Designing Communities for Wildfire Resilience

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Designing Communities for Wildfire Resilience DESIGNING COMMUNITIES FOR WILDFIRE RESILIENCE Introduction: California Wildfires 4 AUGUST 2021 Chapter 1: Wildlands 21 Guideline 1.1: Inter-Agency Collaboration 24 Guideline 1.2: Update Power Lines 26 Every year in California, wildfires devastate massive sections of Guideline 1.3: Decentralize Power 27 the state’s landscape and affect the lives of countless people. Guideline 1.4: Prioritize Prescribed Burns 29 Millions of dollars are spent fighting fires, and additional billions Guideline 1.6: Mandatory Fire Upgrades 31 are spent repairing fire-related damage. Yet most wildfires Guideline 1.6: Bury Power Lines 32 are caused by human activity and exacerbated by mitigation guidelines that can vary significantly between jurisdictions. Chapter 2: Urban Areas 34 We believe the issue of wildfire must be addressed in a more Guideline 2.1: Increase City Density 38 comprehensive manner and include forest management Guideline 2.2: No Re-Build Zones 39 techniques, urban design strategies and building design criteria. Guideline 2.3: City Design Requirements 41 Guideline 2.4: Fire Resilient City Edge 43 Therefore, the purpose of this document is to present wildfire Guideline 2.5: Reform Grid Infrastructure 45 guidelines that provide mitigation measures at three scales: the region, the city, and the building. To achieve this purpose, the Chapter 3: Buildings 47 document provides: Guideline 3.1: WUI Visual Communication 49 Guideline 3.2: Design for Fire 50 ↪ An overview of wildfires in California and their causes. Guideline 3.3: Fire Conscious Design 51 ↪ Historical data and trends related to wildfires. Guideline 3.4: Fire-Resistant Upgrades 54 ↪ 18 guidelines for managing wildfire vulnerability at three Guideline 3.5: Geometry Requirements 56 scales of application: region, city, and building. Guideline 3.6: Active Fire Suppression 58 Guideline 3.7: District Power 60 We hope this document provides an introduction to, and the inspiration for, more enlightened wildfire mitigation strategies Chapter 4: Conclusions 62 in California. References 65 WILDFIRE DESIGN GUIDELINES 2021

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY WILDLANDS URBAN AREAS BUILDINGS

The number of wildfires has been trending upwards over the past 1.1 Promote inter-agency 2.1 Increase density in cities to reduce 3.1 Strengthen visual communication decade. California has been breaking its previous records for collaboration between federal, the number of people threatened by tools for Wildland-Urban Interface number of acres burned, number of fires, number of deaths, and state, and local governments. wildfires. (WUI) codes. number of structures destroyed in the last three years. 1.2 Update outdated power lines and 2.2 Implement no re-build zones in high 3.2 Design individual buildings and The United States policy to extinguish all fires immediately, equipment in lower risk zones and fire risk areas to reduce destroyed properties to accommodate fire and add more monitoring systems structures from wildfires. evacuation. coupled with more frequent droughts and increased dry seasons throughout California. due to climate change, have combined to make forests and wildlands extremely vulnerable to fire. In addition to this, the U.S. 1.3 Decentralize power sources in 2.3 Implement city design requirements 3.3 Provide affordable, adaptable, has approximately 15 million people moving into the Wildland- high risk zones. for fire staging, breaks, and egress. high-quality fire resistant building designs to facilitate a new regime of Urban Interface each decade, equating to approximately 8 million fire conscious construction. new homes; human intervention in the Wildland-Urban Interface zone is the number one cause of wildfires. 1.4 Prioritize and increase prescribed 2.4 Require fire resilient buildings at the 3.4 Incentivize fire-resistant upgrades burns in high risk areas. city edge. for High Hazard Zones. Reducing the impact of wildfires on our communities and our planet will take coordinated effort from numerous stakeholders. 1.5 Require mandatory fire resistant 2.5 Reform the electric grid 3.5 Require strict building geometry Based on data from various sources, there are specific building and residential infrastructure. requirements for new construction landscape upgrades. in WUI zones to limit the Venturi interventions we can take now at multiple scales. effect.

↪ Improve communication between stakeholders. 1.6 Bury new power lines where 3.6 Implement active fire suppression ↪ Adopt technologies that allow us to coexist with fire. feasible within highest wildfire in WUI zones. hazard zones. ↪ Be intentional about where we build.

3.7 Modify the delivery of power to A summary of our recommended wildfire design guidelines buildings. is indicated to the right and explained further in the following chapters. INTRODUCTION

California Wildfires INTRODUCTION

Smoke blots out the sun in major cities explore data regarding wildfires, and recommending guidelines for across the world, sometimes hundreds and analyze how governments, fire designing cities and other urbanized Every year wildfires get of miles from the fires themselves. departments, cities, architects, and areas for wildfires. Billions of dollars are spent fighting citizens can better design for coexisting worse. From Australia wildfires each year. Lives are lost when with wildfires. This is by In the third chapter, we zoom into the wildfires blaze across communities no means comprehensive, but intends Building scale, and develop several overnight. Homes are destroyed. to continue the conversations that guidelines addressing issues that have to the US Pacific Coast, Entire cities are evacuated. Immense are already occurring across different arisen during our investigations. amounts of carbon are released into fields of expertise and provoke the atmosphere. As climate change interdisciplinary collaboration and The worsening and lengthening wildfire more severe wildfire makes dry summers drier, decreases innovation. season is not a problem for just fire the typical annual snow pack, and fighters, city planners, architects, seasons have become increases high wind events, it’s hard to In the introduction, we explore data or citizens who live and build in high see the trend reversing itself anytime on recent California Wildfires, to set hazard fire zones; All stakeholders need soon. the framework for the trends that have to communicate with each other, learn commonplace. developed over the past decades. Even from each other’s expertise, and apply In the past, a fire department’s goal was though our data focuses on California, each others knowledge, to improve the to extinguish fires as soon as possible. we believe that there are parallels with situation in the coming decades. An architect’s goal was to design a other states and countries that have building that would serve its client’s been experiencing increasing numbers needs. Now fire departments must of wildfires each year. balance the need to protect property and life with the needs of a complex In the first chapter, we focus on evolving ecosystem: an environment Wildlands, and how long term and where periodic fire is needed for overall short term strategies can significantly health and longevity. Architects must improve the effects wildfires have on balance the needs of the client with the the state and communities each year. impacts of climate change, the safety of the community, and recurring wildfires. In the second chapter, we analyze Throughout this design manual, we Urban Areas, identifying specific issues CALIFORNIAHEADING WILDFIRES

Since pre-colonial times, fire has played an active role in the shaping of California’s natural landscapes.

For millennia, tribes across California and the world used small intentional burns to renew food sources, create preferable habitat for animals, and reduce the risk of large, dangerous wildfires.

Early land management, especially in the Sierra Nevada mountains, was shaped through the knowledge of traditional burning practices that harnessed fire as a tool that was necessary for survival.

Image Credit: MariusLtu/istock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/wildfire-prescribed-burns-california-native-americans CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

For more than 100 years, U.S. policy was to immediately extinguish all wildfires and minimally manage the majority of federal and state forests.

This has led to a dangerous buildup of fuel where wildfires spread further, faster, and are significantly harder to contain.

www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/wildfire-prescribed-burns-california-native-americans Photo Credit: ZU_09/Digital Vision Vectors/Getty Images WILDFIRES

A prolonged lapse in land management policies is leaving more acres of forests and development vulnerable.

NEARLY 130 YEARS WITHOUT CONTROLLED BURNS

10,000 BC 1850 1880-1968 1968 1978 PRESENT

Use of intentional burning by The US government passed the Supported by ecologists and Realizing that no new giant The Forest Service also While some state agencies have indigenous people to manage Act for the Government and conservationists, early National sequoias had grown in changed its fire policy to allow made prescribed burns a key forest and prevent large fires Protection of Indians which Forest Service considered California’s unburned forests, prescribed burning. part of their land management outlawed intentional burning in intentional burning to be the National Park Service policy, there is over 20 million California. destructive and contrary to changed its prescribed burn acres of Federal, state, or protection of forests. policy. private land across California that needs fuel reduction treatment.

www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/wildfire-prescribed-burns-california-native-americans CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

California’s fire records date back to 1932, but the top 10 largest fires have occurred since 2003.

