BioCarbon and Rural Development in West Africa (BIODEV)
Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso
By
Javier Arevalo, Yohama Puentes and Sari Pitkänen Work Package 1.4 on Sustainable Wood Energy
May 2016 Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Table of Contents
0. Acronyms & Abbreviations ...... 3 1. Introduction ...... 4 2. Methods ...... 5 3. Country review: Sierra Leone ...... 6 3.1 National data ...... 6 3.2 Regional, district and site data ...... 10 3.3 Regulations, policies and initiatives ...... 13 4. Country review: Burkina Faso ...... 15 4.1 National data ...... 15 4.2 Regional, district and site data ...... 19 4.3 Regulations, policies and initiatives ...... 21 5. Discussion ...... 24 6. References ...... 30
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
0. Acronyms & Abbreviations
BIODEV Building Biocarbon and Rural Development in West Africa (ICRAF-led project) CILLS Permanent Interstates Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ECREEE ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency DGCN The General Directorate of Nature Conservation (Direction Générale de la Conservation de la Nature) DGE General Directorate for Energy (Direction Général de l’Energie) FAFASO Improved Stoves in Burkina Faso (Foyers Améliorés au Burkina Faso) (GIZ programme) FCFA West African CFA Franc (1 EUR = 655.96 FCFA, as 01.05.2016 from Oanda 2016) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations FDM Forest Management Domain FMG Forest Management Group (Chantier d’Aménagement Forestier) FMU Forest Management Unit GDP Gross Domestic Product GNI Gross National Income GHGs Greenhouse Gasses GoBF Government of Burkina Faso GoSL Government of Sierra Leone ICS Improved Cook Stoves INSD National Institute of Statistics and Demography, Burkina Faso (Institut National de la Statistique et de la demographie) Le Sierra Leonean Leone (1 EUR = 4,459.65 Le, as 01.05.2016 from Oanda 2016). LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas MDG Millennium Development Goals (UN initiative) MEDD Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Burkina Faso MEF Ministry of Economy and Finance, Burkina Faso MEWR Ministry of Energy and Water Resources, Sierra Leone MFP Multi-Functional Platform for Renewable Energy MMCE Ministry of Mines, Quarries and Energy, Burkina Faso NTFPs Non-Timber Forest Products PASE 2007-2013 Energy Access Project REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation SCADD Strategy for Accelerated Growth and Sustainable Development SE4ALL Sustainable Energy for All (UN initiative) SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSL Statistics Sierra Leone Toe tonne of oil equivalent UER Unité d’Exécution de la Reforme du Sector de l‘Energie UNDP United Nations Development Programme WB World Bank WHO World Health Organization
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
1. Introduction
Increasing woodfuel consumption is believed to be one of the key drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Unlike in much of the developing world where biomass use has already peaked or will peak in the coming years, consumption in SSA is projected to remain at high levels or even rise in the next decades (World Bank 2011), with the number of people relying on wood-based biomass to grow from 575 to 918 million between 2004 and 2030 (US IEA 2006, 2010, as cited in World Bank 2011).
In West Africa, despite of countless initiatives undertaken in recent decades to tackle this issue, woodfuel demand is also expected to continue its growth in the near future. For example, an increment of 34% between 2000 and 2020 has been projected for the region, with a growth in consumption from 175 to 235 million cubic meters (Broadhead et al. 2001, as cited in Ouedraogo 2006). West Africa’s high poverty levels and rapid population growth are some of the driving factors for this increase, which is also modulated by changing demographics (e.g. increasing migration to urban areas) and the fluctuation in oil prices. Technological innovations with regard to renewable energies and in particular bioenergy play also key roles, given the low efficiency of traditional methods for firewood and charcoal (below 30% according to UNDP 2012). Cross-cutting issues such as gender roles in woodfuel collection and sale, health problems, cultural implications of traditional biomass use, or impacts on poverty and livelihoods appear also as vital in understanding the wood energy dynamics in the region.
The Building Biocarbon and Rural Development project in West Africa, BIODEV (2012-2016) aims at developing and implementing science‐based, validated, high value biocarbon approaches for sustainable rural development and at disseminating these results and build capacity for their scaling up in Africa. More concretely, the work package 1.4 on Sustainable Wood Energy aims at improving fuelwood use efficiency and developing sustainable wood energy systems. Going beyond the issue of fuelwood production and use, one important aspect is the relation between fuelwood and livelihoods, where links to agroforestry need to be considered too. As one of the activities of the work package 1.4, this report compiles the available data on woodfuels for Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso and offers an analysis on the trends with respect to woodfuel needs as well as their implications.
In this report, we adopt the Unified Wood Energy Terminology (FAO 2004) that classifies solid woodfuels from the user side as either fuelwood (typically firewood) or charcoal. Other important bioenergy feedstocks, such as biogas and liquid biofuels, are also acknowledged in this report; although the main focus is on solid woodfuels.
This report examines information covering national, provincial and local levels in Burkina Faso and Sierra Leone. A first set of key national-level indicators is shown in table 1. At local level, the BIODEV selected pilot sites —covering some 20,000 households (about 1,000 km2) in each country— are examined. In Sierra Leone, the site includes the area of Fintonia, Kabba-Ferry, Samaya, Sanya and Moria, all situated within the Tambakka Chiefdom, in the Bombali District of the Northern Province. In Burkina Faso, the site corresponds to the Cassou forest belonging to the Ziro Province, in the Centre-West Region, and located 165 km southwest from Ouagadougou. The 4 pilot villages in Burkina Faso are Cassou and Vrassan (District of Cassou), Gao (District of Gao), and Kou (District of Bakata).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Table 1. Socio-economic indicators for Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso (Sources: INSD 2013, Statistics Sierra Leone (SSL) 2001-2014 and World Bank 2016).
Sierra Leone Burkina Faso Population data Population (millions) 6,3 17,59 Population growth (%) 2.2 2.9 Average household size 6.0 1 5.9 2 Urban population growth (%) 3.1 5.8 Rural population growth (%) 1.6 1.7 Socio-economic data Poverty rate (%) 52.3 4 55.3 3 Life expectancy at birth (years) 50 5 58 5 GNI per capita (US$, WB Atlas method) 700 700 Values correspond to: 1SSL 2004; 2INSD 2006; 3WB 2009; 4WB 2011; 5WB 2013; WB 2014 when not indicated
2. Methods Data for this report was obtained from: (i) a literature review, (ii) a small expert survey complemented with workshop discussions and field observations in both countries, (iii) a stakeholders survey carried out in Burkina Faso for a Fuelwood Value Chain Analysis, and (iv) the scoping study carried out within BIODEV’s work package 1.1. While a complete list of references is provided at the end of the report, the key sources consulted in the elaboration of the country analyses are presented in table 2.
Table 2. Key sources consulted for Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso.
Sierra Leone National Energy Policy and Strategic Plan, Ministry of Energy and Water Resources MEWR 2009 National Energy Profile of Sierra Leone, United Nations Development Programme UNDP 2012 The Domestic Trade in Timber and Fuelwood Products in Sierra Leone: Current Dynamics and Munro & van Issues. Energy for Opportunity. 87 p. der Horst 2012 Sierra Leone Integrated Household Survey 2003/2004. Government of Sierra Leone GoSL 2007 The Agenda for Prosperity: Road to Middle Income Status. Sierra Leone’s Third Generation GoSL 2013 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (2013-2018) Support to the Sierra Leone Ministry of Energy with the Preparatory Phase of a Household Bess & Koroma Cooking Energy Plan 2014 Burkina Faso Analyse des impacts Financiers et économiques de la filière bois-énergie organisée EASYPol 2007 approvisionnant la ville d’Ouagadougou. EASYPol. 76p. Population and Housing Census 2006. National Institute of Statistics and Demography (INSD), MEF 2009 Ministry of Economy and Finance, Burkina Faso. Readiness Preparation Plan for REDD. Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, MEDD 2012a Burkina Faso. La Stratégie Energie Domestique au Burkina Faso. Ministère des Mines, des Carrières et de MMCE & CILLS L’Energie & Comite Permanent Inter-état de Lutte contre le Sècheresse dans le Sahel. 2005 Household energy preferences for cooking in urban Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Energy Policy 34, Ouedraogo 3787-3795. 2006
The small survey was carried out among experts attending the two BIODEV inception workshops held during May 2013 in Makeni (Sierra Leone) and Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), with 11 and 24 responses collected,
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland respectively. Views from stakeholders attending the workshops and field observations in the Cassou area in Burkina Faso and in the Makeni area in Sierra Leone were also gathered. The survey for Fuelwood Value Chain Analysis was carried out during June-October 2015 and April 2016 with 84 responses collected from the five processes selected for the analysis (i.e. harvesting, collection, transportation, trade and market and consumption). Most of the interviews were carried out in Cassou area; but also some responses were obtained from Ouagadougou. Finally, energy-relevant data from the BIODEV scoping study carried out at the pilot villages of the project sites are also used in this report (Tondoh and Degrande 2015; ICRAF 2014).
