Disscussion Globally 1001 species of bats are reported of which 167 species belong to suborder Megachiroptera and remaining 834 species belong to suborder Microchiroptera (lUCN red list, 2001). The order chiroptera thus is the second largest aggregation of mammals (lUCN red list, 2001). Indonesia is the country of Indomalayan region, which has the highest number of bat species (175 species of bats). The diversity of bat fauna in India is remarkable; about 114 species of bats are reported, of which only 17 species belong to sub order Megachiroptera and 97 species to sub order Microchiroptera. Thus the latter sub order is remarkable for the species diversity. Most of the bat species of India are reported from hilly region of North-East and Western Ghats. The Indian bats comprise 11.6 % of World bat species (Mistry, 2001). Seventy three bat species are reported as cave species in Indian Sub Continent (Bates & Harisson, 1997). In India 61 species of bats are reported as cave species. North East region is the highly preferred region as compared to the Western Ghats, as this region of Himalaya and North-East part of India has about 52 cave bat species on its record. About 50 bat species are reported from the entire Western Ghats region since last century. A long list of publications is available mentioning records of bat species in India, but the contribution of Wroughton in early decades of previous century (under Bombay Natural History Society's mammalian survey published in series of publications) and Brosset (1962a, 1962b and 1962c) is noteworthy. Of the 50 bat species reported from the Western Ghats of India, 35 species are reported as cave species (Bates & Harisson, 1997), the richness of cave bat species of Western Ghats of India thus is substantial. The study area though is a fragment of the Western Ghats of India, the findings of the present survey is quite satisfactory. In the present survey 30 bat species are reported from the central part of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, extending from Bhimashankar in North to Mahabaleshwar in the South (Report submitted by Korad V. S. to Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2005). Of the 30 bat species 21 species are reported from the caves, which comprise 11 % of the total cave bat species reported at the sub continental level and 34.43% at the national level.

58 The northern part of the Western Ghats to which the study area belongs, is different in topography, climatic conditions and forest pattern in comparison to its southern counterpart. This part of Western Ghats is relatively hot, dry and of low altitude. (While the southern part of the Western Ghats is relatively humid due to heavy rain fall and richness of the forest due mainly to its inaccessibility. The diversity of species in southern Western Ghats region hence ought to be higher). The survey and analytical study of results of cave bat species is assumed to help in understanding the ecological condition of the forest concerned. The record of 30 bat species during the present survey may be the result of extensive survey performed exclusively for bat species. Though the bat species diversity in general seemed satisfactory in the study area (as compared to any other taxa of the small mammals), the rate of destruction to the forest area appeared to be remarkable. The present study aims at understanding the pattern of distribution and trend of adaptability in the cave bat species in particular and the bat fauna in general. The study area is categorized on the basis of altitude, rain fall and forest pattern. Among the three regions of the study area, the hills of high altitude seem to be most suitable for cave bats, as the cave formations are highest, the rain fall is remarkable and hence the forest of evergreen or semi evergreen type help to maintain high relative humidity in the surrounding and the microhabitat of the cave bats. The abundance of the food plants for frugivorous bats and richness of the insect fauna in the forest area for insectivorous bats seem directly concerned with the richness of bat species diversity. Twenty cave bat species (about 96.23% of total cave bat species from study area) are recorded from this particular region. On the contrary, the western part of the study area- the Konkan region has recorded the least number (only seven) of the cave bat species. This particular region of the study area is confined to the steep hills of western side, which is poor in cave sites, water holes are less in number and most of them are seasonal. The mixed forest in this region has sparse canopy. Due to steepness of the hilly region, irrigation system is also not well developed in this area. These observations indicate that relative humidity of the surrounding; suitable habitats and density of the forest are some of the prime limiting factors for species diversity of cave bats in the Northern Western Ghats region.

