ITC Iowa Environmental Overview: Rare Species and Habitats Linn County, IA June 8th, 2016 SCHEDULE

MEETING PLACE: Days Inn and Suites of Cedar Rapids (Depart at 7:00 am) • 2215 Blairs Ferry Rd NE, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402

STOP 1: Highway 100 Extension Project and Rock Island Botanical Preserve (7:15 am-10:45 am) • Ecosystems: Emergent Wetland, Dry Sand Prairie, Sand Oak Savanna, River Floodplain Forest • T&E Species : Northern long-eared bat, Prairie vole, Western harvest mouse, Southern flying squirrel, Blanding’s turtle, Bullsnake, Ornate box turtle, Blue racer, Byssus skipper, Zabulon skipper, Wild Indigo duskywing, Acadian hairstreak, Woodland horsetail, Prairie moonwort, Northern Adder’s-tongue, Soft rush, Northern panic-grass, Great Plains Ladies’-tresses, Glomerate sedge, Goats-rue, Field sedge, Flat top white aster • Invasive Species: Garlic mustard, Common buckthorn, Eurasian honeysuckles, Autumn-olive, Yellow & White sweet-clover, Common mullein, Bouncing bet, Kentucky bluegrass, Siberian elm, Japanese barberry, White mulberry, Smooth brome

LUNCH: BurgerFeen (11:00 am – 12:00 pm) • 3980 Center Point Rd NE, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402

STOP 2: McLoud Run (12:15 pm – 2:45 pm) • Current Ecosystems: Disturbed Floodplain Forest • T&E Species: none • Invasive Species: Black locust, Bird’s-foot trefoil, Bouncing bet, Crown vetch, Cut-leaved teasel, Eurasian Honeysuckles, Garlic mustard, Japanese knotweed, Reed canary grass, Siberian elm, Tree-of-heaven, White mulberry, Wild parsnip

RETURN TO HOTEL (3:00 pm)

Martha Holzheuer, LLA, CE, CA Matt Carmer, PWS, CWB LANDSCAPE ECOLOGIST SENIOR SCIENTIST 1403 S. Valley Center Drive 2200 Commonwealth Blvd, Suite 300 Bay City, MI 48706 Ann Arbor, MI 48105 Office: 734-769-3004 Office: 734-769-3004 Mobile: 989-277-3311 Direct: 734-272-0294 Cell: 248-890-7612

1 AREA MAP

Credit: Google Earth

PUBLIC LAND

** Much of the content of this educational booklet is based on data provided by the Iowa Natural Areas Inventory, Iowa Department of Natural Resources; Natural Heritage Information System, Division of Ecological and Water Resources, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Michigan’s Natural Heritage Database, and Michigan Natural Features Inventory. These data are based on a variety of sources, including surveys to locate rare plants and animals in their natural habitats, collection of information from museums, herbaria, and scientific literature, and observations from naturalists around the state. These data are not based on an exhaustive inventory of the state. The lack of data for any geographic area shall not be construed to mean that no significant features are present.

***T&E Species Prescriptions are not set in stone. Dates and prescriptions may vary depending on region, site characteristics, and additional species present.

2 INTRODUCTION

| LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEM | Perceptible topographic and volumetric entity composed of air, land, and organic contents extended spatially over a particular part of the Earth’s surface for a certain time.102

Climate (macro and micro) Abiotic Components (Physical environmental - site or Physiography (form of land and parent material) habitat) Soil (edaphic factors of water, air, nutrients, etc.) | ECOSYSTEM | Plants - Plant communities

Biota (Biotic community) Animals - Animal communities

Microbes - Microbial communities Credit: Barnes, B.V.

| LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH | • Multi-scale, multi-factor, hierarchical approach to understanding the landscape • Considers bedrock geology, physiography, climate, soil, hydrology, and vegetation

Credit: Albert et. al. 1986

3 REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecoregion Level I & Level II

Credit: US EPA Credit: US EPA ECOREGIONS LEVEL I ECOREGIONS LEVEL II

Ecological Regions are areas of general similarity in ecosystem and in the type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Past mapping approaches recognized the need to consider a full range of physical and biotic characteristics including geology, physiography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife, and hydrology to explain ecosystem regions. Equally, they recognized that the relative importance of each characteristic varies from one ecological region to another regardless of the hierarchical level. Developing and refining a framework of North American ecological regions has been the product of research and consultation between federal, state, provincial, and territorial agencies. These agencies were open government departments, but the initiative also involved nongovernmental groups, universities, and institutes. These maps represent the working group’s best consensus on the distribution and characteristics of major ecosystems on two levels throughout the three North American countries. The methodology incorporated these points in mapping ecological regions: • Ecological classification incorporates all major components of ecosystems: air, water, land, and biota (including humans). • The number and relative importance of factors that are helpful in the delineation process vary from one area to another, regardless of the level of generalization. • Ecological classification is based on hierarchy - ecosystems are nested within ecosystems as mapped, although in reality, they may not always nest. • Such classification integrates knowledge, it is not an overlay process. • It recognizes that ecosystems are interactive - characteristics of one ecosystem blend with those of another. • Map lines depicting ecological classification boundaries generally coincide with the location of transition zones.185

4 REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecoregion Level I: Great Plains | REGIONAL CLIMATE & PHYSIOGRAPHY | The Great Plains ecological region is found in the central part of the continent and extends over the widest latitudinal range of any single North American ecological region covering about 1.4 million square miles. The North American prairies extend for about 900 miles from Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada, south through the Great Plains of the United States to southern Texas and adjacent Mexico, and approximately 400 miles from western Indiana to the foothills of the Rockies and into northeastern Mexico. This ecological region is distinguished particularly by relatively little topographic relief, grasslands and a paucity of forests, and subhumid to semiarid climate. The landscape of the northern prairies of the United States have been shaped by a variety of glacial deposits consisting mostly of undulating and kettled glacial till, and level to gently rolling lacustrine deposits. These landforms are associated with intermittent sloughs and ponds. Surficial geology in the remainder of the Great Plains ecological region is varied. In the northern and central Great Plains, most of the rivers have their origins in the Rockies, where rainfall, snowmelt and glacial runoff in the north contribute to their formation. The soils are commonly deep and throughout most of the region were originally highly fertile. Today, soils of agricultural potential throughout the Great Plains face problems of reduced nutrient potential, increasing salinity, and susceptibility to wind and water erosion. The climate is dry and continental, characterized in the north by short, hot summers and long, cold winters. High winds are an important climatic factor in this ecological region. It is also subject to periodic, intense droughts and frosts. The Great Plains were once covered with natural grasslands that supported rich and highly specialized plant and animal communities. The interaction of climate, fire, and grazing influenced the development and maintenance of the Great Plains. Rainfall increases from west to east, defining different types of native prairies. Shortgrass prairie occurs in the west, in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains, with mixed-grass prairie in the central Great Plains and tallgrass prairie in GREAT PLAINS LEVEL I ECOREGION Credit: US EPA the wetter eastern region. Because of the suitability of the Great Plains for agricultural production, many native prairie vegetation types have been radically transformed. The short, mixed, and tallgrass prairies now correspond to the western rangelands, the wheat belt and the corn/soybean regions, respectively, to the central and eastern Great Plains. Drier northern sites are home to yellow cactus and prickly pear, with sagebrush also abundant. Native prairie vegetation ranges from grama grass, wheatgrass, and bluestem prairie in the north to different shrub and grassland combinations and grassland and forest combinations in the south. The eastern border of the region, stretching from central Iowa to Texas, shows patterns of grassland and forest combinations mixed with oak-hickory forest. Throughout the remainder of the Great Plains there are few native deciduous trees that occur, except in the eastern regions or in very sheltered locations along waterways or at upper elevations. Wetland concentrations are generally greatest in the glaciated, subhumid northern grasslands and adjacent aspen parkland of the northern Great Plains, where up to half of the land is wetland. Significant wetlands are also found in the Nebraska Sandhills and a large area of playas is located in the southwestern United States. During winter, the Mexican bodies of water provide habitat for numerous migrant waterfowl from Canada and the United States. Prairie wetlands provide major breeding, staging, and nesting habitat for migratory waterfowl using the central North American flyway. Prior to European settlement, the Great Plains supported millions of bison, pronghorn antelope, elk and mule deer, plains grizzly bears, and plains wolves. Today, the Great Plains is home to a disproportionately high number of rare, threatened, vulnerable, and endangered species. The draining of wetlands and conversion of wildlife habitat for agriculture, industry, and urban development are significant issues in this ecological region. The prairie grasslands are among the largest farming and ranching areas of the Earth, and agriculture is the main stressor.168, 16 5 REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecoregion Level II: Temperate Prairies

Credit: US EPA Credit: Greg Lasley TEMPERATE PRAIRIES LEVEL II ECOREGION

| REGIONAL CLIMATE & PHYSIOGRAPHY | The Temperate Prairie covers 303,200 square miles in the United States and Canada. Mean annual low temperature is 360º, and mean annual high temperature is 550º. Mean annual precipitation has a low of 16 inches and a high of 39 inches. This region is characterized by mainly irregular plains, which are flatter to the northwest, interspersed with numerous small lakes and wetlands. Landforms include moraines with some loess in the south, and some lacustrine landforms, consisting of mainly calcareous soils. The vegetation was formerly tallgrass prairie and aspen parkland, but is currently almost entirely cropland. Typical wildlife includes white-tailed deer, waterfowl, pheasant, and meadowlark. Human land use in the region is mostly agriculture (cereal grain, livestock, and feedlots).194, 17, 33, 91

6 REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecoregion Level III: Western Corn Belt Plains

Credit: US EPA Credit: AG Web | REGIONAL CLIMATE & PHYSIOGRAPHY | The Western Corn Belt Plains stretches across southern Minnesota, most of central and western Iowa, eastern South Dakota, eastern Nebraska, northwest Missouri, and northeast Kansas. The ecoregion has a severe mid-lattitude humid continental climate, marked by hot summers and cold winters. The mean annual temperature is 430º in the north to 540º in the south. The frost-free period ranges from 140 to 200 days. The mean annual precipitation is 31 inches, ranging from 24 to 39 inches and occurring mainly during the growing season. Once covered with tallgrass prairie of little bluestem, big bluestem, Indiangrass, switchgrass, and numerous forbs, with small areas of bur oak and oak-hickory woodlands, this region has nearly all been converted to agricultural land. There are many intermittent and perennial streams, many of which have been channelized. A few areas have natural lakes. Surface and groundwater contamination from fertilizer and pesticide applications as well as from concentrated livestock production is a regional issue. The topography consists of nearly level to gently rolling glaciated till plains and hilly loess plains. Thick loess and glacial till cover the Mesozoic and Paleozoic shale, sandstone, and limestone. Mollisols and Alfisols are dominant with mesic soil temperatures and udic soil moisture. Regional wildlife includes white-tailed deer, beaver, raccoon, red-tailed hawk, barn owl, bobwhite quail, western meadowlark, Canada goose, pheasant, gray partridge, mallard, teal, Great Plains toad, walleye, northern pike, bluegill, and sunfish. Over 75% of the Western Corn Belt Plains is now used for cropland agriculture and much of the remainder is in forage or livestock. It is one of the most productive areas in the world for growing corn and soybeans. Hog and cattle production and some dairies also occur. Larger towns and cities include Mankato, Worthington, Albert Lea, Austin, Sioux Falls, Sioux City, Fort Dodge, Mason City, Des Moines, Ames, Marshalltown, Waterloo, Cedar Falls, Cedar Rapids, Iowa City, Omaha, Council Bluffs, Lincoln, Atchison, Maryville, and St. Joseph.11, 193

