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WMO, No. 407 International Cloud Atlas, Volume II
·..- INTERNATIONAL CLOUD ATLAS Volume 11 WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 11"]~ii[Ulilliiill~lllifiiilllll INTERNATIONAL CLOUD ATLAS Volume 11 11'-;> oz-; WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION 1987 © 1987, World Meteorological Organization ISBN 92 - 63 - L2407 - 8 NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The photographs contained in this volume may not be reproduced without the authoriza tion of the copyright owner. All inquiries regarding reproduction rights should be addressed to the Secretary-General, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva (Switzerland). 03- 4365 v'Z, c ~~ FOREWORD With this new, thoroughly revised edition of Volume 11 of the Study of Clouds. A modified edition of the same work appeared in International Cloud Atlas a key publication is once again made 1939, under the title International Atlas 0/ Clouds and of Types 0./ available for professional meteorologists as well as for a wide circle of Skies, Volume I, General Atlas. The latter contained 174 plates: IQ I interested amateurs. For meteorologists this is a fundamental hand cloud photographs taken from the ground and 22 from aeroplanes, and book, for others a source of acquaintance with the spectacular world of 51 photographs of types of sky. From those photographs, 31 were clouds. printed in two colours (grey and blue) to distinguish between the blue The present internationally adopted system of cloud classification of the sky and the shadows of the clouds. -
Soaring Weather
Chapter 16 SOARING WEATHER While horse racing may be the "Sport of Kings," of the craft depends on the weather and the skill soaring may be considered the "King of Sports." of the pilot. Forward thrust comes from gliding Soaring bears the relationship to flying that sailing downward relative to the air the same as thrust bears to power boating. Soaring has made notable is developed in a power-off glide by a conven contributions to meteorology. For example, soar tional aircraft. Therefore, to gain or maintain ing pilots have probed thunderstorms and moun altitude, the soaring pilot must rely on upward tain waves with findings that have made flying motion of the air. safer for all pilots. However, soaring is primarily To a sailplane pilot, "lift" means the rate of recreational. climb he can achieve in an up-current, while "sink" A sailplane must have auxiliary power to be denotes his rate of descent in a downdraft or in come airborne such as a winch, a ground tow, or neutral air. "Zero sink" means that upward cur a tow by a powered aircraft. Once the sailcraft is rents are just strong enough to enable him to hold airborne and the tow cable released, performance altitude but not to climb. Sailplanes are highly 171 r efficient machines; a sink rate of a mere 2 feet per second. There is no point in trying to soar until second provides an airspeed of about 40 knots, and weather conditions favor vertical speeds greater a sink rate of 6 feet per second gives an airspeed than the minimum sink rate of the aircraft. -
Advanced Lectures on Dynamical Meteorology
ADVANCED LECTURES ON DYNAMICAL METEOROLOGY Roger K. Smith Fassung: WS 02/03 Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 3 1.1Somerevision........................... 4 1.1.1 Themomentumequationinheightcoordinates..... 4 1.2TheBoussinesqapproximation.................. 5 1.3Theanelasticapproximation................... 5 1.4Pressurecoordinates....................... 6 1.5Otherpressurecoordinatesystems................ 7 1.6Isentropiccoordinates....................... 7 1.7Sigmacoordinates......................... 7 2 SMALL-AMPLITUDE WAVES IN A STABLY-STRATIFIED ROTATING ATMOSPHERE 9 2.1 Boundary waves .......................... 17 2.2Theeffectsofshear........................ 19 2.3Theenergyequation....................... 20 2.4Simplifiedsolutionsandfilteredequations........... 21 2.5 ‘Sound-proofing’ the equations .................. 21 2.6Thehydrostaticapproximation................. 23 2.7 Sound-proofed hydrostatic approximation . ......... 24 2.8 Variation of mean density with height; the equivalent incom- pressibleatmosphere....................... 24 2.9Geostrophicmotion........................ 24 3 WAVES ON MOVING STRATIFIED FLOWS 29 3.1Freewaves............................. 30 3.2Forcedwaves........................... 31 3.3Mountainwaves.......................... 34 3.4LinearTheory........................... 35 3.5Flowoverisolatedtopography.................. 39 3.6Trappedleewaves......................... 45 1 4 ENERGETICS OF WAVES ON STRATIFIED SHEAR FLOWS 55 4.1Slowlyvaryingwavetrainsorwavepackets........... 60 5 SHEARING INSTABILITY 66 5.1 Helmholtz instability -
Cloud Atlas? 5
