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The "deliberate speed" called for in the Supreme Court's Brown decision was quickly overshadowed by events outside the nation's courtrooms. In Montgomery, Alabama, a grassroots revolt against segregated public transportation inspired a multitude of similar protests and boycotts. A number of school districts in the Southern and border states desegregated peacefully. Elsewhere, white resistance to school desegregation resulted in open defiance and violent confrontations, requiring the use of federal troops in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Efforts to end segregation in Southern colleges were also marred by obstinate refusals to welcome African Americans into previously all-white student bodies. Ruby Bridges, 1960. Gelatin silver print. By 1964, ten years after Brown, the NAACP's focused legal New York World-Telegram and Sun campaign had been transformed into a mass movement to Collection, eliminate all traces of institutionalized racism from American life. Prints and Photographs Division This effort, marked by struggle and sacrifice, soon captured the (148) imagination and sympathies of much of the nation. In many Digital ID # cph 3c26460 respects, the ideals expressed in Brown v. Board had inspired the dream of a society based on justice and racial equality.

Mrs. Rosa Parks Fingerprinted in Montgomery, Alabama

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, forty-three, was arrested for disorderly conducted for refusing to give up her bus seat to a white Mrs. Rosa Parks being fingerprinted in passenger. Her arrest and fourteen dollar fine Montgomery, Alabama, 1956. for violating city ordinance, led African American Gelatin silver print. bus riders and others to boycott the New York World-Telegram & Sun Collection, Montgomery city buses. It also helped to

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html establish the Montgomery Improvement Association led by a then unknown young minister from the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, Martin Luther King, Jr. The boycott lasted for one year and brought the Civil Rights Prints and Photographs Division (119) Movement and Dr. Martin King to the attention of the world.

Rosa Parks Arrest Record

Rosa Parks was a leader in the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott, which demonstrated that segregation would be contested in many social settings. A federal district court decided that segregation on publicly operated buses was unconstitutional and concluded that, "in the Brown case, Plessy v. Ferguson has been impliedly, though not explicitly, overruled." The Rosa Parks's arrest record, Supreme Court affirmed the judgment of the December 5, 1955. district court without opinion, a common Page 2 procedure it followed in the interim between Frank Johnson Papers, 1954 and 1958. Manuscript Division (118)

Black Monday, 1954

Following the Supreme Court's decision on Brown v Board of Education, U.S. Representative John Bell Williams (D-Mississippi) coined the term "Black Monday" on the floor of Congress to denote Monday, May 17, 1954, the date of the Supreme Court's decision. In opposition to the decision, white citizens' Tom P. Brady. councils formally organized throughout the Black Monday south to preserve segregation and defend Title page segregated schools. The White Citizens' Council Winona, Mississippi: Association of movement in Mississippi, led by Thomas Pickens Citizens' Councils, 1955. Brady, a circuit court judge, published a

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html handbook, Black Monday, in which the philosophy of the movement is stated, including General Collections (120) its call for the nullification of the NAACP, the creation of a forty-ninth state for Negroes, and the abolition of public schools.

University of Alabama Students Protest Desegregation

Autherine Lucy's dream of obtaining a degree in library science was finally realized when she officially enrolled at the all-white University of Alabama in 1956. While the court had granted her the right to attend the university, the white population seemed intent on making this impossible by staging riots. Students, adults and even groups from outside of Alabama University of Alabama Students burn shouted racial epithets, threw eggs, sticks and desegregation literature, 1956. rocks, and generally attempted to block her Gelatin silver print. way. Protestors, like the group pictured here, Prints and Photographs Division (121A) prompted the University to expel Lucy on February 6, 1956, in order to ensure her personal safety.

Autherine Lucy's Attorneys

Autherine Lucy, the first African American student to be admitted to the University of Alabama in 1956, is shown with her attorneys Thurgood Marshall and Arthur Shore. The case went to court in 1953, and a decision to prohibit the university from rejecting Lucy Thurgood Marshall and Arthur Shores, based on race was reached in 1955. This February 29, 1956. decision was amended days later to apply to all Gelatin silver print. African American students seeking to enter the Visual Materials from the NAACP Records, University of Alabama. Lucy enrolled on Prints and Photograph Division (123) February 3, 1956, but was expelled for her own Courtesy of the NAACP safety three days later. Marshall and Shores went back to court but were forced to withdraw

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html the case due to lack of support. Lucy's expulsion was finally overturned in 1988.

