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The Herb Society of America’s

Essential Guide to Notable Native Herb™ 2017

An HSA Native Herb Selection

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Medical Disclaimer Published by It is the policy of The Herb Society Native Herb Conservation Committee of America not to advise or The Herb Society of America, Inc. recommend herbs for medicinal or Spring 2016. health use. This information is intended for educational purposes With grateful appreciation for assistance with only and should not be considered research, writing, photography, and editing: as a recommendation or an Katherine Schlosser, committee chair endorsement of any particular Susan Betz medical or health treatment. Carol Ann Harlos Elizabeth Kennel Debra Knapke Maryann Readal Dava Stravinsky Lois Sutton Linda Wells

Thanks also to Karen O’Brien, Botany & Horticulture Chair, and Jackie Johnson, Publications Chair, for their assistance and

encouragement.

Note on Nomenclature Where noted, botanical names have been updated following: GRIN—US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Germplasm Resource Information Network. Available from http://www.ars-grin.gov/

The List—A working list of all plant . Version 1.1 K. K. Schlosser Available from: http://www.theplantlist.org/

FRONT COVER and above: ITIS—Integrated Taxonomic Information System. A partnership of federal agencies formed to satisfy their mutual in West Jefferson, NC, in September. needs for scientifically credible taxonomic information. Available from: http://www.itis.gov/#

2 Susan Betz

Table of Contents An HSA Notable Native Herb™ Selection 5

State Flowers/Wildflowers/Herbs 7

Species of Note 8

September 9

A Word About 10 & Solidago

Solidago Species as Herbs 12

Legends 15

Household uses 16

Growing Goldenrod 17

Goldenrod for Sun, Shade, and Other Uses 18

Endangered, Threatened Species 20

Solidago, , and Oligoneuron 24

The Legend of the and Goldenrod 27

Literature Cited and References 28

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I visited the Chelsea Physic Garden, London, in June where there was an installation of apothecary bottles by ceramic artist Nici Ruggiero entitled Curse or Cure. Of course, when I came across the bottle of "Golden Rod" I thought of our Notable Native and had to have a photo.

Following is a link to CPG for an overview and second link to her website so you can see how they were displayed throughout the garden. http://chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/special-events/curse-or-cure/ ~ Photo submitted by Dava Stravinsky

4 Solidago: HSA Notable Native Herb™ 2017

Goldenrod collectively, is a delight to the eye, for its and indispensable factor in the landscape. For decorative purposes it is eminently satisfactory, sought out and beloved by all men, as is amply proved by ‘goldenrod weddings’ and by the numerous jars, pitchers, water cans and bean pots filled with it that decorate suburban's stoops. Mabel Osgood Wright- 1901 Writer, Photographer, and Founder of CT Audubon Society

Growing along our roadsides, filling vacant fields and along forest edges, the seventy-seven species of goldenrod across , , and make Solidago a truly American . There is not a single state devoid of at least one native goldenrod species, and many have multiple species growing within their boundaries. There are, in addition, a few species native to South America and 6 or 7 in Eurasia (Laphitz and Semple, 2015).

Identifying species can be a challenge Within a 28 page identification Key, the genus Solidago includes an additional 5 Keys to navigate when attempting an identification—a daunting task. For example: Herbs usually rhizomatus (when short forming tufts of stems and when long often forming extensive colonies), stems erect to arching, solid. alternate, cauline, often also basal...Heads few- to many- flowered, in corymbs [often flat-topped, as in S. rigida. Ed.] or panicles. Flowers radiate and discoid, rays pistillate, or white, disc flowers perfect, yellow. Involucres cylindric or, when many-flowered, campanulate, with imbricate (overlapping or layered). [Weakley, 2015] Adding to the confusion are two genera of commonly known as goldenrod, Euthamia and Oligoneuron. A short discussion of these genera appears on page 23, giving an indication of the difficulties of identifying plants known as goldenrod.

Panicles Imbricate bracts

5 Selection Criteria for a Notable Native Herb™ To bring attention to the vast selection of herbs which trace their origins to North America, The Herb Society of America’s Native Herb Conservation Committee selects a genus or species each year. Criteria for selection include usefulness (food, flavoring, beverage, medicine, fragrance, industrial, and household) whether past or present, availability, and range. At times, availability takes a back seat to the interest of study across the range of our membership. To adjust for the possibility of limited availability, an attempt is made to alternate with more widely accessible herbs with a broader range in alternate years. As a widespread genus, Solidago meets many of the criteria for selection. Its uses include nearly all of those listed, primarily medicinal uses. States in which one or more Solidago species grow naturally are shaded in . Some Solidago species have a limited native range. E.L. Braun, whitehair goldenrod, occurs only in three contiguous counties (Powell, Wolfe, and Menifee) in eastern and is Federally listed as Threatened. Others (S. altissima, S. canadensis, S. gigantea, S. hispida, S. missouriensis, S. nemoralis, S. simplex, S. , and S. ulmifolia) reach across more than half of the Lower 48.

This one, likely S. canadensis, wins the prize for sheer moxie, clinging to a rock at Niagara Falls, NY. It was spotted and photographed by Karen O’Brien.

6 State Flowers/Wildflowers/Herbs The following five states have awarded particular distinction to a species of goldenrod.

Delaware: Adopted June 24, 1996, Sweet Golden Rod ( ) was named 's State Herb. Members of the International Herb Growers and Marketers Association of Delaware suggested that the herb Solidago odora, commonly known as Sweet Golden Rod, because of its beautiful golden blossoms, would be especially appropriate as the designated herb.

Kentucky: Solidago gigantea was named the state flower for Kentucky in 1926 and is used on the state flag where it encircles the state seal.

