The Prewar Legacy and Postwar Epiphany of International Christian University

Hallam C. Shorrock, Jr.

When International Christian University ³elds of graduate study, ICU is dwarfed by (ICU) opened its doors as a liberal arts col- other Christian universities. There are now lege in April 1953, it became the newest of other Christian universities that have the Japan’s 226 universities, the only one at that word kirisutokyõ as a part of their of³cial time formed from the beginning as a four-year titles, and many other universities have university. From its inception ICU was “dif- added the word, kokusai (international) to ferent” from either prewar Christian uni- their of³cial nomenclature. versities or other Christian colleges that The aim of this article is to show the con- became universities as a result of the 1947 tinuity of the Japanese-American connec- educational reforms. It was different for a tion both in the legacy and in the epiphany number of reasons. Unlike the others, ICU did of ICU. Following a pro³le of the universi- not exist as an institution in any form before ty, the story will turn back to the prewar 1949, though it was a ³fty year-old dream. legacy of the “union Christian university Also, it was formed under ecumenical concept,” cite the factors that brought about rather than denominational sponsorship; a the special postwar moment in which ICU year before the university was established in was born, and outline ICU’s development. 1949, an interdenominational American The author will conclude with some per- foundation was organized to aid in its sonal thoughts on the future of ICU. founding and development. Moreover, the university’s distinctive Christian character ICU: A PROFILE was evidenced by its 100 percent Christian full-time faculty and the fact that the name, ICU is an ecumenically sponsored universi- kirisutokyõ (Christian) became an of³cial ty located on a 156-acre wooded campus in part of its title, which was not the case of any Mitaka, Tokyo. It also owns and operates a other university at the time. study facility adjacent to the Cambridge Today ICU is recognized as one of the University campus. The thirty-member leading private universities in Japan. In a board of trustees is advised by a somewhat 1991 survey of senior students in 212 larger board of councilors composed of edu- national and private universities, ICU cational, cultural and business leaders from ranked ³rst in terms of student satisfaction.1 within and outside Christian circles. It must be admitted, however, that in many The university consists of a liberal arts col- respects ICU has not yet achieved the status lege and a graduate school with a combined envisioned by its founding visionaries. In student body of 2,850: 2,600 in the college student and faculty size, the number and and 250 in the graduate school; it has a full- scope of academic courses offered at both the time faculty and academic staff of about undergraduate and graduate levels and the 170. ICU’s College of Liberal Arts opened in

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April 1953. Within the college are divisions THE PREWAR LEGACY of education, humanities, languages, natur- In 1875 Niishima Shimeta, more common- al sciences, social sciences and internation- ly known abroad as Joseph Hardy Niishima al studies. The college is chartered by the (also transliterated as Niijima), cofounded Ministry of Education to train high school Doshisha University with American teachers of social studies, science, mathe- Congregational missionary Jerome D. matics, English and religion. Davis.2 Niishima’s dream was to establish a The Graduate School, accredited in “true liberal arts college” that would produce 1957, has four divisions: education, public men “who shall be regarded as the con- administration, comparative culture and science of the nation.” Later he proposed natural sciences. All programs except the the establishment of a three-faculty com- last offer doctoral degrees. Closely allied prehensive university. Nearly sixty years with the graduate school are ³ve research later, Yuasa Hachiro, twice the successor of units: the Integrated Learning Center, the Niishima as president of Doshisha, brought Center for the History of Science, the Niishima’s dreams with him, when in 1949 Research Center for Japanese Language he became ICU’s founding president.3 Education, and the Sacred Music Center. The interest by Christian leaders abroad, ICU maintains two lifelong education pro- especially in the United States, provided grams, one in Japanese literature and the strong psychological and spiritual support for other in environmental studies. Its library proponents of a Christian university in contains nearly 425,000 books and approx- Japan. For example, the proposal by Re- imately 5,400 periodicals. formed missionary Albertus Pieters at the ICU High School, established in 1978, is 1900 General Conference of Protestant located within the campus but adminis- Missionaries in Tokyo that the “mission tered separately from the university under the boards should cooperate in establishing an jurisdiction of the university’s board of ‘undenominational’ but ‘thoroughly Christ- trustees. The school enrolls about 720 stu- ian’ college…”4 was reµected in the delib- dents, most of whom are children of erations of the 1910 World Missionary Japanese who are working or have worked Conference in Edinburgh. abroad. These “returnee” children have Nearly three years later the Edinburgh come back to Japan to complete their high Continuation Committee convened the school education and to prepare for univer- April 9–11, 1913, “Japan National Con- sity study either in Japan or abroad. ference” in Tokyo. Forty-one Japanese At the center of the campus is the ICU Christian leaders and ³fty-four American, Church, an international and ecumenical Canadian and British missionaries recog- congregation that is independent from the nized university. The ICU Church and its kinder- garten serve students, faculty and staff the establishment of a central Christian members and their families, as well as the university….distinctively Christian in local community. Approximately 10,500 character…of ³rst rank…standing on a graduates are located throughout Japan and par with the imperial universities…as the the world. supreme need of Christian education in Japan.”5 The 1992 ICU operating budget, including both the university and the high school, Conference chairman John R. Mott met was the equivalent of approximately ³fty-six again in 1929 with Japanese Christian edu- million American dollars. The university’s cators, leading to the formation of a endowment fund is about U.S.$488 million. “Commission on Christian Education in