Autherine Lucy's Expulsion

A day after Autherine Lucy's expulsion from the University of Alabama, Roy Wilkins sent this telegram to U.S. Attorney General Herbert Brownell requesting the institution of criminal contempt proceedings against all parties prohibiting Lucy from attending classes at the University. The federal government refused to Telegram. NAACP Executive Secretary intercede. Lucy's expulsion was finally Roy Wilkins to Herbert Brownell concerning overturned in 1988 by the Board of Regents. the expulsion of Autherine Lucy, She entered the University in earnest the February 7, 1956. following year and graduated in 1992 with a NAACP Records, master's degree in elementary education along Manuscript Division (121) with her daughter, Grazia, who was enrolled as Courtesy of the NAACP an undergraduate.

School Integration in Clinton, Tennessee

In 1956, Clinton High School in Clinton, Anderson County, Tennessee, was set to be the first high school in the South to be integrated after the Brown decision. Integration was progressing smoothly until John Kasper, leader of the White Citizens Council and a staunch Clinton, Tennessee, school integration conflict, segregationist, came to town. Protests and riots 1956. ensued from that day until early in December, Gelatin silver print. U.S. when several white citizens escorted the African News & World Report Magazine Collection, American students to class, as shown here. One Prints and Photographs Division (125C) of the escorts was badly beaten afterwards. As Digital ID # ppmsca 03093 a result of the episode the school was closed on December 4, but reopened six days later without incident.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html A Classroom in Nashville After Integration

While many schools throughout the south were confronted with protesters attempting to prevent integration, Miss Mary Brent, principal

of the previously all white Glenn Elementary Integrated classroom in Nashville, 1957. School in Nashville greets black and white Gelatin silver print. students, without incident, on the first day of New York World-Telegram & Sun Collection, school. Prints and Photographs Division (125A)

School Dilemma

In 1957, fifteen-year-old Dorothy Geraldine Counts and three other students became the first African American students to attend the previously all white Harding High School in Charlotte, North Carolina. They were greeted by angry white mobs who screamed obscenities and racial slurs at the African American School Dilemma--Youths taunt Dorothy Geraldine students. Counts's picture appeared in many Counts in Charlotte, North Carolina, 1957. newspapers as did others of black students Gelatin silver print. attempting to attend white schools for the first Visual Materials from the NAACP Records, time. Counts's family feared for her safety and Prints and Photographs Division (125B) withdrew her from Harding and sent her out of Courtesy of the NAACP state to complete high school.

Anacostia High School, Washington, D.C.

In the 1950s, Washington, D.C. black schools were both segregated and inadequate. Many schools were overcrowded and lacked adequate

educational materials. This photograph shows Warren K. Leffler. the results of the Brown decision with both An integrated classroom at Anacostia High School, black and white students in the same Washington, DC, 1957. classroom in 1957. Today Anacostia, like many Gelatin silver print. of the public high schools in D.C. is attended by U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection,

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html predominantly African American students. Prints and Photographs Division (201)

The Little Rock Nine

Seventeen African American students were selected to attend the all white Central High School in 1957 but by opening day the number had dwindled to nine. Pictured here with Daisy Bates, a newspaper journalist and active member in the local NAACP, are nine students, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Elizabeth Eckford, Terrace Roberts, Carlotta Walls, Gloria Cecil Layne. Ray, Jefferson Thomas, Melba Pattillo, and Little Rock Nine and Daisy Bates pose Minnijean Brown. Bates would become the in living room, ca. 1957-1960. advisor for the nine students. The day before Gelatin silver print. school opened, Governor Orval Faubus called Visual Materials from the NAACP Records, the National Guard to surround Central High, Prints and Photographs Division (128) declaring "blood would run in the streets" if Courtesy of the NAACP blacks students attempted to enter.

U.S. Army 101st Airborne Division

On September 24, Little Rock Mayor Woodrow Mann sent a special request for federal assistance to President Dwight Eisenhower. The following day nine African American students entered Central under the protection of members of the 101st Airborne Division of the U.S. Troops escort African American students from U. S. Army, shown here. The Little Rock Nine, Central High School, Little Rock, Arkansas, as they have become known, finished the school October 3, 1957. year in 1958. One of the students, Ernest Gelatin silver print. Green graduated that year with the help of New York World-Telegram & Sun Collection, federal protection. In September 1958, Prints and Photographs Division (130B) Governor Faubus closed all high schools in Little Rock. They reopened in August 1959 with the protection of local police. Only four of the nine

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html students returned.