Nebraska: Goldenrod was named the official state flower in in 1895, identified then as S. serotina, which is now S. gigantea.

South Carolina: Designated S. altissima as the state wildflower in 2003.

Alabama: Schoolchildren had it right, but the ladies of a garden club lobbied to remove the children’s choice and replace it with something they found more pleasing:

Goldenrod was once the state flower of but was ousted by () in 1959. According to the Director of the Alabama Department of Archives and History school children had chosen goldenrod because of its ability to grow almost anywhere and its brightening of the autumn season. It was made the official state flower in 1927 but women in Butler County thought it weed-like and a wildflower so it was replaced. In 1999, Alabama named Oak Hydrangea as the State Wildflower. Alabama Department of Archives and History http://www.archives.alabama.gov/kids_emblems/st_flower.html

Karen O’Brien

Solidago in a Mounds State Park in . Karen O’Brien.

7 Species of Note is the tallest of the goldenrods, topping out at six feet or more. It grows in all states except , , , , , , , and Puerto Rico.

It makes a great structural statement at the back of a wildflower garden, but within two years displays its aggressive habit. The stoloniferous plants send runners just above or below the soil, forming large colonies. It is here recommended for use in large meadows that can handle a growing population.

Solidago bicolor, silverrod or white goldenrod, is the only one with white flowers. From a bit of a distance, the flowers may appear yellowish, but on close inspection you will see that the petals are white and it is the stamens that are yellow. The plant usually has a single stem and does not form dense clumps as do most goldenrods. It grows in the eastern part of the country.

Solidago gigantea is a runner-up for tallest, also reaching six feet in good soil.

Solidago odora is a sweet, anise-scented plant. The leaves are fragrant when crushed and have been used to create beverages, and in medicines to make them taste better. It has been explored for use in the perfume industry. , gray goldenrod, can reach nearly 24” tall, but in lean soil reaches only 6”, giving it recognition one of the smallest of the genus.

Solidago bicolor. Kathy Schlosser 8 Solidago (S. caesia here) in the Fall garden serves as an accent for the mauve, purple, , , and of seasonal flowers or as a stand-alone focal point. Photo: Debra Knapke

September

The golden-rod is yellow; By all these lovely tokens The corn is turning ; September days are here, The in apple orchards With summer's best of weather, With are bending down. And autumn's best of cheer.

The gentian's bluest fringes But none of all this beauty Are curling in the sun; Which floods the earth and air In dusty pods the milkweed Is unto me the secret Its hidden silk has spun. Which makes September fair.

The sedges flaunt their harvest, 'T is a thing which I remember; In every meadow nook; To name it thrills me yet: And asters by the brook-side One day of one September Make asters in the brook, I never can forget.

From dewy lanes at morning Helen Hunt Jackson The grapes' sweet odors rise; 1830-1885, Amherst, MA At noon the roads all flutter Milkweed pod. Kathy Schlosser With yellow . 9 A Word About Cultivars Generally the Native Herb Conservation Committee does not recommend cultivars in native plant gardens. There are several reasons for this, including the questionable value of a plant that does not reproduce, and if it happens to set seed, the seedlings generally do not come true.

There are a number of cultivars available in garden centers, including ‘Golden Fleece,’ developed from S. sphacelata. This low-growing plant (18”) blooms with densely packed flower spikes in late summer. Introduced by Mt. Cuba Center in Delaware, it was first identified in Eden, NC.

Another of the more readily available Solidago cultivars is S. rugosa ‘Fireworks.’ It is one of the clump forming goldenrods, making it a good choice for gardens. At maturity, it has a mounded shape, about four to five feet tall in good soil, with arching stems that shoot out in a fashion similar to fireworks. The plant was named by Ken Moore at the Botanical Garden in 1970. ‘Golden Fleece.’ Debra Knapke Developed from S. rugosa, it has “wrinkled” leaves that set it apart—not to the degree seen in plants such as Rosa rugosa, but with indentations along the leaf veins. The leaves are toothed and have an acuminate leaf tip. The stems are densely covered with (hairy).

Pollinators and Solidago

Both and of the flowers attract a wide variety of insects, including small bees, wasps, flies, small butterflies, skippers, and . The caterpillars of some species feed on various parts of goldenrods. Other insects that feed on goldenrods include stink bugs, lace bugs, treehoppers, and leafhoppers.

Birds are attracted to a number of goldenrods because of the abundance of insects on the plants. Other birds feed directly on goldenrods to a minor extent, including the Indigo Bunting (), Eastern Goldfinch (seeds), Swamp Sparrow (seeds), Ruffed Grouse (leaves), and Greater Prairie Chicken (leaves). White-tailed deer and cottontail rabbits feed on young foliage to a limited extent, while meadow voles eat both the seeds and foliage. Thread-waisted wasp, Susan Betz. ID by Mary Jo A good resource for adding plants to your Wilson garden can be found at the Pollinator Partnership web site, which include plant guides by region. See: http://pollinator.org/guides.htm

10 More on Pollinators

A hummingbird or hawk moth (Sphingidae family), a fascinating visitor to your garden, shown here on gold- enrod. Often mistaken for a small hummingbird, they share some striking similarities. They fly and move much like hummingbirds and can remain suspended in front of a flower while nectaring. They have long tongues to reach into the flowers, some hawk with tongues up to 14” long. They pick up pollen on their legs and wings, depositing it on the next flowers they visit.

Photo by Karen O’Brien

Honey bee on goldenrod.

Photo by Karen O’Brien

Monarch on goldenrod. Good nectar source for late season nutrition prior to migration.

