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Solar Disinfection Potentials of Aqua Lens, Photovoltaic and Glass Bottle Subsequent to Plant‑Based Coagulant: for Low‑Cost Household Water Treatment Systems

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Solar Disinfection Potentials of Aqua Lens, Photovoltaic and Glass Bottle Subsequent to Plant‑Based Coagulant: for Low‑Cost Household Water Treatment Systems Applied Water Science (2018) 8:100 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0739-1 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Solar disinfection potentials of aqua lens, photovoltaic and glass bottle subsequent to plant‑based coagulant: for low‑cost household water treatment systems Yonas Lamore1 · Abebe Beyene1 · Samuel Fekadu1 · Moa Megersa1,2 Received: 24 January 2018 / Accepted: 4 June 2018 / Published online: 19 June 2018 © The Author(s) 2018 Abstract Unafordable construction cost of conventional water treatment plant and distribution system in most developing countries makes difcult to provide safe and adequate water for all households, especially for the rural setup. Water treatment at the source can be the best alternative. Solar disinfection is one alternative among point of use treatments. In this study, aqua lens, photovoltaic box and glass bottle were used subsequent to plant coagulants to evaluate microbial reduction potentials. Laboratory- and feld-based experiments were conducted from May to August 2016. The Escherichia coli, total coliforms and heterotrophic plate counts were used as indicator organisms. The result indicated that aqua lens (AL), photovoltaic box (PV) and glass bottle (GB) have high inactivation rate subsequently almost for all indicator organisms in short solar exposure time. Total coliforms were inactivated in AL (SD = 15.8 °C, R2 = 0.92) followed by PV inactivation temperature associa- tion (SD = 11.6 C, R2 = 0.90), and the GB concentrator was inactivated (SD = 10.9 °C, R2 = 0.70) at turbidity level of 3.41 NTU. As the study indicated, aqua lens coupled with Moringa oleifera coagulant can be an efective with minimum cost for household water treatment system. The study also concludes heterotrophic bacteria were more resistant than other types of bacteria in SODIS with similar exposure time. Keywords Acrylic glass · Aqua lens · Moringa oleifera · Photovoltaic box · Solar disinfection · Water treatment Introduction to other infections (Gomez-Couso et al. 2009; Byrne et al. 2011; Fontan-Sainz et al. 2012). Unsafe drinking water supply, inadequate sanitation and Despite the fact that developing countries have large insufcient hygiene practice are the factors causing the amount of freshwater resources, treatment plant construc- major share (88%) of all diarrhea cases. Diarrhea is a lead- tion and inappropriate treatment cost limit the distribution ing killer of children, accounting for nine percent of all of the system at a household level. According to Bekele and deaths in 2015 (UNICEF 2016). About 6000 children under- Leta (2016), 51% of Ethiopian rural residents depend on sur- age fve die every day, and a child dies at every 8 s from face water without treatment. Although conventional water water-related disease around the globe. This accounts 19% treatment improves water quality, studies have shown that of total child deaths in developing countries (Gomez-Couso household water treatment techniques could also be used to et al. 2009). It also causes malnutrition, with the subsequent treat water (Sobsey et al. 2008). WHO estimated improving consequences on physical development and susceptibility access to safe water and sanitation ought to forestall at least 9.1% of the international burden of ailments and 6.3% of all deaths (Byrne et al. 2011). Point of use systems refers to * Moa Megersa the range of water treatment methods including solar treat- [email protected] ment, physical treatment, chemical treatment and combined treatment which treat water at the point of use by avoiding 1 Environmental Health Science and Technology Department, Institute of Health Science, Jimma University, Jimma, contamination during distribution, collection, transportation Ethiopia and storage (Sobsey 2002). 2 School of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology, SODIS is a cheap and easy to use, environmental friendly Madawalabu University, Robe, Ethiopia and effective drinking water disinfection technology Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 100 Page 2 of 9 Applied Water Science (2018) 8:100 (Sobsey et al. 2008). The method treats contaminated water test apparatus was used in a turbidity removal experiment, in transparent plastic bottles through exposure to sunlight for whereby 10, 30 and 50 mg/L dose of M. oleifera seed pow- a minimum of 6 h (Byrne et al. 2011). Following the expo- der was added in each 1-L beaker containing the water sam- sure time, the water is safe to be consumed as the micro- ples at three turbidity levels, and the change was measured bial loads can be signifcantly reduced. SODIS technology after 2 h with their control (Lea 2010). enhances bactericidal efect of UVA electromagnetic region (wavelengths in the range of 320–400 nm) of solar radia- UVA irradiation measurement tion with synergism efect of heat (infrared wave) and in the presence of dissolved oxygen species for inactivation The solar irradiance was measured at diferent weather con- of pathogens in the water. UV radiation showed an adverse ditions from May 24, 2016, to August 2, 2016, consistently efect on microbial skill to achieve cellular respiration and high between 645 and 1200 W/m2 (Gomez-Couso et al. generation of adenosine triphosphate (Bosshard et al. 2010). 