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Interferon-Inducible Antiviral Effectors

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Interferon-Inducible Antiviral Effectors REVIEWS Interferon-inducible antiviral effectors Anthony J. Sadler and Bryan R. G. Williams Abstract | Since the discovery of interferons (IFNs), considerable progress has been made in describing the nature of the cytokines themselves, the signalling components that direct the cell response and their antiviral activities. Gene targeting studies have distinguished four main effector pathways of the IFN-mediated antiviral response: the Mx GTPase pathway, the 2′,5′-oligoadenylate-synthetase-directed ribonuclease L pathway, the protein kinase R pathway and the ISG15 ubiquitin-like pathway. As discussed in this Review, these effector pathways individually block viral transcription, degrade viral RNA, inhibit translation and modify protein function to control all steps of viral replication. Ongoing research continues to expose additional activities for these effector proteins and has revealed unanticipated functions of the antiviral response. Pattern-recognition Interferon (IFN) was discovered more than 50 years ago in components of the IFNR signalling pathway (STAT1 receptors as an agent that inhibited the replication of influenza (signal transducer and activator of transcription 1), TYK2 (PRRs). Host receptors that can virus1. The IFN family of cytokines is now recognized as (tyrosine kinase 2) or UNC93B) die of viral disease, with sense pathogen-associated a key component of the innate immune response and the the defect in IFNAR (rather than IFNGR) signalling molecular patterns and initiate 6–9 signalling cascades that lead to first line of defence against viral infection. Accordingly, having the more significant role . an innate immune response. IFNs are currently used therapeutically, with the most The binding of type I IFNs to the IFNAR initiates a These can be membrane bound noteworthy example being the treatment of hepatitis C signalling cascade, which leads to the induction of more (such as Toll-like receptors) or virus (HCV) infection, and they are also used against than 300 IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs)10. However, rela- soluble cytoplasmic receptors various other disorders, including numerous malignancies tively few of these ISGs have been directly implicated in (such as RIG‑I, MDA5 and REF. 2 NLRs). and multiple sclerosis (reviewed in ). instigating the antiviral state. Instead, many of the gene Three classes of IFN have been identified, designated products encode pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) that GTPase types I to III, and are classified according to the receptor detect viral molecules and modulate signalling pathways, A signalling protein that binds complex they signal through (FIG. 1). The type II class of or transcription factors that form an amplification loop guanine nucleotides. A GTPase γ is active in the GTP-bound IFN comprises the single IFN gene product that binds resulting in increased IFN production and protection state and is inactivated when it the IFNγ receptor (IFNGR) complex, and mediates broad from virus spread to limit disease. Nevertheless, some ISGs hydrolyses GTP into GDP. immune responses to pathogens other than viruses. The encode proteins with potential for direct antiviral activity, more recently described type III IFNs include three IFNλ including proteins that catalyse cytoskeletal remodelling, gene products that signal through receptors containing that induce apoptosis, that regulate post-transcriptional IFNLR1 (IFNλ receptor 1; also known as IL-28Ra) and events (splicing, mRNA editing, RNA degradation and the IL‑10R2 (also known as IL-10Rβ). So far, little is known multiple steps of protein translation) and proteins that are about the type III IFNs, although they are known to involved in subsequent post-translational modification. regulate the antiviral response and have been proposed Indeed, several such proteins, ISG15 (IFN-stimulated pro- to be the ancestral type I IFNs3. Type I IFNs, which in tein of 15 kDa), the GTPase Mx1 (myxovirus resistance 1), humans comprise 13 IFNα subtypes, IFNβ, IFNκ, IFNε, ribonuclease L (RNaseL) and protein kinase R (PKR; also IFNο, IFNτ and IFNδ, engage the ubiquitously expressed known as EIF2αK2), have been shown to function as α Monash Institute of Medical IFNAR (IFN receptor) complex that is composed of antiviral effectors in studies of knockout mice. Mice Research, Monash University, IFNAR1 and IFNAR2. The function of type I IFNs is with mutations or deficiencies in key steps of the path- Clayton, Victoria 3168, well characterized and they are known to be essential ways that are triggered by these proteins have increased Australia for mounting a robust host response against viral infec- susceptibility to viral infection. Correspondence to B.R.G.W. tion. Accordingly, IFNAR-deficient mice have