59 The low altitude spurs of the eastern side of the study area recorded ten cave bat species, which comprises 47.62% of the cave bat species of the study area. Though this region has low rain fall, the surrounding is hot and dry, the canopy of the deciduous forest though dries up in hot summer, provides niche to cave bats for their survival. The sacred grooves, old temples and tunnels leading to dams are plenty in this region and provide the most suitable sites to cave bat species for day roosting. The forests in some of the parts of this region come under private sector and hence are well protected. The irrigation system in this region seems to play a vital role in richness of the flora and fauna Jn general. Only one gregarious frugivorous species recorded from the study area is a remarkable finding. The forest pattern of the study area seems unsuitable to other frugivorous cave bat species like Eonycteris spelaea, which feeds mainly on nectar and pollens of evergreen forest plants (Andersen, 1912; Start & Marshall, 1976; Gould, 1978; Bhat at el, 1980; Kunz, 1988; lKunz_at ei„ 1994\ Wolton at el., 1982). Another frugivorous cave bat species of thesClithenrWeMem Ghats is Latidens salimalii; the critically endangered endemic species of the continent, which confines to the high altitude caves of High Wavy Mountains in Tamil Nadu state of India (Bates et ai, 1994d). This species feeds on a wide variety of hard fruits and seeds. The habitat preference of this species thus closely related to its highly specific need of food and foraging ground. According to Hill & Smith, (1984) exceptionally the frugivorus bats of family Pteropodidae live solitarily {Melonycteris & Nyctimene), while rest of the species of this family form smaller and more frequently larger groups of few thousand to several thousand individuals. Usually they roost in trees and other foliage; exceptions are greater necked backed fruit bat Dobsonia moluccensis (which frequently occupy the twilit gallery near the cave entrance) and Rousettus species (which prefer deeper caves and darker corners of tomb). In concordance with these statements of Hill & Smith, (1984), the fulvous frugivorous bat Rousettus leschenaulti in the study area is reported from deep and dark caves, tunnels and old temples. This cave bat species can survive at relatively dry and hot climatic conditions and depend on large variety of food plants and their products (iMc Cann, 1941b;, Brosset, 1962a; Bates at el., 1994a). In the present survey it is discem^'that it has adapted itself to man made constructions like dam tunnels in the spurs region. They are also observed performing seasonal

60 migrations depending on the conditions of the forests on which they depend for feeding. The only truly carnivore bat species found in the study area (the greater false vampire bat Megaderma lyra) occurs in small groups in caves of higher altitude. But the colonies appear more frequently and of larger size at lower altitude near the agricultural land. The observations indicate availability of better feeding grounds for this species at low altitude. This species is reported feeding on insects and small vertebrates including fishes, reptiles, lizards and small bats (A^vani, 198l)^^a 1986^ This speoes is reported to co-exist with other bat species in caves, such as Hipposideros fulvus, Hipposideros speoris, Rousettus leschenaulti, Rhinopoma hardwickii, Tphozous katchensis, Rhinolophus sp. (Gopalakrishna & Badwaik, 1989; Kunz, 1982), but during recent survey only one site is reported showing its coexistence with Rhinolophus rouxii. The lesser false vampire bat Megaderma spasma on the other hand is ranked as Least Concern (LC) (CAMP Workshop, 2002) being widly distributed, but in the present survey this species is reported to have very restricted distribution in the evergreen forest of the southern part of study area. It is also reported in the human vicinity. This species is geographically wide spead, but never found in abundance and its population is vulnerable to the destruction of its forest habitat (Bates & Harisson, 1997). The mouse-tailed bats of Genus Rhinopoma sp. are not discerned in the study area. These cave bats^argreported from the dry and semi desert hills (Siddiqui, 1960^^0 "^ajuria, 1979^. Similar habitat conditions are required by most of the '^eath tailed bat species of Genus Taphozous (Brosset, 1962a; ^diquiri9?lVKhajuria, 1953; 1965 &ri979a!)984!'^ ^Inha, 198TayWhitekar, 1993, 1995a, b.). Taphozous longimanus islEeoiriy species of this genus reported from the study area. Again its distribution is confined to the mixed forest of the western part- the Konkan region. These cave bat species is also reported from the human vicinity and observation gallery of the bridge at riverside. Similar habitats are reported by Brosset, (1962a) and Wroughton & Ryley, (1913). The Horse-shoe bats of genus Rhinolophus are represented by three species in the study area {Rhinolophus lepidus, R. rouxii and R. beddomei), of which Rhinolophus beddomei is endemic to subcontinent and and its conservation