80 SHORROCK: International Christian University

Japan” that met in Japan in 1931.6 More Committee for an International Christian than half of the members were ultimately University. involved in the founding of ICU or of its supporting foundation in the United Support of American Christians States.7 The second factor in the special moment was the commitment of many Americans, par- THE SPECIAL MOMENT OF ICU’S BIRTH8 ticularly Christians, to help heal the The Great Depression and escalating mili- wounds of war and to assist in the rebuild- taristic nationalism in Japan from the early ing of Japan. 1930s put a hold on plans for the new union The unprecedented interdenomination- Christian university until the end of World al support for what soon became known in War II in 1945. This special “moment” of sev- the United States as the “Japan Christian eral years’ duration after World War II was University Project,” was sparked by a sermon brought about by a conµuence of the ³fty delivered in January 1946 by the Rev. John year-old dreams of Japanese and missionary A. MacLean, a Presbyterian minister in educators and a set of four interrelated fac- Richmond, Virginia. In his sermon, which tors. was entitled, “Love Thy Neighbor,” Rev. MacLean expressed sorrow over the suffer- Japanese Christian Leadership ing that had been caused by the dropping of The ³rst factor was the vision, faith and per- the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Naga- severance of key Japanese Christian leaders. saki, and called upon American Christians Less than a month after the Paci³c War to help rebuild Japan. ended in mid-August 1945, a group of ³ve The combination of the public response Japanese Christian educators and a leading to the press reports concerning the Mac- layman met in Tokyo to discuss the future Lean sermon, and the priority that Christian of the Christian movement, and particular- leadership in Japan were reported to place ly of Christian education, in their devastat- on the establishment of the long hoped-for ed nation. Christian university, prompted North High on the group’s agenda was the rais- American church and mission leaders to ing of the Tokyo Women’s Christian College adopt the “Christian University Project” as (TWCC) to university grade. Their agenda the postwar reconciliation project of was expanded, however, when in October American and Canadian churches. This led 1945 two of the members met with a four-per- to the formation in November 1948 of the son deputation from the then Federal Japan International Christian University Council of Churches of Christ and the Foundation, Incorporated (hereafter to be Foreign Missions Conference of North referred to as the Foundation) by twelve America (now amalgamated to form the mission boards and the Federal Council of National Council of Churches of Christ in the Churches, which represented more than U.S.A.).9 When the deputation returned to the thirty denominations. The Foundation’s United States, the hope for the establish- organization and work represented the ment of a Christian university received spe- largest interdenominational undertaking in cial emphasis in their report. As a result of the annals of North American Protestantism subsequent discussions on both sides of the for the establishment and support of a sin- Paci³c, in June 1946 the existing committee gle educational institution anywhere in the was reorganized as the “Organizing world.