7 REGIONAL LANDSCAPE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecoregion Level IV: Eastern Iowa and Minnesota Drift Plains

Credit: US EPA Credit: USGS | REGIONAL CLIMATE, PHYSIOGRAPHY, & SOILS | The Eastern Iowa and Minnesota Drift Plains ecoregion, formerly known as the Iowan Surface, is located between the bedrock-dominated landforms of the Paleozoic Plateau/Coulee Section (steep slopes, bluffs, sedimentary rock outcrops, and dense forest) and the relatively recent glacial drift landforms of the Des Moines Lobe (flat, lack of loess over the glacial drift, morainal ridges). This geologically complex area can be broadly characterized by long, gentle slopes and mature drainage patterns occurring in the south and thin glacial deposits and karst features such as sinkholes and sags occurring on shallow limestone bedrock in the north. The upland, deeply lobed, tongue-shaped protrusions have loess-capped knobs and ridges called paha located on the southern terminus. Low gradient streams and rivers result from the general lack of topography. Lakes of glacial origin do not exist in this region, but overflow areas and backwater ponds occur along some of the larger river channels and contribute to the diversity of aquatic habitat.69, 24

In undeveloped areas, the Ecoregion soils are generally characterized by a thin cover of loess over loamy till underlain by Devonian and Silurian limestone and dolomite. Additionally, natural vegetation includes big bluestem-Indian grass prairie with areas of savanna and bur oak woodlands.12

8 STOP 1

Highway 100 Extension Project and Rock Island Botanical Preserve

Greenbranch Ln Preserve Lane

ITC CORRIDOR PUBLIC LAND 42nd Street Source: Google Earth Credit: Google Earth | GEOLOGY / LANDFORM | The project site for the Highway 100 extension project (Hwy 100) spans 8 miles and utilizes a section of abandoned railroad corridor. The project site crosses over the Cedar River, a tributary of the Iowa River which flows to the Mississippi River and its floodplains. Hence the site crosses a variety of artificial and natural landforms. Rock Island Botanical Preserve is approximately 20 acres located just south of the Hwy 100 project on the east side of the Cedar River. Across both sites, fractured carbonate bedrock consisting of limestones, dolostones, and shale from the Devonian System is prominent. In and along the floodplain of the Cedar River, fractured carbonate bedrock from the Silurian System, which is the principal bedrock aquifer in Linn County, includes fossiliferous dolostones with lime packstone, wackstone, to mudstone fabrics. Generally, the bedrock is deeply buried beneath glacial deposits (except in the north) and therefore it has little influence on plant distribution and abundance. However, bedrock outcrops occur along some of the major rivers, including the Cedar River, which extends the range of some of the northern and eastern plant species. Extensive sandy areas, mostly wind-deposited, are also common along the Cedar River. 68

| SOILS | Of the 75 soil types present on and adjacent to the 8 mile long Highway 100 Extension project, the majorities are loam (~28%), silty clay loam (~24%), and loamy fine sand (~15%) .l165

9 Highway 100 Extension Dinsdale Silty Clay Loam 11.4% Colo Silty Clay Loam 5.9% Spillville Loam 5.7% Klinger-Maxfield Silty Clay Loams Complex 5.6%

Hillslopes Floodplains Floodplains Hillslopes LANDFORM Loess over subglacial till Silty alluvium Loam alluvium Loess over subglacial till PARENT MATERIAL Moderately well drained Poorly drained Poorly drained Somewhat poorly drained/poorly drained DRAINAGE CLASS High High High High AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY Silty clay loam over loam Silty clay loam Loam Silt clay loam over loam TEXTURE Of the 7 soil types present on the Rock Island Botanical Preserve, the majorities are loamy fine sand (59.3%) and sand and gravel pits (22.1%).165

Rock Island Botanical Preserve Chelsea Loamy Fine Sand 57.0% Pits, Sand, and Gravel 22.1% Orthents, Loamy 10.9% Lawler Loam 4% Interfluves N/A - used as source of fill N/A - result of mining Stream terraces LANDFORM Eolian sands Sand and gravel manipulated materials Loamy manipulated materials Loamy alluvium over sandy and gravelly PARENT MATERIAL alluvium Excessively drained Unknown Unknown Somewhat poorly drained DRAINAGE CLASS Moderate Unknown Unknown Moderate AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY Loamy fine sand over fine sand Sand and gravel Loam Loam over gravelly sand TEXTURE

| ECOSYSTEMS | The Highway 100 project will cross through or run adjacent to multiple natural communities, including those on the Rock Island State Preserve, such as: dry sand prairie, sand oak savanna, floodplain forest, emergent wetland, and sandy mesic woodland.

| T&E SPECIES | MAMMALS: Northern long-eared bat, Prairie vole, Southern flying squirrel, Western harvest mouse REPTILES: Blanding’s turtle, Blue race, Bullsnake, Ornate box turtle INSECTS: Acadian hairstreak, Byssus skipper, Wild indigo duskywing, Zabulon skipper PLANTS: Field sedge, Flat top white aster, Glomerate sedge, Goats-rue, Great Plains ladies’-tresses, Northern Adder’s-tongue, Northern panic-grass, Prairie moonwort, Soft rush, Woodland horsetail

| INVASIVE SPECIES | Autumn-olive, Bouncing bet, Common buckthorn, Common mullein, Eurasian honeysuckles, Garlic mustard, Japanese barberry, Kentucky bluegrass, Siberian elm, Smooth brome, White mulberry, White & Yellow sweet-clover

10 STOP 1

| SIZE / LOCATION / OWNERSHIP / MANAGEMENT | HIGHWAY 100 RIGHT-OF-WAY: 8 mile-long project corridor located on the west side of Cedar Rapids in Linn County, connecting the current Highway 100 terminus (at Edgewood Road) with US 30 to the southwest. Iowa Department of Transportation (IDOT), Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).

ROCK ISLAND BOTANICAL PRESERVE: Approximately 20 acre property located south of the Hwy 100 project at 4401 Preserve Lane, Cedar Rapids, IA 52411. Owned by Linn County and managed by Linn County Conservation Board

| HISTORY | HIGHWAY 100 In 2001, IDOT and FHWA approved a Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (DSEIS) for the Highway 100 Extension project to supplement the approved Final Environmental Impact Statement from 1979, outlining existing and predicted future traffic trends, project alternatives and their impacts, as well as socioeconomic and environmental resources. In 2007 a Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement was approved with Alternative 1, the addition of

Above Photo: Animal passage way under constructed segment of Highway 100. Credit: ECT, Inc.

11 an 8 mile-long section from Edgewood Road to US 30 generally via an abandoned railroad right-of-way, as the proposed action. The proposed pathway, would directly impact suitable habitat for two state threatened species - the ornate box turtle and Blanding’s turtle – on the Rock Island Botanical Preserve property. To accommodate these species and others known from the site, such as state endangered northern panic grass and Byssus skipper butterfly, IDOT adjusted the highway’s alignment near the preserve. To further mitigate adverse impacts, IDOT agreed to purchase and restore 30 acres of cropland to prairie as well as move and expand Seeman’s Pond, after transmitter studies determined that the most utilized Blanding’s turtle path runs from overwintering habitat in Seeman’s Pond on the preserve to feeding habitat in Swan Pond, north of and across the highway from the preserve. To ensure that turtles can still access both ponds via their preferred path, IDOT has incorporated a 10 x 10 box culvert under the highway and plans to install appropriate fencing to funnel all wildlife to the culvert, thus, reducing the number of anticipated wildlife fatalities caused by vehicles.152, 48

In winter 2014-2015, ITC partnered with IDOT to perform two structure replacements on either side of the Cedar River adjacent to the new Hwy 100 alignment. Although not protected at the time, now federally threatened northern long-eared bat (NLEB) was observed during mist netting surveys along the project corridor. Per standard IDOT specifications, necessary tree removals were performed before April st1 to abide by USFWS guidelines to protect listed bat species. All vegetation management and construction activities were performed between December 15th and February 15th to avoid impacting state threatened Blanding’s turtles. Cutting, and herbicide application have been used to combat woody encroachment of savanna and prairie habitats as well as to combat invasive species.

ROCK ISLAND BOTANICAL PRESERVE Prior to acquisition by Linn County, the area of land south of the Hwy 100 project (see map on page 9) was owned by the Rock Island Railroad Company. As evidenced in 1930 aerial photographs and historical accounts, portions of the upland were farmed, and the wetland areas were created as a result of soil removal used in railroad construction. The approximately 20-acre tract of land was subsequently ignored, allowing a diversity of flora and fauna to recolonize the site. In 1962, the land was gifted by the Rock Island Railroad Company with the understanding that the Linn County Conservation Board would manage the area as a biological preserve. In 1978 the land was accepted into the Iowa preserve system, which provides special protection to lands either maintained near natural condition or that contain rare flora, fauna, or other significant scientific or historical features. In 2002, 100 acres of nearby land, which included upland sand prairie, wetlands, and forested areas which support Byssus skipper butterfly and Blanding’s turtle, were gifted by James Buresh and James LaMorgese of James Properties, Incorporated and placed in the custody of the Linn County Conservation Board. Surveys conducted in 1989 – 2003 have documented eight animal and nine plant species currently recognized as Threatened (T), Endangered (E) or Special Concern (SC) in Iowa and one federally threatened bird at the Preserve.7, 189, 141, 84

12 STOP 2

McLoud Run

42nd St NE

Redbud Rd NE Rd Redbud Center Point Rd NE Rd Point Center

32nd

Coldstream Ave NE Highway 27 Highway

J Ave NE

ITC CORRIDOR PUBLIC LAND

Credit: Google Earth

| GEOLOGY / LANDFORM | McLoud Run, which is fed by both surface runoff and groundwater, is Iowa’s only urban stream with cool enough water temperatures to support trout. The cold water is supplied by a spring near 42nd Street (1.25 miles to the north of the site). For approximately two of its four miles, it runs adjacent to I-380, Cedar Nature Trail, and the Illinois Central Railroad, until entering the Cedar River confluence near the center of downtown Cedar Rapids. Due to the significant portion of impervious surfaces in the watershed, McLoud Run experiences extreme flashiness, with water levels quickly rising during storm events.74, 47

| SOILS | Of the nine soil types present on the McLoud Run property, the majority are silt loam (~44%), silty clay loam (~33%), or loam (~13%).165

13 McLoud Run Ackmore-Nodaway- Clyde-Floyd-Urban Udorthents-Interstate Sattre Loam 7.7% Urban Land Complex 43.8% Land Complex 28.1% Highway Complex 13.1% Drainageways Drainageways Hillslopes Stream terraces LANDFORM Silty alluvium Erosional sediments fine-loamy till over loamy till; Loam depositys Loamy alluvium over sandy and gravelly PARENT MATERIAL human-transported material alluvium Somewhat poorly drained; Poorly drained; Somewhat poorly drained N/A Well drained DRAINAGE CLASS Moderately well drained Very high High N/A Moderate AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY

Silt loam over silty clay loam; silt Silty clay loam over clay loam; loam over sandy clay Variable Loam over sand TEXTURE loam over stratified silt loam to silty loam clay loam

| ECOSYSTEMS | Currently, McLoud Run Park is primarily a disturbed floodplain forest with sections of turf grass and a number of invasive species. However, ITC plans to seed two formerly turf grass areas with a mesic tallgrass prairie seed mix and dry-mesic shortgrass prairie seed mix in 2016. These areas will help prevent rapid surface flow into McLoud Run and will support native fauna, including pollinator species.