61 status is categorized as NT -near threaten (CAMP Workshop Report, 2002) . This species is reported specifically from forests of evergreen type. Though their occurrence in study area is frequent, loss of habitat is the most likely threat observed for their future survival. The condition of their foraging ground is also degrading with fast rate in the study area. Genus Rhinolophus prefers caves of high altitude in evergreen forest type as their primary habitat. But they are also found more comfortable in man made constructions like underground water tanks on the forts, and where they remain undisturbed. The bats of this genus are reported to feed on gleaning insects, spiders and moths (Brosset 1962b'Bhatl974y Phillips 1980). Rhinolophus rouxii rouxii is the fojp^species of area of high rain fall, such as Ghats, Kanara and Konkan regions of India (Brosset, 1962b), Rhinolophus r. ruhidus is reported from low lands of Sri Lanka (Phillips, 1980). While Rhinolophus r. sinicus is confined to higher elevations of Northern India and Nepal and hibernates (Blanford, 1888-1891). The maternity colonies of Rhinolophus rouxii rouxii are reported in late winter to mid summer in the study area. Such sexual segregation in this species is also reported by Brosset (1962b) and Sreenivasan et al., (1973). Rhinolophus lepidus is the small sized horse-shoe bat found in the evergreen and semi evergreen forest of high altitude in the study area. They prefer shallow crescentic caves and roof of the water tanks of forts. Wroughton, (19131 & ii), Brosset (1962b), Tiwari et al, (1971), Sinha 1973), Topal (1974) and(pas7l986a)^ reported similar observations. Remaining cave species of horse shoe bats reported in the subcontinent such as Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, R. affinis, R. pussilus, R. subbadias, R. macrotis, R. luctus, R. trifoliatus R. pearsonii are reported from mountainous region of North and North-East of India (Dobson,(l873b]& 1877; Wroughton, 1919, 1916^' Hinton & Lindsay, 1926; Sinha, 1973; Topai; 1975; Bhat, 1974; and Das et al, 1995). R. pusillus, however, is also reported from desert area of Rajasthan (Prakash, 1961). ^ ^ The nose-leaf bats of family Hipposideridae includes four genera, of which only one genus Hipposideros is reported from Western Ghats of India. In the present survey five species of this genus are reported from the study area. Hipposideros ater and H. pomona are reported for the first time in the northern