3. Country review: Sierra Leone
3.1 National data
Overview In Sierra Leone, 86% of the primary energy is estimated to be woodfuel (79% in the form of fuelwood — typically firewood— and 7% as charcoal), with the remaining 13% originating from petroleum products and 1% from electricity (UNDP 2012). Electricity production is fuelled by oil (all of it imported), with only 9% of the population having access to the electricity grid (UNDP 2012). There is a high potential for bioenergy from agricultural residues in the country —estimated in 656,400 tonnes equivalent to 500 MW of potential capacity per annum (MEWR 2009)—; as well as for palm oil, ethanol, biogas (UNDP 2012), wind (especially in the north) and solar power. There is also high hydroelectric potential despite being affected by high flow variations between rainy and dry seasons (REEEP 2012).
According to the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources of Sierra Leone (MEWR), vast deforestation occurs in the country due to the massive dependence of its over 6 million people on woodfuels (MEWR 2009). Across most parts of the country but particularly in the north, land degradation related to activities like firewood collection and charcoal burning is increasing (GoSL 2013). While the links between traditional biomass use and deforestation seems widely accepted, a study by Energy for Opportunity has challenged these links as “simplistic assumptions of the narrative currently dominant in both national and international circles” (Munro and van der Horst 2012), arguing that most firewood originates from the farming cycle with little or no direct impact on forest cover, while acknowledging the possibility of a negative environmental impact associated to large-scale board and charcoal production with use of chainsaws.
According to FAO figures for 2014, woodfuel production (including wood for charcoal) amounted for 5,749,270 m3, with 421,577 tonnes of charcoal produced (FAOSTAT 2015). As per the view of Bess and Koroma (2013), the production of woodfuel and charcoal is accelerating at a significant rate given some converging factors: (1) the rapid urbanization, (2) the changing urban cooking and eating habits, (3) the economic growth, and (4) the scarcity and high price of alternative energy sources.
The Sierra Leone integrated household survey from 2003-2004 indicated that wood represents the cooking fuel in 88% of Sierra Leonean households, followed by charcoal with 7% and kerosene with 4% (GoSL 2007). 97% of rural households use wood for cooking as compared to 74% of urban households (GoSL 2007). Across provinces, only a very different distribution is found in the Western Area (i.e. the Freetown Peninsula), where 30% of households use charcoal and 15% kerosene (GoSL 2007). Nonetheless, a recent report about Freetown’s cooking fuel use points out at a very fast increase in charcoal use within the last decade, with charcoal estimated to be, as of 2013, the primary cooking fuel for 73% of the households, followed by 26% of
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland firewood, 0.6% of kerosene, 0.2% of LPG and under 0.05% of electricity (Bess and Koroma 2014). According to the same source, citing a survey by Wadsworth and Richard (2013), the demand of charcoal by Freetown households is estimated in 364,000 tonnes per year (about 400 grams of charcoal per capita and day), with that amount accounting for 70% of the household consumption in the country.
Other than cooking, lighting was the main use of energy at household level, with most using kerosene (79%) and electricity (16%), followed by “other” (4%), generators (1%) and candles/torchlights (0.3%) (GoSL 2007). Although the statistics do not define the “other” category, it likely refers to wood since according to Statistics Sierra Leone (2008), wood is the major source of lighting for 5% of the households. 90% use kerosene for lighting in rural areas, whereas in urban areas 37% use electricity (GoSL 2007). However, as later elaborated in the site data section, some evidence indicates that flash lights have been rapidly substituting kerosene for lighting. Non-household woodfuel consumption (i.e. small enterprises, restaurants) is believed to amount to some 10-20% of household energy consumption (Bess and Koroma 2014).
Trends The energy consumption in Sierra Leone has grown at a rapid pace since the end of the civil war (1991– 2002). During the period 2006–2011, energy consumption grew at a mean annual average of 1.7% while woodfuel consumption grew at 1.9% annually (UNDP 2012). The mean annual growth in woodfuel consumption over the mentioned period was 27% for charcoal, and a more modest 0.9% for fuelwood (UNDP 2012). As per FAO, the average growth in the production of woodfuel during the period 2009-2012 was 0.7%, with a growth of charcoal production over the same period of 2.5% (FAOSTAT 2015); which corresponds also to more recent period (i.e. 2011-2014; Table 3). According to data from the World Bank (2016), the growth of the economy over the same period in terms of Gross National Income was 13.25% annually with an annual population increase of 2.2%. While the population is forecasted to continue growing reaching 10 million in 2050, this growth is decelerating after peaking in 2003 (DESA 2014).
For the year 2014, GDP growth was estimated in 4.6%%, indicating a decrease in 16.3% from previous year 2013 (World Bank 2016) at a stable population growth of 2.2% for both years. Also as of 2014, 40% of Sierra Leonean population lived in urban areas, with an annual increase in urbanization of 2.75% reported over the period 2010-2015 (DESA 2014). However, the estimation of urbanization rate has been reported as high as 5% annual (Bess and Koroma 2013). The urbanization rate is expected to be 44.2% in 2025 and to reach 57.2% by 2050 (DESA 2014). Some updated key energy-related figures are shown in table 3, which corresponds to the main period described above.
Table 3. Key figures in relation to energy and solid woodfuels in Sierra Leone.
Amount (Year; Source) Annual change (%) (Year; Source) Population 6,316,000 (2014; WB 2016) + 2.2 (2014; WB 2016) Urbanisation rate (%) 39,6 (2014; DESA 2014) + 2.75 (2010-2015; DESA 2014) Energy consumption (toe) 1,464,940 (2011; UNDP 2012) + 1.7 (2006-2011; UNDP 2012) GNI per capita (US $) 700 (2014; WB 2016) + 13.3 (2011-2014; WB 2016) Woodfuel production in m3 5,749,270 (2014; FAOSTAT 2015) + 0.8 (2011-2014; FAOSTAT 2015) (incl. wood for charcoal) Charcoal production (tonnes) 421,577 (2014; FAOSTAT 2015) + 2.5 (2011-2014; FAOSTAT 2015)
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Fuelwood In Sierra Leone, firewood —commonly used as 80 cm long sticks— can be classified according to its origin as forest wood, mangrove wood or farm wood, with farm wood being the main source and collected in the dry season (Munro and van der Horst 2012). Forest firewood typically originates from fallen branches and dead trees, and only occasionally the girdling technique (ring-barking) is used. Collection, transportation and sale of firewood are done mainly by women. According Munro and van der Horst (2012) and to some of the interviewed experts, the commercialisation of firewood increased after the civil war, occurring mostly near urban centres or major roads; although a declining trend has been observed in the last years at the expense of charcoal. Firewood sale is organized through women associations. For example at Freetown’s Koleh market, firewood -sourced by boat from Port Loko area- was sold at 1000 Le per bundle (M.F. Bangora, personal communication, 27 June 2014). In the view of Bess and Koroma (2014), given the customary land tenure system, almost no commercial woodfuel is produced in the country outside the Western Region without the authorisation of local chiefs. Further details on fuelwood are provided in the section dealing with regional, district and site data.
Charcoal Charcoal can be classified as iron coal (hardwoods, giving charcoal of superior quality), soft coal (softer wood), and mixed coal (Munro and van der Horst 2012). According to Munro and van der Horst (2012), the fact that charcoal producers have targeted hardwood tree species constitute an inefficient use of resources, given their high value as timber. While these authors see that the environmental impacts of charcoal production have been exaggerated, negative impacts on the availability of some key tree species in the Port Loko District is acknowledged, suggesting the need for engagement of communities by the Forestry Department on more efficient charcoal production methods and on planting of key tree species.