"Fables of Faubus"

Orval E. Faubus was the governor of Arkansas, who in 1957 sent out the National Guard to prevent African-American students from entering Little Rock's Central High School. American jazz musician Charles Mingus responded to the event by composing "Fables of Faubus," a condemnation of the action. Unfortunately, Columbia Records prohibited Charles Mingus. "Fables of Faubus." Mingus and fellow musician, Danny Richmond Holograph music manuscript, ca. 1957. from singing the following lyrics: Charles Mingus Collection, Name me someone who's ridiculous, Dannie. Music Division (131) Governor Faubus!/ "Fables of Faubus" by Charles Mingus, published by Why is he so sick and ridiculous? the Jazz Workshop, Inc. Courtesy of Sue Mingus. He won't permit integrated schools.

Columbia reconsidered and recorded the piece in its entirety two years later.

Daisy Bates and The Little Rock Nine

Daisy Bates, publisher of the newspaper The Arkansas State Press and president of the Arkansas NAACP Branches, led the NAACP's campaign to desegregate the public schools in Little Rock, Arkansas. Thurgood Marshall and Wiley Branton served as counsel. The school Daisy Bates to Roy Wilkins on the treatment board agreed to begin the process with Central of the Little Rock Nine, High School, approving the admission of nine December 17, 1957. black teenagers. The decision outraged many Page 2 white citizens including Arkansas Governor Typed letter. NAACP Records. Orval Faubus. President Eisenhower sent federal Manuscript Division (127) troops to Little Rock to ensure the protection of Courtesy of the NAACP the nine students, and, on September 25, 1957, they entered the school. In the midst of the crisis, Daisy Bates wrote this letter to

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html NAACP Executive Director Roy Wilkins to report on the students' progress.

Segregation's Citadel Unbreached, 1958

At the time of the May 1954 Brown v. Board of "Segregation's Citadel Unbreached in 4 Years," Education,decision seventeen states and the Washington Observer, District of Columbia had laws enforcing school Sunday, May 11, 1958. segregation. By 1958, only seven Enlarged version states--Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Newspaper map. Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana Geography and Map Division (140) --maintained public school segregation. Copyright 1958, Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive and The Washington Post. All Rights Reserved.

Ruby Bridges

In 1956 U.S. District Court Judge J. Skelly Wright ordered the desegregation of the New Orleans public schools. After a series of appeals, in 1960, Wright set down a plan that required the integration of the schools on a grade-per-year basis, beginning with the first grade. The School Board issued a test to black kindergartners to determine the best candidates. Six-year old Ruby Bridges was one Ruby Bridges, 1960. of six children selected. Four agreed to proceed. Gelatin silver print. On November 14, Bridges integrated the New York World-Telegram and Sun Collection, William Frantz Public School. In retaliation, white Prints and Photographs Division (148) parents withdrew her classmates and Bridges's Digital ID # cph 3c26460 father was fired from his job. Ruby completed the first grade alone with the support of

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Barbara Henry, a Boston teacher, and Dr. Robert Coles, a child psychiatrist. Ruby's walk to school the first day, escorted by U.S. Marshals, inspired the 1964 Norman Rockwell painting, "The Problem We All Live With."

School Desegregation Spreads The Library of Congress does not have permission Through South to show this image online Faced with increasing public and state School Desegregation Spreads Through South, legislative support for desegregation, political Associated Press Newsfeatures, leaders in Southern states gradually introduced October 16, 1961. desegregation measures. By 1961, only South Newspaper map. Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi still Geography and Map Division (152) maintained completely segregated school systems.