62 part of Western Ghats. The former species however is reported from the North- Eastern part of Maharashtra State (Madhavan & Gopalakrishna, 1978). These two species are reported from Southern Western Ghats (Wroughton 1921; Jones et al., 1994) and categorized as LC (lUCN, 2002). In the study area, these species are confined to the evergreen forest. Hipposideros galeritus is reported formerly from Bedsar cave (Brosset, 1962b) in the study area, but now this cave is almost abandon. This species is reported from the southern part of study area in a small group in the evergreen forest. The present survey thus agrees with the present lUCN status (NT) of this species. This species is reported formerly from southern part of Western Ghats (Wroughton, 19131) and Central India (Khajuria, 1980)) •s,tjt^.„._. ' Hipposideros fulvus is reported inTcaves of hills and low altitude spurs of Western Ghats under study area. Its distribution in Konkan region isihowever. limited. This species is known to occur in wide range of biomes (Ryley, 1913bi,• Brosset, 1962b'Roberts, 1977*Madhavan et al., 1978). This species is reported coexisting wifn other species such as Hipposideros speoris and Rhinolophus rouxii in the study area. It is reported to co-exist with some «i©fe species) like Rousettus leschenaulti, Hipposideros lankadiva and Miniopterus schreibersii ((^oughton, 1916a|jAli, 1953'Topal, 1975). Hipposideros speorisspeorifis is widelyv distributedistrib d and endemic to sub continent (Wroughton, 1918iii, Brosset, 1962b; Phillips, 198^ Gopalakrishna et al., 1991). In the study area this species is reported inffiFhatural caves as well in man made constructions, but it is found almost in decidous forest unlike other species reported from the study area. Hipposideros armiger and H. larvatus are the cave species of North-East of Indian sub continent (Ryley, 1913a, 1913b; Wroughton 1912a; Kurup, 1968; Bhat, 1974; Kock, 1996). H. lankadiva is reported from Sri Lanka and the southern part of Western Ghats. This species is not reported in the northern region Of Western Ghats (Phillips, 198c[; Sapkal and Bhandarkar, 1984; Muni et al, 1994). These species arenaTurally not reported from the study area. The Molossid bats are found in the warmer climate of tropics and do not hibernate even in the temperate region unlike other cave species. They are known as gregarious species in New Mexico (Hill & Smith 1984). The molossid bats in Indian sub continent are represented by four species; of which two species

63 Tadarida aegyptiaca and T. plicata are reported from the study area roosting in natural crvices and crevices in man made constructions. They are widely distributed in the subcontinent (Blanford, 1888-1891; Wroughton, 1912bii; Brosset, 1962c, Kashyap, 1978), but the third species Tadarida teniotis is restricted to Afghanistan and West Bengal in Indian subcontinent (Harisson & Bates, 1991). Wroughton's free-tailed bat Otomops wroughtoni is endemic to subcontinent and categorized as CR (CAMP Workshop Report, 2002). This species is reported from one place in Kamataka. Both the habitat and foraging ground are assumed to be highly specific for this species (Brosset, 1962c, Daniel etai, 1992; Bates etal., 1994c). Species diversity is the characteristic of Vespertilionid bats. 320 species of this group are reported globally. In India about 63 species have been repoted (lUCN 2001). In the study area 14 species of this group are reported, of these 7 species are recorded mostly from caves on slopes of Western Ghats. Exceptions are two species (Miniopterus scherbersii and Myotis montivagus) which are found from the ridge on Western Ghats in Mahabalesahwar region at tne altitude of 45(X) feet. Pipistrellus species are found in the crevices of galleries of shallow crescentic caves. They are reported to form small groups of 10-15 bats. There are 19 genera of evening bats (Family Vespertilionidae) recorded in the Indian subcontinent (Bates & Harisson, 1997). Out of these 26 species belonging to 10 genera are reported as cave species in the Wesrem Ghats of India. In the recent survey only 7 species of this group aSi>recorded in the Central Westrn Ghats of Maharashtra. The bats belonging to genus Myotis (Family Vespertilionidae) are referred as water bats as they need perinneal water source in the vicinity and feed on water insects (Hanak & Gaisler, 1969). Thg^ bats are often associated with scrub forests and low foothills, (^pal, 197b^ Madhavan, 1971,1978,1980; Roberts, 1977; Wroughton, 1913i; Ghosh ,1989; Sinha, 1994b; Topal, 1974; Hill, 1976b; Brosset, 1962c; Whitekar et al 1996,1997,1999; Korad at el., 2005) Genus Myotis is represented by two species in the study area. Myotis montivagus is reported for the first time in the study area and in the northern part of Western Ghats. It is reported to prefer habitats in the evergreen forest in the vicinity of the perennial waterfalls. Myotis horsfieldii on the contrary has