Photo 1: Women selling charcoal (right) and firewood (left) at Koleh market, Freetown. The small boat behind is used to bring the firewood (Photo: J. Arevalo).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
The production, commercialisation (organized through women associations) and use of charcoal have increased very rapidly in recent years, with urban residents as the main end users, and Freetown as the major market. Bess and Koroma (2014) reported that the use of charcoal in Freetown has more than doubled in the last 10 years. At Koleh market in Freetown, the price of a bag of iron and soft coal charcoal was 20,000 and 15,000 Le respectively (M.F. Bangora, personal communication, 27 June 2014). On the other hand, a farmer burning charcoal in Taiama (Kori Chiefdom, Moyamba District) reported that he was selling directly in Freetown at 22,000 Le per bag, since the price at roadside would only be 12,000 Le (A. Kamara, personal communication, 26 June 2014). This testimony is in line with the observation made by Bess and Koroma (2014), who stated that suppliers are reducing the number of intermediaries by increasingly taking control of the sales. As per the experience of this farmer, it is gradually more difficult to get enough wood given the increasing number of farms in the area.
In addition to its use as domestic cooking fuel, charcoal is extensively used by small and medium-size enterprises which include restaurants, fish driers, and processers of gari and cassava. As explained by Munro and van der Horst (2012) and also by some energy experts, displacement of people during the civil war extended charcoal production throughout the country and made possible the sharp increase in production after the war, which has even led to the abandonment of farming for charcoal production in some villages. About 30% of all harvested wood may be used for charcoal production (REEEP 2012). Munro and van der Horst (2012), however, saw recent indications that the charcoal offer may be beginning to exceed demand in some areas. While providing a detailed account of the fees and chain of custody of charcoal especially regarding its transportation and sale in Freetown; these authors concluded that the charcoal business is potentially “quite a profitable activity” (p. 85).
Photo 2: Farmer burning charcoal in Taiama, Moyamba District (Photo: J. Arevalo)
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Stoves According to the Global Alliance for Cook Stoves (2013), an estimated 0.001% of the Sierra Leonean population use improved cook stoves (ICS). As per the 2009 baseline of the National Energy Policy (MEWR 2009) the penetration of ICS was considered insignificant. While accurate data on ICS use could not be obtained, the sale of ICS in Freetown as well as along the roads observed first-hand (see photo 3) may indicate a recent increment in the penetration of improved stoves. Such impression is shared by Munro and van der Horst (2012), who stated that many of their interviewees perceived that the invention of the “wonder stove” had contributed to reduce the charcoal demand given its efficiency. In Freetown, a producer of improved stoves reported the sale of 80-100 stoves per day, with the price of the domestic stove ranging from 40,000 to 50,000 Le, depending on its size (Macauley, personal communication, 23 June 2014). Furthermore, a production line for improved ceramic charcoal stoves in Matainkay (Western Region) has been documented (Bess and Koroma 2013).
3.2 Regional, district and site data
The Northern Region The Northern Region is one of four provinces of Sierra Leone with a population of 1,745,553 (Statistics Sierra Leone 2001-2014). The region has 5 districts (Bombali, Kambia, Koinadugu, Port Loko and Tokolili), with the capital Makeni situated in the Bombali District. In terms of ethnicity, the province is inhabited mainly by the Temne, Limba, Loko, and Madingo (GoSL 2007).
Photo 3: Improved cook stoves at the side of the Makeni-Lungi road (Photo: J. Heiskanen)
For Munro and van der Horst (2012), most common species of forest firewood in Northern Province are Pterocarpus erinaceus and Terminalia spp., while with regard to farm wood, typical species are Gmelina arborea and Anysophyllea laurina (firewood quality from farm wood of inferior category as it is partly burnt once in the field). According to these authors, firewood is mostly obtained as part of the farm cycle, and it is
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland commercialised only near towns or roads. Firewood prices in the Northern Province are reported as Le 200- 500 per bundle (4-6 sticks), with lower prices at villages and higher ones in town centres. Highly inconsistent fees can be charged at checkpoints set up by either the Forestry Department or the town councils (Munro and van der Horst 2012).
96% of the households in the Northern Province use wood as the main cooking fuel (a share higher than the national average of 87%), with 0.5% using charcoal (lower than the national average of 8%) (Statistics Sierra Leone 2008). A list of species utilised for charcoal in the Northern Province is provided below (Table 4). According to Munro and van der Horst (2012), the price of a rice bag of charcoal at source varies between Le 5,000 and 9,000, with part of the charcoal produced in the Kambia District sold across the border in Guinea.
Table 4. Tree species used for charcoal production in Sierra Leone’s Northern Province, in decreasing order of preference by local communities; * indicate exotic species (Source: Munro and van der Horst 2012).
Rank Tree species Rank Tree species Rank Tree species 1 Lophira lanceolata 7 Erythrophleum sp. 13 Pentadesma butyracea 2 Pterocarpus erinaceus 8 Ficus exasperata 14 Phyllanthus discoideus 3 Gmelina arborea* 9 Syzygium guineense 15 Dialium guineense 4 Parinari excelsa 10 Anisophyllea laurina 16 Milicia regia 5 Terminalia ivorensis 11 Daniellia thurifera 6 Afzelia africana 12 Mangifera indica*
With regard to lighting, and according to data from the 2003/2004 census for the Northern Province, 85% of households use kerosene and about 12% wood, while the percentage of households using electricity, generator and candle/torch light is altogether 1.1% (Statistics Sierra Leone 2008; GoSL 2007).
The Bombali District The Bombali District has a population of 408,390 (i.e. 8.2% of the national population), with 82,840 of its people residing in the provincial capital Makeni (Statistics Sierra Leone 2001-2014). Average household size in the district is 6.6 (GoSL 2007). According to the census, wood is the principal source of fuel supply for cooking (in 95.3% or 58,984 of the households), followed by kerosene (3.6% or 2,200 households), charcoal (0.7% or 434 households), other (0.2% or 145 households), gas (0.2% or 141 households, and electricity (under 0.1% or 7 households). As shown in table 5, there is a greater use of wood as the principal fuel for cooking in the Bombali District (95%) as compared to the national average (88%). On the other hand, the proportion of households using charcoal is smaller in Bombali (0.7%) than the national figure (8%).
After Porto Loko and Kambia, Bombali is the third biggest charcoal producer district in the Northern Province, with this production mostly taking place in villages situated along major roads in order to supply the towns of Freetown and Makeni (Munro and van der Horst 2012). According to the 2003/2004 census, the average retail price in Makeni is 85 Le/kg firewood and 4,000 Le/kg of charcoal (Statistics Sierra Leone 2008).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Table 5. Main sources of fuel for cooking (A) and lighting (B) in household presented as percentage (Source: Statistics Sierra Leone 2008).
Bombali District Northern Province Sierra Leone A) Fuel for cooking (%) wood 95.27 96.03 87.04 kerosene 3.55 2.95 4.22 charcoal 0.70 0.54 7.52 gas 0.23 0.17 0.36 electricity 0.01 0.03 0.15 other 0.23 0.28 0.71 B) Fuel for lighting (%) kerosene 88.59 86.21 85.63 wood 8.22 11.20 5.12 battery 0.69 0.52 0.80 generator 0.49 0.43 1.07 gas 0.27 0.21 0.31 candle 0.19 0.20 0.78 NPA/BKPS 0.02 0.04 4.10 other 1.52 1.19 2.19
The Tambakka Chiefdom Tambakka is one of the 13 chiefdoms within the Bombali District; home to an estimated 17,675 people (8,485 males and 9,190 females) and with Fintonia as its capital (GoSL 2007). The characteristic vegetation of the chiefdom is that of woodland savannah. A part of the chiefdom’s territory lies within the Outamba-Kilimi National Park, which was gazetted in 1995 becoming the first national park in the country. With regard to the energy source for lighting, flash lights seem to be rapidly substituting kerosene, as observed by the authors as well as noted by Willans (2010). According to this last source, fuelwood is obtained from a radius of 1 to 4 miles from the village centres.