ACRES BURNEDBURNED NUMBERNUMBER OFOF FIRES FIRES STRUCTURES DAMAGEDDAMAGED FATALITIES

2020 4,257,863 2020 9,917 2020 10,488 2020 33 2019 259,823 2019 7,860 2019 732 2019 3 2018 1,975,086 2018 7,948 2018 24,226 2018 100 2017 1,548,429 2017 9,270 2017 10,280 2017 47 2016 669,534 2016 6,954 2016 1,274 2016 6 2015 880,899 2015 8,238 2015 3,159 2015 7 2014 625,540 2014 7,233 2014 471 2014 2 2013 601,625 2013 3,672 2013 495 2013 1 2012 859,599 2012 2,922 2012 248 2012 0 2011 168,545 2011 3,056 2011 137 2011 0 2010 109,529 2010 2,434 2010 94 2010 0

https://www.fire.ca.gov/stats-events/ U.S. WILDFIRES

ACRES BURNED BY YEAR ACRES BURNED BY STATE 09 # FIRES BY STATE 09 ACRES BURNED BY YEAR ACRES BURNED BY STATE (2019) # FIRES BY STATE (2019) ## OF OF HIGHRIS HIGH-RISK ROERTIESPROPERTIES (2019) 09 ACRES BURNED BY YEAR ACRES BURNED BY STATE 09 # FIRES BY STATE 09 # OF HIGHRIS ROERTIES 09 2020 10.3m Alaska 2,498,159 California 8,194 California 2,019,800 20202019 10.3m4.3m ArizonaAlaska 2,498,159384,942 CaliforniaTexas 8,1946,892 California 2,019,800 percent of 20192018 8.8m4.3m ArizonaIdaho 384,942284,026 Texas 3,8726,892 total state North Carolina percent of properties 20182017 10.0m8.8m CaliforniaIdaho 259,148284,026 North CarolinaGeorgia 3,1583,872 total state properties 20172016 10.0m5.5m CaliforniaTexas 215,493259,148 GeorgiaOregon 3,1582,293 20162015 10.0m5.5m WashingtonTexas 169,742215,493 OregonFlorida 2,1212,293 20152014 10.0m3.6m WashingtonFlorida 122,500169,742 ArizonaFlorida 1,8692,121 20142013 4.2m3.6m FloridaUtah 122,50092,380 MontanaArizona 1,4741,869 20132012 9.3m4.2m NevadaUtah 92,38082,282 WashingtonMontana 1,3941,474 20122011 8.7m9.3m New NevadaMexico 79,88782,282 WashingtonAlabama 1,1071,394 Texas 717,800 20112010 5.5m8.7m New OregonMexico 79,73279,887 OklahomaAlabama 1,1041,107 Texas 717,800 20102009 6.0m5.5m OklahomaOregon 79,73267,142 OklahomaUtah 1,0251,104 20092008 5.2m6.0m OklahomaMontana 64,83567,142 MinnesotaUtah 1,0211,025 20082007 9.2m5.2m WyomingMontana 64,83541,857 SouthMinnesota Carolina 1,021992 20072006 9.9m9.2m WyomingColorado 40,39241,857 South CarolinaIdaho 960992 Colorado 371,100 20062005 8.7m9.9m ColoradoAlabama 22,15840,392 MississippiIdaho 959960 Colorado 371,100 20052004 8.1m8.7m AlabamaKansas 21,16722,158 NewMississippi Mexico 959859 Arizona 237,900 20042003 3.9m8.1m N.CarolinaKansas 14,54821,167 NewColorado Mexico 857859 Arizona 237,900 20032002 7.2m3.9m N.CarolinaGeorgia 12,40714,548 ColoradoKentucky 755857 20022001 3.6m7.2m KentuckyGeorgia 11,71412,407 NewKentucky Jersey 727755 Idaho 175,000 20012000 7.5m3.6m NewKentucky Jersey 11,34611,714 New AlaskaJersey 720727 Idaho 175,000 20001999 5.6m7.5m New HawaiiJersey 10,71011,346 ArkansasAlaska 720660 Wash. 160,500 19991998 1.2m5.6m NebraskaHawaii 10,7109,478 WestArkansas Virginia 593660 Wash. 160,500 19981997 2.8m1.2m NebraskaArkansas 9,4788,602 WestTennessee Virginia 571593 Oklahoma 153,400 9 19971996 6.1m2.8m W.Arkansas Virginia 7,6538,602 TennesseeNevada 562571 Oklahoma 153,400 9 19961995 1.9m6.1m S.W. Carolina Virginia 7,6535,939 WyomingNevada 562486 Oregon 151,400 9 19951994 4.1m1.9m S.Minnesota Carolina 5,8625,939 WyomingHawaii 155486 Oregon 151,400 9 19941993 1.7m4.1m MinnesotaTennessee 5,4785,862 MissouriHawaii 15567 Montana 137,800 9 19931992 2.1m1.7m MississippiTennessee 5,4735,478 MissouriKansas 1967 Montana 137,800 9 19921991 2.9m2.1m MississippiMissouri 5,0915,473 NebraskaKansas 1519 Utah 136,000 1991 2.9m Missouri 5,091 Nebraska 15 Utah 136,000

(2019) = 1,000 properties https://www.iii.org/fact-statistics/facts-statistics-wildfires (2019) = 1,000 properties 1991 | Oakland, CA

ACRES BURNED STRUCTURES DAMAGED COST FATALITIES Tunnel Fire 1,600 2,900 $1.5b 25

The 1991 Tunnel Fire, otherwise known as the Oakland Firestorm, was started in the Berkeley hills as a small 5 acre grass fire on a steep hillside near the Caldecott Tunnel. Firefighters thought the fire was contained and extinguished, but by the following morning, stark Diablo winds re-ignited the fire and carried the blaze to the top of the adjacent community area to the west, which swept through the Hiller Highlands neighborhood and jumped two multi-lane highways.

Until 2017 this was the most destructive California wildfire, magnified by high winds in a drought year. In today’s dollars, the damages would have amounted to around 4 billion dollars. This devastating fire event initiated years of fire policy and defensible space enforcement.

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ 2017 | Santa Rosa, CA

ACRES BURNED STRUCTURES DAMAGED COST FATALITIES Tubbs Fire 36,807 5,636 $1.3b 22

The 2017 Tubbs Fire was a Northern California wildfire started by a faulty electrical system on a private network that would spread to impact parts of Sonoma, Napa, and Lake Counties, with the worst destruction in the city of Santa Rosa. The fire was one of a dozen burning in tandem in late 2017 over 8 counties, known as the “Northern California firestorm.” The Tubbs fire saw wind speeds exceeding 60 miles per hour which caused great devastation in both urban and suburban areas overnight, damaging over 5,000 structures. At the time, the Tubbs Fire was the most destructive (number of structures destroyed) California wildfire in history.

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ 2017 | Santa Barbara, CA

ACRES BURNED STRUCTURES DAMAGED COST FATALITIES Thomas Fire 281,893 1,063 $2.2b 2

The 2017 Thomas Fire broke out in Southern California and burned in Ventura and Santa Barbara counties. It was one of several Southern California wildfires that occurred during December of the year, and at the time was the largest wildfire (most acres burned) in California history. Today it remains as the 5th largest fire. The fire began near Steckel Park, caused by downed power lines, and quickly spread to neighboring communities stoked by abnormally strong Santa Ana winds. Over 500 homes were destroyed on the first night of the fire in Ventura County, and as many more would be burned in neighboring rural communities.

Less than 1 month later when it began to rain in 2018, the fire-scarred hills transformed into destructive and deadly landslides that caused millions of dollars in damage.

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ 2018 | Paradise, CA

ACRES BURNED STRUCTURES DAMAGED COST FATALITIES Camp Fire 153,336 18,804 $16.7b 85

The 2018 Camp Fire was started in Northern California’s Butte County, sparked by faulty electric transmission lines. The fire spread above several rural communities and landed in the urbanized community of Paradise. Drought was a key contributing factor to the spread of the fire.

The fire was the most destructive, deadliest, and costliest fire in California history. It was also the most expensive natural disaster in the world for 2018. 52,000 people were evacuated during the event, which proved to be a challenging feat given the limited egress routes from the area. Difficulty in evacuation caused people to abandon cars and run on foot. The fire displaced over 1,000 families.

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ 2020 | Coast Range, CA

ACRES BURNED STRUCTURES DAMAGED COST FATALITIES August Fire 1,032,649 935 $0.3b 1

The 2020 August Complex Fire was a devastating event caused by bad electrical storms in Northern California. More than 650 lightning caused fires were started on the same night, with 38 of them fusing together in the Mendocino National Forest to comprise the August Complex. The fire also spread to the Shasta-Trinity National Forest and the Six Rivers National Forest. This stands as the largest fire in California history and tragically burned in the same location as the 2018 Mendocino Complex fire, which was the largest fire at the time, burning 459,000 plus acres. The August Fire would exceed this grim milestone by burning in excess of 1 million acres. Smoke from this fire season led to an estimated 1,200 additional deaths and 4,800 additional ER visits among the elderly.

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

2020 saw the most widespread wildfires in California history, comprising 30% of the state’s largest fires on record with just six fires.

ACRES BURNED FATALITIES STRUCTURES DAMAGED

https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

Strong seasonal wind events in California’s mountain regions exacerbate the spread of fire.