64 fragmented distribution in the evergreen forest and prefers perennial water channels in the agricultural ecosystem on low land. Oher cave bat species belonging to Genera like Plecotus, Barbastella and Otonycteris of Family Vespertilionidae are not discerned in the study area. The probable reason is that they are repoted from high altitude (1550m-3540m) in North Mountain regions of Himalayas in the Indian sub continent. They are also reported to prefer moist mixed coniferous & deciduous forest areas (Wroughton, 1919; Blanford, 1888-1891; Roberts, 1977). Remaining Genera like Eptesicus, Nyctalus, Murina are recorded in the temperate zone in the high elevations of North East region of India, the Himalayas and step mountains in the temperate zones (Blanford, 1888-1891; Bhat, 1974; Brosset, 1962c; Wroughton, 1916; Roberts, 1977). All these genera are never reported from the Western Ghats of India. In the recent survey two species of yellow house bats are reported viz. Scotophilus heathii and S. kuhlii, the former is common in the houses of rural and urban areas and the latter species more frequently prefers the tents of dry leaves of palm trees. These species are never reported from the caves in the study area, but Brosset, (1962c) reported these species from caves in the Western Ghats region. 12 species of Genus Pipistrellus are recorded in the Indian subcontinent (Bates & Harisson, 1997), of these only 6 species are reported as cave species. In the present survey 4 species {Pipistrellus coromandra, P. savii, P. ceylonicus and P. ajfinis). Pipistrellus pipistrellus and P. dormeri though are reported from the study area, they observed to prefer log wood or thatchet roof of houses in the rural area. In general it seems that the species of this genus are more comfortable in the human vicinity rather than crevices of the rocks or caves in the hilly region of the Western Ghats. They are adapted to live silently in the crevices of stony buildings or wooden articles, and their foraging ground is also in the nearby place. Similar observations are reported by Blanford, 1888-1891; Nath, 1979; Bhat, 1974; Hinton & Lindsay, 1926; Wroughton, 1916aiii; Brosset, 1962d; Tmarietal., 1971^afl[M^opal, 1974). Genus Mimopterus appears to favour hilly and forested country (Brosset, 1962c; Wroughton, 1914). Previously the Schreiber's long fingered bat Miniopterous schreihersii is recorded in great number (about 100000 populations as reported by Brosset, 1962c) in the Robers cave, of Mhabaleshwar

65 (Maharashtra) in the Western Ghats of the study area. The same cave when visited during recent survey, the population is found declined to about 1800 and more only. It is also reported that this colony performs migration in different seasons. The population count is observed to be least in monsoon season, when the cave floods. The team also agrees with the statement of Brosset, (1962c) that the there are two types of colonies like Mother Colony and daughter or secondary colony. The mother colony prefers the large natural cave and the secondary colonies, which are much smaller sized colonies, prefer small caves within 70 km of the mother house. This species is not discerened from any other part of the study area. The fear of habitat loss-therefore.is the most likely threat for this species. The data collected dunng the present survey indicates that the cave bat species are found more frequently in the crescentic shallow caves and crevices in the rocks. In the study area the deep caves are less in number, but almost all are much disturbed due to human activities and hence are unsuitable as shelter for wild fauna. In many of the cases they are used to shelter the live stocks. These natural caves therefore are not suitable to sensitive gregarious species like those of fulvus fruit bat Rousettus leschenaulti. On the contrary the dam tunnels in the area of reserve forest or private forests, there fore are the most favourite roosting sites for such species. -^ Among the man made constructions, tunnels in the vicinity of dams, bridges, old temples and buildings and forts (particularly the underground tunnels and water tanks in the fort area) are some of the suitable and favorite sites for small to medium sized cave bat species in the study area. Some evening bat species, particularly of genus Pipistrelle are found more comfortable in the dry log woods and under the dry bark than in the caves. The previous records of bat fauna in the study area have high-lighted the Buddhist caves of Karle, Bhaje and Bedsar of Maval taluka as the most suitable habitats for cave bat species in the region. The species such as Rhitiolophus rouxii, Rhinolophus beddomei, Hipposideros galeritus, (Brosset, 1962b), Hipposideros fulvus, Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Topal, 1975) and Tadarida plicata are recorded from these caves. Except Pipistrellus ceylonicus all these species are typical forest species, indicating well being of the forest concerned. But during present survey, only two species Pipistrellus ceylonicus and Hipposideros fulvus are reported from these caves. The management of caves is under the control of