| T&E SPECIES | None

| INVASIVE SPECIES | PLANTS: Bird’s-foot trefoil, Black locust, Bouncing bet, Crown vetch, Cut-leaved teasel, Eurasian Honeysuckles, Garlic mustard, Japanese knotweed, Reed canary grass, Siberian elm, Tree-of-heaven, White mulberry, Wild parsnip

| SIZE / LOCATION / OWNERSHIP / MANAGEMENT | 4 miles of stream and approximately 43 acres of adjacent property with the 5.7 mile located within the Cedar River Trail-North. Parking lot off of McLoud Place and another trail access point near intersection of J Ave NE and 11th St NE, Cedar Rapids, IA 52402 and City of Cedar Rapids, Linn County Trails Association

| HISTORY | Located in Linn County, Iowa, in the City of Cedar Rapids, McLoud Run is widely praised as Iowa’s only urban trout stream. Occasionally stocked with trout by the Iowa DNR, the perennial stream is fed by both storm and cold groundwater and flows for approximately 4 miles prior to joining the Cedar River. It has been used as a source of cold water for local residents and as a state fish hatchery in the 1870’s. Today, it primarily functions as a recreational amenity (approximately 4,600 people use the adjacent trail during summer months) and drainage system for the populations of Cedar Rapids and Hiawatha. Due to increasing urbanization, which has continued to increase the percentage of impervious area in the watershed, McLoud Run experiences extreme flashiness as water levels quickly rise during storm events due to rapid surface runoff entering the stream. Average annual flow in the stream is approximately 2 cubic feet per second (cfs), but stream volumes during storm events can rapidly increase from 1 cfs to 30-45 cfs. Monitoring data from 2006 reported storm flows as high as 112 cfs. Flashy flows can alter the biota of the stream by washing away or smothering benthic macroinvertebrates (aquatic insects important to fish diets) and by changing the water chemistry,

14 STOP 2 including temperature and pollution levels. Thus in response to these degradations, which can impair trout and other fish populations, McLoud Run has become the focus of increased monitoring and restoration efforts since 2007.75, 122

ITC has been surveying and implementing integrated vegetation management in their corridors at McLoud Run Park since 2012. In January 2016, ITC removed vegetation along the southern portion of the stream, including cottonwood and the invasive Siberian elm, while attempting to retain northern hackberry and black walnut when possible to maintain shade and lower stream temperatures. The majority of invasive shrubs were removed with the exception of some Eurasian honeysuckle, which was deemed important for bank stabilization. Planned for spring 2016, 0.86 acres will be seeded with a combination of tallgrass prairie pollinator mix and dry-mesic short grass prairie mix near the Saints Run Substation on Coldstream Ave NE. Where feasible, natural fiber erosion control matting will be installed on slopes to prevent erosion while lowering the risk of entrapment for reptiles. The resulting habitat will improve water quality by infiltrating more storm water than the current turf grass and, hence, reducing direct runoff into the stream. Additionally, the prairie will enhance pollinator habitat by providing diverse native larval host plants and flowers throughout the growing season. ITC and the City of Cedar Rapids Parks & Recreation Department will pursue Conservation Certification for McLoud Run Park through the Wildlife Habitat Council, which recognizes conservation efforts by corporations that collaborate with management, employees, and the community to conserve and restore wildlife habitats on corporate lands. ITC has participated in the program since 2008 and currently has 14 successfully certified sites, including Beverly Park, Sac & Fox Trail Park, and Squaw Creek Park which were newly certified in 2015.

Above Photo: McLoud Run, Iowa’s only urban trout stream. Credit: ECT, Inc.

15 NOTES

16 ECOSYSTEMS the establishment of taller vegetation, which | SAND PRAIRIE | out-compete species with small growth habits, DESCRIPTION: A native grassland occurring on sandy glacial small seeds, and nitrogen-fixing symbioses. outwash plains, sandy lake plains, steep slopes, alluvial Other natural processes, such as nutrient deposits, and occasionally on sand ridges, such as inland cycling, are also altered when fire is removed dunes, coarse textured end-moraines, or sand blowouts from the system and can have cascading effects caused by wind storms. Often associated with white oak on other species in the prairie environment that barrens, oak-pine barrens, and pine barrens, the dry sand depend on particular host plants or an open prairie is characterized by short, patchy vegetation, large grassland structure. In addition to fire, animals areas of native grasses, and less than one mature tree per also play an important role in shaping the prairie acre.103 ecosystem. Ants, especially the genus Formica, frequently create and abandon large mounds, LANDFORM AND SOILS: Primarily occurs on sandy glacial which consequently mixes and aerates the outwash plains and lakebeds, but occasionally on coarse- Credit: ECT, Inc. prairie soils. Records indicate that ant mounds, textured end and ground moraines as well as sandy, hilly which can measure 1.5’ (.5 m) in height and deposits in ice-contact terrain and post-glacial Eolian span 3.3’ (1 m) wide, can number 40 to 50 per (wind-deposited) landforms. Relatively stable well- acre. Moles, mice, skunks, and badgers also drained to excessively drained coarse textured sands, contribute to prairie soil aeration. Historically, loamy sands, and sandy loams facilitate sand prairie large herbivores also played an influential establishment. Loamy sand soils, which have an average role in plant species diversity and community pH of 5.1 and average water retention capacity of 38%, are composition through selective foraging and generally loose, well-drained, unconsolidated, and lacking trampling. These activities altered community in organic matter, which makes them poor for agricultural dynamics by reducing the populations of purposes. Overall, the low nutrient levels, lack of organic favored vegetation and through the creation matter, and low water retention capacities of the soils of microsites for seed germination and strongly influences species composition and structure. establishment. These localized disturbances created open spaces with distinctive moisture NATURAL PROCESSES: Frequent fires and droughty and light conditions, creating niches suitable Credit: Brad Slaughter soils were historically responsible for maintaining open conditions by limiting tree establishment. Prior to to early or mid-successional species, and thus, allowing for more heterogeneity within the settlement, fire frequency was dependent upon the type 62, 103 and volume of fuel, topography, and natural firebreaks, prairie ecosystem. as well as the practices of Native Americans, which were a ANIMALS: Prior to market hunting and habitat significant source of ignition. Fires increased visibility across destruction in the 1800s, prairies contained a the land by clearing vegetation, which facilitated large game wide variety of wildlife adapted to the grassland hunting and advance notice of attack by neighboring tribes. habitat. Large mammals such as bison, elk, In the absence of fire, species diversity is often found to antelope, and wolves were an important decline. Since fires often burn patchily, fire-adapted and component of the prairie ecosystem, but are early successional colonizer species establish quickly on unlikely to be reintroduced given the wide- burned sections, while unburned refugia patches continue spread conversion of land to agriculture. The to support later successional species. Without fire, following animals can still be found in Iowa system variability decreases and studies suggest that the prairies: pocket gopher, ground squirrel, accumulation of litter and the decrease in open area favor Credit: Joshua Mayer grasshopper mice, white-tailed deer, coyote, fox,

17 ornate box turtle, skink spp., chorus frog, American toad, Eurasian honeysuckles, and black locust. small, isolated sand prairie remnants will also dickcissel, red-winged blackbird, goldfinch, meadowlark, MANAGEMENT: To protect and enhance necessitate seeding or seedling transplants of bobolink, bluebird, nighthawk, grasshopper sparrow, red- species diversity and prevent tall shrub and native species and genotypes to increase gene tailed hawk, northern harrier, and American kestrel.62 tree encroachment, an appropriate prescribed flow. Lastly, general grassland management fire regime should be determined and and restoration efforts are critical to grassland VEGETATION: The ecosystem is dominated by little implemented. To reduce the negative impact bird populations, which have suffered due bluestem, June grass, poverty oat grass, porcupine grass, of fire on intolerant species such as insects, to habitat loss and agricultural practices. To and Pennsylvania sedge. Others graminoids include hairy adjacent management units should generally encourage grassland bird populations: avoid grama, fall witchgrass, panic grass, and sand dropseed. be burned in alternating cycles to maintain a fragmentation, protect large tracts (125+ acres), Forbs include whorled milkweed, western ragweed, prairie refuge and allow for recolonization. To combat maximize the interior space by avoiding narrow sagewort, flowering spurge, bird’s-foot violet, everlasting, re-sprouting native woody species and invasive plantings, and create a feathered edge with hawkweed, slender-leaved pinweed, tall and rough blazing species establishment, brush cutting and border habitats rather than sharply contrasting star, frost weed, toadflax, hoary puccoon, wild lupine, sand herbicide stump application may need to be edges (i.e. if possible, allow fire to enter the primrose, purple milkwort, prairie ragwort, gray goldenrod, employed. The reduction of woody vegetation forest stand rather than creating stark breaks).103, goats-rue, ladies’ tobacco, large-flowered beardtongue, and detritus due to prescribed fire has also has 159, 196 hairy puccoon, and false heather.62, 103 been shown to promote prairie ants (Formica) INVASIVE THREATS: Spotted knapweed, common St. John’s as opposed to carpenter and woodland ants wort, autumn-olive, multiflora rose, common buckthorn, due to a lack of litter for nest construction. In addition to reestablishing ecological processes,

Credit: ECT, Inc.

18 the vegetation. Today, the lack of these | SAND OAK SAVANNA | disturbances allows for woody vegetation to 148 DESCRIPTION: Oak savanna is a fire-dependent encroach, creating forested areas. community that typically has spreading, open-grown oak American kestrel, barn owl, wild trees with sun-loving grasses, sedges, and wildflowers ANIMALS: turkey, red-headed woodpecker, northern growing under them. Oak savannas have open canopies, flicker, loggerhead shrike, blue jay, gray catbird, allowing light to reach the ground layer. Older trees that great crested flycatcher, eastern bluebird, initially established in a savanna setting often have widely eastern towhee, indigo bunting, orchard spreading branches, indicating they grew under conditions oriole, black-capped chickadee, white-breasted where they did not have to compete for light. Savannas nuthatch, tufted titmouse, Karner blue butterfly, are mosaic communities with variation of sunny, shaded, elk, bison.146 and partially shaded areas. The shifting light under the canopy provides an environment for a unique mixture VEGETATION: Dominant trees include bur oak Credit: Oak Savannas of herbaceous plants. Savanna understory consists of and white oak interspersed with northern red a mosaic of both sun-loving plants typical of prairie and oak, black oak, shagbark hickory, and bitternut species adapted to dappled or heavy shade environments hickory. Other plants include: Pennsylvania under trees, depending on whether the tree canopy is sedge, creamy gentian, purple milkweed, wild more open or closed. Herbaceous species typical of prairie lupine, and leather flower. and forest co-occur, in addition to a set of very specific savanna species that have high fidelity to the savanna INVASIVE THREATS: Autumn-olive, common community. The non-woody plants and oak leaves provide buckthorn, Eurasian honeysuckles, multiflora fuel for fire that is often slow and creeping, compared to rose, wild parsnip. the fast-moving prairie fires.173 MANAGEMENT: Oak savannas, which once LANDFORM AND SOILS: Oak savannas in the Midwest comprised an estimated 10% of Iowa’s native occur on dry or dry-mesic sites across varied topography, landscape, are now considered one of the including flat, rolling, and very steep terrain. Today, least understood and most rare ecosystems. areas of hilly terrain or sandy soils are more likely to have Restoring oak savannas requires removing fire- Credit: Oak Savannas remnant oak savanna ecosystems, since areas with those intolerant trees and burning the understory characteristics are generally not conducive to agriculture. In Iowa, savannas occur in the transition zone between eastern forests and the prairies.147, 37

NATURAL PROCESSES: Prior to human settlement, Midwest oak savannas were maintained by low-frequency fires resulting from lightning. These fires were integral because oaks are extremely fire-resistant, but very shade intolerant, meaning they cannot survive in the shade of other species. As the Wisconsin glaciation receded, the land was colonized by Native peoples who altered the landscape by setting more frequent fires. Additionally, the grazing, browsing, and rubbing of bison and elk also