2009; Giannakis et al. 2014). Drinking water disinfection by natural and/or artifcial UVA was measured within every 30-min intervals sunlight is widely studied using plastic or/and glass materi- 1 (Reed 1997) from 12 up to 3 /2 pm by calibrated solar als by the aid of photoconcentrator catalysts for the inacti- taster and clear sky calculator with a central wavelength of vation of a number of bacteria (Helali et al. 2013). Light 320–400 nm which provides data in terms of incident WUV/ intensity of wavelength, solar exposure time, availability of 2 m . QUV was calculated for comparison of solar test results dissolved oxygen, turbidity level and water temperature are (Helali et al. 2013). major study variables that afect the efciency of SODIS It estimates the accumulated UV energy in the solar reac- (Byrne et al. 2011). tors per unit of treated water volume for given periods of The study aimed to compare the disinfection potential time. of (GB)-, (PV)- and (AL)-based SODIS disinfection using uv some indicator organisms like E. coli, total coliforms and n A V t t heterotrophic plate counts by using M. oleifera as pre-treat- QUV = − 1 r∕ t n − n − 1 (1) n ment for turbidity reduction. where tn is the experimental time for n-sample, UVn−1 is Materials and methods the average solar ultraviolet radiation measured during the period (tn − tn−1), Ar is the illuminated reactor surface, and Vt is the total water volume. Experimental setup Dissolved oxygen Laboratory- and feld-based experiments were conducted from May 24, 2016, up to August 2, 2016, to investigate the solar disinfection (SODIS) potential of three concentrators Dissolved oxygen was one of the critical parameters in this (GB, PV and AL). study, and the initial dissolved oxygen availability was meas- ured to compare with the fnal contents at diferent solar Quality assurance exposure times. All containers were agitated at 30-min intervals, to maintain oxygen equilibration within the water During laboratory experiment, all activities were performed samples. By using dissolved oxygen measuring apparatus, in line with laboratory quality standards. All sample bot- the variable was measured at 30-min interval similarly to tles and glass wares were sterilized keeping standard time, another variables (Burgess et al. 2007). temperature and pressure. Control sample was kept at room preventing from sunlight and high temperature exposure. Microbial indicator organisms E. coli and total coliforms Physical parameters Membrane filtration technique was used for both total Turbidity removal test coliforms and E. coli, 3.81 g of membrane lauryl sulfate broth mixed with 100 mL of distilled water and sterilized A turbidity removal test was conducted on natural surface at standardized time, temperature and pressure (Oxoid, water from Ginjo Gudru by using M. oleifera seed pow- Basingstoke, England) as ISO 9308-3:1999 and ISO 9308- der. Initially, the raw water turbidity level was 28.6, 30.7 1:2000 (Almeida et al. 2015). All samples were replicated and 45.6 NTU taken at diferent sampling times. The jar and prepared at required dilution (0.1 and 0.01) since it is the 1 3 Applied Water Science (2018) 8:100 Page 3 of 9 100 standard dilution for surface water or rivers. One hundred where NO = initial (infuent) concentration of viable micro- milliliters of diluted sample discharged to vacuum pumper organisms; NT = concentration of surviving microorganisms; which contains flter paper with pour size of 0.45 μm and Log = Logarithm to base 10, t = time, k = rate constant—this 47 mm diameter. Finally, the flter paper transferred to steri- depends on disinfectant concentration, organism and tem- lized petri dishes with 50 × 12 mm diameter that contains perature (Mcguigan et al. 1998). absorbent pad already pipetted with 2 mL of culture media. After incubating at optimum temperature and time, colonies Solar disinfection methods were counted to compare with initial load (Myers 2003). Glass bottle solar disinfection Heterotrophic plate counts Figure 1a presents that half-blackened three glass bottles The pour plate method or standard plate count method was with size of 8 cm were exposed to UV light and heat at used to determine heterotrophic plate count bacteria density. three different turbidity levels. The optical inactivation 2.35 g of plate count agar was mixed with 100 mL cool process was improved by wrapping refective aluminum water and sterilized as standard; then, melted medium was foils and coating a dark opaque substance at the rear half kept in a water bath between 44 and 46 °C until used. The of the glass bottle. The glass bottles have 89–90% trans- appropriate amount (2 mL) of diluted sample pipetted into mittance efciency in the UVA (320–400 nm) wavelengths the sterilized petri dishes for each diferent volume of diluted range, whereas transparent polyethylene terephthalate bot- sample used 12 mL of liquefed media, and each dilution tles transmittance might be as high as 85–90% in the same was replicated.
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