"Meredith Enrolls at Ole Miss "

Riots erupted when James Meredith, armed with a Supreme Court order and guarded by federal marshals, enrolled at the University of Mississippi, known as "Ole Miss," on October 1, 1962. In spite of Governor Ross Barnett's initial

defiance of federal rulings, Meredith prevailed The Birmingham News (Birmingham, Alabama), and graduated from the university in 1963. The Monday, October 1, 1962. Birmingham News, then an evening newspaper Enlarged version in Alabama, a state that experienced its own Newspaper. civil rights woes, reported that day's activities. Historic Events Newspaper Collection, Founded in 1888, the newspaper had a daily Serial and Government Publications Division (158) circulation of approximately 188,280 at the time.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Media Images

The Library of Congress does not have permission to show this image online

Look magazine, Norman Rockwell to John A. Morsell, January 14, 1964. December 3, 1963. Centerfold. Typed letter. Prints and Photographs Division (175) NAACP Records, Manuscript Division (155) Courtesy of the NAACP

Powerful images appearing in the news media captured the imaginations of ordinary Americans and helped enlist their sympathies in the cause of civil rights and school integration. In this letter to the NAACP, renowned illustrator Norman Rockwell offered for the organization's use his painting "The Problem We All Live With." The painting, which was published in Look magazine, January 14, 1964, portrayed a young African American girl, escorted by federal marshals, as she made her way through a hostile environment toward a newly integrated school. The painting was based on the ordeal of Ruby Bridges in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Federal Assistance Needed

On September 10, 1962, the Supreme Court ordered the University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith, a twenty-eight year old Air Force Veteran, after a sixteen month legal battle. Governor Ross Barnett disavowed the John A. Morsell, Assistant to NAACP Executive decree and had Meredith physically barred from Secretary to President John F. Kennedy requesting enrolling. President Kennedy responded by the assistance of the federal government in the federalizing the National Guard and sending case of James Meredith, Army troops to protect Meredith. After days of September 21, 1962. violence and rioting by whites, Meredith, Page 2 escorted by federal marshals, enrolled on Typed letter.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html October 1, 1962. Two men were killed in the NAACP Records, turmoil and more than 300 injured. Because he Manuscript Division (156) had earned credits in the military and at Courtesy of the NAACP Jackson State College, Meredith graduated the following August without incident.

Meredith with Constance B. Motley and Jack Greenberg

On September 28, the Fifth Circuit Court found Governor Ross Barnett guilty of civil contempt for defying two earlier orders to admit James Meredith to the University of Mississippi. Meredith left the courthouse accompanied by The Library of Congress does not have permission his attorneys Constance Baker Motley and Jack to show this image online Greenberg. Motley received national recognition James Meredith and NAACP lawyers Constance for her defense of Meredith. A graduate of Baker Motley and Jack Greenberg, 1962. Columbia Law School, she joined the Legal Gelatin silver print. Defense Fund as a law clerk in 1946 and New York World-Telegram & Sun Collection, became assistant counsel in 1949. She helped Prints and Photographs Division (157B) prepare the Brown briefs. Thurgood Marshall hired Greenberg as an assistant counsel directly from Columbia Law School in 1949. Greenberg worked on the Sweatt case and was co-counsel on the Parker, Brown and Delaware cases. In 1961, he succeeded Marshall as Director-Counsel of the Legal Defense Fund , serving in that capacity until 1984.

"The Ballad of Oxford, Mississippi" The Library of Congress does not have permission to show this image online Phil Ochs, a topical-protest songwriter, played a central role in the 1960s Greenwich Village folk Phil Ochs. "The Ballad of Oxford, Mississippi." scene. "A Ballad of Oxford, Mississippi" Broadside 15, (November 1962). New York: 1962. chronicled James Meredith's 1962 enrollment at American Folklife Center (157) the University of Mississippi and was first published in Broadside magazine. Despite the magazine's small circulation, it had a strong impact on the folksong revival. The late 1962

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html issues contained numerous other songs about James Meredith including, for example, Bob Dylan's Oxford Town.

Governor George Wallace at the University of Alabama

This image of Governor George Wallace blocking the entrance to the University of Alabama is one of the most recognized of all the images from the civil rights period. On June 11, 1963, Wallace, surrounded by Alabama state troopers, confronted and blocked Assistant U.S. Attorney Warren K. Leffler, photographer. General Nicholas Katzenbach and the African Governor George Wallace attempting to block American students from entering the integration at the University of Alabama, 1963. university. President Kennedy had to federalize Gelatin silver print. the National Guard and send them to the U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, campus to assist with the integration process. Prints and Photographs Division (174A) Wallace did eventually step aside and allow the Digital ID # ppmsca 04294 students to register.