Credit: INHF provided disturbance in oak savannas and influenced Credit: US EPA

19 to allow light to reach the ground so that herbaceous withstand low intensity burns. In fact, oaks ages, so that younger trees will be ready to fill in vegetation, including grasses and sedges, can grow. promote fire through the chemical composition when old trees die. Even after death, oak trees Grasses and sedges burn easily, so their presence makes and physical form of their leaf litter. For provide habitat for wildlife species including prescribed burning easier to initiate and spread across example, lobed oak leaves curl as they dry, many cavity-nesting birds and bats.166, 77, 149 the site. If a remnant oak savanna is overgrown with fire- creating air pockets that promote fire movement intolerant species, it may be necessary to begin with tree along the ground. thinning, which will improve air circulation through the site and reduce the risks of initiating a prescribed burn Establishing the correct fire regime, specifically program. Oaks are shade intolerant species, so removing the timing, frequency, intensity, and type other trees through thinning and fire allows for improved (patchy burns with refugia vs. complete oak regeneration. burns) are dependent upon the geographic location, site history, and desired vegetative Although not all oak seedlings will survive repeated fires, community. A considerable amount of research a small number will be able to reach maturity. Oak trees and experienced help is required to restore a are long-lived, surviving 200 years or more. Unlike some savanna ecosystem. It is important to remember other tree species, mature oaks have thicker bark that can that a healthy savanna will have trees of varying

Credit: Little Mountain 5

20 dynamic process of channel migration creates | FLOODPLAIN FOREST | a diversity of landscape features in floodplains. DESCRIPTION: A bottomland deciduous or deciduous- Hydrogeomorphic processes such as over- conifer forest community occupying low-lying areas the-bank flooding, transport and deposition adjacent to streams and rivers of third order or greater of sediment, and erosive and abrasive water subject to periodic over-the-bank flooding and cycles of movement cause the floodplains of large erosion and deposition. rivers to exhibit a variety of fluvial landforms, each of which is associated with a particular LANDFORM & SOILS: In the Midwest, generally occur kind of vegetation. Such fluvial landforms are on the following physiographic systems (landforms): distinguished by their size, shape, elevation, moraine, outwash plain, ice-contact terrain, and lakeplain. soil characteristics, and location in relation Soil is highly variable and strongly correlated with fluvial to the stream channel. Several of the most landforms. The coarsest sediment is deposited on characteristic fluvial landforms are natural levee,

Credit: Joshua G. Cohen the natural levee, immediately adjacent to the stream first bottom, backswamp, oxbow, and terrace. channel, where the soil texture is often sandy loam to loam. Progressively finer soil particles are deposited with ANIMALS: Large contiguous tracts of old- increasing distance from the stream. Soil texture of the growth and mature floodplain forest provide first bottom is often silt loam, with silty clay loam to clay- important habitat for cavity nesters, species of textured soil often occurring in swales and backswamps. detritus-based food webs, canopy-dwelling Cycles of periodic over-the-bank flooding followed by soil species, and interior forest obligates, including aeration when the floodwaters recede generally prevent numerous neotropical migrants such as Black- the accumulation of organic soils. Floodplain soils are throated green warbler, Scarlet tanager, and generally circumneutral to mildly alkaline and characterized Ovenbird. Floodplain forests often support by high nutrient availability and an abundance of soil water disproportionately large numbers of breeding throughout much of the growing season. bird species compared to upland landscapes and provide critical habitat for species closely NATURAL PROCESSES: Direct interaction between associated with wetlands including several more terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems occurs in floodplain rare species such as Prothonotary warbler and Credit: Joshua G. Cohen forests through the processes of over-the-bank flooding, Louisiana waterthrush. Indiana bats establish bank cutting, and sedimentation. Over-the bank flooding roosts and maternity colonies in standing snags can directly cause treefall or indirectly lead to windthrow within floodplain forests. Great blue herons through increased soil saturation. Spring floodwaters often construct rookeries within floodplain often carry ice flows and debris that can scour trees, forests. Seasonally inundated portions of leading to the development of multiple-stemmed canopy floodplains provide crucial habitat for reptiles trees. The input of organic matter from the floodplain and amphibians. forest provides sources of energy for aquatic organisms. Shade from streamside vegetation moderates temperature VEGETATION: As a result of the dynamic, local regimes in aquatic systems, preventing excessive warming nature of natural disturbance along stream of the river during summer months. Woody debris from channels, a typical floodplain forest consists of floodplain vegetation influences the development of many small patches of vegetation with different channel morphology and provides necessary habitat for species composition and successional stages many aquatic organisms. Riparian vegetation reduces often correlated with fluvial landforms. Within Credit: Joshua G. Cohen overland water flow and sediment transport. The a single floodplain forest, vegetation changes

21 along a gradient of flooding frequency and duration. located downstream. The natural spatial and and frequently disturbed systems that contain Fluvial landforms, defined by their size, shape, elevation, temporal patterns of stream flow rates, water extensive areas of exposed mineral soil with high soil, and position in relation to the stream channel, levels, and runoff patterns must be maintained nutrient availability which are characteristics exert a strong influence on the patterning of floodplain or reestablished where feasible, because that facilitate invasion by non-native species. vegetation. New land deposits immediately adjacent to the these hydrologic processes create the diverse Preemptive measures to minimize impacts of stream channel are generally dominated by black willow, structure that characterizes floodplain forests. invasive species include maintaining mature eastern cottonwood, and black ash. The natural levee Maintaining vegetated buffers in the uplands floodplain forest, minimizing and eliminating is often dominated by silver maple and green ash, but a bordering floodplain forests will help improve trails and roads through floodplains, and variety of additional tree species may also be common, stream water quality. Restoration of channel buffering riparian areas with mature, continuous including basswood, swamp white oak, bur oak, sycamore, morphology may be important in areas where uplands.97, 136, 14 hackberry, and box elder. The low frequency and short stream channelization, channel constriction, duration of flooding on the levee result in dense cover of and dams have altered water delivery and shrubs and small trees that might include: musclewood, geomorphology. Additionally, floodplain forests alternate-leaved dogwood, gray dogwood, prickly-ash, are highly susceptible to invasions by non- redbud, hawthorns, nannyberry, elderberry, bladdernut, native species. Because of their linear shape and choke cherry. Adjacent to the levee, the first bottom flat and location between aquatic and terrestrial is flooded more frequently and for a longer period, limiting environments, floodplain forests have a high the tree canopy to flood-tolerant species such as: silver ratio of edge to interior habitat that may maple, green ash, black ash, and American elm. Shrubs facilitate the movement of opportunistic species. are typically rare within the first bottom flat, but vines Rivers and streams provide a route of transport including riverbank grape, poison ivy, Virginia creeper, that facilitates the spread of species across and moonseed may be abundant. Second bottoms are the landscape. Floodplain forests are highly typically dominated by the same tree and shrub species common to the levee but can also include bitternut hickory, butternut, black walnut, black maple, and white ash. Occasionally, royal fern can be found in the ground cover. Low terraces, within the floodplain but above the influence of floodwaters, often contain oaks and hickories as well as basswood, butternut, black cherry, and sugar maple. Higher terraces are often dominated by oak and hickory.

INVASIVE THREATS: Garlic mustard, dame’s rocket, ground ivy, purple loosestrife, narrow-leaved cattail, hybrid cattail, phragmites, reed canarygrass, glossy buckthorn, common buckthorn, Eurasian honeysuckles, Japanese barberry, multiflora rose, autumn-olive, and white mulberry.29

MANAGEMENT: Conservation and management of floodplain forests require an ecosystem management perspective because of the complex longitudinal, lateral, and vertical dimensions of river systems. It is crucial to maintain the connectivity and longitudinal environmental gradients from headwater streams to the broad floodplains Credit: Barnes et al. 1998

22 across the community, reducing litter levels and | EMERGENT WETLAND | facilitating seed bank expression and seedling DESCRIPTION: Wetlands are transitional areas between establishment. aquatic and terrestrial systems where either a depression in the land is covered by shallow water or the water table ANIMALS: Depending on wetland size and exists at or near the surface. Wetlands have one or more location, animals that might be encountered of the following attributes: 1) at least periodically, the site include: beaver, muskrat, mink, bats, great blue vegetation is dominated by hydrophytes (plants adapted to heron, eastern kingbird, red-winged blackbird, grow in water), 2) the substrate is mostly undrained hydric bitterns, rails, northern harrier, mallard, wood soil, or 3) the non-soil substrate is saturated with water duck, blue-winged teal, leopard frog, pickerel at some time during the growing season of each year. frog, chorus frog, bullfrog, American toad, Emergent wetlands are characterized by erect, rooted, tiger salamander, snapping turtle, softshell herbaceous hydrophytes that are present for most of the turtle, water snake, garter snake, bull snake, 18 bluegill, crappie, largemouth bass, crayfish, and Credit: Joshua G. Cohen growing season most years. bullheads.63 LANDFORM & SOILS: Emergent wetlands can be fed by rain and ground water in upland areas, such as prairie VEGETATION: Swamp horsetail, pussy willow, potholes, or receive a combination of surface water, soft rush, giant bur reed, common cattail, water groundwater, and floodwaters of adjacent waterbodies plantain, arrowhead, spikerush, American in bottomland areas, such as oxbows. Wetland hydric sloughgrass, soft stem bulrush, river bulrush, soils form under conditions of saturation long enough to water smartweed.85, 64, 3 develop anaerobic features such as the accumulation or loss of iron, manganese, sulfur, or carbon compounds. INVASIVE THREATS: Reed canary grass, narrow- The features that develop due to these processes include: leaved cattail, and purple loosestrife.30 bluish-gray or greenish-gray color (reduced iron); redox depletions or concentrations (gray and reddish gray colors MANAGEMENT: Eliminate off-road vehicle related to iron loss or accumulation); “rotten egg” smell traffic; nutrient and sediment inputs; dredging, (microbial conversion of sulfate to hydrogen sulfide); ditching, and draining activity; dumping Credit: Joshua G. Cohen and accumulated, partially decomposed, black organic and placement of fill; and invasive species matter, such as peat or muck (lower rate of carbon use by establishment. Ditching alters the hydroperiod microbes).126, 164 and allows shrubs and trees to establish, eventually replacing emergent herbaceous NATURAL PROCESSES: Emergent wetlands are subject species. Wetlands should be monitored for to frequent or seasonal flooding. Periods of low water invasive species, which, if found, should be facilitate seed bank expression and seedling establishment removed after researching effective and safe when litter levels are low. Beaver dams in nearby streams techniques. A licensed commercial herbicide cause major changes to soils and vegetation. One of applicator should be employed if herbicide the most important results of flooding is the creation is determined to be the preferred option. A of oxygen-deprived sediments and accumulation of surfactant, a product added to enhance an peat. Muskrat feeding within emergent marshes can herbicide’s performance that improves sticking create openings that are colonized by submergent and of the herbicide to the invasive plant, should floating vegetation. Historically, where emergent marshes be employed. Additionally, the technique that Credit: USGS bordered fire-dependent uplands, wildfires likely burned is most effective for the job and will cause the

23 least damage to neighboring desirable species should be When bordered by fire-dependent upland helpful BMP document created by the Wisconsin utilized. For example, if the infestation is small, hand- communities, management should include DNR.65, 4, 197, 82 wicking (i.e. applying herbicide via a soaked glove directly prescribed fire in both the marsh and adjacent to the plant) may be appropriate. The upland adjacent uplands to encourage the establishment of Wisconsin DNR BMP Documents to the wetland should also be managed for invasive native species from the seed bank. Prevention species and disturbance in the area should be limited so of invasive species establishment is key since it http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Wetlands/documents/ as to prevent tracking in non-native species, damaging saves time and money and maintains a healthy, WetlandInvasiveBMP.pdf sensitive plants, or altering the hydrology of the area. native ecosystem. See the box for a link to a

Credit: ECT Inc.