increased In this Review, we summarize our current under- e-mail: bryan.williams@med. susceptibility to numerous viruses but maintain resist- standing of the role of ISG15, Mx1, RNaseL and PKR in monash.edu.au ance to other microbial pathogens, such as Listeria the antiviral host immune response. However, although doi:10.1038/nri2314 monocytogenes4,5. Similarly, humans with genetic defects these four proteins are known to be important in the nature revieWs | IMMUNOLOGY vOlume 8 | July 2008 | 559 © 2008 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved. REVIEWS Type I IFNType III IFN Type II IFN ISG15, the Mx proteins, the 2′,5′-oligoadenylate syn- IFNAR1 IFNAR2 thetase (OAS)-directed RNaseL pathway and PKR have varying responsiveness to type I IFNs: ISG15 is one of the Plasma most highly induced ISGs and, when coupled to protein IL-10R2 IFNLR1 IFNGR2 IFNGR1 membrane substrates, it modulates numerous cellular activities; Mx Cytoplasm proteins are also highly induced by type I IFNs and then TYK2 JAK1 TYK2 JAK1 JAK2 JA JAK2 K assemble into oligomers that are constitutively active; 1 JAK1 OAS proteins are expressed at low levels in unstimulated cells, and are considerably induced by type I IFNs pro- 2 1 1 duced in response to viral RNA; and PKR is constitutively P TAT TAT P TAT P expressed as an inactive kinase that is activated by viral S S S RNA, then further upregulated by type I IFNs. This vari- able responsiveness to IFN also underlies the function of each protein as solely an IFN effector, or as PRRs to 2 1 1 1 P P GAF enhance the IFN response. TAT TAT TAT P TAT P S S S ISGF3 S IRF9 ISG15 One of the most prominent ISGs to be induced during Nucleus viral infection and the ensuing type I IFN response is 2 1 the ~15 kDa protein ISG15. Although the ISG15 gene 1 1 P P was cloned over 20 years ago12, an antiviral function of TAT TAT TAT P TAT P S S S ISG15, Mx, S the encoded protein has only recently been established IRF9 OAS and GAS and considerable work is still required to detail all of its PKR ISRE Antimycobacterial actions and to resolve contradictory findings. immunity ISG15 was identified soon after the landmark dis- Antiviral immunity covery of ubiquitin, and was immediately recognized as Figure 1 | Interferon receptor signalling. The action of the interferons (IFNs) is a ubiquitin homologue13 (FIG. 2). Protein ubiquitylation mediated through three receptor complexes: a heterodimer of IFNα receptor 1 (IFNAR1) regulates many aspects of the innate immune response, Nature Reviews | Immunology and IFNAR2 binds type I IFNs; the interleukin‑10 receptor 2 (IL‑10R2) associates with including intracellular signal transduction (for example, IFNLR1 (IFNλ receptor 1) to bind the three IFNλ subtypes; and a tetramer consisting of the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)), and func- two IFNGR2 (IFNγ receptor 2) chains and two IFNGR1 chains binds dimers of the type II tions of the adaptive immune system, such as initiating IFNγ. Following binding by type I IFNs, signal transduction is initiated by pre-associated tolerance (reviewed in REF.14). Given the importance of tyrosine kinases (JAK1 and TYK2 (tyrosine kinase 2)), which phosphorylate IFNAR1 and leads to the recruitment and phosphorylation of the signal transducers and activators ubiquitylation in the immune response, it is perhaps not of transcription (STATs). STAT heterodimers associate with IFN-regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) surprising that there is an IFN-regulated ubiquitin-like to form IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), or STAT homodimers to form the IFNγ protein response. This response, as mediated by ISGs, activation factor (GAF). These complexes translocate to the nucleus to induce is referred to as ISGylation. IFN-stimulated genes from IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) or GAS promoter ISG15 is expressed as a 165 amino-acid precursor elements, for type I and type III, or type II IFN responses, respectively. Divergence from that is subsequently processed to expose the C‑terminal this simplified signalling pathway can occur, for example, type I IFNs are reported to elicit sequence LRLRGG. The equivalent diglycine residues STAT homodimers, and more complicated interplay, with activation of other STAT within this motif in ubiquitin are adenylated and con- proteins, occurs than is shown here. ISG15, IFN-stimulated protein of 15 kDa; Mx, jugated by a thiolester bond to cysteine residues of myxovirus resistance; OAS, 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase; PKR, protein kinase R. three enzymes, a ubiquitin‑activating enzyme (E1), a ubiquitin‑conjugating enzyme (E2) and a ubiquitin antiviral response, they do not represent the complete ligase enzyme (E3), before being transferred to lysine repertoire of antiviral effectors. Additional ISGs that residues on protein substrates. As the ubiquitin E1 probably
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