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Tintinalli – Approach to Nontraumatic Shock

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Tintinalli – Approach to Nontraumatic Shock Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 9e Chapter 12: Approach to Nontraumatic Shock Bret A. Nicks; John P. Gaillard FIGURE 12-1. EPIDEMIOLOGY Using a systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg as criteria, 0.4% to 1.3% of patients presenting to EDs are in shock.1 Mortality depends on the inciting event. Septic shock has an estimated hospital mortality of 26%.2 Cardiogenic shock has an estimated hospital mortality of 39% to 48%.3,4 Neurogenic shock occurs in <20% of spinal cord injuries (cervical, 19.3%; thoracic, 7%; lumbar, 3%).5 The definition of and treatment approach to shock continue to evolve, but the initial approach to a patient in shock follows similar principles, regardless of the inciting factors or cause. Patients present to the ED in varying stages of critical illness and shock. These stages are confounded by age, comorbidities, and delays in presentation. A focus on early recognition, rapid diagnosis, and empiric resuscitation is essential. Therapy and patient stabilization may need to occur simultaneously with evaluation. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Shock is a state of circulatory insuïiciency that creates an imbalance between tissue oxygen supply (delivery) and demand (consumption), resulting in end-organ dysfunction. Reduction in eïective perfusion may be due to a local or global delivery deficiency or utilization deficiency with suboptimal substrate at the cellular or subcellular level.6-8 The mechanisms that can result in shock are frequently divided into four categories: (1) hypovolemic, (2) distributive, (3) cardiogenic, and (4) obstructive. CATEGORIES OF SHOCK The four categories of shock can be described in terms of their respective physiologic changes and common causes, recognizing that a single etiology may manifest the clinical findings of more than one shock type (Table 12-1).9,10 Hypovolemic shock occurs when decreased intravascular fluid or decreased blood volume causes decreased preload, stroke volume, and cardiac output (CO). Severe blood loss (hemorrhage) can cause decreased myocardial oxygenation, which decreases contractility and CO. This action may lead to an autonomic increase in the systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Hypovolemic shock can also occur due to volume loss from other etiologies. In distributive shock, there is relative intravascular volume depletion due to marked systemic vasodilatation. This is most commonly seen in septic shock.6 Compensatory responses to decreased SVR may include increased CO (increased contractility and heart rate) and tachycardia. The concurrent decreased SVR results in a decreased preload and may hinder CO overall. In sepsis, up to 40% of patients may have a transient cardiomyopathy characterized by decreased contractility and increased mortality.6 Anaphylaxis, adrenal insuïiciency, and neurogenic shock are additional causes of distributive shock. In cardiogenic shock, the leñ ventricle fails to deliver oxygenated blood to peripheral tissues due to variances in contractility, as well as preload, añerload, and right ventricular function.8 Myocardial infarction is the most common cause of cardiogenic shock. Dysrhythmias are another common cause because they can lead to a decreased CO. Bradyarrhythmias result in low CO, and tachyarrhythmias can result in decreased preload and stroke volume. Patients with cardiogenic shock may soon develop clinically evident infection (up to 46%) and/or demonstrate an inflammatory response similar to but less pronounced than with septic shock.9 Obstructive shock is uncommon (1%) and is due to a decrease in venous return or cardiac compliance due to an increased Loading [Contrib]/a11y/accessibility-menu.js leñ ventricular outflow obstruction or marked preload decrease. Cardiac tamponade, pulmonary embolism, and tension pneumothorax are causes of obstructive shock. TABLE 12-1 Categories of Shock Type Percentage* Hemodynamic Changes Etiologies† Distributive 33%–50% Decreased preload, decreased SVR, mixed CO Sepsis, neurogenic shock, anaphylaxis Hypovolemic 31%–36% Decreased preload, increased SVR, decreased CO Hemorrhage, capillary leak, GI losses, burns Cardiogenic 14%–29% Increased preload, increased añerload, increased SVR, MI, dysrhythmias, heart failure, valvular decreased CO disease Obstructive 1% Decreased preload, increased SVR, decreased CO PE, pericardial tamponade, tension PTX *Percentage of patients presenting to the ED; percentages will vary depending on hospital type and population. †Etiologies may demonstrate findings of more than one type of shock. Abbreviations: CO = cardiac output; MI = myocardial infarction; PE = pulmonary embolism; PTX = pneumothorax; SVR = systemic vascular resistance. FACTORS AFFECTING