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A key link between the Japanese and Church and organ. The Men’s Committee American planners was A. K. Reischauer, the was particularly interested in supporting father of the prominent Harvard Japan- the health and physical education building ologist and former ambassador to Japan, the and enlisted well-known sports in fundrais- late Edwin O. Reischauer. As a young ing efforts for the project. Presbyterian missionary teacher at Meiji Gakuin, the elder Reischauer had taken an The American Occupation active part in the dual movement for the promotion of a Christian university and of the The third factor in the moment that led to the TWCC. birth of ICU was that the purposes and Many leading American Christians design of ICU were compatible with the assumed major leadership roles in the Occupation’s education reforms and with Foundation. Preeminent among them was General MacArthur’s public endorsements of its founding president Ralph E. Diffen- Christianity. Together with the demilita- dorfer, secretary of the Methodist Board of rization of Japan, MacArthur’s two major Missions, who had been the ³rst chairman objectives were the democratization and the of the Associated Boards for Christian. rehabilitation of the country. The corner- Kenneth Scott Latourette, the eminent stone for fostering a democratic and peace- Professor of Missions and Oriental History ful Japan was to help Japan “develop a new at Yale University, succeeded Diffendorfer as education appropriate to a liberal democra- president when Diffendorfer assumed full- tic society.”10 time administrative responsibilities as In personal interviews, speeches, press ICU’s executive vice-president. releases and in correspondence, General Besides creating and nurturing close MacArthur was a promoter of Christianity. spiritual ties between the Japanese and He believed that without it, “democracy can American Christian leaders instrumental to never succeed” and that “Japan would be ICU’s birth and development of, the ³lled with Communism.”11 When he Foundation provided leadership in educa- accepted the position as honorary chairman tional planning and ³nancial support. of the Foundation’s nationwide ICU fund- Particularly prominent in the design and raising campaign, MacArthur remarked, “it establishment of the structure and curricu- is one of the most important things the la of both the college and graduate school, as United States and Canada can do to create well as in the recruitment and support of fac- Christian leadership…to have inµuence not ulty members from abroad, was Maurice E. only in Japan but on the whole Orient as Troyer. The Syracuse University professor of time goes on.”12 education had become ICU’s ³rst vice-pres- The comprehensive plan for develop- ident for curriculum and instruction at its ment of the new Japanese educational sys- founding in June 1949. tem was based primarily on the report of Meeting the Foundation’s $10 million the United States Educational Mission ³nancial commitment to the university was (USEM), which visited Japan in March 1946 a daunting task. The Women’s Planning to help plan for educational reform. Joining Committee of the Foundation raised more the USEM members in Tokyo was a group of than a million dollars through its emphasis outstanding Japanese educators, including on “special projects,” which included faculty two University of Tokyo presidents as well residences, student dormitories, the gradu- as professors of education, leaders in wom- ate school, library support, health and en’s education and of³cials of the Ministry physical education facilities and the ICU of Education.

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The new Constitution, promulgated on to promote the development of private November 3, 1946, was adopted by the schools, the “Private School Law” guaranteed Japanese government “in the form of an their autonomy and academic freedom and imperial amendment to the 1889 Meiji eliminated the preferential treatment of Constitution”13 and took effect on May 3, government-sponsored institutions. 1947, the anniversary of the Emperor The 1946 USEM Report and the two new Meiji’s birthday. In addition to such basic ide- major educational laws provided fertile ological changes as transferring the sover- new soil for the rooting of the philosophy, eignty of the emperor to the people (Chapter purposes and plans of ICU, particularly I, Article 1), and forever renouncing war concerning the functions of education in and the threat of force as a means of settling the democratization of Japan. Vice-presi- international disputes (Chapter II, Article dent Troyer wrote in 1950, “The inclusive 9), the new constitution laid the legal foun- purpose of the New [sic] International dations for the educational reforms, i.e., Christian University will be to educate guaranteeing the equality of the sexes and Japanese students who may serve their nondiscrimination (Chapter III, Article 14), countrymen as leaders in the transition the freedom of thought and religion from authoritarianism to democratic proce- (Chapter III, Articles 19 and 20) and the dures.”15 right of an equal education for all people Many key members of the Occupation (Chapter III, Article 26). saw ICU as epitomizing the educational The postwar Japanese educational sys- reforms that were so important for the “new tem is based on the “Fundamental Law of Japan.” The fact that the former Mitaka Education” and “School Education Law,” farmland that had been taken over by the that became effective on April 1, 1947. The Nakajima Aeronautical Research Center for former clari³ed the aims of education and the wartime use was made available for pur- latter codi³ed the educational reforms. The chase as the ICU campus site, was due in starting points for these two laws were the large part to the recommendations by the recommendations of the USEM and the Occupation heads of the Religions, Cultural principles of the new constitution. Affairs, Education, and Natural Resources In accordance with these laws the prewar sections to the appropriate of³cials of the gov- 6–5–3–3 educational sequence was ernment. replaced by the American style 6–3–3–4 system. Compulsory education was extend- Support From Non-Christian Japanese ed from the sixth through the ninth grade and made co-educational. All four-year institu- The fourth component of the special tions above the three years of high school moment was the support of ICU and its were placed in the category of daigaku (uni- future mission by Japanese leaders who versity). An important aspect of the new were not Christian. From as early as 1946, educational system was the emphasis Japanese leaders from outside the Christian placed on general education. community, beginning with the emperor The new educational laws providing for and members of the imperial family, indi- graduate schools (daigakuin), were also on cated their support for the new university. the American pattern. The ³rst four gradu- Upon receiving the Foundation representa- ate schools were established in March 1950 tive, T. T. Brumbaugh, in the fall of 1946, the at private universities. By April 1953 grad- emperor expressed his appreciation for the uate schools had been set up at national and new university project and later joined with local public universities.14 Enacted in 1949 the imperial family in contributing 100