Photo by Karen O’Brien

11 Solidago Species as Herbs

There are a number of Solidago species with herbal uses, past and present. “ it or hate it” describes the history of goldenrod, having been regarded as a medicinal herb, a beautiful plant in the perennial garden, an autumn source of nectar for bees, a wonderful addition to the pollinator garden, a dye herb, and as a weed mistakenly blamed for hay fever, a weed problematic for Christmas farms, a seriously invasive weed exported to from the New World. Whatever your position on the attributes of goldenrod, it is worthy of proper placement in a garden setting, and of study for the many herbal uses.

Henry Ford requested that the great American inventor develop a plant that could be cheaply grown in the U.S. to produce rubber for tires. (Rubber is made from latex, a substance produced by several plant species. Examples familiar to you may be the white substance produced by plants in the Euphorbiaceae family such as poinsettias and those in the Apocynaceae family such as milkweed. Hevea brasiliensis was the species native to rainforests in the Amazon region of South America from which latex (sap) was taken to produce rubber.) Edison worked with thousands of North American plants to produce a cheap viable source of latex. Toward the end of his life he discovered that goldenrod produced a latex that could be made into a high quality rubber, and he bred a goldenrod to produce a larger higher latex-yielding goldenrod. After his deathSolidago edisoniana Mack. was named after him. The plant has since returned to its original name, Mill.

Native Americans used a number of goldenrod species as medicinal herbs. Tisanes prepared from parts of the plants were used to reduce fevers, treat bladder and kidney problems. Common names such as wound-wort and wound-weed indicate its use directly on wounds. Some of its healing properties are attributed to a compound called quercetin, found in many plants, which has a number of medicinal properties.

The Chippewa called goldenrod gizisomukiki meaning “sun medicine.” They boiled goldenrod in water to make a syrup to treat respiratory infections, leaves were put in the mouth for toothaches, and a concoction from the roots was used to soothe burns and boils. The Cherokee made a tisane that was placed on bruises and insect stings.

Daniel E. Moerman (1998), in his Native American , presents one of the greatest compilations of the uses of natives plants by Native Americans available to us. In this volume he includes the following Solidago species:

S. californica—grows in all but seven counties, and in six southwestern Oregon counties. Used by the Cahuilla, Costanoan, Diegueño, Kawaiisu, and Miwok for dermatologic, antirheumatic, and oral health purposes. [ is the accepted name in ; in the US National Germplasm System, GRIN, it is S. velutina subsp. californica.]

S. canadensis—grows in all states except LA, FL, AL, GA, SC, HI, and PR. Used by a number of tribes as an analgesic, dermatologic aid, antidiarrheal, febrifuge, orthopedic aid (for paralysis), gynecologic aid, and as a sedative. Also used as a psychological aid for children who fail to talk or laugh and to treat wounds on animals. Seeds and roots were consumed, and roots were smoked with tobacco.

S.spectabilis (D.C. Eaton) A. Gray var. confinis (A. Gray) Cronquist—also known as Nevada goldenrod, it grows only in California. Used as a dermatologic aid by Kawaiisu. [The name is S. confinis A.Gray in GRIN and The Plant List, and appears as (D.C. Eaton) A. Gray in the USDA Plants Database. ]

S. flexicaulis—grows over most of the eastern U.S. Used by Chippewa, Menominee, and Potawatomee as analgesics, dermatologic aids, hemostat (to stop nosebleeds), and febrifuge.

S. gigantea—grows across the US except for NV, HI, and PR. Used by Keres, Western, Menominee, and Potawatomee as a cathartic and febrifuge. Also used for making baskets.

12 S. juncea—grows across most of the eastern US. Used by Chippewa, Delaware, , and Iroquois as anticonvulsive, antidiarrheal, antiemetic, febrifuge, and as gastrointestinal and aids.

S. multiradiata—grows across the western US. Used by the Cree and Hudson Bay as a tonic.

S. nemoralis—grows across the US except for WA, OR, CA, AZ, NV, UT, ID, HI, PR. Used by the Houma, Mahuna, and Iroquois as liver, kidney, and dermatologic aids. Used by Gosiute as a food (seeds) and Navajo as incense.

S. odora—grows across most of the eastern US. Used by the Cherokee as an abortifacient, cold remedy, diaphoretic, febrifuge, oral aid, stimulant, and to treat tuberculosis.

S. rigida—Used by Chippewa and Meskwaki as a cathartic and dermatological aid. Lakota used leaves placed under meat for storage and cooking. [formerly classified as Oligoneuron rigidum var. rigidum in The Plant List; now S. rigida L. var. rigida in GRIN; which The Plant List says is a of S. rigida.]

S. rugosa—grows across most of the eastern US. Used by Iroquois as a liver aid. Also used a decoction for dizziness or sunstroke.

S. simplex—a western and northeastern US species. Used by the Thompson as a dietary aid and tonic. Decoction of whole plant used to treat syphilis.

S. speciosa—grows across eastern and Midwestern US. Used by the Chippewa as an antihemorrhagic, dermatologic aid, gynecologic aid, orthopedic aid (sprains and strained muscles), pulmonary aid, stimulant, and tonic.

S. spectabilis—grows in the western states except WA. Seeds were used as a food by the Gosiute.

S. squarrosa—grows in mid-Atlantic and northeastern US. Used by Iroquois as an emetic, gastrointestinal aid, burn remedy, and to treat venereal diseases.

S. uliginosa—grows in eastern and upper Midwest. Used by Potawatomee as a dermatological aid.

S. ulmifolia—grows across most of the eastern half of the US. Used by Meskwaki as a stimulant—smoke of smudged plant sent up nostrils of unconscious patients.