As per the discussions held with villagers originating from the BIODEV site area during the Makeni workshop, firewood is rarely sold (if done, mostly within the community), with only a small market for firewood due to a military post in the Sanya area (A.K. Kamara, personal communication, 8 May 2013). Very little charcoal burning takes place, although some workshop participants believed that on-going road constructions in the area may bring soon an increased demand. Villagers commented on the abundance and importance of the species Pterocarpus erinaceus for stocking firewood during the dry season, while reporting increasing competition with Chinese timber companies also targeting the same tree species. Solar energy for lighting and charging phones was seen as a need in the communities. Only the 3-stone fireplace was being used in the area.
The information collected within the scoping and species prioritisation studies implemented by BIODEV’s work package 1.1 in the pilot villages within the site area provided further details on these patterns (ICRAF 2014). Thus, 94% of the energy used in cooking in the pilot sites is firewood, with 3% charcoal and 2% crop residue. It was confirmed that virtually no improved cookstoves were used in the surveyed communities. The most appreciated qualities of firewood were low moisture content and hot bright flames, with trees species such as Lophira lanceolata, Dialium guineense and Afzelia africana among the most preferred. 96% of the firewood consumed was reportedly collected by the communities, with an average consumption in the dry
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland season of 10 bundles per month for a household of 5 members (twice as much during the dry season). The availability of firewood was considered abundant in all villages except in Kabba-Ferry, given the deforestation and land degradation occurring in that community. Kabba-Ferry was also the only community within the pilot villages where a market for firewood existed. Tree branches were the most preferred source of firewood given their easy collection. Also according to this scoping study, such collection is mostly done by women, children and sometimes young males in the late hours of the day from existing farm lands, forest land nearby bushes, mostly when returning from the farms.
3.3 Regulations, policies and initiatives
In spite of the existence of a system of taxes and fees within the domestic forestry sector, trade of forest products often takes place informally, outside the regulation of the Forestry Division, and with payments of fees carried out in very inconsistent manners (Munro and van der Horst 2012). While the official fees as per Forestry Division’s 2008 regulations are not consistently followed, changes have been expected with the new Forestry Act from 2010.
As the main policy instrument of the Sierra Leonean Government in the area of energy, the National Energy Policy and Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources (MEWR 2009) includes three objectives targeting wood energy: (i) the improvement of energy efficiency through the promotion of fuel- saving charcoal and wood stoves; (ii) the protection of the environment by reducing emissions of harmful gasses, and deforestation with the use of improved stoves; and (iii) the improvement of energy supply by developing fuelwood plantations. The document also mentions the opening of an Energy Research Centre to be located at the University of Sierra Leone; however, nothing seems to be going on there at the moment (Koroma 2016, personal communication). In addition, this document sets ambitious targets to reduce the share of wood energy, increase penetration of efficient stoves, as well as increase the share of LPG, kerosene and solar water heaters at domestic levels (table 6). While it does not specify how the targets would be met, it is evident that the plan needs to be revised to acknowledge developments in the last years such as the virtual abandonment of kerosene as domestic cooking fuel.
Table 6. Targets for domestic energy use in Sierra Leone. (Source: National Energy Policy of Sierra Leone, MEWR 2009).
Energy for cooking, heating and drying Baseline 2012-2015 2015-2020 2020-2030 Share of wood energy 86% -10% -20% -30% Penetration of energy efficient cook stove Insignificant 5% 10% 15% Share of Kerosene 2.7% 30% 60% 80% Share of LPG 0.1% 5% 10% 15% Penetration of solar water heater - - 0.25% 1%
In addition to the National Energy Policy and Strategic Plan, Sierra Leone’s Third Generation Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2013-2018 specifies that a plant will be established for training and production of energy efficient stoves (GoSL 2013); however, according to personal communication this has not even started (Koroma J. 2016). Furthermore, Sierra Leone has set up a Multi-Stakeholder’s Group on Energy Access and has joined, as a pilot country, the Sustainable Energy for All initiative of the United Nations (SE4ALL). SE4ALL aims, by 2030, at achieving: (i) universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services, (ii) doubling the rate of efficiency, and (iii) doubling the share of renewable energy (UNDP 2012).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Two additional initiatives currently addressing the need for decreasing traditional and unsustainable forms of wood energy utilisation are worth noting. Thus, with funding from the Global Environmental Facility and led by the Ministry of Energy and Water Resources and the Environmental Protection Agency, the project Energy Efficiency Production and Utilisation of Charcoal Technologies and Private Sector Involvement is planning to deploy 1,000 energy efficient charcoal kilns and 15,000 improved cook stoves within its operating time 2013-2018. On the other hand, the five million US$ Biodiversity Conservation Project (BCP) counted on the financing by the World Bank through the Global Environmental Facility. The BCP project area included the Outamba Kilimi National Park and intended, among other activities, to promote renewable energies, as well as pilot energy-saving technologies (e.g. fuelwood-saving stoves).
In general terms, there seems to be a clear commitment by the GoSL for strengthening the capacities to deal environmental protection, including tackling the energy-deforestation nexus. While this process included, for example the hiring of new personnel to the Ministry of Energy, as well as the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency, time is needed in order to see the results of these efforts.
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
4 Country review: Burkina Faso
4.1 National data
Overview Burkina Faso has few energy resources and heavily depends on imported oil and gas, with also 15% of its electricity coming from neighbouring countries (REEEP 2012). It has one of the most expensive electricity tariffs in Sub-Saharan Africa — at a residential rate of 20 USD cents/kWh — (Briceño-Garmendia and Shkaratan 2011), with only 13.1% of the population accessing electricity during the period 2011-2015 (World Bank 2016). Burkina Faso’s demographic trend (population over 17 million, growing at 3% annually) is believed to be speeding up environmental degradation in the country, with deforestation mainly attributed to agricultural expansion (Arevalo 2016), overgrazing, uncontrolled bush fires and overexploitation of wood for energy (MEDD 2012a). While the negative impacts of the increasing reliance on firewood and charcoal seem widely accepted, some diverging voices are also heard. Such is the case of Kalame and colleagues (2008), for whom the perception that charcoal production is accelerating degradation in Burkina Faso is not necessarily supported by scientific evidence.
With 5.4 million hectares of forests (FAOSTAT 2015) —including 3.9 million hectares of state-owned forest reserves—, annual deforestation for the period 1992-2002 was estimated by the government in 107,626 ha and annual forest degradation equivalent to 0.5 million hectares (MEDD 2012a). 90% of the population utilizes wood energy in the form of firewood and charcoal (REEEP 2012). As per the FAO statistics, Burkina Faso produced 13,520,146 m3 of woodfuel (including wood for charcoal) and 654,594 tonnes of charcoal in 2014 (FAOSTAT 2015).
Biomass constitutes 85% of the primary energy consumption, with 14% derived from oil products and 1% from hydroelectricity (MEDD 2012a). Different figures for the demand of biomass have been found. Thus, according to the EASYPol (2007) estimation for 2004, the total demand of solid biomass was 8,786,544 m3, with 5,125,484 m3 (4,151,642 tonnes) corresponding to firewood, and 3,661,060 m3 of wood (593,092 tonnes) to charcoal. The total demand in 2002 has also been estimated as 6,699,286 m3 (MEDD 2012a). Considering this last figure and given that the estimated available supply in 2002 was 4,071,644 m3, there is a 61% deficit in solid woodfuel supply (MEDD 2012a). It has also been estimated that the city of Ouagadougou alone consumes annually some 304,000 tons (1,100,000 steres) of firewood (Ouedraogo 2002, as cited in EASYPol 2007). While wood imports from Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire are registered, the amounts seem relatively small and infrequent, with most imports probably taken place through informal channels (EASYPol 2007).
It is important to note that while the available data on issues such as forest area, deforestation and woodfuel use and demand is here presented, its reliability is questionable given the absence of country wide inventories or comprehensive assessments. An example given to illustrate this point is that the volume of fuelwood which is sourced from managed forests (i.e. what is known and under a permit system) is estimated to be just a small fraction of the firewood that is actually produced, a fraction that may represent between 15% (researcher Dr. Denis Gautier, personal communication, January 23, 2014) and 33% (Director of Forestry Mr Kisito Nabie, January 23, 2014) of the total.