83 thousand yen (then equivalent to about U.S. Christian character of the university was $2,000).16 deemed to be important as a basis for The person primarily responsible for democracy and the guarding of religious raising the funds necessary to purchase the liberty and academic freedom, values that Nakajima Aeronautical Research Company’s had been lost during the nationalistic prewar land in Mitaka for the projected ICU was years. Ichimada Hisato, governor of the Central The Japanese planners established the Bank of Japan and one of the major founda- ICU Research Institute in January 1948 as the tion-builders of Japan’s miraculous eco- forerunner of the new graduate-level uni- nomic recovery.17 Like MacArthur, Ichi- versity. Yamamoto, appointed as the mada believed that the new leaders of Japan Institute’s director, gathered around him a could not properly understand democracy number of Christian scholars, some of without some knowledge of Christianity. whom were to become founding members of He said, “I am not a Christian. However I the ICU faculty.22 have come to the conclusion that nothing but Three primary and interrelated factors a Christian philosophy underlying Japan’s combined to form ICU’s basic identity as a democracy will ever pull us through.”18 medium-sized liberal arts college with a rel- Ichimada saw the university as a “center of atively small graduate school component, spiritual light and energy for the new completely independent and separate from Japan…that would be largely inµuential in the existing Christian colleges and univer- helping to reestablish Japan in the family of sities in Japan. First, the existing Christian nations.”19 colleges and universities saw new futures for The total amount contributed by the peo- themselves in light of the postwar educa- ple of war-devastated Japan during the tional reforms and the expanding demands 1948–1951 campaign to help establish ICU for higher education. The May 1949 visits by was 160 million yen, which was then Diffendorfer and Troyer to ten different equivalent to approximately $600 thou- Christian colleges and universities in three sand—an amazing feat for a defeated nation major areas of Japan con³rmed that “all with a shattered economy. would have been glad for assistance from the new undertaking, but none desired it THE ACTUAL EPIPHANY: FROM DREAMS enough to modify its own plans radically, TO REALITY much less to imperil its freedom and autonomy.”23 The Japanese planning groups originally The second factor was the Ministry of expected that the new university would be Education’s requirement that an institution a graduate-level “comprehensive university.” applying for graduate school accreditation Yamamoto, chairman of the ICU organizing must ³rst successfully prove itself as a four- committee, envisioned “an international year undergraduate institution. As a last center with buildings of the various world attempt to salvage the long hoped for grad- organizations and agencies clustered about uate status of the new university, the the new university as its nucleus.”20 The founders proposed to the Ministry of academic mission of the institution would be Education that the historic Christian col- undergirded by its twin characteristics: leges be considered as its undergraduate “international” and “Christian.” To become components. The Ministry, however, deter- academically superior, ICU would seek its mined that such a plan was not feasible faculty members internationally, making because the Christian colleges did not offer the practice of “internationalism” the chief such preparatory courses as natural science means of achieving standards equivalent to at the quality level required for the pro- the former imperial universities.21 The posed graduate school.24

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Third, the Foundation faced serious ICU, the management of the ICU fundraising problems in meeting its $10 million com- drive was turned over to a professional mitment to ICU. Already complicated by agency. But the campaign continued to the American people’s short memories of sputter. The outbreak of the Korean War in Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the fear about 1950 and President Truman’s removal of the Communist takeover in China, fundrais- General MacArthur (the ³nancial cam- ing efforts were further exacerbated by paign’s honorary chairman) in 1951 were obligations of mission boards and churches additional negative factors in the fund to meet the large-scale postwar relief and drive. reconstruction needs of their historically The 1948–51 campaign in the United related churches and institutions in Japan States resulted in the redirection of the and elsewhere. fundraising efforts back to the North ICU was of³cially founded on June American mission boards and churches. 13–16, 1949. Yuasa Hachiro was unani- This brought about a deepening of the part- mously selected to be ICU’s founding pres- nership between the Foundation and ICU ident. His primary task was “to reconcile as ICU of³cers and Governor Ichimada trav- ideals and realities.”25 Most disappointing to eled across North America to speak about the many of ICU’s Japanese founders was the university and its needs. According to insistence, mainly on the American side, Foundation records, “In the 1950s the that the ICU Research Institute be dismantled. Foundation provided sixty percent of the Although related to legal complexities, the university’s operating expenses and ninety action was primarily based on the fact that percent of all the resources for special pro- the Research Institute had been stressing postgraduate studies that had to be put on jects. Forty-four percent of the faculty were hold. from abroad and their salaries were completely paid by and through the Founda- 27 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF ICU: THE tion.” Among them was Emil Brunner, the FIRST TWENTY YEARS eminent Swiss theologian, who was appointed as the ³rst Professor of Christianity There were two major phases during this and Ethics. Though he served for only two early period of ICU’s history. The ³rst was years (1952–54), his inµuence on ICU and on from ICU’s birth in 1949 and development the whole Christian movement in Japan through 1960 under the “³rst generation” was profound. of founders. The second phase was from On April 29, 1952, which was Emperor 1961 through 1969 when the “second gen- Shõwa’s birthday and the ³rst day of eration” of leaders assumed responsibility. Japan’s independence, the ICU campus was formally dedicated with Diffendorfer’s 26 1949–1960 widow and Rev. MacLean present. The uni- The ³rst generation of ICU founders and versity’s academic program was launched leaders on both sides of the Paci³c faced with the start of the ICU Language Institute tasks that seemed insurmountable at the on May 1 of that year, followed by the open- time: for the Foundation to meet its ³nancial ing of the college on April 29, 1953. ICU’s ³rst commitments and for ICU to prepare the class of 198 students went out into the campus for the opening of the university at world from an unknown university without the earliest possible date. Soon after any of the usual networks to employment Diffendorfer and Troyer returned to the opportunities for its graduates; their perfor- United States following the founding of mance helped establish ICU’s reputation.