S. velutina—grows across most western US states. Used by Navajo, Kayenta, and Ramah as a pediatric and psychological aid. Also as a witchcraft medicine.

Unspecified species: Alabama used as a cold and toothache remedy. Algonquin and Quebec used for heart disease. Blackfoot used for nose and throat complaints. Cherokee used as a febrifuge. Chippewa used as an analgesic, febrifuge, and gastrointestinal aid. Omaha used to indicate the beginning of corn harvest season.

Plants For A Future indicates that the leaves, oil, and seed are edible, useful as a thickener for soups, and a from flowers and/or leaves. Seeds are recommended for use only as a survival food as their size makes them undesirable. For medicinal purposes, they repeat much of what was reported by Moerman.

The University of Medical Center, under the heading of Alternative Medicines, reports the history of use of S. canadensis as a diuretic, for tuberculosis, diabetes, liver, , internal bleeding, asthma, and arthritis. They also note that people with high blood pressure, low blood pressure, osteoporosis, allergy to , and fluid retention due to heart or lung problems should seek the advice of their physician before taking goldenrod. Pregnant or breastfeeding mothers, or anyone with heart or kidney disease should also avoid goldenrod.

n.b. please refer to the HSA statement on medicinal uses of herbs on page 2

13 Waves of gold and purple grace a pond in a Midwest meadow. Susan Betz.

S. puberula, downy goldenrod in early October. Fall goldenrod glory. Kathy Schlosser

14

Kathy Schlosser

SOLIDAGO LEGENDS

Wearing a piece of the goldenrod flower was believed to ensure that one would see one's own true love the next day.

Goldenrod growing next to the door of a home marked the arrival of good fortune.

A patch of goldenrod happened across in the woods marked the site of an underground spring.

A sprig of goldenrod carried about was thought to indicate the presence of treasure by nodding in that direction.

A baby washed in a bath prepared with goldenrod leaves would grow up with a sunny disposition and a good sense of humor.

Goldenrod in a tussie-mussie meant "Appreciate any luck." Some sources list goldenrod as meaning encouragement.

Goldenrod is the symbol for treasure, and legend has it that whoever carries the plant will have good fortune.

15 Household and Sundry Uses

S. caesia, wreath goldenrod. Photo: Kathy Schlosser

The herbal history of goldenrod is primarily for its medicinal uses, well chronicled by Daniel E. Moerman in his book Native American Ethnobotany. One of the goldenrods, S. odora or sweet goldenrod, is frequently mentioned for culinary purposes, as the essential oil content of this species includes methyl chavicol (also in tarragon, basil, anise, and fennel), mercene (also in bay, wild thyme, hops, and grass), and limonene. Its culinary uses include beverages, muffins, cake batters, and egg dishes. Historically, leaves were used in soups and stews, similar to the way we use spinach, and as a tea.

Solidago odora does not have Generally Recognized as Safe status with the FDA, but the essential oils above have not been noted for toxicity. Even so, according to Tucker (1999) caution should be exercised as additional studies are needed.

Dry arrangements & wreaths Flowers should be harvested before they turn yellow and are still slightly green, otherwise, the blooms will burst and turn to fluff. Goldenrod can be picked July through August and into October depending on the species. Hung in a dark room, they will be dry in a few days. Wild yarrow, pussy-toes, teasel, -hips, juniper, oak leaves, Joe Pye, and dock can also be harvested and blended with goldenrod flowers to create colorful fall wreaths or dried arrangements.

Fresh arrangements The flowers of S. caesia, wreath goldenrod, generally form on one side of the stem; if you pull the tip around to the base of the stem, forming a circle, the flowers will remain on the outside (see above). S. flexicaulis, zigzag goldenrod, is easily identified by broad, toothed leaves and stems with a definite zig-zag pattern. This one is also good for wreath making.

Dye The flowers produce a greenish-yellow color, while the whole plant (stems, leaves and flowers) yield a orangey-brown dye.

Cosmetic An infusion of the flowers can be used as a hair rinse for blonde hair. Flowers have been added to salves, ointments, massage oils, and facial steams for acne. Tea Blue Mountain, anise-scented, or lance-leaf goldenrod, Solidago odora, was the most often cited species used for beverages. The methyl chavicol (estragole), borneol, bornyl acetate, an d-limonene contribute to the anise-like flavor and fragrance. S. caesia border. Kathy Schlosser 16 Growing Goldenrod

Many goldenrod species are native to the and are very easy to grow. They can be grown from nursery plants or root divisions in the spring. They can also be grown from seed. In the wild, goldenrods grow in a wide variety of poor but well-draining soils. In the garden, give goldenrod a well-drained, humusy, slightly acidic soil in sun or part shade for a show of yellow flowers. Species differ in bloom time, ranging from early summer to late fall. Deadhead in the fall and divide clumps in the spring to control unwanted growth. Goldenrod does not require fertilizer or much water. They are not prone to any particular pests or diseases and are in fact, considered companion plants, drawing away unwanted pests from the garden.

Goldenrods are hosts to both flies and moths, which lay their eggs in the stems and leaves of the plants. When the larva Solidago spp. attract many insects. hatches, it stops the plant’s natural growth and galls are Susan Betz. formed on the flower heads or along the stems. One of the best places to find praying mantis cases is on the dead stalks of goldenrod.

Mantises prey on the insects foraging on the late-blooming wildflower and then lay their eggs. Crab spiders & paper wasps, ants, and tree hoppers can also be observed hanging about stands of goldenrod in late fall.

