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Police Use of Force – a Contextual Study of 'Suicide by Cop'

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Police Use of Force – a Contextual Study of 'Suicide by Cop' Police Use of Force – A contextual study of ‘Suicide by Cop’ within the British Policing Paradigm. by Nicholas FRANCIS Canterbury Christ Church University Thesis submitted for the degree of MSc by Research. 2019. CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY. This thesis is a presentation of my original research work. This is to certify that I am responsible for the work submitted in this thesis, that the original work is my own except as specified in acknowledgments or in footnotes. Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with due reference and acknowledgement to the literature. Neither this thesis nor the original work contained therein has been submitted to this or any other institution for a degree. ……………………………………………. Nicholas FRANCIS Word Count = 32,976 Nicholas FRANCIS ii Acknowledgements I would like to make the following acknowledgements: Firstly, to my supervisor Professor Robin Bryant. He has guided me thorough this process with extreme patience, kind and critical feedback with insights I have found exceptionally valuable. I don’t know whether to thank him for this or not as it has given me some real head scratching moments; but for also opening up the world of statistical analysis, which I was not expecting and still have a lot to learn. To Professor Stephen Tong, thank you for your sage advice in my supervision meetings and since. Your feedback throughout has been really encouraging and supportive. To Dr Emma Williams, as always your energetic spirit is infectious and kind supportive encouragement most welcome. To Jenny Norman whose guidance and support, especially relating to qualitative research, survey methods and design, with your feedback on my draft was essential. Dr Sabrina Hulbert, for the exceptionally informative relaxed Statistical Analysis and SPSS sessions. These were essential for me to develop some understanding of statistics (again with more head scratching and occasional furrowed brow). To Dr Ross Hendy (New Zealand) for your time, emails and advice in the early stages of this research. To the Metropolitan Police Service; Ch. Supt Rob Atkin and Ch. Supt Andy Walker at the MPS SCO19 Specialist Firearms Command. For supporting this study and enabling access to MPS Use of Force data. To Paul Clarke and Stephen Greenfield, Learning & Development Unit. for the granting of a financial Bursary to support this research; to Greg McAvoy and Rachel Bullimore at the MPS Firearms Policy Unit for your help and advice on the collation of MPS Use of Force data; my previous and current line managers, thank you for your understanding, assistance and the granting of study leave.I hope the results will be of some practical use to protect the public and assist police responders. To all the Firearms Instructors, staff and participants at the Metropolitan Police Specialist Training Centre who assisted me conducting the survey. Thank you for the data you have provided and ultimately the results of this study are down to your kind assistance. To the staff at the College of Policing library, again your support and assistance throughout was excellent. The ability to obtain difficult to access academic literature or books as a remote student was invaluable. To rest of my MSc by Research cohort. Thank you for your wit, camaraderie and support (especially via WhatsApp), which kept me going when it was tough. To my son, George, for assisting me to input all the survey data allowing SPSS to analyse it and then for helping me understand what SPSS was actually saying! Thankyou GP, it was a lot of work but it really did help me enormously. Lastly, and by no means least, I really must thank my wife Dena. As deadlines loom, not only has she watched as I locked myself away, she also endured the task of then having to check my submissions. I am eternally grateful for your patience, understanding and support throughout (I will get on with the decorating now). Nicholas FRANCIS ii Abstract The phenomenon of ‘Suicide by Cop’ (SbC) may be described as a ‘high impact low probability’ type of event occurring where a vulnerable individual, with ‘lethality of means’, initiates self-destructive violent conduct. Necessary to sustain public confidence and police legitimacy, research to understand the police response to SbC is deficient in England & Wales (E&W). By understanding the theories, challenges and operational reality of mitigating a vulnerable individual’s SbC ideation, this research seeks to develop a fuller comprehension of the use of force (UoF) paradigm within an E&W policing context. Using a mixed