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The key person in the 1957 establish- limited period of ten years, that is, until ment of ICU’s ³rst graduate school, the 1974. The purpose of the plan was to hold Graduate School of Education, was Hidaka and protect the land until a decision could Daishiro. A former vice-minister of educa- be made as to its future use; to gain the tion, the GSE dean was primarily responsi- interest and future ³nancial support of ble for the later establishment of the ICU prominent golf-playing persons in business, High School. the professions and politics; and to generate During these years, perhaps the most immediate income to help meet the univer- sensitive campus issue was the gap between sity’s operational expenses. The ICU Golf the salaries and living standards of the Course opened in 1964. The income it gen- Japanese and faculty members from abroad. erated was important because of the gradual The resolution of this problem came with reduction of income from the Foundation, Japan’s economic boom beginning in the and as in the case of the other private uni- mid-1960s. versities, educational costs were increas- ingly outpacing the income from students. 1961–196928 In November 1963 the administration outlined academic priorities for ICU’s Developments under the second generation “Second Decade” in terms of its Christian and of leaders included the projection of long- international commitments. In addition to the range academic and ³nancial plans, deal- development of the GSPA, these focused on ing with student unrest, and the 1963 char- the study of the impact of Christianity on cul- tering of the Graduate School of Public ture, including the place of Christian theo- Administration (GSPA), the ³rst of its kind logical studies within other academic disci- in Japan. plines.29 ICU’s international reciprocal- In the fall of 1961, President Yuasa exchange program of both students and fac- retired. Ukai Nobushige, a University of ulty was strengthened in 1964 by the deci- Tokyo constitutional law professor, hus- sion of the University of California band of Yuasa’s sister, was selected as ICU’s Education Abroad Program in 1964 to second president. Everett Kleinjans, a former locate its ³rst Asian study center for all China missionary and Meiji Gakuin profes- eight of its general campuses at ICU. sor of linguistics, replaced Troyer as vice- Another major agenda item for the new president for academic affairs. In 1963 administration was the future relationships Hallam Shorrock, one of the early postwar between ICU and the three major theologi- Japan missionaries, became vice-president for cal schools in the Tokyo area—the Tokyo ³nancial affairs. Union Theological Seminary (TUTS), the Lutheran Theological School and the Long-range planning Central Theological College (Anglican). One of the ³rst agenda items for the new Yuasa, who in 1964 became chairman of the administration concerned the use of campus ICU Board of Trustees, had been a member land. In 1960 ICU had agreed to sell some of the World Council of Churches’ sixty-six acres of land at the western corner Theological Educational Fund Committee of the lower campus to the American during the last years of his presidency and School in Japan. In late 1963 the Board of was keenly interested in this question. Trustees made a crucial decision to develop Talks during 1964 and 1965 between the remaining portion of the lower campus members of the ICU administration and as a private eighteen-hole golf course for representatives of the theological seminaries “ICU Supporters” that would operate for a involved proposals whereby ICU would