As per the latest census data from 2006, 90.3% of households in Burkina Faso use wood as a source of fuel for cooking (MEF 2009). In rural areas, firewood burning in simple stoves is the main source of energy in
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
93.7% of the households, followed by wood in improved stoves (2.4% of rural households), charcoal (1.2%), gas (0.8%) and petroleum (0.3%). In urban areas, 56.8% of the households use firewood in simple stoves, followed by gas (15.1%), charcoal (10.2%), wood in improved stoves (9.7%), electricity (0.7%) and petrol (0.5%). However, according to the World Bank (2007), charcoal has become the fuel of choice in urban Burkina Faso reaching 40% of households over the period 1997-2007, with previous LPG and kerosene increases eroded by the hike in petroleum prices.
As per the data of MEF (2009), a majority of households use kerosene as the main energy for lighting (67.3%), followed by flash lights (12.8%), electricity (10.8%) and the burning of wood or straw (5.2%). The use of kerosene, however, seemed to have decreased considerably in the last years, often at the expense of flash lights. Wood and straw burning is more common (13.3%) in the typical Burkinabe huts found in rural areas (MEF 2009).
The average household size in Burkina Faso in 2006 was 6.0 persons, corresponding to 5.0 in urban areas and 6.3 in rural areas (MEF 2009). The average per capita consumption of fuelwood is 1.8 times higher in cities than in rural areas (MEDD 2012a). According to Bensch et al. (2011), average national household expenditure in energy in 2003 was, in 2009 prices, 60,877 FCFA (7.1% of total household expenditure), with 56.2% of the amount spent in firewood and 4.8% in charcoal. The same study found that the share spent in energy in rural Kénédougou Province (Western Burkina Faso) varied between 3 to 13% (average of 7.8%), with 76.2% of that amount spent in firewood and only 0.4% in charcoal.
According to the study of Ouedraogo (2006) for Ouagadougou, the utilisation rate of firewood decreases — and those of charcoal and LPG increase— with increasing household income, with 77% of firewood users using kerosene for lighting (the poorest, biggest households), and 47% of charcoal users using electricity for lighting (the wealthiest, smallest households). Some key energy-related figures are shown in table 7.
Table 7. Key figures in relation to energy and solid woodfuels in Burkina Faso.
Amount (Year; Source) Annual change (%) (Year; Source) Population 17,590,000 (2014; WB 2016) + 2.9 (2014; WB 2016) Urbanisation rate (%) 29 (2014, DESA 2014) + 5.87 (2010-2015; DESA 2014) Energy consumption (toe) 1,857,600 (EASYPOL 2007) + 1.6 (2010; US EIA 2013) GNI per capita (US $) 700 (2014; WB 2016) + 4.4 (2014; WB 2016) Woodfuel production in m3 13,520,146 (2014; FAOSTAT 2015) + 1.4 (2011-2014; FAOSTAT 2015) (incl. wood for charcoal) Charcoal production (tonnes) 654,594 (2014; FAOSTAT 2015) + 2.8 (2011-2014; FAOSTAT 2015)
Trends With an estimated 17,590,000 inhabitants (World Bank 20016), Burkina Faso is experiencing one of the highest population growths in Africa (MEDD 2012a). An annual population increment of 3.3% — corresponding to a growth of 5.5% in urban areas and 2% in rural areas— has been reported by MEF (2009), while the latest figure given by the World Bank is of an increment of 2.9% for 2014 (World Bank 2016). The increment has been particularly high in the capital Ouagadougou, with an annual 7.3% growth in the period 2000-2015 (DESA 2014). The urbanization rate is forecasted to continue its growth from 25.7% in 2010 to 37.7% in 2025, reaching 52% by 2050 (DESA 2014).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
A variety of figures for increase in energy production can be found. According to the US Energy Information Administration (US EIA 2013), the annual growth in energy production in 2010 was 1.6%. For MEF (2013), between 1994 and 1999, the total energy consumption in households increased 2.4% annually, with the household consumption of firewood growing 1.7% annually and charcoal consumption escalating 169.6% per annum. According to MEDD (2012a), the demand for charcoal during 1992-2002 increased by 5.5%. In more recent years and according to FAO, the average growth in the production of woodfuel for the period 2011- 2014 was 1.4%, with a growth of charcoal production over the same period of 2.8% (FAOSTAT 2015). Furthermore, a marked decline in precipitation in Burkina Faso has been recorded in recent decades (MEDD 2012a), with social consequences of the desertification impact including the increase in distance for firewood collection (MEDD 2012b).
Fuelwood Firewood is the main commercial product of Burkinabe forests. Out of the 3.9 million hectares of state- owned classified forests, only 800,000 hectares have forest management plans (MEDD 2012a). According to the estimation of the World Bank (2011), some 441,000 hectares are under sustainable forest management and 270,000 ha are to be added in the coming years, mostly for woodfuel production. Based on the fuelwood value chain analysis, the most preferred tree species for fuelwood are: Detarium microcarpum, Crossopterix febrifuga and Anogeissus leiocarpus. Also Terminalia sp., Vitellaria paradoxa and Eucalyptus camaldulensis are commonly used as fuelwood in Burkina Faso.
While firewood is commonly commercialised in urban centres, most rural households gather their own fuelwood. Thus, in the study by Bensch and colleagues (2011) in rural Kénédougou, 98% of households collected firewood, with 13% of them also buying some firewood, and only 1.4% of the households buying all their firewood. According to this study, average use per week was 18 bundles, with an average collection time of 7 hours and average household size of 9.1 persons.
Photo 4: Firewood at Campui market, Ouagadougou (Photo: J. Arevalo)
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
The price of firewood in Ouagadougou varies between 50 and 100 FCFA per kilo (Bensch et al. 2013). However, the price appeared to have increased during the last years since for most of the consumers interviewed in Ouagadougou for the fuelwood value chain study, the price per kilo of firewood was 200 FCFA. According to the EASYPol report (2007), a stere of firewood from a managed forest is sold in Ouagadougou since 1998 at 2,200 FCFA, with the distribution of benefits as follows: 1,100 FCFA (50%) payment to forest workers, 300 FCFA (14%) as forestry tax, 600 FCFA (27%) for the Forest Development Fund, and 200 FCFA (9%) for the Village Investment Fund.
Forest Management Domains (FDM) have been established for sustainable fuelwood production, subsequently divided in 2,000 – 4,000 hectares Forest Management Units (FMU), managed by Forest Management Groups (FMG, or Chantier d’Aménagement Forestier) formed by local communities (Coulibaly- Lingani et al. 2011). In a rotation period of 20 years, wood-cutting for commercial firewood is done from January to March (dry season); with deadwood and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collected by members of the FMG at any time (Coulibaly-Lingani et al. 2011).
a) b)
Photo 5: a) Empty tracks from Ouagadougou to Cassou; b) Trucks transporting firewood from Cassou to Ouagadougou (Photo: Y. Puentes Rodriguez)
Charcoal Charcoal conversion efficiency in Burkina Faso has been estimated in 11%, which is less than in other SSA countries such as Senegal (18%) (World Bank 2007). In Ouagadougou, charcoal is sold at between 150 and 300 FCFA per kilo (Bensch et al. 2013); although for some consumers interviewed the price was 100 FCFA per kilo. Species commonly used in charcoal production given their good quality include Prosopis africana, Burkea africana and Terminalia sp. Further information related to charcoal is provided in subsequent sections.
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Stoves According to WHO (2009, as cited in Bensch et al. 2013), some 16,500 people die every year in Burkina Faso because of the household air pollution originating in biomass cooking fuels. Since most of the cooking is done outside, air pollution is only a major concern during the rainy season, when stoves are taken inside the kitchens or houses (FAFASO 2007). In 2010, 7.8% of Burkinabe households had an improved stove, with a much higher proportion among urban households (24%) as opposed to of rural households (2.4%) (INSD & ICF International 2012). This figure is much higher than the one offered by the Global Alliance for Clean Cook Stoves (2013) of just 0.06% of the population using improved biomass cook stoves. However, none of the people interviewed for the fuelwood value chain study had an improved cook stove.
Photo 6: A woman cooking with both firewood (left) and charcoal (right) in Ouagadougou (Photo: J. Arevalo).
