Dyson, 1983, group. Shanahan and Barr (1995) con- with executive control (Brown, 1983; reader (e.g., see Haller, Child, & 1991). Further, the development of higher cluded from their meta-analysis that the Cox, 1994; Garner, 1994), refers to chil- Walberg, 1988; Paris, Wasik, & mental processes such as metacognition effects of Reading Recovery are “compa- dren’s strategic planning, on-line moni- Westhuizen, 1988 for reviews) and better originates in social experience and is rable to those accomplished by the most toring, and regulating action. The exis- writer (e.g., Cox, 1994; Flower & Hayes, transferred from the interpersonal to the effective educational interventions” (p. tence of regulatory action presupposes 1981). Third, metalinguistic comments by intrapersonal psychological planes by 959). knowledge of cognition. That is, if there young children have been documented in means of self talk (Vygotsky, 1978). With While RR’s contribution to chil- is evidence of cognitive regulation, some terms of early literacy behaviors (Clay, the aid of such private speech, children’s dren’s developing reading and writing level of knowledge about self, task, or 1972; Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Fourth, self-regulatory capacity expands over skills is well documented, few studies strategy must exist, albeit without con- recent research indicates that as young time. Berk and Spuhl (1995) explained, (e.g., Schmitt, Younts, & Hopkins, 1994) scious awareness. In the literacy context children develop literacy skills, they are As children experiment with speech-to- have focused on what and how the RR (i.e., reading and writing), knowing what already exhibiting signs of emergent pro- self in order to cope with new tasks, experience contributes to children’s (declarative knowledge) is realized in cedural metacognitive awareness and some types of speech may effectively metacognitive development. Because aspects such as strategy and metalinguis- control over literacy processes and prod- transform behavior, others may be of rel- metacognition and literacy skills are tic awareness. Knowing how (procedural ucts (Cox, 1994; Cox & Sulzby, 1982; atively little consequence, whereas still closely related (Cox, 1994; Donaldson, knowledge) is realized through regulation Dahl, 1993; Gordon, 1990). The present others may be debilitating. As the coordi- 1978; Olson, 1994; Scribner & Cole, of both process and product (e.g., moni- study tracks evidence of RR children’s nation of utterances with action becomes 1981; Wood, 1988), it is especially toring the choice of more precise words developing emergent metacognitive con- increasingly refined, private speech important to examine at-risk children’s for an audience or applying a word trol over their literacy processes and achieves mastery over behavior and is metacognitive growth during the RR recognition strategy). Without awareness, products during their time in one Reading internalized. (p. 147) experience. students may lack a readiness to exercise Recovery program. Based on Vygotsky’s theory, control over or regulate their learning metacognition is observed in children’s Theoretical Framework (Gordon, 1990). Vygotskian Theory spontaneous speech as they engage in a Relative to literacy, metacognition is In this study, Russian psychologist challenging literacy activity such as con- Metacognitive Theory operationally defined as independent, Lev S. Vygotsky’s (1962) developmental structing what we call ‘a literate register strategic learning and involves the knowl- Metacognition, in its most general theory, relating speaking and thinking text’(i.e., one for others to read). edge of self (e.g., one’s strengths/weak- sense, implies the process of active con- through the regulatory function of lan- Particular utterances during and sur- nesses, interests, study habits), task trol over one’s own cognition (Brown, guage and the internalization of others’ rounding the literate activity can be dis- (information about the difficulty of vari- 1980). According to Flavell (1976), discourses, drives our interpretation of tinguished from the story and other dis- Literacy Teaching and Learning 1998 Volume 3, Number 1, page 56 Literacy Teaching and Learning 1998 Volume 3, Number 1, page 57 At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth At-Risk Children’s Metacognitive Growth course because of their intonation and nition as cognitive self-appraisal and self- nition. Schmitt, Younts and
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