86 SHORROCK: International Christian University make land available to the seminaries at no Japanese government and big business in cost, if in return, the seminaries would rec- Japan to skim off the cream of the student iprocate by using resources from the sale of population and manipulate them into mid- their land and buildings to expand those dle management positions, thus enhancing ICU facilities which could be used jointly, the capitalistic economy of Japan and link- such as the library, gymnasium, and dining ing Japan ever more closely with the eco- hall. The Anglicans decided not to move. nomic, political and military policies of the However, TUTS and the Lutheran seminary United States.”30 The students had a point. indicated their interest in moving adjacent ICU Professor Tachikawa Akira, recently to the ICU campus, but on an independent called attention to the fact that the 1946 basis in respect to each other and to ICU. United States Educational Mission had observed that, prior to the war, politicians Student discontent and bureaucrats had used entrance exami- nations as a means to “manipulate the As was the case on hundreds of other uni- masses…a practice that had far-reaching versity campuses in Japan (as well as in the social implications and consequences.”31 United States, Europe and elsewhere) student The strike and building barricades discontent and unrest was felt keenly on the forced the cancellation of the nõken test, ICU campus from 1963 to 1970. The issues but also resulted in the resignation of were varied, ranging from objections to President Ukai in 1966. Ten of the strikers tuition increases and the raising of dining hall were expelled from the university. Hisatake food prices to more fundamental concerns Masao, an ICU professor of economic theo- such as the emperor system and Vietnam. ry, replaced Dr. Ukai as president. Behind these issues was general student The third round of student unrest dissatisfaction with the serious inequities occurred in 1969–70, stemming mainly and disparities that had developed in the from issues that were related to the conse- postwar transition from “elite” to “mass” quences of the nõken strike. The activist education. Also, students reµected opposi- students essentially closed down the uni- tion to government attempts to shift the lib- versity by means of their barricades, which eral and democratic aims of education to caused Chairman of the Board Yuasa to the production of manpower required to order riot police to clear out and reopen the increase the nation’s economic might. campus before the government could The focus of the 1966–67 student strike revoke the school’s charter under the provi- and barricades at ICU was the university’s sions of the University Control Bill that had experimental plan to use a new type of been enacted a short time before. The 1969 entrance examination, similar to the U.S. events resulted in the resignation of College Entrance Board tests, which would President Hisatake and the deans of the col- provide a more uniform means of measuring lege and of student affairs. Hisatake was university applicants. The test had been replaced by a temporary ³ve-man “Presi- developed in the mid-1960s by the quasi- dential Organ” until an acting president governmental Nõryoku Kaihatsu Kenkyðjo could be appointed. (which roughly translated means “research The student demonstrations of the 1960s center for the development of human were a watershed in the history of ICU. The resources”). The examination was known international and internal problems that lay as nõken (aptitude test). behind the surface issues may have been Student activists saw the development more keenly felt at ICU than at many other and use of the nõken test as a “scheme of the universities. This was because ICU seemed

87 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 59 1993 to epitomize the United States–Japan con- Private School Promotional Foundation nection and the highly sensitive issues of and the Private School Subsidy Law. Vietnam, the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty, and the continuing presence of U.S. military Signi³cant building and academic develop- bases on Japanese soil. The events of this peri- ments od called attention to the fact that the Under the strong leadership of vice-president “Occupation” was over and that it was Tabuchi, a large-scale building program vitally important for ICU to be governed by took place during the 1970s and early indigenous leadership. 1980s. From lessons learned during the student strikes in the 1960s, the placement of THE SECOND TWENTY YEARS AND BEYOND many of the new structures reµected the This was a period marked by leadership principle of separating the functions of changes, healing, the strengthening of the administration, faculty and staff. university’s ³nancial base, signi³cant The modern and the ancient were building and academic developments, a brought together in the construction of the gradual reduction of ³nancial support from Integrated Learning Center with “state-of- the Foundation and ³nally the diminution the-art” laboratories and communication of the Foundation itself in 1990. equipment and the building of the Yuasa Leading the university throughout this Memorial Museum. The museum features period were ³ve successive presidents: some 5,300 items from Dr. Yuasa’s collection Miyake Akira, professor of physics (1969– of folk art materials and exhibits of prehis- 1971); Sinoto Yosito, professor of biology toric artifacts that have been excavated on the and genetics; (1971–75 and 1983–84); Naka- campus since 1957. gawa Hideyasu, theology (1975–83); Wata- Major academic developments during nabe Yasuo, professor of public administra- the 1970s included the opening of the tion (1984–1991); and Oguchi Kunio, Graduate School of Comparative Culture in professor of mathematics (from 1992). 1976 and the Graduate School of Natural Shorrock left ICU in 1969 to make room Sciences in 1987 (M. A. level), the 1978 for more Japanese leadership in the admin- founding of the ICU High School, the 1983 istration. His successor was Tabuchi Mi- establishment of Cambridge House in noru, a Christian layman with wide experi- England, the launching of the experimental ence in international banking. Since that Study English Abroad (SEA) Program in time, the position of vice-president for 1989, and the inauguration of the college’s sixth division—the Division of Inter- ³nancial affairs has been ³lled by Japanese national Studies—in 1991. Christian leaders in business and banking. The decision not to expand academic pro- Gradual diminution of Foundation support grams led to the sale of the ICU Golf Course to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, in The Foundation succeeded in reaching and 1974, for conversion to a large public park even surpassing its original goal of raising ten and recreational area. Income from the sale million dollars for the university during the greatly augmented the endowment fund. 1970s and was able to continue sending Another development in the mid-1970s both general and designated contributions to that signi³cantly strengthened ICU’s ³nan- ICU until the mid-1980s. However, changes cial situation was the government’s pro- in the economic conditions of both the gram to subsidize the operating expenses of United States and Japan, as well as staff private universities through the Japan changes in the Foundation and ICU admin-