Insect gall on goldenrod stem. Susan Betz. Praying mantis. Susan Betz. 17 Recommendations for Specific Situations

Goldenrods for Sun

Solidago juncea (early goldenrod) Found in sandy, acidic soils in meadows, savannas, open woods, rock outcroppings, and seashores from Quebec south to , and west from Manitoba, Minnesota, and . Plants do not tolerate too much in the soil, and need better drainage than is found in clay.

Solidago nemoralis (gray goldenrod) Grows naturally in sandy, loamy, or clay soils in meadows, , open woods, roadsides, rock outcroppings, and eroded slopes from Nova Scotia and Alberta, south to and .

Solidago odora (sweet goldenrod) Found in open woods, meadows, clearings, and dunes from and , south to Florida and Texas.

Solidago ohioensis ( goldenrod) Found in bogs, wet meadows, and prairies from Ontario and Minnesota, south to and .

Solidago rugosa (rough stemmed goldenrod) Found in open woods, meadows, and old fields from Newfoundland and , south to Florida and Texas.

Solidago sempervirens (seaside goldenrod) Found in coastal dunes and open woods from Newfoundland to Florida and Texas, south to tropical America. S. juncea. Kathy Schlosser Solidago sphacelata (creeping goldenrod) Found in open rocky woods, clearings, and on roadsides in limy soils from and , south to Georgia and Alabama.

Solidago speciosa (showy goldenrod) Grows in average sandy or rocky soil on outcroppings and in open woods, savannas, meadows, and dry prairies from New England to Minnesota and Wyoming, south to Georgia and Texas.

Solidago uliginosa (bog goldenrod) Found in bogs, wet meadows, ditches, and low woods from Newfoundland and Minnesota, south to and Indiana and the mountains south to North Carolina.

Two Goldenrods for Shade

Solidago caesia (wreath goldenrod or blue-stemmed goldenrod) Found in open woods, woodland borders and clearings from Nova Scotia and , south to Florida and Texas. Part-shade is fine. Full shade may reduce bloom.

Solidago flexicaulis (zigzag goldenrod) Grows in rich deciduous woods, clearings, and roadsides from Nova Scotia and , south to Georgia and .

18 ...more special situations

Sunny Rain Gardens Rough-stemmed goldenrod () Stiff goldenrod () Tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima) Riddell’s goldenrod () Ohio goldenrod ()

Beds, Borders and Prairie Plants spread and grow well in almost any well-drained soil with a sunny exposure. Aster, Pycanthemum, Vernonia novaboracensis, and Lobelia make good garden companions. Plants can be established singly or in small groups. Showy goldenrod (), 2-4 feet tall Stiff goldenrod (Solidago rigida), 2-5 feet tall in dry or moist conditions Anise-scented or lance-leaf goldenrod (Solidago odora), 2-4 feet tall

Green Roofs Bluestem goldenrod, Common goldenrod, Early goldenrod, Gray goldenrod, Solidago nemoralis Stiff-leaf goldenrod, Solidago rigida

Native Deciduous Hedgerows Mixed deciduous hedgerows differ in form and function from densely planted rows of shaped sheared uniform called hedges. Mixed hedgerows, while planted relatively close, include a diverse variety of seasonal themed trees, shrubs, grasses, and wildflower species. Naturalistic by design, mixed hedgerows offer favorable opportunities for exploring the habits of neighborly native herbs. They are beneficial for creating green connecting corridors for wildlife and increasing biodiversity in urban areas. Such hedgerows are also useful for controlling erosion, moderating wind, noise, and unsightly views.

The arrangement of your plantings is just as important for diversity as the kinds and numbers of plants you select. Goldenrod is a mid to large size with a friendly community spirit. Well known for their conspicuous yellow flowers, goldenrods bloom in landscapes and gardens from early summer to late fall across the country. When not in bloom, spreading drifts of green foliage contribute texture and understory cover for pollinators and small mammals and birds.

A field edge in autumn with Eastern Silvery As- ter, New York Ironweed, and S. canadensis all being visited by a female Monarch . Kathy Schlosser

19 Endangered, Threatened, and Species of Special Concern

A ubiquitous genus, there are nonetheless a number of Solidago species that are of conservation concern., including those listed below. Solidago albopilosa—THREATENED White-Haired goldenrod (Solidago albopilosa) is a slightly arching, perennial plant with alternate leaves and soft, white hairs covering the leaves and stems. The flower heads are fragrant and bright yellow, forming clusters at the end of the stem. Each flower head is composed of three to five ray flowers and at least 15 small disk flowers. Flowering occurs from September to November, with the pale brown pubescent fruit appearing as early as October. The flowers are visited by bees, moths, and syrphid flies, which are likely attracted by the fragrance and color. It is restricted to sandstone outcroppings in the rugged region. Within this area, white-haired goldenrod typically occurs on the floors of sandstone rock shelters (natural, shallow, cave-like rock formations) and on sheltered cliffs at elevations of between 797 and 1,299 feet. The plant may also be found on ledges or cracks in the ceil- ing or vertical walls of these habitats, but, regardless of the specific location, white-haired goldenrod is restricted to areas of partial shade behind the dripline and typically does not grow in the deepest part of rock shelters.

Photo: Michael Floyd, USFWS Listed in 1988 under the Endangered Species Act, (it grows in only 3 counties in Kentucky) the small populations were declining. Threats included ground disturbance and trampling associated with unlawful artifact collection and recreational activities such as camping, hiking, rock climbing, and rappelling.

Considerable efforts were made to protect the plants including re-routing trails, fencing sensitive areas, and providing informational signage to alert the public. In September 2015, the USFWS proposed it for delisting, as there are now 120 occurrences, most within the Daniel Boone National Forest and 46 of which are stable.