66 Central Government (the Department of Archeology) and declared these caves as monuments of Indian Heritage. To maintain the cleanliness the bats are probably removed from the caves and their entry is blocked by putting fine meshed nets over the small holes. But unfortunately the presence of shifted bat fauna could not be traced even in the natural caves in the vicinity. Consevation of shallow crescentic caves and narrow tunnel like caves in basalt rocks, small caves in the laterite rocks, old stony buildings in the forest area and forts are of prime importance as most of the cave bat species are recorded from these habitats. The importance of forts as habitats for cave species is unbeatable. The subterreneal tunnels and wter tanks are preffered by almost 48% of cave bat species in the study area. The laterite caves in the southern part of the study area provide natural habitats to exclusively forest species of the study area. In Western Ghats loss of habitats and fragmentation of vegetation are two major contributors to population decline and further restrictions on distribution of bats (Nameer et. ai, 2001). The rate of forest destruction and disturbance in the study area in general is astonishing. The permission to mega city projects like Sahara and Girivan in Maval region and many other projects els«s^^^^ the Western Ghats will prove to be absolutely hazardous to the naturafl^Vm-a a^^vfa^na in very near future. The Government policy while granting penBjH^i^ t^uch projects is not very clear. ''^^JaJL.-i^^ The threat of ststus of bats in Western Ghats suggests that nearly 35% of bat fauna is threatened,''^ being Vulnerable, endangered or critically rare. Conservation measures to protect this fauna are thus essential. Nameer et. al,. (2001) suggested certain conservation measures and .giVes-stress on requirement of more studies of these small mammals to understand various effects of human intervention. The conservation measures should be implemented strictly in the regions like Mahabaleshwar, Maval, Mulshi and Junnar regions of the study area. The condition of forest and caves is not satisfactory. The increasing dryness in the Western Ghats region and unrestricted human activities in the study area are alarming. About 71% (15 species) of total cave bat species reported from the study area fall under LC category of lUCN conservation status, but judging their regional status based on their distribution only 29% cave bat species are safe, as they are widely distributed through out the study area. Not only species under NT

67 (Near Threaten) category has restricted distribution, 66.66% of LC category species have restricted distribution and 6.66% species have very restricted distribution in the study area. These resuhs are quite alrming for the condition of the forest ecosystem of the study area. The study area can be characterized by occurrence of small (1-10 bats) to medium sized (10-50 bats) colonies of cave bat species. The typical gregarious evergreen forest species are restricted to the evergreen forest of the high altitude of the southern part. Rest of the forest area of the Western Ghats under study seems to experience ecological conditions suitable to small and medium sized colonies, indirectly indicationg poor sustenance capacity of the forest. Increase in colony size of the greater false vampire bat also indicates destruction of the forest land, and flourishing of agricultural land. The survival of the cave bat species^ therefore is dependent directly on accessibility of the hills. The conservation of forests is impossible without co-operation of the local people, which are directly concerned with the forests. The tribal (Katkari community in particular) can be educated for changing the traditional farming methods in the Western Ghats region. Better alternatives against hunting of the wild fauna for their sustenance like fish farming, poultry keeping, bee keeping etc. can be provided. A large group of farmers in the Western Ghats i^suffered due to dam construction in the area. They are left helpless after occupying their fertile lands for this purpose. The alternatives provided were not sufficient to sustam their living. Over population, over grazing, illegal poaching are some of the obvious causes of the destruction to the forest of the Western Ghats of Maharashtra' are directly concerned with the poverty and negligence of the p officials.

68