Santa Ana and Diablo winds originate from the Northeast and flow to the Southwest and can easily reach gusts of 50 mph. These winds most commonly occur in the fall and winter and are typically worse in the late-night hours. They are characterized as being drier and hotter than standard wind events.

Photo Credit: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/santa-ana-diablo-winds-propel-fire-season-california-risk CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

California wildfires are increasing in frequency and intensity. Climate change is considered to be a key driver of this trend.

Warmer spring and summer temperatures, reduced snow pack, and earlier spring snow melt create longer and more intense dry seasons that increase moisture stress on vegetation and make forests more susceptible to severe wildfire. The length of fire season is estimated to have increased by 75 days across the Sierras and corresponds with an increase in the extent of forest fires across the state.

Photo Credit: Dan Zweig https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents/ CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

The Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) is defined Damaged power lines and other human Many wildfires are the by the US Fire Administration as “the zone activities are among the leading causes of of transition between unoccupied land and wildfires in the Wildland-Urban Interface. result of human activity and human development. It is the line, area or Fires in this zone also tend to be difficult to zone where structures and other human control, more damaging to property, and the development meet or intermingle with most threatening to human life. urbanization in the Wildland- undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.” Urban Interface (WUI)

Photo Credit: PasterScott/E+/Getty Images CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES

Millions of Californians are at risk. 2.7 million residents live in Very High Fire Hazard Severity Zones, which accounts for 7% of the state population.

Cal Fire’s hazard metrics overlaid with 2010 census data have determined that more than 75 towns and cities with a population exceeding 1,000 residents are almost fully contained within a high risk area. High Voltage Power CPUC Threat Tier 3 CPUC Threat Tier 2 Note: Cal Fire’s Fire Hazard Severity Zones (FHSZ), Wildland-Urban Interface Urbanized Areas (WUI), and the California Public Utilities Commission Tier 3 (extreme) and Tier 2 (elevated) fire threat, all describe areas of high fire risk. Incorporated Cities Wildfires 1895–2019 Wildfires 2020

https://www.directrelief.org/2019/07/which-california-communities-are-most-vulnerable-to-wildfires/ CHAPTER 1

Wildlands WILDLANDS

California wildfires occur primarily in its wildlands, outside of urbanized and agriculture areas.

California covers an area of 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2). It’s among the largest and most geographically diverse U.S. states.

Much of California’s land area is used for agriculture, with concentrations of urbanized areas in several coastal locations—San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, and San Diego. There are also urban areas in the Central Valley.

Fires have always been present in California. An overlay of over 100 years of wildfires show that virtually all of them occurred in higher elevations. Incorporated Cities Wildfires 1895-2019 Wildfires 2020 WILDLANDS

Most forests in California are not owned or managed by the state. Ownership and responsibility varies across different agencies and stakeholders.

According to the state governor’s office, the federal government oversees approximately 58% of the 33 million acres of California forest, which is managed by several different federal agencies. The state is responsible for managing 3%.

The remainder is owned by private individuals, companies or Native American groups.

Photo Credit: yhelfman/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images https://www.gov.ca.gov/2020/08/13/california-u-s-forest-service-establish-shared-long-term-strategy-to-manage-forests-and-rangelands/ GUIDELINE 1.1

Federal, state, and local governments must collaborate to develop a unified response to wildfires.

While there is a unifying regulatory framework for fire mitigation policy, many wildfires cross multiple Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Land Management jurisdictions that are owned or managed by different Bureau of Reclamation agencies. It is important that all agencies have a shared CA Dept. of Fish and Wildlife CA Dept. of Forestry and Fire Protection vision and policy to prepare for and mitigate wildfires. CA Dept. of Parks and Recreation These may include firebreaks between neighborhoods, Department of Defense controlled burns, and shared decision frameworks. Local Government National Park Service Non-Profit Conservancies and Trusts Other Federal Lands Other State Lands US Fish and Wildlife Service USDA Forest Service WILDLANDS

Many wildfires are caused by sparks from power lines and electrical equipment.

85% of U.S. wildfires are caused by human-related activities and equipment. In general, electrical lines and equipment break in high wind events, which generates sparks. California does not have rain or snow for the majority of the year, making most of its vegetation extremely dry. Sparks tend to easily ignite adjacent vegetation which spreads rapidly in high winds.

This overlay shows topography in relation to high voltage power lines. In general, high voltage power lines are located in the Central Valley and major cities, with a number of these power lines reaching into higher elevations.

The California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) has identified areas under High Voltage Power wildfire threat. There are two tiers—mostly located at the higher elevations. This CPUC Threat Tier 1 map shows an overlay of the two CPUC Threat Tiers and existing power plants CPUC Threat Tier 2 and electric power lines. Incorporated Cities Wildfires 1895-2019 Wildfires 2020

https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildfire-causes-and-evaluation.htm GUIDELINE 1.2

Update outdated power lines and equipment in lower risk zones and add more monitoring systems throughout California.

The first step to reducing wildfires in California is to upgrade the electric infrastructure throughout. In the Central Valley and lower risk zones, this entails hardening of the existing systems to reduce the possibility that they will spark in high wind events.

Additionally, this includes installation of cameras and other equipment to facilitate monitoring of electric infrastructure. High Voltage Power CPUC Threat Tier 1 CPUC Threat Tier 2 Incorporated Cities GUIDELINE 1.3

Historically, power plants are built away from cities and power is brought to buildings by above ground power lines.

Solar and wind power has the potential to localize power generation to mitigate the risk of wildfires caused by power lines.

Decentralize power sources in high risk zones to reduce power line infrastructure. WILDLANDS A 2018 report by a state oversight agency recommended fuel reduction of 1.1 million acres per year throughout the state. The current rate of controlled burns is less than half of this amount.

Costs of managing forests:

↪ Prescribed burns: $200 per acre ↪ Forest thinning: $1,000 per acre ↪ Fighting Wildfire: $800 per acre (not including damage costs)

The total cost to manage 1.1 million acres per year can range from hundreds of millions of dollars to more than a billion dollars per year.

In comparison, the Northern California Wine Country Fires in October 2017 caused more than $9 billion worth of damage in a single month.

Photo Credit: f00sion/E+/Getty Images https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/09/17/1008473/wildfires-california-prescribed-burns-climate-change-forests/ GUIDELINE 1.4

Prioritize and increase prescribed burns in high risk areas.

Prescribed fires, also known as prescribed burns or controlled burns, refer to the controlled application of fire by a team of fire experts to restore health to ecosystems that depend on fire and decrease the intensity or uncontrollability of future wildfires.

Reducing the fuel load in high risk areas via controlled burns in appropriate locations and intervals has the potential to save over

600 million dollars per year in firefighting costs alone. CPUC Threat Tier 1 CPUC Threat Tier 2 Urbanized Areas Incorporated Cities Controlled Burns Many buildings and landscape areas in California’s Wildland- Urban Interface areas are vulnerable to wildfires.

Photo Credit: Thomas De Wever/Getty Images GUIDELINE 1.5 Require mandatory fire- resistant building and residential landscape upgrades.

Similar to the state-wide seismic upgrades in California, the structures located within high risk areas should be required to meet a modern standard of fire resistance.

While new structures in Cal Fire’s High Fire Hazard Severity Zones are required to be built to fire-resistant Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) standards, all existing buildings within the CPUC Threat Tier 1 and 2 zones should be subject to mandatory upgrades to meet the same standards.

This guideline is explored further in the following chapters. Urbanized Areas

CPUC Threat Tier 2 Fire Mitigation Upgrade Zone CPUC Threat Tier 1 Fire Mitigation Upgrade Zone GUIDELINE 1.6

Bury new power lines where feasible within high wildfire hazard zones.

When high risk areas are compared with vegetated zones, it becomes evident that the areas most susceptible to fires are between the lower-elevation urbanized and agricultural lands and the higher-elevation hills and mountains.

High-Risk Area As discussed earlier, power lines are the leading cause of Agriculture wildfires in California. One solution to reduce the total number Barren/Other of human-caused wildfires would be to remove or bury power Conifer Forest Conifer Woodland lines in areas known to be at the highest risk for fires. Desert Hardwood Forest Burying selective and specific power lines that lie within the Hardwood Woodland Herbaceous high risk zones would be an effective intervention to minimize Shrub exposure to wildfires. Urban Water WILDLANDS Summary

ISSUES GUIDELINES

Many different governments and other agencies have different policies and 1.1: Promote inter-agency collaboration between federal, state, and local responsibilities for forest and fire management. → governments.

Power lines have caused many catastrophic fires. 1.2: Update outdated power lines and equipment in lower risk zones and add more → monitoring systems throughout California.