This information is from the US Fish & Wildlife Service website, http://www.fws.gov/southeast/wildlife/plant/ white-haired-goldenrod/

20 The following plants are on Federal lists of Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern plant species. Most states have their own lists in addition to those plants on Federal lists. For example, a plant may be abundant in one state, but rare in one or more others, so a state list contains State and Federally imperiled species. You can visit the USDA Plants Database and download a list of Federally listed species for each state. www.plants.usda.gov Solidago altissima— POSSIBLY EXTIRPATED `

S. arguta— PRESUMED EXTIRPATED OHIO

S. buckleyi— ENDANGERED INDIANA

SPECIAL CONCERN KENTUCKY

S. calcicola— POSSIBLY EXTIRPATED MAINE

S. caesia— ENDANGERED WISCONSIN

S. curtisii— THREATENED KENTUCKY

ENDANGERED MARYLAND

ENDANGERED

S. cutleri— THREATENED [now S. leiocarpa in The Plant List]

S. erecta— ENDANGERED PENNSYLVANIA

S. flexicaulis— THREATENED

S. gattingeri— ENDANGERED

S. gracillima— SPECIAL CONCERN KENTUCKY [now subsp. gracillima ]

S. hispida— ENDANGERED/EXTIRPATED MARYLAND

S. lancifolia— ENDANGERED TENNESSEE

S. latissimifolia— SPECIAL CONCERN ENDANGERED NEW YORK SPECIAL CONCERN RHODE ISLAND S. macrophylla— THREATENED

S. missouriensis— THREATENED MICHIGAN

S. multiradiata— POSSIBLY EXTIRPATED MAINE

S. odora— THREATENED NEW HAMPSHIRE THREATENED OHIO THREATENED VERMONT S. patula— ENDANGERED

S. plumosa— ENDANGERED NORTH CAROLINA

S. puberula— SPECIAL CONCERN KENTUCKY

ENDANGERED OHIO

S. pulchra— ENDANGERED NORTH CAROLINA

S. roanensis— THREATENED KENTUCKY ENDANGERED MARYLAND RARE PENNSYLVANIA

21 S. rupestris— ENDANGERED/EXTIRPATED MARYLAND

ENDANGERED TENNESSEE

S. sciaphila— THREATENED [S. sciaphila E.S.Steele is an unresolved name; some data suggest that it is synonymous with S. roanensis Porter.]

S. shortii— ENDANGERED KENTUCKY ENDANGERED THROUGHOUT US

S. speciosa— THREATENED MARYLAND

S. sphacelata— ENDANGERED OHIO

S. spithamaea— ENDANGERED NORTH CAROLINA ENDANGERED TENNESSEE THREATENED THROUGHOUT US

S. squarrosa— ENDANGERED INDIANA HISTORICAL KENTUCKY THREATENED OHIO

S. uliginosa— ENDANGERED IOWA SPECIAL CONCERN TENNESSEE

S. ulmifolia— POSSIBLY EXTIRPATED MAINE ENDANGERED VERMONT

S. verna— THREATENED NORTH CAROLINA

Definitions: Endangered - The classification provided to a plant species in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Extirpated- A species no longer surviving in regions that were once part of their range. Species of concern— an informal term that refers to those species believed might be in need of concentrated conser- vation actions. At one extreme, there may only need to be periodic monitoring of populations and threats to the spe- cies and its habitat. At the other extreme, a species may need to be listed as a Federal threatened or endangered spe- cies. Species of concern receive no legal protection and the use of the term does not necessarily mean that the species will eventually be proposed for listing as a threatened or endangered species. Threatened - The term “threatened species” means any species which is likely to become an endangered species with- in the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range - - as defined in the Endangered Species Act.

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A photo collage by Susan Betz

23 Solidago, Euthamia, and Oligoneuron Goldenrods can be difficult to identify for those of us without an eye and a mind for botany and . Further, there are many plants called goldenrod locally that are not Solidago species. The information below explains some of the difficulty: “As mentioned earlier, there are many species of Solidago, and the genus has been in something of a turmoil since at least 1818. The name Euthamia was first proposed in 1818. Nuttall in his Genera of North American Plants suggested the name for this group of goldenrods ...in allusion to the crowding of the flowers, as a subgenus, or rather genus, reciprocally allied to Solidago and Chrysocoma, although he maintained the two species in the genus Solidago.” Sieran (1981) For some period of time, decisions were made to place a plant in Solidago or Euthamia based of differences of habit rather than morphology. Advances in the botanical sciences have changed that but debate continues as expressed by Weakley (2015), who lists six species within Euthamia in the Southern and Mid Atlantic states: Euthamia (Nuttall) Cassini 1825 (Flat-topped Goldenrod) “A genus of about 8-10 species, herbs, of North America. There are a number of serious problems remaining in our knowledge of Euthamia. References: Sorrie (in prep.)=V; Haines in FNA (2006b); Sieren (1981)=Z; Taylor & Taylor (1983)=Y; Johnson (1995)=X; Cronquist (1980)=SE.” Solidago tenuifolia is now Euthamia carolinana, slender goldentop. The flowers look very different in the field, but from a distance is easily mistaken for a Solidago—and was so classified for years.