method approach, a survey questionnaire (n=315) and published UoF Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) dataset (n=132,410) was statistically analysed. Comparing MPS TASER and authorised firearms officer’s UoF, this research analyses the response, effectiveness and limitations of policing high-risk persons. The findings indicate the sample response to a ‘high-risk’ person is statistically similar, implying a minimal difference in decision making or application of force. The influence of training appears a factor in mitigating threat or risk and the proficiency of any response. This research indicates that firearms officers enhanced training conditions a ‘primed’ response, reducing cognitive burden and enabling the use of other de-escalation tactics. This thesis argues the occurrence of SbC or similar averted ‘near miss’ type incidents is not measured and is reliant on post-incident investigations to improve operational practise. This research concludes implying the mode of arming and use of force paradigm within an E&W context may innately restrain police use of fatal force. Nicholas FRANCIS iii List of Contents Page Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv Contents v List of Charts, Figures and Tables viii List of Appendices. x 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Extant Research 3 1.2 Research thesis 4 2. Literature Review 6 2.1 Suicide by Cop –Theories, taxonomy and challenges 6 2.1.1 Suicide hypothesis and its restrictions 7 2.1.2 Conceptualising Victim Precipitated Suicide 8 2.1.3 Variances within SbC research 10 2.1.4 SbC case studies, limitations and burden of proof 10 2.1.5 The influence of data in defining SbC 13 2.2 Intent, Suicide Risk Factors and quantifying context 16 2.2.1 Quantifying suicidal intent 17 2.2.2 ‘Hidden Suicides’ - the influence of concealed intent 20 2.2.3 ‘Outrageous Act’- planning and expressing intent 20 2.2.4 The conflicting influence of time 21 2.2.5 Suicidal Risk Factors 22 2.2.6 Risk factors influencing SbC ideation 24 2.3 Factors which affect response 27 2.3.1 The British policing framework and paradox 27 2.3.2 The British policing ‘restraint paradigm’ 28 2.3.3 Cognitive decision-making 29 2.3.4 Decision Making - Barriers and Biases 31 2.3.5 The dichotomy of restraining instinctive reaction 32 2.3.6 Perception and quantifying dangerousness 33 2.3.7 Influencing a tactical use of ‘restraint’ 34 2.4 Summary 37 3. Methodology 39 3.1 Problem Statement 39 3.1.1 Purpose of the study 39 3.2 Research Questions 40 3.3 Conceptual Framework 42 3.4 A Mixed Methods approach 44 Nicholas FRANCIS iv Page 3.5 Data 47 3.5.1 Data Quality 50 3.6 Data Analysis 50 3.6.1 Parametric and non-parametric testing. 50 3.6.2 Chi-Square test ( ) and Fishers Exact test. 51 3.6.3 Mann-Whitney U test. 52 3.6.4 Correlation. 52 3.6.5 Significance, Effect size and shared variance 53 3.6.6 Grouped frequency analysis 53 3.6.7 Type I and Type II errors 54 3.6.8 Qualitative response analysis 55 3.7 Survey Questionnaire study 57 3.7.1 Sampling Methods 61 3.8 Survey design and construction 61 3.8.1 Likert scale. 61 3.8.2 Survey draft. 62 3.8.3 Question structure and rationale 64 3.9 Validity and Reliability 65 3.10 Statistical Analysis Methodology 65 3.10 Ethical concerns 67 3.10.1 Organisational and Individual Informed consent 67 3.10.2 Role Conflict 68 3.10.3 Data Protection and Storage 69 3.10.4 Anonymity and Confidentiality 69 3.11 Limitations and Assumptions 70 3.11.1 Researcher Bias 70 3.11.2 Limitations and Assumptions within this Research 71 4. Findings and Analysis 73 4.1 Demographic Analysis 73 4.1.1 Gender, Rank and Ethnicity 74 4.1.2 Role, Age and length of service in role or police 74 4.1.3 Demographic summary 76 4.2 Survey Questionnaire Analysis 76 4.2.1. Satisfaction 77 4.2.2. Motivational indicators 78 4.2.3 Behavioural reaction to stimulus 79 4.2.4 Developing proficiency to resolve conflict 81 4.2.5 Tactical Responses and Effectiveness 82 4.2.6 Approaches to resolving conflict 90 4.2.7 The effect of labelling 92 4.2.8 Training and Equipment 95 4.3 MPS Use of Force Dataset Analysis 100 4.3.1 Analysis of MPSUoF Variables 100 4.3.2 Tactical Effectiveness 108 4.3.3 Selection of tactical options 112 5. Discussion 114 5.1 Analysis of Satisfaction or Motivation factors 113 5.2 Behavioural typology and reaction to stimulus 116 5.3 Influencing and developing proficiency in conflict resolution 118 Nicholas FRANCIS v 5.4 The proficiency of tactical responses 119 5.4.1 Effective tactical responses 120 5.4.2 Non-effective tactical responses 122 5.4.3 Summary 124 5.5 Approaches to resolving conflict 124 5.6 The effect of labelling 127 5.7 Equipment and training 127 5.7.1 Training 128 5.7.2 Equipment 128 5.7.3 Summary 128 5.8 Inferences 130 6.
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