Episode 9 Teacher Resource 4th April 2017 Clouds 1. Briefly explain how clouds form. Students will develop an 2. Why are clouds an important part of the earth’s atmosphere? understanding of how clouds form and the different types of clouds. 3. What does a meteorologist study? 4. What is a Cloud Atlas? 5. When was it first published? 6. What does a cumulus cloud look like? 7. What is the name of the cloud that brings rain and lightning? 8. The Cloud Atlas has special clouds that are defined by the unusual Science – Year 4 ways they form. Give an example of one. Represent and communicate observations, ideas and findings 9. Describe the cloud that Gary helped get into the Cloud Atlas. using formal and informal 10. What do you understand more clearly since watching the BTN representations (ACSIS071) story? Science – Year 5 Solids, liquids and gases have different observable properties a nd behave in different ways (ACSSU077) Science – Year 7 Class Discussion Some of Earth’s resources are Watch the BTN Cloud Atlas story and discuss the information raised as a renewable, including water that cycles through the environment, class. What questions do students have (what are the gaps in their but others are non-renewable knowledge)? The following questions may help guide the discussion: (ACSSU116) What are clouds? Come up with a definition. What have you noticed about clouds? How do clouds form? What are the main types of clouds? What is the Cloud Atlas? The following KWLH organiser provides students with a framework to explore their knowledge on this topic and consider what they would like to know and learn. -
Aerosols, Their Direct and Indirect Effects
5 Aerosols, their Direct and Indirect Effects Co-ordinating Lead Author J.E. Penner Lead Authors M. Andreae, H. Annegarn, L. Barrie, J. Feichter, D. Hegg, A. Jayaraman, R. Leaitch, D. Murphy, J. Nganga, G. Pitari Contributing Authors A. Ackerman, P. Adams, P. Austin, R. Boers, O. Boucher, M. Chin, C. Chuang, B. Collins, W. Cooke, P. DeMott, Y. Feng, H. Fischer, I. Fung, S. Ghan, P. Ginoux, S.-L. Gong, A. Guenther, M. Herzog, A. Higurashi, Y. Kaufman, A. Kettle, J. Kiehl, D. Koch, G. Lammel, C. Land, U. Lohmann, S. Madronich, E. Mancini, M. Mishchenko, T. Nakajima, P. Quinn, P. Rasch, D.L. Roberts, D. Savoie, S. Schwartz, J. Seinfeld, B. Soden, D. Tanré, K. Taylor, I. Tegen, X. Tie, G. Vali, R. Van Dingenen, M. van Weele, Y. Zhang Review Editors B. Nyenzi, J. Prospero Contents Executive Summary 291 5.4.1 Summary of Current Model Capabilities 313 5.4.1.1 Comparison of large-scale sulphate 5.1 Introduction 293 models (COSAM) 313 5.1.1 Advances since the Second Assessment 5.4.1.2 The IPCC model comparison Report 293 workshop: sulphate, organic carbon, 5.1.2 Aerosol Properties Relevant to Radiative black carbon, dust, and sea salt 314 Forcing 293 5.4.1.3 Comparison of modelled and observed aerosol concentrations 314 5.2 Sources and Production Mechanisms of 5.4.1.4 Comparison of modelled and satellite- Atmospheric Aerosols 295 derived aerosol optical depth 318 5.2.1 Introduction 295 5.4.2 Overall Uncertainty in Direct Forcing 5.2.2 Primary and Secondary Sources of Aerosols 296 Estimates 322 5.2.2.1 Soil dust 296 5.4.3 Modelling the Indirect -
TWISTER TWISTER : Also Known As Tornado Or Cyclone
TWISTER TWISTER : Also known as Tornado or Cyclone. It is a violently rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and thunderstorm cloud. The term Tornado or Twister refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud. It comes in many shapes and sizes, but they are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose Wind of Twister narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speed less than 180km/h, are about 75m across, and travel several kilometers before dissipating. Twister Stretch The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speed of more than 500km/h,stretch more than 3km across, and stay on the ground for more than 100km. HOW A TWISTER FORMS : Tornadoes are among the most violent storms on Earth, with the potential to cause very serious damage. Step 1 : Step 2 : Tornadoes needs certain When the warm, moist air meet Cold, Heat condition to form - particularly cold dry air, it explodes upwards, Dry Air very intense or unseasonable puncturing the layer above. A heat. Warm, thunder cloud may begin to build. Warm, Due to this heat, the ground Moist Air A storm quickly develops - there Moist Air temperature increases; the may be rain, thunder and moist air heats and starts to rise. Courtesy by - BBC News lightning. Courtesy by - BBC News Step 3 : Step 4 : Upward movement of air can The vortex of winds varies in become very rapid. Winds from size and shape, and can be different directions cause it to hundreds of meters wide. -
Hurricane Katrina 10 Catastrophe Management and Global Windstorm Peril Review
Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty Hurricane Katrina 10 Catastrophe management and global windstorm peril review Katrina Lessons Learned Windstorm risk management Global Loss Analysis Top locations according to insurance claims New Exposures How assets have changed Loss Mitigation Best practice checklist New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina: August 2005 Photo: US Coastguard, Wikimedia Commons HURRICANE KATRINA 10: CATASTROPHE MANAGEMENT AND GLOBAL WINDSTORM PERIL REVIEW Summary Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast of the US coastal infrastructure, including warehouses, cranes, on August 29, 2005. It remains the largest-ever quaysides, terminals, buoys and sheds. windstorm loss and the costliest disaster in the history of the global insurance industry, causing