There are also three species that now appear in the genus Oligoneuron (one species, two varietates) which have at various times also been placed in Solidago. Weakley lists five that appear in the Southern and Mid Atlantic area:

Solidago nitida Torrey & A. Gray, Shiny Goldenrod. Pine savannas, prairies. (Jul-) Aug-Oct. MS west to s. AR, se. OK, and TX. [= FNA, SE; = Oligoneuron nitidum (Torrey & A. Gray) Small – K, S, Z; = Solidago nitida Torrey & A. Gray – FNA, SE]

Solidago ptarmicoides (Nees) Boivin, White Prairie- . Kathy Schlosser goldenrod, Upland White Aster. Prairie-like barrens over mafic, ultramafic, or calcareous rock, serpentine woodlands, prairies. Aug-Oct. VT and NY west to SK, south to e. TN (Rhea and Roane counties in the Ridge and Valley) (Chester, Wofford, & Kral 1997), nw. GA (Floyd County), AR, and CO; disjunct in nc. NC (Granville County, and historically in Rowan County) and nc. SC (York County). [= C, FNA, SE, W, X= Oligoneuron album (Nuttall) G.L. Nesom – Il, K, Z; = Aster ptarmicoides (Nees) Torrey & A. Gray – F, G, S; = Unamia alba (Nuttall) Rydberg; > Aster ptarmicoides var. georgianus A. Gray (referring to plants of se. US); = Solidago asteroides Semple, superfluous name]

24 Solidago riddellii Frank ex Riddell, Riddell's Goldenrod. Wet, calcareous prairies; rare. Aug-Nov. ON and MB south to OH, IN, IL, n. AR, and KS; disjunct in w. VA and nw. GA. The specimen from Fort Monroe ("Fortress Monroe, Va." – Fernald 1950) is accurately identified but may be mislabeled. [= C, F, FNA, G; = Oligoneuron riddellii (Frank ex Riddell) Rydberg – Il, K, Z]

Solidago rigida Linnaeus var. glabrata E.L. Braun, Southeastern Bold Goldenrod. Glades, barrens, and prairie -like areas, over mafic (such as diabase) or calcareous (such as calcareous ) rocks, and in adjacent disturbed areas, such as roadbanks and powerline rights-of-way. Late Aug-Oct. Sc. VA, se. TN, c. OH, and e. MO south to c. SC, sw. GA, and e. TX. This taxon (variously treated as a species, subspecies, or variety) is rare and scattered throughout its range, restricted to prairie-like, barren, or glade situations. Var. glabrata is apparently strictly diploid. [= C, G, SE, Va; = Solidago jacksonii (Kuntze) Fernald – F; = Solidago rigida ssp. glabrata (E.L. Braun) Heard & Semple – FNA, Y; = Oligoneuron rigidum (Linnaeus) Small var. glabratum (E.L. Braun) G.L. Nesom – Il, K, Z; < Solidago rigida Linnaeus – RAB, W; = Oligoneuron jacksonii (Kuntze) Small – S]

Solidago rigida Linnaeus var. rigida, Midwestern Bold Goldenrod. Glades, barrens, and prairie-like areas, over mafic or calcareous rocks. Aug-Oct. RI and MA west to NY, s. ON, MI, WI, s. MN and c. NE, south to c. VA, sc. NC, w. NC, sc. TN, c. AR, and se. TX. East of MI, IN, IL, MO, and OK, var. rigida is generally rare and restricted to relictual prairie-like situations. Var. rigida is tetraploid through most of its range, including (apparently) all of our area. A third variety, var. humilis T.C. Porter, Map key: *=waif, hollow shape=rare, dotted shape=uncommon, filled-in shape=common. 1186 is more northern and western, and also tetraploid, ranging from ON west to AB, south to MI, nw. IN, n. IL, w. MO, e. OK, n. TX, and NM; it may warrant species rank, as Solidago canescens (Rydberg) Friesner. [= C, G, SE, Va; = Solidago rigida – F; = Solidago rigida ssp. rigida – FNA, Y; = Oligoneuron rigidum (Linnaeus) Small var. rigidum – Il, K, Z; < Solidago rigida Linnaeus – Pa, RAB, W = Oligoneuron grandiflorus (Rafinesque) Small – S]

Fortunately, goldenrods are easy to enjoy!

Solidago along an old fence. Kathy Schlosser 25 Fall wreath. Susan Betz

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The Legend of the Aster and Goldenrod

Many moons ago, in a queer little hut near the edge of a pine forest beside a clear lake lived an old medicine woman. She had lived there so long no one remembered where she had come from. She was so old she was bent over, almost double. Her fac was wrinkled, but her eyes were bright and noticed everything. It was said she had the power to change human beings into animals, birds, or plants and that she could talk to the things that lived in the forest in their own language. She sat by the door of her hut every day weaving mats and baskets.

One day in late summer two children were seen wandering along the shore of the lake gathering flowers and tossing stones in the water. One of them had beautiful golden hair and the other had soft, deep blue eyes that looked like stars. They had heard the stories about the old woman and as they sat by the lake they talked of what they would choose to be, if she should try her spells upon them. Golden Hair wished to be something that would make every one who saw it happy and cheerful, while timid Star- eye wished that she might be near her friend.

As the sun began to sink in the West, the wind strongly stirred among the tree tops and every now and then the Goldenrod and white wood aster. Kathy Schlosser acorns fell with a noise like raindrops and the girls became frightened. They saw the hut in the distance and holding each other’s hands, ran toward it. As they drew near the old woman worked faster and pretended she did not see them.

The children asked her, “Please can you tell us where the old woman lives who can make us whatever we wish to be?” The woman looked up and said, “Perhaps I can, what do you want of her?” “I want,” said Golden Hair, “to ask her to make me something that will please everybody, and Star-eye wants to be near me.” “Come in,” said the woman, “and sit down. I will give you each a corn cake, and when you have eaten it we will talk about your wishes.” The two little girls went into the hut and sat down to eat their cake.