As elaborated below under the policies and initiatives section, since 2006 the German agency GIZ has worked with the Applied Science and Technology Institute (IRSAT, a department of the Ministry of Secondary Schools and Research) in the FAFASO project on improved stoves, training producers and assisting in the commercialisation of affordable ICS. Furthermore, the NGOs New Tree and Tipaalga have conducted extensive women training in the last years in the development of self-made improved 3-stone stoves.
4.2 Regional, district and site data
The Centre-West Region Burkina Faso’s Central West Region is one of the 13 administrative regions of the country and has an estimated population of 1,348,784 inhabitants (MEF 2011). It is a relatively poor region with 14.8% of the population living in extreme poverty— less than 1 US$ a day (UNDP 2010). The region’s deficit in woodfuel
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland and charcoal has been estimated in 31%, compared to a national average deficit of 39% (MEDD 2012a). According to UNDP (2010), the region supplies to Ouagadougou with 40% of its firewood and charcoal.
In 2007, it was estimated that 91.4% of households in the Centre-West Region used wood for cooking compared to a national average of 87.4%, with 2.9% using charcoal as compared to the 4.3% national average (MEF 2013).
Ziro Province With a population estimated for 2011 in 207,079 and capital in the town of Sapouy, Ziro is one of 4 provinces of the Centre-West Region, and includes the rural communities of Bakata, Bougnounou, Cassou, Dalo and Gao (MEF 2011). As per the information provided by GIZ’s Andrea Reikat (personal communication, September 10, 2013), a couple of household stove producers have been recently trained within the FAFASO program in Sapouy within Ziro Province and Leo within the neighbouring Sissili Province. Also within WP 1.4, 21 women were trained in 2014 on the improved stoves construction in cooperation with the Association Tiilpaaga, in Cassou. The participants were from all 4 villages represented in the study area. The aim of the activity was to train these women to build up and utilize the 3 – stone self-made stoves in cooking. All the materials used are possible to be found from the villages. These 21 women are in turn expected to train other women in their own villages to the subject and thus to expand the skills and know-how.
According to Coulibaly-Lingani et al. (2011), Ziro province —located within a 150 km radius from the capital— is among the areas where forest use and management rights has been given to the local communities after the participatory management program aimed at providing sustainable fuelwood for Ouagadougou which started in 1986.
Cassou Department According to data from 2006, the Cassou Department is home to 40,038 people (MEF 2009). The Cassou forest is managed by local communities for fuelwood production under the supervision of a FMG. With a surface of 29,515 ha, Cassou forest is distributed on both sides of the national road N°13 connecting Léo and Sabou (more concretely between Tékrou and Dana). Established in 1991 by the Burkinabe Government, the management of the forest was handed over four years later to private management, which involves 27 villages under the authority of Cassou, Gao and Bakata Districts.
The management in the 29,515 hectares of the Cassou forest is organized in 20 blocks, each subdivided in 20 plots which are harvested in a 21 year rotation period (Omar Guinduemde, personal communication, May 15, 2013). Firewood is cut to 2 meter length, with diameters of 10-25 cm. About 10 stere/ha is harvested, cutting 50% of standing volume and leaving big trees as seed trees. Also prescribed burning is done every year from mid-September to mid-November.
Commonly harvested trees include karité or shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), Crossopteryx febrifuga as well as species from the genus Terminalia and Detarium. A stere of firewood is sold at 2,200 FCFA, with the money split as follows: (a) 50% or 1100 FCFA for the FMG members; (b) 200 FCFA to village development fund (for schools, wells etc.); (c) 300 FCFA tax for forest service; and (d) 600 FCFA for personnel (the 4 technical staff). Given the powerful lobby controlling the commercialisation of firewood, the price paid to firewood producers has remained constant since 1992 while the consumer price in the city has increased.
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
BIODEV pilot site With regard to the project site, woodfuel-relevant information from the exploratory study conducted by BIODEV’s Working Package 1.1 (Tondoh and Degrande 2015) in the villages of Kou, Dao, Vrassam and Cassou, is here summarized. Thus, the contribution of trees to household income in these 4 villages is around 15% of total income on average. Most wood is sold as firewood and charcoal for Ouagadougou residents, with local firewood consumption –mainly for cooking and crafting- not exceeding 2 cartloads per month per household (Tondoh and Degrande 2015).
According to Tondoh and Degrande (2015), firewood is mainly produced from three species: Detarium microcarpum, Crossopteryx febrifuga and Pterocarpus erinaceus, resulting in an overexploitation of these species with a risk to their sustainability in the long term. This is also supported by the fuelwood value chain study carried out in Cassou area; including also Anogeissus leiocarpus as most preferred species for firewood in the area.
Wood gathering for domestic use (typically from fields, as well as fallen branches from forests) is reserved to women, who carry the firewood daily when coming back from the fields and forests. The amount of firewood consumed in the household is determined by household size, the nature of meals and frequency of preparation. According to the report, the availability of firewood is becoming scarce, and there is an urgent need to implement a plan for the sustainable management of wood energy in the region in general and in particular in the pilot villages. Anarchic cutting of firewood by loggers has for example been reported, while the promoting and subsidization of improved stoves is pointed out as an opportunity (T Tondoh and Degrande 2015). Resources scarcity was also defined as one of the challenges faced by the fuelwood value chain stakeholders; mainly by the harvesters and collectors.
4.3 Regulations, policies and initiatives
The 2009 Rural Land Act, the National Rural Sector Development Plan and the National Planning Framework for Land Management have recently strengthened decentralization in Burkina Faso (MEDD 2012a), adding to the decentralization policies in forest management launched in the nineties. Furthermore, while a more important role for local authorities and private sector were recently given through revisions of the Forest Code in 2011 in the development of wooded areas; effective community participation has been achieved through the integration of locals and foresters in Forest Management Groups and Associations (MEDD 2012a). However, since regulations are applied mainly in managed forests, they have been largely ineffective since most wood energy is sourced illegally (ICRAF 2009).
A strategy for domestic energy was published in 2005 (MMCE & CILLS 2005). The long term sectorial strategy in energy is described in the document “Vision 2020 De l’Accès aux Services Énergétiques Modernes”, which pursues interconnection within the West Africa Power Pool. In the 2011-2015 Strategy for Accelerated Growth and Sustainable Development (SCADD), particular emphasis is paid to the development of renewable energy and particularly solar energy. For example, the Electricity Sector Support Project (World Bank 2013) seeks the deployment of 25,000 solar lanterns in off-grid public schools. According to REEEP (2012), the government has been working on a strategy for the regulation of woodfuel trade. However, no concrete wood energy related targets (e.g. on use of solid fuels, improved stoves etc.) have been set.
Burkina Faso’s Government has elaborated sectorial strategies for environment, forestry —including a Forest Investment Plan— and climate change adaptation and mitigation (with the launch of a REDD programme in
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
2010), accompanied with a 2008-2018 investment plan (MEDD 2012a). Since the 70’s, a great number of improved stove projects as well as other energy-related projects have taken place in Burkina Faso (FAFASO 2007). For Ouedraogo (2006), even though a number of important policies have been put in place, the depletion rate of forest resources continues to grow. Some of the most relevant recent initiatives such as the PASE and FAFASO projects are summarized below.
Burkina Faso’s 2007-2013 Energy Access Project (PASE) was an intervention financed by the World Bank and directed by the Unité d’Exécution de la Reforme du Sector de l‘Energie (UER). The Direction Générale de la Conservation de la Nature (DGCN) at the Ministry of Environment implemented the woodfuel management part, while the Direction Général de l’Energie (DGE) implemented the capacity component. The three main initiatives with regard to bioenergy were: (1) to increase in 5 years (by 2013) the penetration of improved wood and charcoal stoves from less than 20,000 (baseline of 2007) to reach 70,000, saving 10% of woodfuel consumption; (2) to exceed 441,000 ha under community-based wood energy management and 20 forests under management plans; and (3) to invest 6.7 million dollars to improve woodfuels supply management and substitution (World Bank 2007). It was concluded that the outcomes of this project were satisfactory, the risk to development outcome was low, and the performance from Bank and from the borrower were satisfactory and moderately satisfactory, respectively (World Bank 2015).