Vivian Malone at the University of Alabama

Vivian Malone and James Hood were the first Warren K. Leffler. two students to integrate the University of Students entering Foster Auditorium to register at Alabama with the help of the National Guard, the University of Alabama, Assistant U.S. Attorney Katzenbach, and June 11, 1963. President Kennedy on June 11, 1963. Gelatin silver print. U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, Prints and Photographs Division (174B)

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Summit Conference on Civil Rights

On the tenth anniversary of the Brown decision leaders of national organizations for blacks met in New York City to hold a Summit Conference on Civil Rights. Present (from left to right) were Bayard Rustin, civil rights activist; Jack Greenberg, Director of Counsel of the NAACP Educational and Legal Defense Fund; Whitney

Young, Jr., Director of the National Urban Summit Conference on Civil Rights. League; James Farmer, National Director of Gelatin silver print. Congress of Racial Equality; Roy Wilkins, New York World-Telegram & Sun Collection. Executive Secretary of NAACP; Dr. Martin Prints and Photographs Division (204) Luther King, Jr.; John Lewis, Chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; and A. Philip Randolph, Chairman of the National Negro American Labor Council.

The Newport Folk Festival The Library of Congress does not have permission to show this image online The Newport Folk Festival quickly became a showcase for 1960s folk revival artists. One Newport Broadside: Topical Songs festival highlight was the afternoon Topical at the Newport Folk Festival. Songs workshop hosted by Pete Seeger. The Vanguard, 1964. Vanguard Records release of topical songs from Album cover. the 1963 festival includes "Fighting for My Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Rights" by the Freedom Singers, a group Recorded Sound Division (205) associated with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

The Library of Congress does not have permission The March on Washington to show this image online

We Shall Overcome! captures one of the pivotal We Shall Overcome!: Documentary of the March moments in the Civil Rights Movement, the on Washington. March on Washington held on August 28, Folkways, 1964. 1963. This LP was produced by the Council for Album cover. United Civil Rights Leadership and issued by Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Folkways Records. It includes part of President Recorded Sound Division (209)

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Kennedy's news conference about the event, Dr. King's "I Have a Dream" speech, and Bayard Rustin's "Demands on the March,"speech that asked for civil rights legislation to "include public accommodations, decent housing, integrated education, and the right to vote."

March on Washington in Life, 1963

African American resistance to enslavement and multiple forms of social, political, and economic inequality included slave rebellions, marches, individual protests, and legislative action in the courts. The March on Washington, August 28, 1963, was a major expression of resistance in the continuing strugglefor African American freedom in the United States. Major organizers Life magazine, included Bayard Rustin, civil rights activist, A. September 6, 1963. Phillip Randolph (Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Cover. Porters), Roy Wilkins (National Association for General Collections (217) the Advancement of Colored People), James Courtesy of Leonard McCombe, Farmer (Congress of Racial Equality), John Lewis Time-Life Pictures, Getty Images. (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), and Dorothy Height (National Council of Negro Women).

"We Don't Dig No Busing"

In 1971, the Supreme Court upheld legislation The Library of Congress does not have permission that caused children of different races to be to show this image online transported to white schools for racial balance. Greer Brothers. The school districts spent millions of dollars " We Don't Dig No Busing," (Busing Song). each year busing minorities to white schools; Houston: Don Music Company, 1973. however, opponents of forced integration Record. believed that the transportation funding should Motion Picture, Broadcasting and have been used to improve the conditions of Recorded Sound Division (176A) the poor schools.

Shown here is a recording of "We Don't Dig No Busing," sung by the Greer Brothers ages nine

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html through fourteen. It was produced in 1973 by an African American recording studio, the Don Music company in Houston, Texas.

The Times They Are

he Library of Congress does not have permission to A-Changin show this image online Bob Dylan's third recording was also his last to Bob Dylan. feature topical-protest songs. In compositions The Times They Are A-Changin'. such as "The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll," Columbia , 1964. Dylan described a specific civil rights event to Album cover. his growing audience, in this case focusing Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound upon the judicial system's inadequacies. The Division (206) title track and other songs on the record such as "When the Ship Comes In" articulated a broad and defiant call for cultural change.

Obstruction and Delays in Virginia

The diehard segregationist campaign of "massive resistance" took many forms. In Virginia's Prince Edward County, location of one of the original school-segregation cases, local authorities evaded court-ordered integration by closing the public schools and supporting new, white-only, private schools. The Supreme Court reviewed these actions in 1964. This William O. Douglas, handwritten draft ruling by Justice William O. [May 1964]. Douglas indicates his frustration with "over a Draft per curiam opinion. decade" of delays since Brown: "Afterward William O. Douglas Papers, numerous opinions were written by the District Manuscript Division (203) Court and the Court of Appeals but our mandate in the Brown case has never been implemented."