That was a long time ago and no has seen those children since, but the next morning there were two new wildflowers blossoming in the fields, on the prairies, and on the mountain sides. One was a bright yellow plume that waved in the wind and glowed like gold in the sunshine, and the other was a little starry purple flower. The two are never far apart and they are called the goldenrod and aster.

Adapted from Flower Lore and Legend, Katherine M. Beals.

27 LITERATURE CITED

 Beals Katherine M. 1907. Flower Lore and Legend. New York: Henry Holt And Co. Blanchan, Neltje. Natures Garden. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company.  Browne, Michele. Goldenrod Solidago. University of Georgia. Cobb County Extension Service. Accessed January 12, 2016. Available from: http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/cobb/anr/Documents/goldenrod.pdf  Finlay, Mark R. 2009. Growing American Rubber, Strategic Plants and the Politics of National Security. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.  Gibbs Jay, Bennett Ashley, Isaacs R. & Landis J. Bees of the and Wildflowers to Support Them, Michigan State University Extension Bulletin, 2015. Available from: http://shop.msu.edu/product_p/bulletin-e3282.htm  Gray, Beverly. 2011. The Boreal Herbal/ Wild Food and Medicinal Plants of The North. Aroma Borealis Press.  Halverson, K., Heard, S.B., Nason, J.D., Stireman III, J.O. 2008. Origins, distribution, and local co-occurrence of polyploid cytotypes in Solidago altissima (Asteraceae). American Journal of Botany, 95(1): 50-58.  Jepson, Jill. 1993. Herb to Know: Goldenrod. Mother Earth Living Natural Home Healthy Life. Accessed April 9, 2016. Available from: http://www.motherearthliving.com/plant-profile/goldenrod.aspx?PageId=1  Kavasch Barrie. 1997. Native Harvests: Recipes and Botanicals of the American Indian. New York: Vintage House, Random House Books.  Laphitz, Rita M. Lopez, John C. Semple 2015. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 100(4):423-441. A Multivariate Morpho- metric Analysis of the Solidago chilensis Group in South America and Related Taxa in North America (Asteraceae). Available: http://www.bioone.org/doi/10.3417/2014023  Moerman, Daniel E. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany, Portland, Oregon: Timber Press.  Phillips Harry R. 1985. Growing and Propagating Wild Flowers, Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press.  Refi, Paula. 1994. Goldenrod Solidago spp. Perennial Notes Excerpts, Volume IX, No.4. Georgia Perennial Plant Association. Accessed April 9, 2016. Available from: http://www.georgiaperennial.org/newsletter/article004/  Robinson,Gaden S., Phillip R. Ackery, Ian J. Kitching, George W. Beccaloni and Luis M. Hernández. Database of the World's Lep- idopteran Hostplants. Natural History Museum, London. Accessed 03-30-2016. Available from: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/our- science/data/hostplants/#sthash.ZiQ5AmWQ.dpuf  Sanders Jack. 2003. The Secrets of Wildflowers -A Delightful Feast of Little-known Facts, Folklore and History. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press.  Sieren, David J. 1981. THE TAXONOMY OF THE GENUS EUTHAMIA, , 83(836):551-579. New England Botanical Club, Inc. Accessed: March 4, 2016. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23311068  Stokes Donald & Lillian. 1984. Stokes Nature Guides: Enjoying Wild Flowers. Little, Brown, and Company.  Tucker, Arthur O., Michael J. Maciarello, Keith Clancy. 1999. Sweet Goldenrod (Solidago odora, Asteraceae): A Medicine, Tea, and State Herb, Economic Botany 53(3): 281-284. Accessed June 12, 2012. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/ stable/4256201?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents  Uva, Richard, et al. 1997. Weeds of the Northeast. Comstock Publishing Associates.  Univ. of Maryland Medical Center. Alternative Medicines: GOLDENROD. Accessed 03-02-2016. Available from: http://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/herb/goldenrod Web Sources  PLANTS Database (Internet). USDA Plants Database. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conserva- tion Service. Available from: www.plants.usda.gov  The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. Published on the Internet; http://www.theplantlist.org/ (Accessed March 2016).  Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). Published on the internet; http://www.itis.gov/ (Accessed March 2016).  US Fish & Wildlife Service, Southeast Region. White-Haired goldenrod (Solidago albopilosa). Accessed March 25,2016. Availa- ble from: http://www.fws.gov/southeast/wildlife/plant/white-haired-goldenrod/  Pollinator Partnership. Ecoregional Planting Guides. Accessed April 9, 2016. Available from: http://pollinator.org/guides.htm  Ecological Landscape Alliance. (n.d.) Discover-Ecological-Landscaping [Brochure]. Accessed March 25, 2016. Available from: http//ecolandscaping.org  State Symbols. Accessed March 3, 2016. Available from: httpp://www.netstate.com/states/symb/flowers/al_camellia.htm  State Symbols USA. Goldenrod: Nebraska State Flower. Accessed March 3, 2016. Available from: http://www.statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/nebraska/state-flower/goldenrod Additional References  Horn, Dennis and Cathcart, Tavia. 2005. Wildflowers of Tennessee, the Ohio Valley, and the Southern Appalachians. Lone Pine.  Weber, Larry. In A Patch of Goldenrod. c/o Budgeteer, 424 W. First St., Duluth MN 55802  Newcomb, Lawrence. 1977. Newcomb’s Wildflower Guide. Little, Brown and Company, Boston/New York.  Radford, Albert E., Ahles, Harry E., Bell, C. Ritchie.1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. UNC Press, Chapel Hill, NC  Weakley, Alan S. 2015. Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States. UNC Herbarium, Chapel Hill, NC. Available online: http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm

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