The FAFASO project is a German-Dutch initiative initiated in 2005 that has, by 2012, trained 285 artisans and help produced over 200,000 improved stoves sold under the brand “Roumdé” (Photo 7). The Roumdé ICS are believed to save 10-30% of fuelwood. According to FAFASO experts, fixed-stoves are not accepted by communities as cooking is done mostly outside, with Roumdé ICS therefore having a very limited effect on health as they do not have chimney. For poorer households, a mobile ceramic stove saving 40% fuel has been commercialised. Dissemination in rural areas have been more difficult since firewood is typically collected and not bought, which means that the energy savings do not translate into monetary savings (Bensch et al. 2013).
Also UNDP has worked in reducing energy constrains for sustainable development in the Centre-West Region through the establishment of a Multi-Functional Platform for Renewable Energy (MFP) (UNDP 2006). Furthermore, a FAO-UNDP-GoBF programme of forest management for energy has covered some 80,000 ha of forests within 150 km radius around Ouagadougou, with plans to extend it to additional 570,000 ha.
Burkina’s long term energy consumption scenario has been claimed to rely on the assumption that LPG and kerosene need to cover for the increase in the domestic urban energy demand (ESMAP 1991, in Ouedraogo 2006). According to Ouedraogo (2006), the government has addressed the issue by lowering the prices of kerosene and LPG and increasing the forest taxes and royalties of firewood, while the Burkinabe Institute of Energy has developed stoves for kerosene and LPG, as well as three improved models of wood-energy stoves.
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Photo 7: Mr Drabo Gourafoma (FAFASO) showing the various models of Roumdé ICS (Photo: J. Arevalo).
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
5 Discussion
Energy crisis & deforestation Considering the high rates of projected population growth in West Africa, meeting the increasing energy needs remains a crucial challenge to ensure the continuation of economic growth and development in the region over the next decades. Increased energy production is paramount, as it has been shown that a 1% increase in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) requires a 0.6% energy increase (Kebede et al. 2010). An important part of this energy, especially at household level, will continue to be in the form of traditional solid biomass. Although the idea of a dramatic wood energy crisis (such as the one referred to in the 1970s that would conduct to the total depletion of forest resources [e.g. Girard 2002]) may not necessarily materialise, current increment rates in firewood and charcoal production are likely contributing to deforestation and forest degradation in the analysed countries.
Traditional forms of cooking with biomass are believed to contribute to some 18% of the global GHG emissions when deforestation and forest degradation are involved (World Bank 2011). Nonetheless, as it has been shown that consumption by rural households is no longer a main cause of deforestation or degradation (World Bank 2011), restrictive “command-and-rule” type of policies could jeopardise important parts of rural communities’ livelihoods and therefore it needs to be carefully designed. Dependency on solid woodfuels has implications that are cross-cutting, as their negative effects (such as indoor pollution related diseases) affect specially the poor as well as women and children. The inclusion of the proportion of population using solid fuel as one of the indicators of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (UN 2006) towards reducing poverty can be seen as a positive step as it helps monitoring information that is generally outdated and scarce.
Strategies and efforts conducting to a sustainable production and use of solid woodfuels can be typically grouped as those aimed at reducing their demand (e.g. use of ICS, sensitisation on energy saving), increasing their offer (e.g. afforestation, sustainable forest management), and diversifying energy sources (e.g. with other conventional or renewable energies). Other than by the implementations of policies and programmes, future wood energy needs in the studied countries will be mainly affected by factors related to population dynamics (i.e. population growth, urbanisation, household size), socio-economic variables (i.e. GDP, income, consumer preferences), and technological innovations (i.e. efficiency, alternative sources of energy). A set of assumptions and their expected effects on woodfuel demand are summarised in table 8, with the level of uncertainty increasing as we move from population and economic trends to technological ones. While the projection of figures on the wood energy needs for the coming decades on the basis of some variables can be useful, the approach here chosen aims at generating a discussion on the possible effects of observed trends and phenomena which are most likely to influence wood energy developments in the West African region. As noted by Cline-Cole (1990), it is important to pay particular attention to the distinction between needs projections and effective demand, since simple approaches like large-scale fuelwood plantation programmes may not take into account people’s ability and willingness to pay at a given market price.
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Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Table 8. Analysis of future woodfuel needs for Burkina Faso and Sierra Leone. Signs (+) and (-) indicate expected increment/decrease in woodfuel use. Assumptions Expected effect (for West Africa) Observations for Sierra Leone Observations for Burkina Faso
Population-related trends (++)
Population increment (+) Increased use of woodfuels (higher Annual population growth: +2.2% (2014; WB Annual population growth: +2.9% (2014; WB energy use by larger population) 2016); growth to continue, reaching 10 2016); growth to continue, reaching 40 million in million in 2050; growth rate peaked in 2003, 2050; growth rate peaked in 2007, since then since then decreases (DESA 2014) decreases (DESA 2014) Urbanisation increment (-) Less use of woodfuels (since in Urbanisation rate growth: +2.75% (2010- Urbanisation rate growth: +2.9%; urbanisation urban areas, it has to be bought) 2015); urbanisation rate was 39.9% in 2015, rate in 2015 was 29.9%, to reach 52% by 2050 (+) Increased use of charcoal at the to reach 57.2% by 2050 (DESA 2014) (DESA 2014) expense of firewood* Household size reduction (+) Increased use of woodfuels (since it Average household 6.0 (SSL 2004); no data Average household 6.0 (INSD 2013); no data is use less efficiently in smaller available on household size change available on household size change households)**
Economy -related trends (+) Economic growth / total (+) Increased use of woodfuels (e.g. Annual GNI growth: +13.3% (2011-2014; WB Annual GNI growth: 4.4% (2014; WB 2016). energy use increment more warm meals) 2016). Annual energy consumption growth: Annual energy consumption growth: 2.9% (2014; (Lowest) +1.7% (2006-2011; UNDP 2012) WB 2016)
Changes in energy use (+) Increases in charcoal use at the Annual increase in charcoal production of Annual increase in charcoal production of 2.8% expense of firewood 2.5% vs 0.8% in woodfuel (2011-2014, vs 1.4% in woodfuel (2011-2014, FAOSTAT 2015) (-) Reduction of woodfuel use at FAOSTAT 2015) expense of other sources (LPG, elect.)
Technology-related trends (-) (Highest) of Level uncertainty Increasing availability (-) Reduction in use of woodfuels, No data; observed increment in solar and No data; observed increment in solar and flash and/or decreasing price of increase in other sources (solar, flash lights lights; high potential for solar energy (REEEP modern energy sources electricity, etc.) 2012) Increased efficiency of (-) Reduction in use of woodfuels (less No data on ICS; observed increment in ICS used by 8% (24% urban and 2% rural) woodfuel stoves amount needed to cook same penetration of ICS households (INSD/ICF 2012); increasing meal)*** penetration of ICS *Charcoal burning involves higher consumption of wood in relation to direct firewood burning (e.g. Schirnding et al. 2002). **Increasing consuming unit size (up to consuming units of 15 individuals) decreases per capita consumption of woodfuels (Cline-Cole et al. 1990). ***The rebound effect explains how improvements of energy efficiency encourage greater use, therefore reducing the effective savings (Sorrell 2007). 25
Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Population-related trends Significant and sustained population growth (2.2% in Sierra Leone, 2.9% in Burkina Faso) implies that a greater amount of energy will be required. As a very large proportion of people depend on solid woodfuels, this will continue to add pressure on the existing natural resources. Nevertheless, the population growth will be higher at urban centres, where people pay for their energy, as opposed to the common self-supply practice of rural dwellers; which is a factor that may lead those with fewer resources to a more rational use of woodfuels. On the other hand, the trend observed in urban areas towards smaller households means a less efficient use of fuelwood, as decreasing consuming units (up to households of 15 individuals) involves an increment in per capita consumption (Cline-Cole et al. 1990, World Bank 2011).
Furthermore, since charcoal is preferred over firewood as source of cooking energy in urban environments, consumption of charcoal is likely to continue its upward trend. For example, a study in Dar es Salaam showed that for 1% of increase in urbanization, there is an increase of 14% in charcoal use (Hosier et al. 1993, as cited in World Bank 2011). Since charcoal burning involves higher consumption of wood in relation to direct firewood burning (e.g. Schirnding et al. 2002), this implies an even greater demand for fuelwood which may have negative environmental consequences. The transition from firewood to charcoal however has also obvious health benefits, as it reduces the exposure to indoor particulates (PM10) by over 80% (Schirnding et al. 2002).