High voltage power lines traverse high risk areas to reach remote rural 1.3: Decentralize power sources in high risk zones. communities. →

Currently the state does not manage enough of the forest each year via 1.4: Prioritize and increase prescribed burns in high risk areas. prescribed burns. →

Existing buildings and landscapes in wildlands and high risk areas are not up to 1.5: Require mandatory fire-resistant building and residential landscape upgrades. modern fire resistance standards. →

High voltage power lines are the leading cause of wildfires and currently traverse 1.6: Bury new power lines where feasible within highest wildfire hazard zones. numerous high risk areas. → CHAPTER 2

Urban Areas URBAN AREAS

POPULATION GROWTH RATE US Population/Price US Growth Rate AVERAGE HOUSING PRICES POPULATION GROWTH GROWTH RATE RATE US Population/Price US Growth Rate AVERAGEAVERAGE HOUSING PRICES PRICES CA Population/Price CA Growth Rate CA Population/Price CA Growth Rate

61.47% 60.69% National Average California Average 330M 61.47% 60.69% 60% National Average California Average 330M 60% 2020 $276,708 $606,410 2020 $276,708 $606,410 2019 $262,157 $603,030 One in eight U.S. 2019 $262,157 $603,030 55% 2018 $248,653 $584,460 300M 55% 2018 $248,653 $584,460 300M 2017 $233,400 $537,950 2017 $233,400 $537,950 residents lives in 2016 $219,146 $509,240 50% 2016 $219,146 $509,240 53.62% $207,209 $484,370 270M 53.62% 50% 2015 270M 2015 $207,209 $484,370 2014 $197,300 $448,720 2014 $197,300 $448,720 California, making it the 2013 $187,246 $402,830 47.71% 45% 47.71% 45% 2013 $187,246 $402,830 240M 2012 $175,155 $312,500 240M 48.63% 2012 $175,155 $312,500 48.63% 2011 $171,551 $294,140 most populous U.S. state. 40% 2011 $171,551 $294,140 40% 2010 $182,056 $307,000 $182,056 $307,000 210M 2010 210M 2009 $184,959 $253,110 2009 $184,959 $253,110 35% 2008 $201,087 $404,590 35% 2008 $201,087 $404,590 2007 $217,080 $594,110 180M 2007 $217,080 $594,110 180M 25.84% 2006 $213,341 $562,820 25.84% 30% 2006 $213,341 $562,820 30% 2005 $197,924 $510,400 The rate of annual population growth in the state has 2005 $197,924 $510,400 2004 $178,836 $452,680 140M $178,836 $452,680 140M 2004 far exceeded the national average throughout the 20th 25% 2003 $164,362 $364,040 25% 2003 $164,362 $364,040 19.17% 2002 $152,675 $317,121 century. California housing is two and a half times 21.02% 19.17% 2002 $152,675 $317,121 21.02% 110M 21.69% 2001 $143,256 $255,310 more expensive than the average national home price, 110M 21.69% 25.83% 20% 2001 $143,256 $255,310 25.83% 20% 2000 $133,788 $237,057 18.50% 2000 $133,788 $237,057 a trend that has been accelerating since the 1970s. A 16.21% 18.50% 1999 $125,379 $216,490 16.21% 13.48% $125,379 $216,490 80M 13.48% 15% 1999 shortage in affordable housing in urban areas has pushed 14.96% 1998 $118,343 $198,252 80M 14.96% 13.32% 15% $198,252 14.50% 13.32% 1998 $118,343 14.50% 9.78% 1997 $113,432 $181,218 development into the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) 9.78% 1997 $113,432 $181,218 13.15% 8.93% 10% 1996 $110,520 $178,536 50M 1996 $110,520 $178,536 areas where wildfires are more likely to occur and harder 11.48% 13.15% 8.93% 10% 50M 5.48% 1995 $106,992 $176,768 11.48% 1995 $106,992 $176,768 7.27% 5.48% to contain. 7.27% 1994 $104,551 $186,968 5% 1994 $104,551 $186,968 5% 1993 $101,014 $192,600 20M $101,014 $192,600 20M 1993 US Population CA Population 1992 $98,573 $198,700 US Population CA Population 1992 $98,573 $198,700 0 0% 1991 $96,439 $207,718 0 0% 1991 $96,439 $207,718

2000 2010 2020 *Based on monthly median values of April each year 1910 1900 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

US Census Bureau; https://www.macrotrends.net; https://CAR.org URBAN AREAS

WILDFIRES IN CALIFORNIA WUI ZONES DEVELOPMENT IN WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACES WILDFIRES IN CALIFORNIA WUI ZONES DEVELOMENT IN WILDLAND More and more URBAN INTERFACES

CA WUI Z NWUI Z 4.5b Americans are moving Developed 5.3% 22,618 401,349 1990 Area 5.7% 24,375 399,592 2000 to the Wildland-Urban 4.0b 6.4% 27,026 396,941 2010 Housing 29.6% 3,309,716 7,873,166 1990 Units Interface despite the 3.5b 31.0% 3,788,536 8,426,013 2000 CUMULATIVE WUI 32.4% 4,426,803 9,253,278 2010 ACRES BURNED 1990-2018 Population 27.6% 8,211,337 21,548,684 1990 high risk of fire. 3.0b Count 28.6% 9,673,645 24,198,003 2000

30.0% 11,157,953 26,096,003 2010 2.5b

Over the last 100 years, 6 of the top 10 most damaging 2.0b US WUI Z NWUI Z single fire events in the U.S. that involved structures were Developed 7.2% 580,831 7,501,054 1990 Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) fires. More than 46 million Area 8.5% 688,529 7,393,357 2000 1.5b U.S. homes in 70,000 communities are at risk of WUI fires. 9.5% 770,301 7,311,585 2010

This corresponds to 32% of U.S. housing units and one tenth Housing 30.3% 30,782,682 70,858,571 70,858,571 1990 1.0b Units of all land with housing. 32.1% 36,946,860 78,236,260 2000 VALUE OF STRUCTURAL LOSSES FROM WUI FIRES 33.2% 43,434,112 87,444,143 2010 1990-2018 Over the last decade, the fire season has increased by two 0.5b Population 29.4% 72,636,475 174,415,125 1990 Count and a half months and fires greater than 10,000 acres have 30.9% 86,252,862 193,330,573 2000

31.9% 97,774,215 208,900,791 increased. The average area burned by wildland fires in the 0 2010 U.S. has doubled in the last three decades, to an estimated 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018 Denotes number in WUI zones seven million acres per year. Denotes percentage in WUI zones

Denotes number in Non-WUI zones

The Nature Conservancy; https://www.SILVIS.Forest.Wisc.edu/data/WUI_change; National Interagency Fire Center URBAN AREAS

M F EL. + 7,000’ Demand for affordable housing is accelerating F F development in the EL. + 3 - 5,000’

Wildland-Urban Interface, S H EL. + 1 - 2,000’ where wildfires are more frequent and intense.

Single-family homes are harder to protect from wildfires than larger multi-family homes or uninhabited wildlands.

Prevailing winds ﬂow If higher occupancy buildings were prioritized over single-family from the mountains homes, they could more easily be designed to be more resilient into the valley. to wildfires.

Fewer single-family homes would allow for more open space in wildlands, where controlled burns and periodic wildfires could be easily facilitated. GUIDELINE 2.1

Increase housing in existing urbanized areas Dwellings built in the wildland fringe area are at most risk for wildﬁre to reduce the number destruction. of people threatened by wildfires.

Simply put, we can decrease the number of homes in WUI areas by increasing the number of homes available within cities. Increasing density in cities addresses the state’s needs to increase the total number of homes and addresses the fact that denser cities are easier to protect from wildfires than single family homes in WUI zones.

Cities across the state should increase the density of homes within their city limits: incentivizing Accessory Dwelling Units (ADUs), multi-family residential infill developments, and below-market-rate housing. GUIDELINE 2.2

Rather than rebuilding destroyed dwellings Incentivize no re-build zones a er a ﬁre, densify the building typology in the in high fire risk areas to reduce city center. property loss and damage from wildfires.

New buildings in high risk zones already need to abide by strict WUI codes as discussed in the Buildings section, but limiting the number of single-family homes in high risk zones will make wildfires easier to manage as well as people and property easier to protect.

Insurance companies are already making fire insurance more difficult to receive and maintain in high risk zones, despite executive action. Funds for rebuilding homes destroyed by wildfires in high risk zones should be redirected towards densifying housing within city limits. With fewer homes in WUI zones, prescribed burns and other forest management policies will be easier to implement and maintain. The 2018 Camp Fire was especially devastating due to congested egress routes, limited communications infrastructure, and dispersed settlement patterns.

The town of Paradise, California, the region hit hardest by the fire, has only four main arterial roads to the south, and just one to the north. Due to the quick-spreading fire that broke out in the early morning to the northeast, it was only a matter of hours before these roads were burned over and inaccessible due to roadside vegetation catching fire and fallen power poles blocking access.

https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.2135 GUIDELINE 2.3

Introduce fire breaks Provide fire staging at Cut back vegetation Implement city design at the city perimeter key intersections to around power lines between buildings allow for optimized fire to maintain a clear and wooded areas for suppression strategies. fire break. requirements for fire reduced spread. staging, breaks, and egress.