as much as Katrina has helped to improved catastrophe risk $125bn in overall damages and $60bn+ in insured management awareness. Impact of storm and losses. demand surge, business continuity and insurance coverage details are among the key lessons learned. Storms can have a devastating impact for businesses. Even without considering the impact of climate A decade later the Gulf Coast is better prepared to change the prospect of increasing losses is more withstand the effects of a hurricane due to better likely in future. This is due to continuing economic education, improved construction guidelines and development in hazard-prone urban coastal areas increased third party inspection. around the world and in Asia in particular, where growth of exposure is far outpacing take-up of However, businesses still need to place greater insurance coverage, resulting in a growing gap in emphasis on reviewing pre- and post-loss risk natural catastrophe preparedness. management. Preparedness is crucial to mitigating increasing storm losses, particularly in highly- AGCS business insurance claims analysis shows susceptible areas such as construction sites. -
New Cloud Types 2019
UPSC MAIN & PRELIMS NEW CLOUD TYPES 2019 BY : NEETU SINGH This is updated material for New Cloud Types, targeting both upcoming Prelims and Main Exams. Video is attached to provide you with the gist of content. https://youtu.be/01Ciwd9b470 New Cloud Types PRINCIPLES OF CLOUD CLASSIFICATION Useful concepts Height, altitude, vertical extent Clouds continuously evolve and appear in an infinite variety of forms. However, there is a limited number · Height: Vertical distance from the point of of characteristic forms frequently observed all over observation on the Earth's surface to the point the world, into which clouds can be broadly grouped being measured. in a classification scheme. The scheme uses · Altitude: Vertical distance from mean sea level to genera(defined according to their appearance and the point being measured. position in the sky), species(describing shape and · Height/Altitude of cloud base: For surface structure) and varieties(describing transparency and observations, height of the cloud base above arrangement).This is similar to the systems used in ground level; for aircraft observations, altitude of the classification of plants or animals, and similarly the cloud base above mean sea level. uses Latin names. · Vertical extent: Vertical distance from a cloud's There are some intermediate or transitional forms of base to its top. clouds that, although observed fairly frequently, are Levels not described in the classification scheme. The transitional forms are of little interest; they are less Clouds are generally encountered over a range of stable and in appearance are not very different from altitudes varying from sea level to the top of the the definitions of the characteristic forms. -
ESSENTIALS of METEOROLOGY (7Th Ed.) GLOSSARY
ESSENTIALS OF METEOROLOGY (7th ed.) GLOSSARY Chapter 1 Aerosols Tiny suspended solid particles (dust, smoke, etc.) or liquid droplets that enter the atmosphere from either natural or human (anthropogenic) sources, such as the burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur-containing fossil fuels, such as coal, produce sulfate aerosols. Air density The ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume occupied by it. Air density is usually expressed as g/cm3 or kg/m3. Also See Density. Air pressure The pressure exerted by the mass of air above a given point, usually expressed in millibars (mb), inches of (atmospheric mercury (Hg) or in hectopascals (hPa). pressure) Atmosphere The envelope of gases that surround a planet and are held to it by the planet's gravitational attraction. The earth's atmosphere is mainly nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide (CO2) A colorless, odorless gas whose concentration is about 0.039 percent (390 ppm) in a volume of air near sea level. It is a selective absorber of infrared radiation and, consequently, it is important in the earth's atmospheric greenhouse effect. Solid CO2 is called dry ice. Climate The accumulation of daily and seasonal weather events over a long period of time. Front The transition zone between two distinct air masses. Hurricane A tropical cyclone having winds in excess of 64 knots (74 mi/hr). Ionosphere An electrified region of the upper atmosphere where fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons exist. Lapse rate The rate at which an atmospheric variable (usually temperature) decreases with height. (See Environmental lapse rate.) Mesosphere The atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the thermosphere. -
Cloud-Phase Climate Feedback and the Importance of Ice- Nucleating Particles Benjamin J