Economic-related trends The high economic growth seen in the region has weakened during the last decade; affecting mainly those countries relying on oil prices (i.e. Nigeria). However, economic growth in the countries presented in this report is expected to continue growing in the coming years and it will likely keep pushing up the demand for energy; therefore impacting on higher demand of all main energy sources including woodfuel (i.e. more warm meals). Spending in energy, however, seems to increase less than proportionally with income growth (Albouy and Nadafu 1999, as cited in Bensch et al. 2011). Nevertheless, with economic growth bringing higher purchasing power, changes in the energy types (whether moving up in the energy ladder, diversifying energy sources or a combination of both) can be also expected. This means on one hand the substitution of firewood for charcoal in poorer households, but also the substitution of firewood and charcoal for LPG and electricity in richer homes.
In Ouagadougou, for example, a decrease in firewood use rate has been observed with increasing household income, making firewood a transition good for households aiming at other urban fuels (Ouedraogo 2006). In practice however, and because of the complexity of the optimization decision, it has been observed that “a doubling of typical incomes only reduces the number of those depending on biomass energy for cooking by 16%” (World Bank 2011 p. 29).
Technology-related trends In order to meet 2030 target of universal access to clean, safe, affordable and sustainable cooking energy, the ECOWAS Energy Efficiency Policy document sees the greatest potential in: (i) ICS penetration and improve charcoal production efficiency; (ii) developing new biomass value chains; (iii) promoting LPG; and (iv) promoting solar cookers (ECOWAS 2012).
26 Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
Both increasing availability and decreasing price in modern energy sources can be expected in the next years, which would lead to certain degree of reduction in the use of solid woodfuels. These include renewable sources like biogas, biofuels and solar energy, as well as solar cookers. Also greater conversion efficiencies from wood to charcoal are possible. According to the World Bank (2011), wood to charcoal conversion —emitting 9 tons of
CO2 for every ton of charcoal produced— is the step in the charcoal lifecycle with highest potential to reduce GHGs (World Bank 2011).
Furthermore, increasingly efficient cooking stoves are appearing in the market. Higher levels of penetration of ICS should involve a reduction in the amount of woodfuels consumed (i.e. less amount needed to cook same meal), even when discounting the rebound effect. Such effect explains how improvements of energy efficiency tend to encourage a greater use, therefore reducing the effective savings (e.g. Sorrell 2007). When calculating savings, however, it is important to account for the rebound effect as it has been found to effectively reduce the energy savings in 42% with improved charcoal stoves (Zein-Elabdin 1997). Similarly, Bensch et al. (2013, p. 12) found in Burkina Faso that “households might prepare more hot meals or cook for more people because cooking becomes cheaper due to the higher efficiency of the ICS“.
High adoption rates are also keys in any policy or programme having as an objective the increased use of ICS. While commonly reported adoption rates are of 30%, Zein-Elabdin (1997) found rates as high as 50% in China. Large-scale successful programmes have shown the need for introducing ICS in a gradual manner, allowing the “adoption process to grow organically”, and thus “slowly building local demand” (World Bank 2011 p. 28). Culturally- and tradition-derived preferences towards using 3-stone stoves over ICS are important factors to be considered too.
Opportunities In addition to the promotion of electrification, and the use of other sources of energy such as solar, LPG and hydro, certain consensus seem to exist with regard to achieving more rational uses of woodfuel:
1. More efficient and clean combustion of woodfuels through ICS use 2. More efficient production of charcoal 3. Increase the forest area under sustainable forest management 4. Increase forest cover (including plantations for wood energy) 5. Improve supply management 6. Greater monitoring of woodfuel production, trade and consumption (especially of charcoal) 7. Revision of the regulatory framework (including tax system) for fuelwood products 8. Education and training
In fact, results from the small expert survey carried out in the BIODEV inception meetings in Makeni and Ouagadougou indicate that the promotion of wood energy lots and improved stoves were the two most favoured strategies for both Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. In Sierra Leone, a third main strategy was an increased use of forest residues, with the third most supported strategy for Burkina Faso being the increased use of other non-wood energy sources (solar, biogas, natural gas). The only significant difference between countries in this respect was the greater support for increased use of non-wood sources in Burkina Faso with respect to Sierra Leone. Regarding regulations, it clearly emerged that a firewood collection tax was the least
27 Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland favoured option in both countries, with a charcoal production tax significantly more favoured in Burkina Faso with respect to Sierra Leone. With regard to capacity needs, training related to ICS was the first priority pointed out by the surveyed experts in both countries.
In the case of Sierra Leone, economic growth (involving for example extensive infrastructure development) presents itself as both an opportunity for the sustainable development of the agriculture and forestry sectors (including increased availability of forest and agricultural products and residues for energy) as well as a threat to a greater unsustainable exploitation of forests. A more coherent regulatory framework for woodfuels seems also necessary. In the view of Munro and van der Horst (2012), fees for firewood trade should be eliminated or minimal given the importance of this source of income for the livelihoods of the rural poor, while regulations in the production and trade of forestry products should be simplified and made more fair. Given the low penetration of ICS, efforts in this regard could also reduce the demand for fuelwood as well as has positive impacts in the reduction of GHGs and smoke-related illnesses. More ambitious and carbon-neutral targets that those of the 2009 may also be needed; on one hand, they only set concrete total objectives of production for electricity generation (giving targets for the remaining energy sources in percentages); secondly, reductions in solid woodfuel uses were expected to be achieved through for example increasing use of kerosene in cooking, consequently failing to acknowledge the fast changing societal realities.
In the case of Burkina Faso, an energy wood strategy with concrete targets and action plans is clearly needed. Such strategy needs to take into account the opportunities that the decentralization process can bring to an improved and more participative and transparent management of natural resources. Given the successful experiences of woodfuel production within sustainable community forestry management, the greatest opportunity for increased woodfuel supply is the increase of the forest area under sustainable management, which should be coupled with a longer term objective of increasing tree and forest cover. Changes in the processing methods for fish drying and shea butter, together with the valorisation of agricultural waste, are also seen by Dabat and colleagues (2010) as opportunities to tackle the energy challenge.
Final remarks According to the Forestry Outlook Study for Africa, the main changes in woodfuel consumption will depend on the potential for replacing woodfuel for other energy sources and on the improvement of the woodfuel supply chain (FAO 2003, cited in Ouedraogo 2006). Since it seems clear that fuelwood will continue to be for some time an important component in the energy mix and a vital source of energy for the poorer, a combination of approaches aiming at increasing biomass offer, decreasing biomass demand and diversifying energy sources seem necessary. When the use of wood for energy can be systematically planned taking into account maintenance of forested areas, the continuum of forest vegetation on certain areas can be secured and the wood collection (most typically work for women) can be rationalised.
Literature consulted in this report confirms what were believed to be some of the most pressing realities: that energy consumption is increasing, forests are declining, and the workload of women related to firewood collection is rising. The aims of the wood energy work package within the BIODEV project can thus be considered relevant and current: WP1.4 is aiming to create modern and reliable method for biomass estimation considering the production and sustainable use of energy wood and its effect on carbon sequestration and thus to climate
28 Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland change. By compiling and sharing the data and analyses contained in this report, it is hoped that discussion and feedback on these important issues can be generated and used in the forthcoming activities of the work package and even outside BIODEV’s activities.
Furthermore, other fundamental aspects affecting wood energy supply and use will need to be addressed. One is the need to resolve the issue of tenure, so that an engaged community management of forests can take place. The second is to tackle the lack of reliable data and studies in the area. Finally, and in line with previous recommendations, (e.g. Cline-Cole 1991, as cited by Munro and van der Horst 2012), flexible and adaptive policies with regard to fuelwood should be developed in order for them to have any success.
29 Assessment of Solid Woodfuel Situation in Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso. BIODEV WP 1.4. University of Eastern Finland
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Dr. Javier Arevalo [email protected] Dr. Sari Pitkänen [email protected] Dr. Yohama Puentes [email protected]
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