2020 California legislation requires cities to evaluate wildfire risks when defining the layout of roads, services, and zoning. 300’-0” 300’-0” Existing cities should consider how they can adapt their communities to better respond to fires, modernizing infrastructure to align with current trends of wildfire impacts.

Cities that have been impacted by wildfires should reconsider their design requirements to accommodate more frequent and intense wildfires. Vulnerable structures at the city edge allow fires to spread from the wildlands into the city center.

The 2017 Tubbs fire destroyed much of the Coffey Park neighborhood in Santa Rosa. The wildfire started in the Wildland-Urban Interface region and quickly spread through forested areas to reach more populous development well within the city limits.

High winds sent embers across more than 6 lanes of Highway 101, spreading the wildfire from the Fountaingrove neighborhood into the neighborhood of Coffey Park. Due to the density of the urbanized areas, the bulk of ember-generating fuel was buildings, contrary to wildland fires that are generally fueled by trees and other vegetation.

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=cd71b2d738e0481a9b6a764f802d27d2 GUIDELINE 2.4

Require fire resilient Pack the city perimeter with ﬁre resistant buildings to serve as a barrier between buildings at the city edge. vulnerable wooded areas.

Ideally, if one building in a community is required to comply with WUI fire resistant requirements, then the entire community should be compliant, so that wind-driven embers don’t cause fires to penetrate deeper into urbanized areas.

However, to start, all buildings at city edges should be built or retrofitted to be fire resilient. When wildland fires reach cities, these buildings will significantly decrease the intensity of the wildfire as it pushes against the city. Fewer buildings will succumb to the wildfire, which equates to less fuel for the wildfire and fewer embers spreading downwind. URBAN AREAS

CAUSES OF THE MOST DESTRUCTIVE* *fires that destroyed 750+ structures CALIFORNIA WILDFIRES THROUGH 2019

90% of California

H re u Failu m wildfires are caused al a tric n c P C le o a E w u er s L e by human activity. in s e s 2015 Valley Fire 2017 Tubbs Fire 2017 Woolsey Fire

2007 Witch Fire

Other 1999 Jones Fire 2015 Butte Fire

2017 Nuns Fire

2017 Atlas Fire 90%

Human Caused 2017 Thomas Fire

2018 Camp Fire Continued urban sprawl creates more fire

risk in forested areas as electrical networks

U n

expand and human intervention is multiplied. k H n u o ilure m w Fa al a 2003 Old Fire n ric n

t 2003 Cedar Fire c C

le Po a E w u 2008 Carr Fire er s L e i r

n o s e r s r

2015 Valley Fire n

2017 Tubbs Fire a

2017 Woolsey Fire m

2007 Witch Fire

2015 Butte Fire Other 1999 Jones1991 Fire Tunnel Fire

2017 Nuns Fire

2017 Atlas Fire 90%

Human Caused e k 2017 Thomas Fire

ind le

2018 Camp Fire

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, https://www.seia.org/solar-industry-research-data k

o w 2003 Old Fire n GUIDELINE 2.5

Remove above-grade Create a micro grid to power networks that serve smaller pockets of Eliminate 65% of the most are prone to start ﬁres, the city’s energy usage and replace with to limit the sprawl of destructive wildfires by nature trails. power networks. reforming the electric grid infrastructure.

Sparks from electric infrastructure outside of urban areas is the primary cause of wildfires. If cities can embrace micro- grids and lessen the electrical infrastructure leading to their communities through the surrounding wildlands, then significantly fewer wildfires will be started.

As solar and other renewable technologies improve, cities should be less reliant on the major power generation hubs throughout the state, and instead strive to generate as much power as they consume.

This parallels the state’s goals to make all buildings net zero by 2050, but widens the lens to realize what impacts that could have on decreasing major wildfires. URBAN AREAS Summary

ISSUES RECOMMENDATIONS

More and more Americans are moving to the Wildland-Urban 2.1: Increase density in cities to reduce the number of people Interface despite the high risk of fire. → threatened by wildfires.

Single-family homes are harder to protect from wildfires than larger 2.2: Implement no re-build zones in high fire risk areas to reduce multi-family homes or uninhabited wildlands. → destroyed structures from wildfires.

Insufficient access routes to wildland communities makes 2.3: Implement city design requirements for fire staging, breaks, and evacuation difficult. → egress.

Vulnerable structures at the city edge allow fires to spread from the 2.4: Require fire resilient buildings at the city edge. wildlands into the city center. →

Most California fires are human-caused, and many large wildfires are 2.5: Reform the electric grid infrastructure. the result of a sprawling electrical network. → CHAPTER 3

Buildings BUILDINGS

*Housing data as of 2018, prior POST-2008 BUILDING IMPROVEMENTS to the Camp Fire event POST-2008POST-2008 BUILDING BUILDING IMPROVEMENTS IMPROVEMENTS POST-2008POST-2008 BUILDING BUILDING IMPROVEMENTS IMPROVEMENTS

ImprovedImproved Roofing MaterialsRoofing Materials ImprovedImproved Roofing Roofing Materials Materials

Even though Wildland-Urban ImprovedImproved Siding Materials Siding Materials ImprovedImproved Siding Siding Materials Materials

ImprovedImproved Decking DeckingMaterials Materials Interface (WUI) codes exist, ImprovedImproved Decking Decking Materials Materials Improved Window Materials wildfires destroy thousands ImprovedImprovedImproved Window Window Window Materials Materials Materials of homes each year. DAMAGEDAMAGEDAMAGEDAMAGEDAMAGE ININ IN THE THE INTHE THEIN 2018 20182018 THE 2018 CAMPFIRE CAMPFIRECAMP2018 CAMPFIRE CAMPFIRE FIRE

DamagedDamagedDamaged homes homesDamaged homes homes builtbuilt beforebuilt before before 2008built 2008 2008before 2008 997%7%97%97% 3%3%3% 3% DamagedDamagedDamaged homes homesDamaged homes homes built a er 2008 Over 50% of homes built according to WUI codes were undamaged builtbuilt a er a er 2008built 2008 a er 2008 from the Camp Fire. New WUI building codes mandate non- 12,44012,44012,44012,440 homes homes homes homes combustible materials, fire truck access, and other preventative measures for new construction in High Hazard Zones of California. SURVIVING HOMES BUILT SURVIVING HOMES BUILT SURVIVINGSURVIVING HOMES HOMES BUILT BUILT SURVIVINGSURVIVING HOMES HOMES BUILT BUILT SURVIVINGSURVIVINGBEFORE 2018 HOMESHOMES 09 BUILT BUILT AFTERSURVIVINGSURVIVING 2018 HOMES09 HOMES BUILT BUILT BEFOREBEFORE 2018 2018 09 09 AFTERAFTER 2018 2018 09 09 For the Camp Fire, these new codes were effective, but not perfect. BEFOREBEFORE 2018 (2019)09 AFTERAFTER 2018 092018 (2019) In contrast to the 50% of WUI homes that were undamaged, only 18% of non-WUI code compliant buildings were undamaged. 18% 51% 18%18%18% 51%51%51%

https://www.denverpost.com/2019/04/11/California-building-code-wildfires GUIDELINE 3.1

0A R12 0A 0A Exterior coverings shall An automatic residential Roof gutters shall be Vents in undersides of eaves be ignition-resistant. ﬁre sprinkler system shall designed to not shall be non-combustible and be installed in one- and accumulate leaves. 12’-0” above grade minimum. two-family dwellings, and Strengthen visual townhouses. communication tools for WUI codes.

The 2018 International WUI Code is an extremely thorough and technical documentation on the topic, but contains zero images or visual representation of data.

We recommend code councils publish graphic depictions of WUI codes. Graphic explanations for WUI codes would help architects, builders, and reviewing authorities understand and implement the strict WUI code requirements. Additionally, they could help inform architects and owners of potential design solutions to 09A 0A 0A22 Decking to be Exterior windows, sky- Vent openings for attics and the risk of wildfire. non-combustible, lights and doors to be crawl spaces openings should ignition-resistant, or SFM non-combustible be between 1/16” and ⅛” and 12-7A-4A compliant. /ignition-resistant. non-combustible. GUIDELINE 3.2 Fire apparatus Trees over 0 OFFSET 200 wide access roads 18’-0” tall to Ember-resistant driveway for ﬁre required for new be pruned up zone with gravel truck access construction to 6’-0” above surrounding home ground Design individual buildings and properties to accommodate fire and evacuation.