CARDIAC OUTPUT CO is determined by heart rate and stroke volume. Stroke volume is dependent on preload, añerload, and contractility. The mean arterial pressure is dependent on CO and the SVR. This is important because there is a mean arterial pressure threshold below which oxygen delivery is decreased. SVR directly impacts mean arterial pressure, but also impacts añerload and thus CO. Patients in shock may initially have normal blood pressures (cryptic shock), yet have other objective signs of shock (see later section “Clinical Features”). Tissue oxygenation is predicated on CO being suïicient enough to deliver oxygenated hemoglobin to the tissues. CO is dependent on the interplay of cardiac inotropy (speed and shortening capacity of myocardium), chronotropy (heart contraction rate), and lusitropy (ability of heart muscle to relax and heart chambers to fill). Determinants of inotropy include autonomic input from sympathetic activation, parasympathetic inhibition, circulating catecholamines, and short-lived responses to an increase in añerload (Anrep eïect) or heart rate (Bowditch eïect). Increases in the inotropic state help to maintain stroke volume at high heart rates.11 During shock states, higher levels of epinephrine will be produced and reinforce adrenergic tone. Epinephrine levels are significantly elevated during induced hemorrhagic shock, but these levels subsequently reduce to almost normal levels añer adequate blood pressure is restored.12 An acidotic milieu, which is common in shock, further compromises ventricular contractile force and blood pressure.13 Chronotropy and lusitropy are both influenced by sympathetic input. Norepinephrine interacts with cardiac β1-receptors, resulting in increased cyclic adenosine monophosphate. This leads to a process of intracellular signaling with an increased chronotropy and sequestration of calcium, leading to myocardial relaxation.11 LACTIC ACID When compensatory mechanisms fail to correct the imbalance between tissue supply and demand, anaerobic metabolism occurs and results in the formation of lactic acid. Lactic acid is rapidly buïered, resulting in the formation of measured serum lactate. NoLromadainl gv [eCnoonturisb ]l/aac1t1ay/taec clesvseiblsil iaty-rem <en2u.0.j smmol/L. Most cases of lactic acidosis are a result of inadequate oxygen delivery, but lactic acidosis occasionally can develop from an excessively high oxygen demand (e.g., status epilepticus). In other cases, lactic acidosis occurs because of impaired tissue oxygen utilization (e.g., septic shock or the postresuscitation phase of cardiac arrest). Elevated lactate is a marker of impaired oxygen delivery or utilization and correlates with short-term prognosis of critically ill patients in the ED.12 Serial lactate assessments may be indicated because lactate clearance is associated with improved outcomes in septic shock and may assist with resuscitation.14 COMPENSATORY MECHANISMS AND THEIR FAILURE Shock provokes a myriad of autonomic responses to maintain perfusion pressure to vital organs. Stimulation of the carotid baroreceptor stretch reflex activates the sympathetic nervous system, triggering (1) arteriolar vasoconstriction, resulting in redistribution of blood flow from the skin, skeletal muscle, kidneys, and splanchnic viscera; (2) an increase in heart rate and contractility that increases CO; (3) constriction of venous capacitance vessels, which augments venous return; (4) release of the vasoactive hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and cortisol to increase arteriolar and venous tone; and (5) release of antidiuretic hormone and activation of the renin-angiotensin axis to enhance water and sodium conservation to maintain intravascular volume.13 These compensatory mechanisms attempt to maintain oxygen delivery to the most critical organs (heart and brain), but blood flow to other organs, such as the kidneys and GI tract, may be compromised. The cellular response to decreased oxygen delivery (adenosine triphosphate depletion) leads to ion-pump dysfunction, influx of sodium, eïlux of potassium, and reduction in membrane resting potential. As shock progresses, the loss of cellular integrity and the breakdown in cellular homeostasis result in cellular death. These pathologic events give rise to a cascade of metabolic features including hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, azotemia, hyper- or hypoglycemia, and lactic acidosis. Inflammation plays an important role in several diïerent types of shock, especially in septic shock, but also in shock associated with anaphylaxis, burns, trauma, and cardiogenic causes.15 Previously, the systemic inflammatory response syndrome was part of the definition of sepsis, but that changed with a revised definition of sepsis, Sepsis-3, in 2016.16 See Chapter 151, “Sepsis,” for detailed discussion. As global tissue hypoxia progresses, shock ensues,
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