24 INVASIVE SPECIES MANAGEMENT PROTOCOLS

Credit: USNPS. DEFINITION: According to the National Invasive Species Council, invasive species are “species that are non-native to the ecosystem under consideration, and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health.” The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies takes the position: “at this point in time, the greatest single threat to wildlife of all kinds and sizes is the spread of exotic species, especially invasive plants”.45

PROBLEMS AND IMPACTS: Environmental harm comes from invasive species aggressively colonizing sites at the exclusion of other species. The result is a reduction in biodiversity that not only affects the plant community but also affects the other biological constituents of the ecosystem that depend on plants, including the microbial community, micro- and macroinvertebrates, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and birds.

The Northeastern Agricultural and Resource Economics Association reported a negative economic impact of $34.5 billion per year caused by invasive terrestrial plants in the United States. A still widely cited scholarly paper, published in 2005, estimated the total cost of all invasive species in the United States to exceed $120 billion per year. In 2011, the Department of the Interior allocated $100 million for invasive species prevention, detection, management, research, outreach, and habitat restoration. Today, the cost of invasive species has presumably grown significantly, given that globalization and further research has likely expanded the documented number of plants, animals, and microbes determined to be detrimental to the U.S. economy.130, 135, 179

SEVEN MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS: Managing invasive species can be difficult and may require several years of intense, costly, and repetitive effort. Depending upon site conditions, complete eradication may not be a realistic goal. Since biota, including humans, and the landscape ecosystems they Credit: ECT, Inc.

25 inhabit are in a constant flux, managing invasive species will continue to be an ongoing challenge, responsibility, and act of environmental stewardship. The seven critical aspects of invasive species control are as follows:

1. Prevention Prevention is the most important step in control of invasive species and starts with awareness and recognition of the most common types of invasive species. Learning to recognize invasive species can begin by reviewing published photos and descriptions. Taking a field trip with someone who knows the plants can aid in the process of learning to identify invasive plant species. See the call-out box below for online references to get started with invasive plant recognition. Knowledge of how plants reproduce and spread, such as through seed dispersal, fragmentation, sending out lateral shoots, and stump sprouting, allows managers to develop strategies to recognize and avoid practices that may cause invasive plants to spread to new areas. For example, when feasible, avoid disturbance of areas that have invasive species with mature seed heads. Disturbance is likely to launch seeds airborne or collect on clothing or vehicles to be carried offsite. If invasive shrubs are to be cut, cuttings should be collected and removed to an appropriate disposal facility. The cut stumps often require treatment with an approved herbicide to prevent regrowth. 2. Early Detection and Rapid Response Early detection and swift treatment of invasive species generally offers the best chance of success and lowest cost of treatment and effort. It is critically important to stay informed about current and potential invasive species in your area. Once location and abundance of invasive plants have been documented, strive to treat new infestations during the current growing season to prevent additional spread via sexual and asexual reproduction. Priority treatment areas should be (1) isolated plants, then (2) the “advancing front” of a dense stand, and (3) the established dense stand. 3. Containment and Control Too often, the invasive species are too dense and widespread to be eradicated without unacceptable costs. At that point, it is advisable to stop the spread of the invasive plants and develop an integrated pest management plan to address the problem long term. 4. Monitoring It is important to regularly inspect sites for occurrence of invasive species, both to evaluate the efficacy of previous treatment efforts and to detect the early onset of a new invasive species infestation.

Invasive Plant Online Identification Resources a. A Field Identification Guide to Invasive Plants of Michigan’s Natural Communities http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/fieldguide.cfm b. A Field Guide to Invasive Plants of Aquatic and Wetland Habitats for Michigan http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/aquaticsfieldguide.cfm c. Minnesota Invasive Non-Native Terrestrial Plants: an Identification Guide for Natural Resource Managers http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/ttterrestrialplan/index.html d. Iowa DNR Invasive Plant Species http://www.iowadnr.gov/Environment/Forestry/ForestHealth/InvasivePlants.asas e. A Field Guide to Terrestrial Invasive Plants in Wisconsin http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/invasives/docudocum/wi%20inv%20plant%20field%20gguid%20web%20version.pdf

f. A Field Guide to Invasive Plants of the Midwest & MIPN Fact Sheets http://mipn.org/publications.html

g. Bugwood and Invasive.org: The University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health http://www.invasive.org/species/weeds.cfmf

26 INVASIVE SPECIES MANAGEMENT PROTOCOLS

5. Come Clean, Leave Clean Inspect and clean boots, clothing, equipment and personal gear for soil, seeds, plant parts, and invertebrates before and after field activities. Prior to moving equipment out of an infested area or into a non-infested area, clean equipment by removing plant parts, soil, seed, and invertebrates off of equipment wheels, tracks and other surfaces. Pack cleaning tools such as hoof picks for boots, brushes or brooms for equipment, and spray bottles of 10% bleach solution for sterilization. Clean equipment and clothing at cleaning stations designated for containment and disposal of debris. 6. Restoration of Disturbed Sites When feasible, locate staging and access areas in places free of invasive species to avoid their spread via contamination of equipment and clothing with seeds, other plant parts, or invertebrates. Minimize soil disturbance by using existing corridors, strive to reduce the size of staging areas, access points, and construction footprints. Invasive species often get a “foothold” in disturbed soils, such as construction sites, new road construction, and utility corridors. By replacing topsoil and reseeding or replanting with native species, the invasive species can be denied the opportunity to establish and spread. When feasible, use soil and plant materials onsite, rather than exporting and importing material that may contain invasive species. If importing soil, fill, mulch, or plants, verify that they are from sources free of invasive species, such as certified weed-free straw. Monitoring of newly restored sites is a key step in preventing invasive species from colonizing an area before mature plants are established. The small size and low density of invasive plants found during the revegetation phase of a restoration provides the most opportune time to employ management actions that result in eradication of invasive species. 7. Communication and Education Training field personnel to recognize and treat invasive species is recommended on an ongoing basis. Some management strategies, especially those proposed for wetlands, require permits from government agencies. State natural resource management agencies typically post information regarding new infestations and treatment methods.9, 119, 155, 162, 195

Credit: ECT, Inc.

27 NOTES

28 POLLINATORS

DEFINITION: Pollination is the transference of pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma. When picturing a “pollinator,” the most common agent that comes to mind is a bee. However, in addition to the 4,000 native bee species identified in the USA, many other pollinators provide this vital ecosystem service. These include species of moths, butterflies, ants, beetles, bats, birds, flies, and wasps. These animals, along with wind and water, are vital to the act of pollination and maintaining a functioning ecosystem. Pollinators are important because they facilitate plant reproduction and ensure viable seed for propagation, genetic diversity within a plant population, and food resources for animals.200

With respect to human requirements, the USDA reports that “worldwide, approximately 1,000 plants grown for food, beverages, fibers, spices, and medicines depend upon pollination by animals in order to produce the goods which we require”. In a joint publication from NRCS and the Wildlife Habitat Council, the economic value of pollinators, which includes insect-pollinated crops and indirect products such as milk and beef from cattle fed on alfalfa, is estimated at $40 billion in the USA alone.161, 128

Credit: John Sullivan

PROBLEMS: Recently, in a widely documented phenomenon, insect pollinators have suffered substantial declines in abundance and diversity. For example, native bee species and introduced honey bees, both of which are integral to agricultural production, have suffered alarming population and/or range declines. Reports of honey bee colony collapse disorder, a “syndrome defined as a dead colony with no adult bees or bee bodies but with a live queen and usually honey and immature bees still present,” have risen in recent years and no scientific cause has been proven.199, 1 However, scientists suspect that synergistic effects caused by the following threats are likely to blame: Habitat loss and Degradation Agriculture is a major land use comprising around 50% of the world’s habitable land and 38% of the world’s overall land area. Today, agriculture often takes the form of large-scale intensive crop monocultures, which fewer species find suitable; therefore, the diversity of species

29 over a given land area is reduced. A scientific study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science used a model to estimate that between 2008 and 2013, bee abundance declined across 23% of US land area. This decline was generally associated with conversion of natural habitats to row crops.198, 80

Lack of Native Plants and Plant Diversity Unsurprisingly, the diversity of plants at a site, or lack thereof, impacts the diversity of pollinators. This is acutely observed in agricultural monocultures, where the crop may only be suitable for a limited number of pollinators and/or might support them for only a few weeks during peak bloom time. Increasing the abundance and diversity of floral resources, with particular attention to providing a consistent supply over the pollinator flight season, has a significant impact on site suitability. Additionally, a study in Restoration Ecology found that both native bees and honey bees displayed a preference for native plants over co-occurring exotic plants.Currently, farmland borders and fringes are attractive sites for non-native, weedy species that can out-compete natives in disturbed or altered landscapes.121

Pesticides As defined by the Environmental Protection Agency, “a pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest; use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant; or use as a nitrogen stabilizer. In a report from the USDA’s Economic Research Service, pesticide use for 21 crops in 2008 included the use of 516 million pounds of active ingredient, the chemical agent that controls pests. Unfortunately, pollinators, which are extremely valuable assets in an agricultural system, are equally impacted by pesticide usage. One category of pesticides that have received media attention are neonicotinoids, a relatively new group of systemic insecticides introduced in the last 20 years. Over time, they have demonstrated the following effects on honey bee health: compromised immune system, shortened adult life cycles, impaired memory and learning, reduced social communication (reduces foraging efficiency), disorientation, delayed larval development and disrupted brood cycle, and gut microbe disruption leading to malnutrition. In addition, residential property owners who use pesticides are also impacting pollinator health. Although the pesticides available for Credit: Bob Peterson homeowner use are used in significantly smaller quantities, they are often incorrectly applied, which can lead to unnecessary environmental impacts.167, 131, 34

Non-native Species and Diseases In addition to exotic plants outcompeting native flora, which provide specialist pollinator species with nutritional nectar and pollen, non-native pollinators present a potential threat to native pollinator species. Further scientific studies regarding these interactions are required before any generalizations can be made, but given the history of introductions there could be significant ecological impacts. Less speculative is the damage caused by introduced parasites and diseases - Varroa and Tracheal mites, African hive beetles, and Nosema - that have had severe impacts on pollinator populations, although the effects have generally been species-specific.