Many site design regulations are already in place for existing and new 00 OFFSET construction in High Hazard Fire Zones and need to be enforced and maintained. 1000 OFFSET

In addition, the following should be considered during design: 2000 OFFSET

1. Fire truck staging areas for fighting fire on the property or at buildings on site 2. Intentional fire breaks to slow the spread of fire across the site 3. Second means of egress from a property in case the primary escape route is blocked by active fire 4. Drought and fire tolerant native planting to lessen the contribution to fire fuel loads and reduce overall damage Drought and 10 clearance 100 clearance ﬁre tolerant between shrubs between shrubs resulting from wildfires native planting and building and fencing GUIDELINE 3.3

Provide affordable, adaptable, high-quality fire- resistant building designs to facilitate a new regime of fire-conscious construction.

Homes destroyed by fires are generally rebuilt. These rebuilt homes have a chance at being constructed to a new standard of fire resilience if the designs are available, affordable, and adaptable to the project location.

New homes throughout the state should be designed to coexist with fire. Planners, policy makers, architects, and construction professionals are key to accomplishing this goal. BUILDINGS TOP 5 STATESTOP WITH 5 STATES THE MOST WITH EXPENSIVE THE MOST EXPENSIVEFIRES FIRES *data collected *datafrom fires collected between from 2014 fires - between 2017 2014 - 2017 TOP 5 TOPSTATES 5 STATES WITH WITHTHE MOST THE MOST EXPENSIVE EXPENSIVE FIRES FIRESFIRE SREADFIRE TO SREAD WUI REGIONS TO WUI IN REGIONS TO EXENSIVE IN TO EXENSIVEFIRE STATE TOP 5 STATES*dataTOP collected 5WITH STATES from THE firesWITH between*Data THE collected 2014MOST from - 2017 fires EXPENSIVE FIRE FIRES SPREAD TO WUI REGIONS *Percent of fire in *data collected from fires between 2014between - 2017 2014-2017 percent of fireFIRE inpercent wui SREAD designation of fire in TO wui WUIdesignation REGIONS IN TOWUI designation EXENSIVE F *data collected from fires between 2014 - 2017 FIRE SREAD TO WUI REGIONS IN TO EXENSIVE FIRE ST MOST EXPENSIVE FIRES IN TOP 3 EXPENSIVEpercentFIRE of SREAD fireFIRES in wui designationTO WUI REGIONS IN TO EXENSIVE Cost Acres BurnedCost Acres Burned percent of fire in wui designation percent of fire in wui designation Cost CostAcres BurnedAcres Burned 0 5 100 155 2010 2515 3020 3525 30 35 Cost Acres Burned CA CA0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 California is leading the C C $1,500,000,000 $1,500,000,000 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Butte35 Butte 1,400,000 1,400,000 0 5 10 15 20 25Central30 lnu Complex35 Central lnu Comple CC $1,500,000,000 CA CA $1,500,000,000 SouthernButte lnu ComplexButteSouthern lnu Comp C 1,400,000 1,400,000 CA Central lnu Complex O O $600,000,000 $1,500,000,000$600,000,000 Valley Central lnu ComplexButteValley 700,000 1,400,000700,000 Southern SouthernlnuCentral Complex lnu lnu Complex Comple nation with habitation O $600,000,000 Detwiler Detwiler O $600,000,000 Valley ValleySouthern lnu Comp 700,000 Fork Complex Fork Complex Washington OWashington $400,000,000700,000$600,000,000$400,000,000 Detwiler Cedar Detwiler ValleyCedar 1,250,000 1,250,000700,000 Fork Complex Washington $400,000,000 ChimneyFork ComplexDetwilerChimney Washington $400,000,000 Cedar in WUI areas, creating 1,250,000 King Cedar ForkKing Complex M WashingtonM $390,000,0001,250,000$400,000,000$390,000,000 Chimney ChimneyCedar 800,000 1,250,000800,000 Rocky Rocky King KingChimney MM $390,000,000$390,000,000 Pier Pier 800,000 Rocky RockyKing Idaho MIdaho $300,000,000800,000$390,000,000$300,000,000 Soberanes Soberanes Pier fire crises that are much Happy PierCamp ComplexRockyHappy Camp Com 840,000 800,000840,000 Soberanes Idaho Idaho $300,000,000$300,000,000 July ComplexSoberanes PierJuly Complex Happy Camp Comple Idaho 840,000$300,000,000840,000 EclipseHappy Complex CampSoberanesEclipse Complex Complex July Complex COST ER ACRECOST TO ER EXTINGUISH ACRE TO EXTINGUISH A FIRE A FIRE 840,000 Lodge JulyComplex ComplexHappyLodge CampComplex Comp more costly to contain. Eclipse ComplexEclipseJuly ComplexComplex COST ER ACRE TO EXTINGUISH A FIRE Rough Rough COST ERCOST ACRE PER TO ACREEXTINGUISH TO EXTINGUISH A FIRE A FIRE Lodge Complex COST ER ACRE TO EXTINGUISH A FIRE GasquetLodge Complex ComplexEclipseGasquet Complex Complex Rough RoughLodge Complex Gasquet ComplexGasquetRough Complex OR OR Deception ComplexGasquetDeception Complex Comple County Line 2 County Line 2 OR Deception Complex OR CanyonDeception Creek Complex ComplexCanyon Creek Com OR County Line 2 UmpquaCounty North Line Complex Deception2Umpqua North Comple Co WUI WUI Forest ForestGrassland Grassland Canyon Creek Comple BeaverCanyon Complex CreekCountyBeaver Complex LineComplex 2 Umpqua NorthUmpquaCanyon Complex North Creek Comp Com While new homes in these areas are required to $1,695WUI $1,695WUI $840Forest Forest$840$55GrasslandGrassland$55 Eagle Creek Eagle Creek BeaverUmpqua Complex North Com WUI Forest Grassland ChetcoBeaver Bar ComplexChetco Bar $1,695 Eagle Creek comply with WUI Building Codes in California, $1,695 $840$840 $55 $55 StoutsEagle Creek Creek BeaverStouts ComplexCreek Chetco Bar $1,695 $840 $55 Miller ComplexChetco Bar EagleMiller CreekComplex Stouts Creek existing homes are not. Jones Stouts CreekChetcoJones Bar Miller Complex S No.100S of FiresMOST No.DESTRUCTIVE of Fires FIRES BY STATE Miller ComplexStouts Creek 100 MOST DESTRUCTIVE100 MOST DESTRUCTIVE FIRES BY STATE FIRES BY STATE Jones JonesMiller Complex WA WA *data collected100 *datafrom MOST fires collected between DESTRUCTIVE from 2014 fires - between 2017 FIRES 2014 BY - 2017 STATECaliforniaS SCaliforniaNo. of FiresNo. of Fires 41 41 Chelan Complex JonesChelan Complex 100 MOST DESTRUCTIVE FIRES BY STATE Carlton Complex Carlton Complex The average home in California was built in 1950, Washington SWashington No. of Fires 14 14 WA Chelan Complex *data collected*data100 collected MOST from fires fromDESTRUCTIVE between fires between 2014 - 2017 2014 FIRES - 2017 BY STATECaliforniaCalifornia 41 41 WA OkanoganChelan Complex ComplexOkanogan Comple Oregon Oregon 7 7 WA Carlton Complex *data collected from fires between 2014 - 2017 WashingtonWashingtonCalifornia 14 14 41 Mills CanyonCarlton ComplexChelanMills Canyon Complex long before WUI codes. These existing homes are Montana Montana 5 5 Okanogan Complex OregonWashington 7 14 Snag CanyonOkanogan ComplexCarltonSnag Canyon Complex Oregon 7 Mills Canyon Idaho Idaho 2 2 Jolly MountainMills CanyonOkanoganJolly Mountain Comple not only at high risk of being destroyed by fire, but Montana MontanaOregon 5 5 7 Snag Canyon Other Other 1 1 CarpenterSnag Road CanyonMillsCarpenter Canyon Road Idaho IdahoMontana 2 5 Jolly Mountain they add to the fuel load of wildfires, making them 2 North StarJolly MountainSnagNorth Canyon Star OtherIdaho 1 Carpenter Road Other 1 2 GrizzlyCarpenter Bear Complex RoadJollyGrizzly Mountain Bear Comp North Star harder to contain. Other 1 Blue CreekNorth Star CarpenterBlue Creek Road Grizzly BearGrizzly ComplexNorth Bear Star Complex Blue CreekBlueGrizzly Creek Bear Compl Blue Creek https://www.KQED.org/news/11713393/wildland-development-escalates-california-fire costs BUILDINGS ANNUAL WILDFIRE EXENDITURES NATIONWIDE

ANNUAL WILDFIRE EXPENDITURES NATIONWIDE (BILLIONS)

Annual Federal Wildﬁre $0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.0 S C 2005 Earthquake retrofits are 2006 2007 30.0% 2008 2009 mandatory for certain non- 2010 2011 2018 total 2012 $3,143,256,000 2013 2014 complying buildings. Consider 2015 2016 2017 2018 similar guidelines for buildings 2019

Annual Federal Wildﬁre $0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 in areas susceptible to wildfires. I C 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2018 total 2012 2013 $24,000,000,000 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 The amount of money spent preventing wildfires from damaging 2019 unsafe buildings, paying insurance claims for fire-damaged Annual Federal Wildﬁre $0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 R C C 2005 buildings, and rebuilding homes and businesses that have been 2006 2007 30.0% 2008 destroyed, easily outweighs the cost of bringing non-complying 2009 2010 homes up to current WUI building code standards. 2011 2018 total 2012 2013 $6,500,000,000 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

https://www.nifc.gov/fire-information/statistics/suppression-costs, https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics/suppresion-costs https://statista.com/statistics/238506/public-residential-construction-put-in-place-in-the-united-states/ GUIDELINE 3.4

Incentivize fire-resistant upgrades for High Hazard Zones, potentially saving

$24 billion annually in 1 C N H 2. Occupy the Home 3. Wildﬁre Event insurance claims.