88 SHORROCK: International Christian University istration, made it clear that consultations ICU can express this commitment in the concerning future ICU-Foundation rela- most effective way, ³rst, by widening and tions and cooperation were necessary. strengthening its historical bridge to North In April 1987 and in March 1990, two America—particularly to the United States. major consultations were held between the The nichi-bei character of ICU’s interna- board chairmen, board members and tionalism should be viewed as a strength of³cers of ICU and the Foundation. It was rather than as a weakness. In these days of mutually agreed that the postwar giving and the kenbei (disdain of America) attitude in receiving roles of the United States and Japan and of “Japan-bashing” in the United Japan had been reversed and that the time States, ICU is in a unique position to be a had come to share spiritual and academic mediating and positive inµuence through resources through a partnership that would its academic, educational, research and more realistically reµect the changing public service programs. Second, ICU world conditions and the global demands fac- should give priority attention to building a ing the mission boards and churches. much stronger and wider bridge to Asian In response to the understandings nations thatare of increasing importance to reached at the joint meetings in March both Japan and the United States. 1990, the Foundation’s board of directors at With these two bridges solidly in place its annual meeting in April 1991 recognized and well traveled in both directions, ICU that it had ful³lled its purpose. Therefore, the can assume an expanding role in training members voted to amend its constitution, leaders in U.S.-Japan, U.S.-Asia and Japan- reduce the size of the board, to close its Asia relations. It can be expected that as New York Of³ce on December 31, 1991, time goes on, both economic and security and use its investment counselors for all issues will escalate and be primary factors in continuing staff functions. these relations. The university’s curricula, research centers and institutes, and of³ces of PERSONAL THOUGHTS CONCERNING THE international and student affairs are well FUTURE OF ICU suited to bear the two-way traf³c on these ICU has become an important segment in bridges. the arch of Japanese Christian higher education. The formation of this arch, which The Christian commitment now consists of more than 50 four-year Perhaps the unique aspect of ICU’s Christian universities, represents over a epiphany is its Christian commitment. century of cooperative efforts of Christians From the beginning this has been based on in Japan and abroad, particularly in the the policy that all regularly appointed full- United States, to offer education in the spir- time faculty members must be Christian it of Christianity to students in Japan. These believers—Protestant, Catholic, Orthodox closing thoughts concern the future of ICU or mukyõkai. Originally known as the “all- in respect to its two commitments. Christian faculty” policy, it has become known as “the Christian code.” The international commitment It is important to understand that the A particular purpose of ICU’s international Christian faculty quali³cation was largely commitment is to be a “bridge leading both initiated by the Japanese founders as a in and out of Japan…offering to Japanese a means of guarding religious liberty and aca- view of the outside world and to others an demic freedom, values which in the past introduction to the Japanese culture.”32 had been defended primarily by Christian

89 JAPAN CHRISTIAN REVIEW 59 1993 leaders, particularly those in higher educa- Universal Declaration of Human tion. The major question facing the univer- Rights” to which Japan is a signatory sity today is the extent to which the Christ- and all entering students are asked to ian code policy undergirds these freedoms support? and supports its basic academic and inter- 4. Is it ethically right for the Christian national commitments, and whether this code to be used as a means by which policy is still valid as the primary institu- individual faculty and board members tional expression of its purpose and identi- can block the appointment of a faculty. ty candidate they may oppose for From the beginning, the university’s political or other non-academic rea- board of trustees has reserved for itself the sons? authority to make exceptions to the policy when quali³ed Christian scholars could not Regarding the Christian code, recent be found for certain teaching positions. words of Dr. Troyer demand careful attention. Part-time lecturers and assistants are not In an open letter dated June 29, 1988, to the subject to the Christian code policy. It is Board of Trustees and to the Foundation’s estimated that the number of non- Board in New York in which he referred to Christians presently teaching at ICU—if one Governor Ichimada’s role in the establish- includes teaching assistants and instruc- ment of ICU, Troyer wrote as follows: “The tors, part-time lecturers and non-Christian spirit and substance of an important professors who have been appointed under Buddhist’s service to ICU is quietly incon- the Christian code waiver—is approximate- gruent with a strict application of the present ly the same as the number of Christians. restrictive employment code. A university Thus ICU ³nds itself in a tatemae (principle) committed to educating students to tackle and honne (real intent) situation that global problems with a wide-angle vision demands resolution. must always be in the process of revising its The Christian code is under strong attack presuppositions, goals and programs. What on academic, ethical and legal grounds. is learned within an institution as it grows Critics are asking questions such as these: is in some ways as important as cultural 1. Given the limited number of top-rank- and economic changes in society.” ing scholars in certain ³elds who are ICU is indeed challenged today to join Christian, can the university maintain other Christian universities in giving serious its academic quality if it must settle study to the basic question of how for the second or third best Christian Christianity can most meaningfully con- candidates? tribute to the relevance and enrichment of 2. Is it academically or ethically tenable higher education in a pluralistic world. for the university to deny promotion Hopefully, fresh insights will emerge about and tenure to instructors and not the future of the Chrisitan code and about approve the regular full-time appoint- what makes a Christian university ment of scholars who are not “Christian.” Christian, even though they are strongly supportive of the Christian NOTES ideals and purposes of the institution? 3. Does the application of the Christian 1 Asahi Shinbun Weekly AERA, December 12, code in faculty appointments conµict 1991. with the basic mission of ICU to 2 Donald P. Chandler, “A Christian University in “uphold the principles of the Japan: Another Look at the Past,” The Japan