30 POLLINATORS

Climate Change According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the human-induced current warming trend is proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300 years, and the panel of 1,300 scientists forecasts a temperature rise between 2.5 to 10°F over the next century. Not all areas will be uniformly impacted nor impacted simultaneously, since different societal and environmental systems will be better or less suited to mitigating changes or adapting. Similarly, pollinators are likely to be directly and/or indirectly impacted by changes to the growing season length, precipitation patterns, and the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.123

Credit: Revital Salomon SOLUTIONS: In June 2014 amid rising concern for pollinator welfare, President Obama created The Pollinator Health Task Force, which used federal agency collaboration to develop plans aimed at reversing pollinator loss and restoring populations to self-sustaining levels. The resulting 2015 documents outlined strategies for reaching three overarching goals: 1) the reduction of honey bee colony losses during winter to no more than 15% within 10 years, 2) an increase in Eastern monarch butterfly populations to 225 million butterflies/15 acres in overwintering grounds in Mexico, and 3) the restoration or enhancement of 7 million acres of land suitable for pollinators over the next five years. Although this strategy is a step in the right direction, critics lambasted the plans for not taking a harder stance on pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids that have been reported to cause chronic neurotoxicity. Regardless of federal restrictions, all landowners – whether farmers, suburban homeowners, or corporations – should seek out information about pesticide use and application

Credit: John Flannery to better protect the environment, employees, customers, and themselves (recommended sites can be found in the call-out box on the next page). Pesticides should only be used when other means (such as mechanical removal) are not effective, efficient, or applicable. The pesticide with the lowest toxicity, fastest degradation rate (i.e. rate at which it becomes benign), highest selectivity (i.e. targets only the intended pest) should be chosen and the smallest effective amount applied.90

Through the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), the United States Department of Agriculture’s Farm Service Agency has promoted the Pollinator Habitat Initiative (CP-42). The program is designed to offer farmers support in the installation of high-quality, native wildflowers that will sustain pollinators and other wildlife throughout the growing season. Newly enrolled participants receive compensation and subsidies to support the implementation of suitable pollinator habitat.160 Credit:Bob Peterson Other organizations have risen to promote pollinator health and protection, such as the non-profit Pollinator Partnership and the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. These organizations and others encourage individuals, corporations, farmers, etc. to institute practices on their property that promote pollinator health and habitat. These practices include: 1) establishing native plants with overlapping bloom times to provide nutrition throughout the growing season, 2) provide potential homes for pollinators by leaving patches of bare ground, brush piles, or installing nesting blocks, 3) eliminate or reduce pesticide use, and 4) educate others about the importance of pollinators and how they can aid in pollinator protection. Once areas have been restored, landowners are encouraged to register the location of suitable pollinator habitats via an online map database called S.H.A.R.E., which documents the spatial pattern of pollinator habitat establishment.

Credit: Joe Schneid

31 ITC has already begun implementing these practices at many of their Wildlife Habitat Council certified sites (Sac and Fox Trail Park, Beverly Park, and Squaw Creek Park) as well as along their other transmission Invasive Plant Online Identification Resources line corridors (McLoud Run Park and Cedar Valley 1. The Pollinator Partnership Nature Trail). Additionally, the City of Cedar Rapids www.pollinator.org Parks & Recreation Department (City) and Linn 2. S.H.A.R.E. Map County Conservation are partnering on a 1,000- http://www.pollinator.org/SHARE.htm acre Pollinator Initiative, with the goal of increasing 3. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation pollinator habitat by 1,000 acres in and around Cedar www.xerces.org Rapids. To reach this goal, the partners plan to target 4. National Pesticide Information Center underutilized public land, such as areas around bike http://npic.orst.edu/index.html trails, landscaped spaces in parks, and public rights- 5. EPA – Protecting Bees and Other Pollinators from Pesticides http://www.epa.gov/pollinator-protection of-way, as well as convert areas currently hosting non- umble bee dentification uide native species, such as golf course flower beds. New 6. B I G http://www.xerces.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/Eastern_Bumble_Bee.pdf pollinator habitat is also expected to reduce flash flooding by decreasing the amount and rate of runoff into storm sewers as well as lessen City labor and fuel costs by shrinking maintenance requirements, such as mowing. Linn County Conservation is also spreading pollinator awareness by raising monarchs and placing honey bee demonstration hives on one of their properties. By partnering with natural resource managers, such as the City and Linn County Conservation, ITC can continue to help bolster pollinator habitats across the Midwest through the removal of invasive plants, encouragement of native plants and compatible shrubs, and limited application of herbicides and pesticides.41, 43, 132

Credit: ECT Inc. 32 INDIANA BAT & NORTHERN LONG-EARED BAT

| STATUS | Indiana bats are currently listed as a federally endangered species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and have been since 1967. Their range includes a majority of the eastern half of the United States. Northern long-eared bats (NLEB) were recently listed as a federally threatened species by USFWS on April 2, 2015, and their range extends further north, east, south, and west than that of Indiana bat.

| NATURAL HISTORY | Both bats migrate seasonally between winter hibernacula and summer roosting habitats, although NLEB tends to migrate shorter distances from hibernacula to roost sites. Winter hibernacula include caves and abandoned mines. Indiana bats hibernate in very large groups, while NLEB hibernacula tend to only have a few individuals. They breed in late summer when males begin swarming near hibernacula. After copulation, females store sperm during hibernation. In spring, they emerge from their hibernacula, ovulate, and fertilize their egg with the stored sperm. After fertilization, pregnant females migrate to summer areas where they roost in small colonies and give birth to a single pup. Maternity colonies are formed under the loose bark of trees (dead or alive) and/or cavities. A single colony may utilize a number of roost trees during the summer, typically a primary roost tree and several alternates. Indiana bat maternity colonies with young generally have 30-60 bats, although larger maternity colonies have been observed. NLEBs tend to roost alone or in small colonies underneath bark, in cavities, or in crevices of live or dead trees. They are more flexible than Indiana bats when it comes to roost tree selection, utilizing smaller diameter and shorter trees and more crevices and cavities than Indiana bat. Most females within a maternity colony give birth around the same time, which may occur from late May or early June to late July, depending on colony location. Young bats start flying 18-21 days after birth. Both species of bats can live up to 19 years. They emerge at dusk to fly through the understory of forested hillsides and ridges feeding on moths, flies, leafhoppers, caddisflies, and beetles, which they catch while in flight using echolocation. They also feed by gleaning motionless Credit: USNPS insects from vegetation and water surfaces. During the summer, the bats frequent the corridors of small streams with riparian woods as well as mature upland forests. They forage for insects along stream corridors, within the canopy of floodplain and upland forests, over clearings with early successional vegetation (old fields), along the borders of croplands, along wooded fencerows, over farm ponds, and in pastures.171, 184

| HABITAT | SUITABLE HABITAT CONSISTS OF: Roosting habitat: Live, dead, or dying trees with exfoliating bark, split tree trunk, split branches, holes, cracks, crevices, or hollow trunks or branches. Foraging habitat: Within and on the edges of wooded areas. Frequently associated with streams, floodplain forests, forested wetlands, and impounded water bodies. Travel corridors: Areas that link roosting and foraging habitat, including open understory forest, wooded fence-rows, and open paths through wooded areas, including streams, trails, and small roads with canopy cover. Hibernacula: Caves or underground mines.

Suitable roost trees defined as live trees and/or snags ≥5 “ diameter at breast height (DBH) (12.7 cm) for Indiana bat and ≥3” dbh (7.6 cm) for NLEB that have exfoliating bark, cracks, crevices, and/or hollows. Male bats of both 172 species may roost in trees 3 inches dbh or greater. Credit: KQED Science

33 | THREATS | No other threat is as severe and immediate as white-nose syndrome. If this disease had not emerged, it is unlikely the Northern long-eared population would be declining so dramatically. Since symptoms were first observed in New York in 2006, white-nose syndrome has spread rapidly from the Northeast to the Midwest and Southeast, an area that includes the core of the NLEB’s range where it was most common before this disease. Numbers have declined by 99 percent in the Northeast. Although there is uncertainty about the rate that white-nose syndrome will spread within the species’ range, it is expected to spread throughout the entire United States. Although significant population declines have not been observed due to other sources of mortality, they may now be important factors affecting this bat’s ability to persist while experiencing dramatic declines caused by white-nose syndrome. Other sources of mortality include impacts to hibernacula, loss or degradation of summer habitat, and wind farm operation. Gates or other structures should be erected to exclude people from caves and mines that could be used as hibernacula; However, they should not restrict bat flight and movement or change airflow and internal cave and mine microclimates. A few degrees change can make a cave unsuitable for hibernating bats. Cave-dwelling bats are vulnerable to human disturbance while hibernating. Bats use up their energy stores when roused and may not survive the winter or females may not successfully give birth or rear young. Highway and commercial development, surface mining, and wind facility construction permanently remove habitat and are prevalent in many areas of this bat’s range. Timber harvest and forest management can remove or alter (improving or degrading) summer roosting and foraging habitat. Wind turbines kill bats, including Northern long-eared bats, although only a small number have been documented to date. There are many wind projects within a large portion of the bat’s range and many more are planned.

| MANAGEMENT | DO NOT DISTURB HIBERNATING BATS. Many agencies and organizations have protected caves and mines that are important hibernacula for cave-dwelling bats. Comply with all cave and mine closures, advisories, and regulations. In areas without a cave and mine closure policy, follow approved decontamination protocols (see whitenosesyndrome.org/topics/decontamination). Under no circumstances should clothing, footwear, or equipment that was used in a white-nose syndrome affected state or region be used in unaffected states or regions. Actions have been taken to slow the spread of white-nose syndrome through human transmission of the fungus into caves (e.g. cave and mine closures and advisories; national decontamination protocols). A national plan was prepared by the USFWS and other state and federal agencies that details actions needed to investigate and manage white-nose syndrome. Many state and federal agencies, universities and non- governmental organizations are researching this disease to try to control its spread and address its effect.

Where possible and not a safety hazard, leave dead or dying trees standing on your property. Northern long-eared bats and many other animals use these trees. Dead and dying trees are usually not left standing, so trees suitable for roosting may be in short supply.

Install bat boxes to provide additional roost sites.

USFWS and others are working to minimize bat mortality from wind turbines on several fronts. They fund and conduct research to determine why bats are susceptible to turbines, how to operate turbines to minimize mortality, and where important bat migration routes are located. USFWS, state natural resource agencies, and wind energy industry are developing a Midwest Wind Energy Multi-Species Habitat Conservation Plan that will provide wind farms a mechanism to continue operating legally while minimizing and mitigating listed bat mortality.169, 98, 171, 184, 101

34 POTENTIAL INDIANA BAT IMPACTS & REGULATIONS

| SUMMARY OF THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT -16 U.S.C. §1531 ET SEQ. (1973) | The Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found. The lead federal agencies responsible for implementing the ESA are the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries Service. The USFWS maintains a worldwide list of endangered species. Species include birds, insects, fish, reptiles, mammals, crustaceans, flowers, grasses, and trees.

The ESA requires federal agencies, in consultation with the USFWS and/or the NOAA Fisheries Service, to ensure that actions they authorize, fund, or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any listed species or

Credit: Conserve Wildlife Foundation of NJ result in the destruction or adverse modification of designated critical habitat for such species. The ESA also prohibits any

DOES YOURVEGETATION PROJECT MANAGEMENT INVOLVE… PROJECT INDIANA BAT DECISION FLOW CHART DOES YOUR PROJECT INVOLVE... New build / rebuild within an Indiana bat county? YES Contact and obtain approval from Regional NO Forester & ITC Environmental when

Credit: Whittle Ecological planning work in this Crossing federal/state land within an area. Indiana bat county? YES Note: ECT provided prescriptions in the rare species layer If can’t abide by tree for this scenario. cutting restriction dates (4/1 – 10/15 for MI; NO 4/1-9/30 for Midwest), agency correspondence and/or additional field IA DNR record of Indiana bat within 5 surveys may be necessary miles of the corridor? Credit: Indiana DNR YES Note: ECT provided prescriptions in the rare species layer for this scenario.

NO YES Indiana bat county with a known IA DNR bat record & must impact potential roost Proceed like trees NO normal

Credit: USFWS * For Capital new build and rebuild projects, also consult the ITC Permit Policy Specialist when planning work. Credit: ECT, Inc.

35 action that causes a “taking” of any listed species of endangered fish or wildlife. Likewise, import, export, interstate, and foreign commerce of listed species are all generally prohibited.