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-852 Preprint. Discussion started: 21 August 2020 c Author(s) 2020. CC BY 4.0 License. Opinion: Cloud-phase climate feedback and the importance of ice- nucleating particles Benjamin J. Murray1, Kenneth S. Carslaw1, Paul R. Field1,2 1Institute for Climate and Atmospheric Science, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT Leeds, United 5 Kingdom 2Met Office, Exeter EX1 3PB, United Kingdom Correspondence to: Benjamin J. Murray ([email protected]) Abstract. Shallow clouds covering vast areas of the world’s mid- and high-latitude oceans play a key role in dampening the global temperature rise associated with CO2. These clouds, which contain both ice and supercooled water, respond to a 10 warming world by transitioning to a state with more liquid water and a greater albedo, resulting in a negative ‘cloud-phase’ climate feedback component. Here we argue that the magnitude of the negative cloud-phase feedback component depends on the amount and nature of the small fraction of aerosol particles that can nucleate ice crystals. We propose that a concerted research effort is required to reduce substantial and important uncertainties related to the poorly understood sources, concentration, seasonal cycles and nature of these ice-nucleating particles (INPs) and their rudimentary treatment in climate 15 models. The topic is important because many climate models may have overestimated the magnitude of the cloud -phase feedback, and those with better representation of shallow oceanic clouds predict a substantially larger climate warming. We make the case that understanding the present-day INP population in shallow clouds in the cold-sector of cyclone systems is particularly critical for defining present-day cloud phase and therefore how the clouds respond to warming. -
Statistical Characteristics of Convective Storms in Darwin, Northern Australia
Examensarbete vid Institutionen för geovetenskaper ISSN 1650-6553 Nr 125 Statistical Characteristics of Convective Storms in Darwin, Northern Australia Andreas Vallgren Abstract This M. Sc. thesis studies the statistical characteristics of convective storms in a monsoon regime in Darwin, northern Australia. It has been conducted with the use of radar. Enhanced knowledge of tropical convection is essential in studies of the global climate, and this study aims to bring light on some special characteristics of storms in a tropical environment. The observed behaviour of convective storms can be implemented in the parameterisation of these in cloud-resolving regional and global models. The wet season was subdivided into three regimes; build-up and breaks, the monsoon and the dry monsoon. Using a cell tracking system called TITAN, these regimes were shown to support different storm characteristics in terms of their temporal, spatial and height distributions. The build-up and break storms were seen to be more vigorous and particularly modulated diurnally by sea breezes. The monsoon was dominated by frequent but less intense and vertically less extensive convective cores. The explanation for this could be found in the atmospheric environment, with monsoonal convection having oceanic origins together with a mean upward motion of air through the depth of the troposphere. The dry monsoon was characterised by suppressed convection due to the presence of dry mid-level air. The effects of wind shear on convective line orientations were examined. The results show a diurnal evolution from low-level shear parallel orientations of convective lines to low-level shear perpendicular during build-up and breaks. -
ESD Reviews: Mechanisms, Evidence, and Impacts of Climate
https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-2020-16 Preprint. Discussion started: 21 April 2020 c Author(s) 2020. CC BY 4.0 License. ESD Reviews: mechanisms, evidence, and impacts of climate tipping elements Seaver Wang1, Zeke Hausfather1 1The Breakthrough Institute, Oakland, 94612, United States 5 Correspondence to: Seaver Wang ([email protected]) Abstract. Increasing attention is focusing upon “climate tipping elements” – large-scale earth systems anticipated to respond through positive feedbacks to anthropogenic climate change by shiFting towards new long-term states. In some but not all cases, such changes could produce additional greenhouse gas emissions or radiative Forcing that could compound global warming. Developing greater understanding oF tipping elements is important for predicting future climate risks. Here we 10 review mechanisms, predictions, impacts, and knowledge gaps associated with ten notable climate tipping elements. We also evaluate which tipping elements are more imminent and whether shiFts will likely manifest rapidly or over longer timescales. Some tipping elements are significant to future global climate and will likely afFect major ecosystems, climate patterns, and/or carbon cycling within the current century. However, assessments under diFFerent emissions scenarios indicate a strong potential to reduce or avoid impacts associated with many tipping elements through climate change mitigation. Most tipping elements 15 do not possess the potential For abrupt future change within years, and some tipping elements are perhaps more accurately termed climate feedbacks. Nevertheless, significant uncertainties remain associated with many tipping elements, highlighting an acute need For Further research and modeling to better constrain risks. 1 Introduction Global climate change is projected to continue over the 21st century in response to ongoing human emissions oF greenhouse 20 gases and land-use changes (Peters et al., 2020; Raftery et al., 2017).