California Assembly Bill 38, which passed in 2019, $ indicates that the state will develop a comprehensive financial assistance program to help property owners, 4. Financial Expenditure whole communities and local governments retrofit existing buildings in wildfire hazard areas to protect structures from wildfires. 5. Retroﬁt the Home 6. The Home is Resilient!

In addition, the state should grant tax breaks to families and businesses that fire-retrofit their homes.

Lastly, insurance companies should incentivize retrofits by lowering fire insurance costs for homes that meet certain criteria. BUILDINGS

LEADING CAUSES OF WILDFIRES Wildfire embers drawn into attics IGNITIONLEADING IN BUILDINGS CAUSES OF and crawl spaces have been WILDFIRE IGNITION IN BUILDINGS determined to be a leading cause of building ignition.

Flying sometimes more than a mile in front of wildfires, embers will ignite buildings if they land on a surface that is not fire resistant.

Additionally, in high wind events, the differential pressure Wildﬁre Direct F C between the inside and outside of a building can cause E embers to be drawn into a building’s attic or crawl space by 90% the Venturi effect*. Even if a building’s exterior is hardened per WUI codes, embers on the interior will likely find something vulnerable to ignite.

*A pressure imbalance that draws air into lower pressure zones such as a building’s attic or crawlspace.

https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Preparing-homes-for-wildfire GUIDELINE 3.5

ATTIC AND CRAWL SPACE VENTS DRAW IN EMBERS Require specific building configurations for new construction in WUI zones to limit the Venturi effect.*

High air pressure High airLow pressure air pressure Low airWind pressure ﬂows In addition to implementing vent size limitations per WUI codes, Wind ﬂows we recommend building configuration restrictions and stricter fire ATTICS AND CRAWL SACES ROVIDE VENTING FOR FIRE AT resistant requirements in future code cycles. ATTICSVENTURI AND EFFECT CRAWL ROUGHNESS SACES ROVIDE FLOW VENTING FOR FIRE AT

As of April 2021 the California State Fire Marshall allows solid wood decking, plywood siding with ship-lap edges, and wood doors according to their WUI Building Materials Listings.

Consider ignition resistant and non-combustible exterior materials in all new construction. VENTURI EFFECT ROUGHNESS FLOW VE *A pressure imbalance that draws air into lower pressure zones such as a building’s attic or crawlspace. VENTURI EFFECT ROUGHNESS FLOW V BUILDINGS

FLASHOVER TIMES IN ROOM/CORNER TESTS FLASHOVERFLASHOVER TIMES TIMES IN IN ROOM/CORNER ROOM/CORNER TESTS TESTS Flashover Flux to Floor Flashover Flux to Floor Flames out of Door Carbon Emissions Flames out of Door Carbon Emissions

Time (seconds) 0s 100s 200s 300s 400s 550s 650s 750s 850s A Time (seconds) 0s 100s 200s 300s 400s 550s 650s 750s 850s A Gypsum No Flashover Many of the most No Flashover WallboardGypsum No Flashover Wallboard No FlashoverNo Flashover No FlashoverNo Flashover tested time to flashover. No Flashover commonly used tested time to flashover. FRT Douglas Fir FRTPlywood Douglas Materials were exposed to direct flame at 100 Fir Plywood kWMaterials for the 10were minutes, exposed and to then direct exposed flame atto 100300 building materials are kWkW for for the the following 10 minutes, 10 minutes. and then exposed to 300 FRT Plywood kW for the following 10 minutes. (Fornitek)FRT Plywood highly susceptible to (Fornitek) FRT PolyurethaneFRT FoamPolyurethane Foam quick flashover. FLASHOVER Flashover occurs at the moment a FLASHOVER combustibleFlashover occurs material at experiences the moment near a simultaneous ignition over the exposed FRT Southern combustible material experiences near Pine Plywood surface.simultaneous This process ignition causes over thethermal exposed FRT Southern Pine Plywood decompositionsurface. This processand the release causes of thermal flammabledecomposition gasses and emitted the release from the of material. This study considered a material flammable gasses emitted from the Douglas tomaterial. be at the Thisflashover study threshold considered once a material is registered 1 megawatt of energy. Fir Plywood to be at the flashover threshold once is Douglas While WUI codes dictate fire resistant materials on the exterior of registered 1 megawatt of energy. Fir Plywood buildings, most materials within buildings and even some allowed FLAMES This metric measures the time it takes for Southern fire spread to visibly exit the room and Pine Plywood OUTFLAMES OF This metric measures the time it takes for Southern on the exterior are known to easily ignite when exposed to embers. potentially pose a threat to adjacent rooms THE DOOR fire spread to visibly exit the room and Pine Plywood OUT OF in a structure. THE DOOR potentially pose a threat to adjacent rooms in a structure. Redwood Sprinklers within buildings, required but not enforced on most Lumber FLUX TO This metric measures the level of heat Redwood Lumber FLOOR energy spread to the adjacent floor surfaces buildings throughout the state, would only typically engage after FLUX TO proximateThis metric to the measures fire. In thisthe study,level of flux heat to FLOOR floorenergy time spread was triggered to the adjacent at the moment floor surfaces flux White Spruce fire has already began within a building. levelsproximate exceeded to the 20 fire. kW/m². In this study, flux to Lumber floor time was triggered at the moment flux White Spruce levels exceeded 20 kW/m². Lumber

In order to be proactive about building ignition, most fire CARBON Harmful carbon dioxide emissions are a Oak Veneer EMISSIONS byproduct of burning materials. In this Plywood CARBON Harmful carbon dioxide emissions are a protection consultants recommend exceeding code minimums. study, the time to trigger CO2 levels at a Oak Veneer EMISSIONS sustainedbyproduct rate of of burning 60 g/s materials.was registered. In this Plywood study, the time to trigger CO2 levels at a sustained rate of 60 g/s was registered.

USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Research Paper FPL-RP-663 GUIDELINE 3.6

Implement active fire suppression in WUI zones.

Hundreds of homes in California have installed exterior sprinklers for wildfire protection, intending to wet the exterior of buildings or vegetation as wildfires approach.

Additional active strategies should be researched and developed to prevent wildfires from damaging buildings, and could include:

↪ Deployment of large-scale fire blankets ↪ Installation of roof ponds ↪ Remote wildfire detection systems ↪ Exterior fire retardant sprinklers BUILDINGS

Continued urban sprawl creates greater fire risk in forested areas as electrical networks Bringing electricity from expand and human intervention is multiplied. 90% of California wildfires are caused by human activity, which is only exacerbated by the number of people moving into Wildland- central power plants to Urban Interface zones.

It’s worth noting that it is now code minimum for all new residential construction to be buildings is the number net zero in California. In addition, the California Energy Commission and the State of California Building Standards Commission voted to require all new homes in the state to one cause of forest fires install solar panels.

WILDFIRES CAUSED BY ELECTRICAL ISSUES ANNUAL RESIDENTIAL SOLAR V INSTALLATIONS NATIONWIDE WILDFIRES CAUSED BY ELECTRICAL ISSUES ANNUAL RESIDENTIAL SOLAR V INSTALLATIONS NATIONWIDE WILDFIRES CAUSED BY ELECTRICAL ISSUES ANNUAL RESIDENTIAL SOLAR PV INSTALLATIONS NATIONWIDE

F 3,000 F 3,000 E L 2015 Valley Fire E 2017 Tubbs Fire L 2,500 2017 Woolsey Fire 2015 Valley Fire 2017 Tubbs Fire 2,500 2017 Woolsey Fire 2007 Witch Fire 2015 Butte Fire

2017 Nuns Fire 2,000

2017 Atlas2007 Fire Witch Fire

2017 Thomas2015 ButteFire Fire

2018 Camp2017 Fire Nuns Fire 2,000

2017 Atlas Fire

2017 Thomas Fire

U 2018 Camp Fire

n U 1,500

n w

n 1,500 n

o w

o r 1,000 r

E r

n r 1,000

a r

E m u n

H a

m 500

u H

500

*wildﬁres that damaged 750+

structures through 2019

*wildﬁres that damaged 750+

Re structures through 2019 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 k

dle

Rek 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 indle https://www.seia.org/solar-industry-research-data GUIDELINE 3.7

Modify the delivery of power to buildings to reduce wildfires by up to 65%.