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html "Free school" in Farmville, Virginia

When Prince Edward County closed all of its schools in 1959 rather than integrate in accordance with the Supreme Court's decision. The white citizens in the county formed a private all white academy where their children could continue their education. African American students were not provided public Thomas J. O'Halloran, photographer. education until 1963. The Reverend Leslie Students arriving at the Free School #2 in Farmville, Francis Griffin a member of the NAACP and the Prince Edward County, Virginia, 1963. chairman of the Moton High School P.T.A. Gelatin silver print. petitioned President Kennedy for support from U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, the federal government to prepare the African Prints and Photographs Division (203A) American students for re-entering the public schools. As a result the Prince Edward County Free School System was created. Shown are students entering Free School #2.

Tenth Anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education

A press conference at the Hotel Americana celebrates the tenth anniversary of the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision. Four of the five plaintiffs whose class action cases combined in Brown are pictured together: Harry Briggs, Jr. (Briggs v Elliot), Harry Briggs, Jr., Linda Brown Smith, Spottswood Linda Brown Smith (Brown v Board of Education Bolling, Jr., and Ethel Louise Belton Brown during of Topeka), Spottswood Bolling, Jr. (Bolling v. press conference, 1964. Sharpe), and Ethel Louise Belton Brown Gelatin silver print. (Gebhart v. Belton [Bulah] ).The fifth case was New York World-Telegram and Sun Collection, Dorothy E. Davis v County School Board of Prints and Photographs Division (224) Prince Edward County, Virginia.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html The New Civil Rights Movement

On April 1, 2003, several thousands gathered for a new March on Washington sponsored by The Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, Integration & Immigrant Rights, and Fight for Equality By Any Means Necessary. BAMN, the organization's acronym, were co-defendants in Grutter v. Bollinger, the case which disputed the University of Michigan's admissions policy. Save Brown v. Board of Education, 2003. They felt many of the gains made by minorities Poster. would be lost if the case did not uphold the Prints and Photographs Division (220) Brown decision. Many of the protesters carried these signs with the phrase "Save Affirmative Action" and "Save Brown v. Board of Education."

Warren K. Leffler, photographer. Civil Rights March in Washington, D.C., 1963. Copyprint. U.S. News & World Report Magazine Collection, Prints and Photographs Division (225)

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Bill Mauldin's Support for Integration

In this drawing, political cartoonist Bill Mauldin commented on the actions of Little Rock to establish private schools to circumvent the U.S. 8th Circuit Court of Appeals' November 10, 1958, order to integrate. He used the Bill Mauldin (1921-2003). "What is done in our dilapidated schoolhouse as a metaphor for the classrooms today will be reflected in the successes disintegration of public school systems in the or failures of civilization tomorrow." Lindly C. Baxter, 1950s. Mauldin gained public recognition for his 1958. World War II army cartoons, but when asked Ink, crayon, and white out over pencil on layered what the most important issue of his career had paper. been, Mauldin replied, "The one thing that Published in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, meant the most to me and that I got involved November 11, 1958. in was the whole civil rights thing in the sixties." Prints and Photographs Division (138) © Copyright 1958 by Bill Mauldin. Reproduced online courtesy of the Mauldin Estate.

Difficulty of Achieving Integration, 1960

Despite the legal mandate to integrate, school districts were slow to accommodate African American children, as Bill Mauldin metaphorically shows here with three young students working hard to open the door of "School segregation" a mere crack. At its annual Bill Mauldin (1921-2003). meeting in 1960, the National Education Inch by inch, 1960. Association rejected proposals to support the Crayon, ink, blue pencil and white out over pencil on Supreme Court decision, instead opting for a layered paper. watered-down resolution describing integration Published in the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September as "an evolving process." Because of school 1, 1960. boards' reluctance to follow either the letter or Prints and Photographs Division (145) the spirit of the law, segregation remained in © Copyright 1960 by Bill Mauldin. Reproduced online effect well into the 1960s. courtesy of the Mauldin Estate.