If suitable habitat is present at the proposed site, it is possible that Indiana bats are also present, and an appropriate determination at this point is that the project “may affect” the Indiana bat, and consultation with USFWS may be required, especially if tree cutting restriction dates cannot be observed. If no habitat suitable for the Indiana bat is present, a determination of “no effect” is likely appropriate. If habitat is present or Indiana bats are known to be present, they must not be harmed, harassed or disturbed when present, and the USFWS Regional Field Office should be contacted for further assistance per the 2016 Range-Wide Indiana Bat Summer Survey Guidelines. The only listed critical habitat in Illinois, Iowa, Michigan and Minnesota is the Blackball Mine in LaSalle Co., Illinois.176

| TREE CLEARING RESTRICTIONS | Seasonal tree clearing restrictions are a required avoidance measure that can minimize potential adverse effects to Indiana bats caused by timber removal, or other disruptions of habitat, during Indiana bat occupancy periods. In general and when unavoidable, summer and swarming habitat may be removed when bats are not likely to be present, which is typically the winter months when Indiana bats are hibernating. Tree clearing is defined as the removal of all trees ≥5 inches DBH. Per the latest verbal guidance from USFWS, tree clearing should not occur from April 1 – September 30 in the Midwest. If tree cutting restrictions cannot be followed, species-specific surveys can be conducted to determine if impact will occur. These surveys (both mist netting & acoustic) must occur from May 15 – August 15.

ROCK ISLAND FIELD OFFICE http://www.fws.gov/midwest/RockIsland/contactus.html 1511 47th Ave. Moline, IL 61265 309-757-5800

Credit: ECT, Inc.

36 POTENTIAL NLEB IMPACTS & REGULATIONS

| THE FINAL 4(D) RULE FOR NLEB | On January 14th, 2016 the USFWS published a Final 4(d) rule for northern long-eared bat, which focuses prohibition of incidental take on those activities most harmful to the species. The Final 4(d) Rule for NLEB states:

PURPOSEFUL TAKE: • Prohibited throughout the species range (exceptions include removal of bats from human structures, defense of human life, removal of hazardous trees, and authorized capture).

INCIDENTAL TAKE: • Activities not involving tree removal are exempted (e.g. prescribed burning and wind energy facilities) • Hazardous tree removal is exempted • Within the White-Nose Syndrome (WNS) zone (encompasses all of IA, IL, and most of MN, see map here: http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/ mammals/nleb/pdf/WNSZone.pdf), incidental take is prohibited under the following circumstances: • If it occurs within a hibernaculum; • If it results from tree removal activities and VEGETATION MANAGEMENT PROJECT NLEB BAT DECISION FLOW CHART • The activity occurs within .25 miles of a DOES YOUR PROJECT INVOLVE... known hibernaculum; or • The activity destroys a known, Tree removal within a .25 miles of a occupied maternity roost tree (or known hibernacula at any time of year? YES Contact and obtain other trees within a 150-ft radius from approval from Regional the maternity roost tree) between June Forester & ITC 1 and July 31 (the pup season). NO Environmental when planning work in this area.* Crossing federal land?

Note: ECT provided prescriptions in the rare species layer YES If can’t abide by tree for this scenario. cutting restriction dates (6/1-7/31), agency correspondence and/or NO additional field surveys may be necessary. Tree removal in MN Township with known YES NLEB maternity roost trees or IA/IL DNR NLEB records within 5 miles of the corridor? Proceed; Incidental take that may result is * For Capital new build and rebuild Note: ECT provided prescriptions in the rare species layer NO for this scenario. exempted projects, also consult the ITC Permit Policy Specialist when planning work. Credit: ECT, Inc.

37 | 4(D) RULE CONSERVATION MEASURES/TREE CLEARING RESTRICTIONS | To be exempted from incidental take, a qualifying project must follow these measures: • Do not conduct activities that alter the entrance or the environment (physical or other alteration) of a NLEB hibernaculum, • Do not remove trees within .25 miles of known, occupied hibernacula at any time of year • Do not cut or destroy a known, occupied maternity roost tree or surrounding trees within a 150’ radius from June 1 - July 31 (the pup season)

When looking for information on the presence of maternity roost trees or hibernacula within a given project area, USFWS’s expectation is that a project proponent will complete due diligence to determine available data, e.g. review USFWS township maps, if available for the state, or consult the state’s Natural Heritage Inventory database. If information is not available, the project proponent must document their attempt to find the information and may then move forward with the project.

Tree removal is defined in the 4(d) rule as cutting down, harvesting, destroying, trimming, or manipulating in any other way the trees, saplings, snags, or any other form of woody vegetation likely to be used by northern long-eared bats, e.g. trees ≥3” dbh. If tree cutting restrictions (e.g. June 1 - July 31) cannot be followed, species-specific surveys can be conducted to determine if impact will occur. These surveys (both mist netting & acoustic) must occur from May 15 – August 15.177, 178

ROCK ISLAND FIELD OFFICE http://www.fws.gov/midwest/RockIsland/contactus.html 1511 47th Ave. Moline, IL 61265 309-757-5800

Keep in mind, given that the geographic ranges of the two species greatly overlap, the stricter prohibitions for Indiana bat essentially protect both bat species. According to USFW’s Environmental Conservation Online System (ECOS) and Iowa DNR Natural Areas Inventory, both Indiana and northern long-eared bats are known to occur in Iowa, but only northern long- eared bat is known to occur in Linn County.175, 170, 72

Credit: ECT, Inc.

38 T&E: MAMMALS

| NORTHERN LONG-EARED BAT | IDENTIFICATION: Medium-sized bat 3-3.7” long, 9-10” wingspan, fur medium - dark brown on the back and tawny - pale-brown on the Myotis septentrionalis underside. Distinguished from other Myotis bats by long ears. T&E STATUS: MN Special Concern, IL Threatened, Federally Threatened. MANAGEMENT: Protect known and suspected winter hibernacula, avoid HABITAT: Winter hibernacula in large caves or mines with large passages and disturbance to hibernating bats, protect summer habitat, leave dead and 109, 49, 174, 184 entrances, constant temperatures, high humidity, and no air currents. Roost in dying trees standing, install bat boxes. summer singularly or in colonies underneath bark, in cavities, or in crevices of PRESCRIPTION: Please contact and obtain approval from Regional both live and dead trees. Rarely found roosting in man-made structures like Forester/ITC Environmental Manager if planning work in this area & need barns and sheds. to trim/remove trees with 3” dbh or greater in diameter. Consultation with ACTIVE SEASON: Breed in late summer, fertilize egg the following spring. In U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and Iowa Department of Natural Resources is late May to late July, give birth to a single pup in maternity colonies of 30-60 bats. required and permit acquisition may be necessary prior to start of work. Young bats fly 18-21 days after birth. Live up to 19 years. Emerge at dusk, feed No manual or vehicular tree trimming/removal from 6/1-7/31. Vehicular on moths, flies, leafhoppers, caddisflies, and beetles in flight or from vegetation or manual mowing/brush removal and vehicular or manual herbicide and water surfaces. application have no seasonal restrictions. Leave and/or create snag habitat when possible.

Credit: Phil Swanson Credit: James Wilson Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: James Wilson Credit: Phil Swanson Credit: Iowa DNR

39 belly fur is light tan and the tail is bicolored. Occasionally, color variants | PRAIRIE VOLE | (yellow, black, albino, spotted) may be identified. Adults range in length Microtus ochrogaster from 5-7” and a tail length of 1-1.8”. They weigh 1-25 oz. This species has five plantar tubercles, knobby foot pads, on their hind feet and the third T&E STATUS: MN Special Concern, MI Endangered. lower molar has no closed triangles and three transverse loops. Females HABITAT: Prefer dry sites, such as grasslands, prairies, upland old agricultural have three pairs of mammary glands. Grass lined nests are built in burrows, fields, and thickets. Important prey species for snakes, skunks, weasels, owls, under logs, or in above-ground grass clumps. They create extensive shallow foxes, raptors, coyotes, etc. Diet consists of grasses, forbs, sedges, leaves, seeds, tunnel systems that help hide them from predators. nuts, bulbs, tubers, and twigs which they store in underground caches. MANAGEMENT: Leave brush piles and downed woody debris for ACTIVE SEASON: Active year-round during both day and night, but most active habitat and to provide cover. When possible refrain from or limit mowing during dusk and dawn. In the summer, diurnal activity decreases, while during during the growing season to reduce nest mortality. Reduce sources of the winter, nocturnal activity decreases. Breed throughout the year, but most unnecessary artificial lighting at night. To meet species dietary needs, plant reproductive activity occurs between May-October. native species that produce plentiful seeds.109, 92, 188, 133, 86 IDENTIFICATION: This species is uniform in coloration throughout the year PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, and there is no distinction between sexes. The fur is dark brown to black and manual or vehicular herbicide application, or manual or vehicular tree tipped with black or brownish-yellow that creates a shabby looking effect. The trimming/removal from 5/1 through 11/1.

Credit: theNerd Patrol Credit: Gordon C. Snelling Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: Minnesota DNR Credit: Minnesota DNR Credit: Minnesota DNR

40 | SOUTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL | skin that extends from wrist to ankle along either side of the body, which allows the animal to glide through the air when stretched taught. At 7-10” Glaucomys volans in length, smaller with completely white belly hair compared to the longer (10-12”) northern flying squirrel whose belly hair is gray at the base. T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. Threats include loss of large stands of mature mast HABITAT: Upland, eastern deciduous/mixed forests, specifically oak-hickory MANAGEMENT: or beech-maple forests, and floodplain forests. Prefers hollow trees and producing trees and the removal of woody debris. Maintain older woodlots, abandoned woodpecker holes for den sites but also uses nest boxes and especially those with mature mast producing stands. Do not remove fallen abandoned bird and squirrel nests. and rotting logs and maintain snag trees. Plant hickory, oak, and maple trees along edges of existing stands. Place artificial nest boxes.67, 61, 73, 186 ACTIVE SEASON: Nocturnal and sometimes lives in family groups. Females produce two litters each year, generally in April-May and again in late summer. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular tree trimming/removal from Litters typically range from 2-4 offspring. Highly sociable with a home range of 1/1 through 9/30. Vehicular or manual mowing/brush removal and 1-3 acres; may nest communally in winter (10-20 individuals). Feed on insects, vehicular or manual herbicide application have no seasonal restrictions. nuts, seeds, fruits, and occasionally birds and carrion. Active at night throughout Leave and/or create snag habitat when possible and do not remove fallen the year, except during extreme cold during which they enter a state of torpor. and rotting logs. IDENTIFICATION: Easily distinguished from most squirrels by the flap of loose

Credit: Joshua Mayer Credit: Laszlo Ilyes Credit: Darekk2

Credit:Laurent Belanger Credit: Ken Thomas Credit: Iowa DNR

41 and woolly, while the sub-adult has longer, thicker, and brighter fur. | WESTERN HARVEST MOUSE | Typically, the species builds spherical nests, approximately 5” in diameter, Reithrodontomys megalotis on the ground beneath grasses, bushes, weeds, or logs. They line their nests with soft, fine plant material and have one or more entrance holes at MN Special Concern. T&E STATUS: the base. Occasionally, nests have been built in bushes or in burrows. The HABITAT: Grasslands, prairies, meadows, and marshes. Important prey primary diet of this species is seeds, which it will sometimes cache, but it species for snakes, owls, squirrels, foxes, raptors, coyotes, etc. will also eat plant shoots and insects. ACTIVE SEASON: Nocturnal and most active before midnight. Activity level MANAGEMENT: Leave brush piles and downed woody debris for is greatest on overcast (moonless) or rainy nights. Breed spring to late autumn habitat and to provide cover. When possible refrain from or limit mowing before undergoing torpor in winter months. during the growing season to reduce nest mortality. Reduce sources of unnecessary artificial lighting at night. To meet species dietary needs, plant IDENTIFICATION: The adult mouse is long-tailed, slender bodied, pale-gray native species that produce plentiful seeds.109, 81, 153 to brown in coloration, and has naked ears. Belly fur is white to deep gray and there is a dark stripe from the forehead along the middle of the back. Length PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, manual ranges from 4.5-6.7” and the tail is shorter than the body (2-3.8”). Weight or vehicular herbicide application, or manual or vehicular tree trimming/ ranges between 0.3-0.6 oz (8-17 grams) and there is no difference in size or removal from 4/15 - 11/1. coloration between sexes. However, the fur of juveniles is gray-brown, short,