90 SHORROCK: International Christian University

Christian Quarterly vol. 39, no. 2 (Spring 1973), 17 Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese p.87. Miracle (Standford: Stanford Press, 1982), pp. 201– 3 Ebizawa Arimichi, “History of the Age 202. It should be noted that Johnson’s reading of the Preceding the Establishment of International ideographs for Ichimada’s given name, which he Christian University (I), ICU Gazette vol. 33, no. 8, identi³ed as “Naoto,” (p. 201) should be read, (July 18, 1993), pp. 4–5. “Hisato.” 18 4 Chandler, pp. 91–92. Hallam C. Shorrock, Jr., “A Look at ICU from the Financial Point of View,” The Japan Christian 5 “The International Missionary Council,” Quarterly vol. 31, no. 3, (July 1965), pp. 145–146. Addresses and Papers of John R. Mott vol. V (New York: Association Press, 1947), p. 158 19 Iglehart, p. 86. 6 Report of a Commission on Christian Edu- 20 Iglehart, p. 43, quoting “Yamamoto Den,” cation in Japan,” Christian Education in Japan p. 285. (New York and London: International Missionary 21 Tachikawa Akira, “Origins of the Intern- Council, 1932), pp. 4–14. ationalization of Higher Education in Post-War 7 “Report of a Commission,” pp. 141, 178. Japan: A Case Study of ICU,” Proceedings of the 8 Unless otherwise noted, the sources for the 1987 Annual Conference of the Paci³c Association information contained in the rest of this section are for Higher Education. Edited by Hara Kazuo based on Charles W. Iglehart, International Christ- (Tokyo: ICU, 1987), p. 226. ian University: An Adventure in Christian Higher 22 Iglehart, pp. 39–40. Education in Japan (Tokyo: ICU, 1964), pp. 9–91 and 23 personal records of the author. Iglehart’s work is Iglehart, pp. 67–68. the de³nitive English language resource concerning 24 Iglehart, p. 68. the history of ICU up to 1963 and of its supporting 25 Tachikawa, “Origins,” p. 227. group in the United States, the Japan International Christian University Foundation, Inc. 26 Unless otherwise noted, material in this section is based on Iglehart’s book, pp. 91ff. and the 9 “Report of the Christian Deputation to Japan, author’s personal records and notes. October-November, 1945,” Return to Japan (New York: Friendship Press), pp. 1–8. 27 Talk by Foundation President Paul R. Gregory 10 William K. Cummings, Education and to the Foundation Board in New York, April 24, Equality in Japan (Princeton: Princeton Press, 1991. 1980), p. 31. 28 Unless noted otherwise, the contents of this sec- 11 MacArthur letter of July 13, 1947 to Father tion are from the author’s personal notes and Flanagan, founder of Boys’ Town, quoted by papers. William P. Woodard, The Allied Occupation of 29 “The Second Decade of ICU,” printed pamphlet Japan and Japanese Religions (Leiden: E. J. Brill, (Tokyo: ICU, November 15, 1963). 1972). p. 244. 30 For details, see “The Admissions Program 12 Iglehart, p. 55. Dispute at International Christian University, 13 Edwin O. Reischauer, The Japanese Preliminary Report of the Faculty History (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1977), p. 106. Committee, Part I” (Tokyo: ICU, July 1967), 42pp. 14 Japan’s Modern Educational System (Tokyo: 31 Tachikawa Akira, “The Intended Goal of the Ministry of Education, 1980), p. 287. ICU Entrance Examination II,” ICU Gazette, no. 34, 15 Maurice E. Troyer, “Planning a New Uni- October 8, 1992, p. 11. versity,” Journal of Higher Education vol. 21, no. 8, 32 International Christian University Bulletin of (November 1950), p. 419. the College of Liberal Arts 1990–91, p. 2. 16 Iglehart, p. 27.