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Slow Pace of Integration

Political cartoonist Herb Block, better known by his pen name Herblock championed civil rights throughout his career. Eight years after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, in the 1954 case of Brown v. Herb Block (1909-2001). Board of Education of Topeka, he penned this I'm eight. I was born on the day of the Supreme cartoon expressing his dismay at the country's Court decision, slow progress toward educational integration. In May 17, 1962. his 1964 book Straight Herblock he wrote, "The Ink, crayon, and opaque white over racist demagogues and rulers of state fiefdoms graphite underdrawing on layered paper. need not send to know for whom the school bell Published in the Washington Post, May 17, 1962. tolls. It tolls for them." Prints and Photographs Division (169) © 1962 by Herblock in The Washington Post

Herblock on Private Schools to Avoid Integration

Commenting on white parents who sent their children to private school to avoid integration, Herb Block wrote in Straight Herblock, "I'll get in there and pitch for any child who is being denied schooling, whatever his race, color or religion. But when a public school is open and Herb Block (1909-2001). parents choose to send their children to a If the government doesn't support private school instead, I don't see how those separate-but-equal schools for our children, it's children are being denied an education or guilty of discrimination!, denied any rights. And it seems ironic indeed February 12, 1963. that some people in effect feel discriminated Ink, crayon, and opaque white against for lack of government-supported over graphite underdrawing on layered paper. separate-but-equal religious schools, when real Published in the Washington Post, February 12, victims of discrimination have finally won 1963. recognition of the fact that schools which are Prints and Photographs Division (168) separate are not equal." © 1962 by Herblock in The Washington Post

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html Supporting Civil Rights

Herb Block applauds the growing activism of the Civil Rights Movement in this cartoon. He shows an African American practically pushed into the street by a white man, while signs on all the buildings that line the street speak of restrictions on blacks. Block's cartoon reflects events of its time. In efforts to compel school Herb Block (1909-2001). districts to end de facto segregation in the "And remember, nothing can be accomplished by North and to reduce school overcrowding, taking to the streets," African American parents in Chicago, New York, September 6, 1963. New Jersey, and other areas publically Ink, graphite, and opaque white over demonstrated. President Kennedy, in a speech graphite underdrawing on layered paper. given on August 28, 1963, urged Americans to Published in the Washington Post, September 6, "accelerate our effort to achieve equal rights for 1963. all our citizens." Prints and Photographs Division (170) © 1963 by Herblock in The Washington Post

Oliver Harrington's Dark Laughter

This cartoon appeared as President Kennedy announced integration of 157 city school districts, not as a milestone, but as progress "slow step by step." Meanwhile some black children continued to live in areas without a Oliver W. Harrington (1912-1995). public school system as officials attempted to Dark laughter. Now I aint so sure I wanna get bypass integration. Oliver Harrington, an educated, 1963. influential African American cartoonist, Crayon, ink, blue pencil, and pencil on paper. published this image during a year of Published in the Pittsburgh Courier, September 21, heightened interracial tension in the United 1963. States, from his home in East Berlin, Germany. Prints and Photographs Division (172) This cartoon appeared in the African American Courtesy of Dr. Helma Harrington newspaper, the Pittsburgh Courier. Digital ID # ppmsca-05518

http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/brown/brown-aftermath.html First Day of School

Artist Vincent Smith, once described himself as an "expressionist," someone who experiences life on his own terms. As an African American artist, he became aware of social issues early in his career. An active member of the black arts movement in the1960s, Smith sometimes explored these issues in his work. His etching, Vincent Smith (b. 1930). First Day of School, shows a large crowd First Day of School, 1965. watching young black children on their way to Etching (reprint, 1994). school. The scene is reminiscent of attempts to Prints and Photographs Division (178) integrate public schools in some areas throughout the South after the Brown decision.

Problems of "White Flight"

In this work, Herb Block reminded Americans of the divisions between public education in the inner cities and the suburbs, made more pronounced by "white flight" from urban areas after the Brown v. Board decision. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights reported on Herb Block (1909-2001). February 15, 1977, that true desegregation " . . . One nation . . . indivisible . . . ," could be achieved in urban areas only if February 22, 1977. students were bused between cities and Ink, graphite, and opaque white, with tonal film suburbs. It argued that segregation had overlay actually increased since 1954. Block strove to and porous point pen over graphite underdrawing on make Americans aware of the need for equality paper. in education during his career, and bequeathed Published in the Washington Post, money to the United Negro College Fund in his February 22, 1977. will. Prints and Photographs Division (182) © 1977 by Herblock in The Washington Post

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