All buildings should receive power from local neighborhood or district sources or from means on their own property. Residences are already decentralizing their power supply. If the remainder of community energy demand can be accommodated by district power, then major electricity infrastructure can be eliminated.

Buildings in Wildland-Urban Interface zones should receive power from renewable sources on their own properties.

Buildings in cities should receive power from district sources as discussed in the previous chapter and as much as possible from means on their own properties. BUILDINGS Summary

ISSUES RECOMMENDATIONS

Even though Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) codes exist, wildfires 3.1: Strengthen visual communication tools for WUI codes. destroy thousands of homes each year. → The majority of California homes were built prior to WUI fire resilient 3.2: Design individual buildings and properties to accommodate fire building codes. → and evacuation. Homes destroyed by fires are generally rebuilt and should be rebuilt 3.3: Provide affordable, adaptable, high-quality fire resistant building to a new standard of fire resilience. → designs to facilitate a new regime of fire conscious construction. California is leading the nation with habitation in WUI areas, creating 3.4: Incentivize fire-resistant upgrades for High Hazard Zones. fire crises that are much more costly to contain. → Wildfire embers drawn into attics and crawl spaces have been 3.5: Require strict building geometry requirements for new determined to be a leading cause of building ignition. → construction in WUI zones to limit the Venturi effect. Many common building materials are highly flammable. → 3.6: Implement active fire suppression in WUI zones. Bringing electricity from central power plants to homes is the 3.7: Modify the delivery of power to buildings. number one cause of forest fires. → CHAPTER 4

Conclusions Fire apparatus Trees over 0 OFFSETRemove 200above-grade wide Create a micro grid to access roads 18’-0” tall to Ember-resistantpower networksdriveway for firethat serve smaller pockets of required for new be pruned up zone with gravel truck access construction to 6’-0” above surroundingare home prone to start fires, the city’s energy usage CONCLUSIONS Pack the city perimeter with ground and replace with to limit the sprawl of fire resistant buildings to nature trails. power networks. serve as a barrier between vulnerable wooded areas. There is no quick fix to mitigating

the effects of wildfires. Reducing 00 OFFSET the annual impact of wildfires on 1000 OFFSET 2000 OFFSET our communities and our planet will take concerted effort from Drought and 10 clearance 100 clearance We call upon all professionals in the planning, States,ﬁre tolerant counties, between shrubsand citiesbetween shrubs need to prioritize native planting and building and fencing numerous stakeholders. design, and construction industry to contribute their long term fire resilience by streamlining towards addressing wildfires with a response and incentivizing greater density in city centers appropriate to the magnitude of the problem. and new fire resilient construction, in tandem

Rather than rebuilding destroyed dwellings Similar to how designers across the country with private stakeholders such as insurance

R12 a er a ﬁre, densify the residential ﬁre sprinkler building typology in the and world have worked together towards companies. be installed in one- and ellings, and townhouse. city center. attaining universal accessibility and risen to the 0A terior coverings shall be ignition-resistant. challenges posed by global climate change, Federal, State, and Local Fire Protection

0A 0A we need to step forward to assist with this Authorities need to continue their commitment , Skylights and Doors to Roof gutters shall be designed to not tible /ignition-resistant. accumulate leaves. epidemic of wildfires. to reducing the detrimental effects of wildfires

09A to be non-combustible, 0A and double down on their commitment to forest stant, or SFM 12-7A-4A compliant. Vents in undersides of eaves shall be non-combustible and 12’-0” above grade minimum. Utility companies need to accept responsibility management and fire-safe preparedness.

0A22 for the disasters they have caused and assist Where needed, their funding and manpower Vent openings for attics and crawl spaces openings should be between 1/16” and ⅛” and non-combustible. in moving our communities towards a new should be increased with assistance from paradigm of decentralized power generation government agencies, taxpayers, and private and energy independence. investment. CONCLUSIONS Guidelines

WILDLANDS URBAN AREAS BUILDINGS

1.1 Promote inter-agency collaboration between federal, 2.1 Increase density in cities to reduce the number of 3.1 Strengthen visual communication tools for WUI codes. state, and local governments. people threatened by wildfires.

1.2 Update outdated power lines and equipment in 2.2 Implement no re-build zones in high fire risk areas to 3.2 Design individual buildings and properties to lower risk zones and add more monitoring systems reduce destroyed structures from wildfires. accommodate fire and evacuation. throughout California.

1.3 Decentralize power sources in high risk zones. 2.3 Implement city design requirements for fire staging, 3.3 Provide affordable, adaptable, high-quality fire-resistant breaks, and egress. building designs to facilitate a new regime of fire conscious construction.

1.4 Prioritize and increase prescribed burns in high risk 2.4 Require fire-resilient buildings at the city edge. 3.4 Incentivize fire-resistant upgrades for High Hazard areas. Zones.

1.5 Require mandatory fire resistant building and 2.5 Reform the electric grid infrastructure. 3.5 Require strict building geometry requirements for new residential landscape upgrades. construction in WUI zones to limit the Venturi effect.

1.6 Bury new power lines where feasible within highest 3.6 Implement active fire suppression in WUI zones. wildfire hazard zones.

3.7 Modify the delivery of power to buildings. REFERENCES Additional Wildfire Guidelines

Los Angeles County Department of Regional Planning https://planning.lacounty.gov/assets/upl/project/smmnap_final-plan.pdf Santa Monica Mountains North Area Plan

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) https://www.nfpa.org/-/media/Files/Public-Education/By-topic/Wildland/ Community Wildfire Safety Through Regulation WildfireBestPracticesGuide.ashx

United States Department of Agriculture and Forest Service https://www.fs.fed.us/openspace/fote/reports/GTR-299.pdf Understanding and preparing for Wildfire in the Wildland-Urban Interface

Urban Land Institute https://www.preventionweb.net/publications/view/74872 Wildfire Resilience Strategies for Real Estate

Greenbelt Alliance https://www.greenbelt.org/wp-content/uploads/edd/2021/06/The-Critical-Role-of- The Critical Role of Greenbelts in Wildfire Resilience Greenbelts-in-Wildfire-Resilience.pdf

Sonoma County Agricultural Preservation and Open Space District https://www.sonomaopenspace.org/wp-content/uploads/Living_in_a_Fire-Adapted_ Living in a Fire-Adapted Landscape: Priorities for Resiliency Landscape-Priorities_for-Resiliency_FINAL.pdf

City of Colorado Springs https://coloradosprings.gov/sites/default/files/2020_ignition_resistant_design_manual_ Ignition Resistant Construction Design Manual march_2020.pdf

SPUR https://www.spur.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/SPUR_Safety_First_Climate_Hazards_ Safety First: Improving Hazard Resilience in the Bay Area Report.pdf REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES ARTICLES ADDITIONAL WEBSITES

California Building Code https://www.nps.gov/articles/wildfire-causes-and- https://www.fire.ca.gov/incidents evaluation.htm California Public Resources Code https://www.usfa.fema.gov/wui/ https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/11/15/139070/ California Fire Code california-must-reinvent-its-practices-and-policies-for-a- https://www.nifc.gov/fi re-information/statistics/ deadly-new-fire-reality/ suppression-costs California Residential Code https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/09/17/1008473/ https://www.gov.ca.agov/2020/08/13/california-u-s-forest- International Wildland-Urban Interface Code wildfires-california-prescribed-burns-climate-change- service-establish-shared-long-term-strategy-to-manage- forests/ forests-and-rangelands/ National Interagency Fire Center https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/21/ https://www.fire.ca.gov/stats-events/ National Fire Protection Association wildfire-prescribed-burns-california-native-americans https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.TN.2135 National Aeronautics and Space Administration https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46183690 https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2013-0009.4 USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory https://www.denverpost.com/2019/04/11/ California-building-code-wildfires https://www.iii.org/fact-statistics/facts-statistics-wildfires Federal Emergency Management Agency https://www.KQED.org/news/11713393/ https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/facts-statistics/ US Census Bureau wildland-development-escalates-california-firecosts suppresion-costs National Park Service https://www.directrelief.org/2019/07/which-california- https://www.seia.org/solar-industry-research-data communities-are-most-vulnerable-to-wildfires/ California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection https://CAR.org https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/ The Nature Conservancy santa-ana-diablo-winds-propel-fire-season-california-risk https://www.SILVIS.Forest.Wisc.edu/data/WUI_change

Getty Images https://sf.uli.org/ https://www.macrotrends.net planning-for-a-fire-resilient-future-in-northern-california/ Noun Project https://statista.com/statistics/238506/public-residential- construction-put-in-place-in-the-united-states/