Credit: USFWS Credit: USFWS Credit: NatureServe

Credit: USFWS Credit: USFWS Credit: Minnesota DNR

42 T&E: REPTILES

| AMERICAN BLUE RACER SNAKE | IDENTIFICATION: Adults black, bluish-gray, to olive brown with smooth shiny scales, divided anal plate, 15 scale rows near the tail. The adult length Coluber constrictor ranges from 3-6.25’ and have 17 scale rows at mid-body. Head narrow, but T&E STATUS: MN Special Concern. wider than the neck with distinct brow ridges. The chin and throat white to yellow and remainder of underbelly varies from black, dark gray, light HABITAT: Dry sunny areas with access to cover, including open woods, meadows, hedge rows, and occasionally marshes and weedy lake edges. Mid- blue, white, cream, or yellow. Males have longer tails with wider bases level predator, eat insects, spiders, small frogs, young rodents, shrews, and than females, whose tails taper abruptly. Juveniles patterned with grays, small reptiles. Other prey may include nestling birds and eggs, squirrels, small browns, and reds. rabbits, small turtles, and other snakes. Nests often hidden in rotted stumps or MANAGEMENT: Protect and manage grasslands and savannas to retain logs, abandoned mammal burrows, or nest cavities in leaf litter or sand. habitat. Educate the public about ecological role of snakes and how to protect people and pets without causing harm to snakes. Limit pesticide ACTIVE SEASON: Inactive during cold months, takes shelter from subfreezing 109, 44 temperatures. Movement to and from hibernacula peak in the fall and spring. and herbicide use which impact snake populations and their prey base. Mating occurs from late April to early June, lay 3-32 eggs in June or early July. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, Hatch in August or early September. Occasionally, this species will deposit eggs vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application in a communal nest. between 4/1 and 11/1. Manual herbicide application and manual tree removal have no seasonal restrictions.

Credit: Alan Schmierer Credit: USFWS Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: CDFWS Credit: Pierre Fidenci Credit: Minnesota DNR

43 | BLANDING’S TURTLE | upper jaw giving appearance of a permanent grin. Emydoidea blandingii MANAGEMENT: Maintain water quality, restrict pesticide use in or near wetlands, implement minimum development setback distances, leave MI Special Concern, IA & MN Threatened, IL Endangered. T&E STATUS: buffer zones during timber harvest, grazing and agricultural operations, and HABITAT: Clean, shallow waters with abundant aquatic vegetation and soft minimize road construction in or near suitable wetlands. Timber harvesting muddy bottoms over firm substrates, nest in open uplands adjacent to wetland can benefit this species by creating or maintaining open habitat conditions habitats, preferring sunny areas with moist but well-drained sandy or loamy soil; for thermoregulation and nesting. Minimize adult mortality and illegal if suitable natural nesting habitat is not available, will nest in lawns, gardens, collection. On-site nest protection may be necessary. 92, 67, 109, 49, 96 plowed fields, or gravel road embankments; downed woody debris needed in PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, submerged wetlands. vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from ACTIVE SEASON: Breed 1st week of April to 4th week of October, active 1st week 4/1 through 11/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ of April to 4th week of October, nest 4th week of May to 4th week of June. removal have no seasonal restrictions. Maintain natural vegetation buffers around wetlands. IDENTIFICATION: Medium turtle 6-11”, carapace black with yellowish spots, domed, elongated, smooth; very long neck, bright yellow chin and throat; head dark with brown or yellow spots, flat with short rounded snout and notched

Credit: Wisconsin Parc Credit: South Shore Conservancy Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: Allen Blake Sheldon Credit: Allen Blake Sheldon Credit: Iowa DNR

44 | BULLSNAKE | black appear speckled. Head yellow or brown; boldly marked with a stripe across the top of the head from eye to eye, and a stripe from the Pituophis catenifer sayi eye to the corner of the mouth; very pointed snout. Belly porcelain white to yellowish with brown spots. In the southern and western portions of T&E STATUS: IA & MN Special Concern. range, the ground color is entirely brown and all the blotches are brown. HABITAT: Native open large grasslands and sand prairies bordered by woodland. In the northern and eastern portions of range (including Iowa), displays Prefer loose sandy soil for burrowing. Active in the morning and evening. Hibernate black to brown appearance. in mammal burrows or rock crevices. MANAGEMENT: Threats include loss and fragmentation of habitat; ACTIVE SEASON: Emerge in April; sun themselves on gopher mounds in spring, need large tracks of grassland, often forced to cross roads. Prescribed spend most time underground in summer. Breed in May, lay 12 eggs in sand in burn outside of active period. Remove encroaching woody trees. late June into July. Eggs hatch August or September. Winter dormancy in October. Establish tall grassland habitat.67, 109 Primarily eat mammals, but also birds, eggs, frogs, and lizards. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, IDENTIFICATION: Largest snake in Iowa; 37-72” long, up to 100”. Ground color vehicular herbicide application or tree trimming/removal from 4/1 variable straw yellow, white, dull yellow-brown, or bright yellow. 40 large, dark, through 11/1. Manual herbicide application and manual tree trimming/ body blotches usually black to lighter brown becoming dark black bands or rings removal have no seasonal restrictions. Maintain natural vegetation on the tail. Smaller lateral spots on the side where scales tipped with brown or buffers around prairies and sandy soils.

Credit: Bill Schmoker Credit: Wet Canvas Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: Wet Canvas Credit: Tapatio Credit: Iowa DNR

45 | ORNATE BOX TURTLE | MANAGEMENT: Threats include loss of habitat, nest predation, illegal pet collection, motorized recreation, farm machinery, and roads. Remove Terrapene ornata encroaching woody species from sand dunes and adjacent grassland T&E STATUS: IA & IL Threatened. habitat. Establish native grassland with a mix of tall grasses for shade and high forb concentration to open up the grass stands for basking. Light HABITAT: Open, shifting, and unstable sand habitat important for nesting and grazing helps keep grassland areas open and free of brush encroachment. overwintering. The rest of the year they will use tallgrass prairie when available. Prescribed fire should be conducted between late September and early If only shortgrass prairie is available, they will prefer shrubs in order to keep cool April. Nests can be protected from predators by using a mesh screen cage from the sun. Overwinter in deep sand in open canopy habitat. during nest building and egg development. Limit cultivation to less than ACTIVE SEASON: Eat fruits such as blackberries, wild strawberries, and 6” deep in areas known to support turtles. Cease collection. Be aware of wild plums. Nest from late May through mid-June, hatch in August or early turtles crossing roads between April and September.67, 49, 70 September, active between April and October. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, IDENTIFICATION: A small terrestrial turtle up to 6.1” long, upper shell dark vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from brown or black with conspicuous yellow lines that radiate from the center of each 3/1 through 10/15. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ plate and forms a discontinuous mid-dorsal stripe. Lower shell is brown with removal have no seasonal restrictions. Maintain natural vegetation buffers yellow lines that radiate on each scale. around prairies and open patches of sand.

Credit: Ingo Arndt Credit: Lynn M Stone Credit: Ninnescah Field Station

Credit: Francois Gohjer Credit: Martin Withers Credit: Iowa DNR

46 T&E: INSECTS

| ACADIAN HAIRSTREAK | MANAGEMENT: Conserve habitat and populations of host plants as well as adult nectar plants. Limit use of pesticides and herbicides to prevent Satyrium acadica damage to butterfly population or host plants.67, 87, 19 T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, HABITAT: Streams lined with willow species, marshes, pond edges, swamps, vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application wet roadside ditches, moist meadows, and moist woodlands. Willows between 6/1 and 8/1. Operate equipment/vehicles on road/two-track or (Salix spp.) are the larval host plant. Adult nectar plants include: milkweed, off road on a minimum of 4” of snow cover. Manual herbicide application meadowsweet, New Jersey tea and other moisture-loving flowers. and manual tree removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide ACTIVE SEASON: One flight from late June through mid-July. directly to target woody vegetation only. Do not impact willows. IDENTIFICATION: The wingspan ranges from 1.125” – 1.5” (2.9 -3.8 cm). The upperside of the wings are brown-gray with a tail on each hindwing. The underside of the hindwing is uniform gray with a sub-marginal row of orange crescent shaped spots and a silvery-blue patch capped with orange near each tail. Also on the underside is a line of white-rimmed black dots near the middle of the wing.

Credit: Tom Peterson Credit: Megan McCarty Credit: Butterflies and Moths of North America

Credit:Yankech Gary Credit:Yankech Gary Credit: Iowa DNR

47 | BYSSUS SKIPPER | of pale spots. 1.4-1.8” wingspan. Problema byssus MANAGEMENT: Extirpation of local populations should be avoided by avoiding or limiting the use of fire as a management tool.67, 66 T&E STATUS: IA Threatened. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal from HABITAT: Tallgrass prairie. Adult food source is nectar from flowers including 6/1 through 8/15. No vehicular herbicide application or vehicular tree pickerelweed. Caterpillars feed on grasses such as eastern grama grass (host trimming/removal from 6/1 through 8/15. Operate equipment/vehicles plant). on road/two-track only or offroad on a minimum of 4” of snow cover. ACTIVE SEASON: One brood from June-July, females lay eggs singly on host Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/removal have no plant leaves. Caterpillars live in shelters of rolled or tied leaves, feed on leaves, seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation by minimizing and overwinter on their fourth stage of development. After completing their herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody vegetation growth in the spring, caterpillars pupate in dense silk cocoons in litter at the base only. Do not impact native prairie grasses. of the host plant. IDENTIFICATION: Upper side bright yellow-orange with black borders and a black bar at the end of the cell. Females darker than males. Underside of hindwing is dull yellow in males and rust or orange in females; both with a band

Credit: Pondhawk Credit: Charles T. and John R. Bryson Credit: Butterflies and Moths of North America

Credit: Pondhawk Credit: Pondhawk Credit: Iowa DNR

48 | WILD INDIGO DUSKYWING | region of forewing has 3-4 misaligned, glassy white spots and a reddish- brown patch located near the end of the cell. A faint cell-end bar can typically Erynnis baptisiae be found on the hindwing. Two irregular rows of dull yellowish dots, best seen when wings are folded, are visible on underside of hindwing. T&E STATUS: IA & MI Special Concern. MANAGEMENT: No reported management requirements; prevent woody HABITAT: In the recent past, primarily restricted to dry prairies supporting large vegetation encroachment and plant/maintain host and nectar plants. Likely colonies of wild indigo; however, a race from Pennsylvania that eats invasive susceptible to fire, so prescribed burns should be timed carefully with the crown vetch has dispersed quickly along roadside ditches, and has now been life history.67, 92, 119, 151, 105 identified at sites across Iowa. Host plants include yellow wild indigo, blue wild indigo, white wild indigo, Canada milk vetch, wild lupine, and crown vetch. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, Adult nectar plants include blackberry, white sweet-clover, dogbane, sunflower, vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application between crimson clover, etc. 4/15 and 10/15. Operate equipment/vehicles on road/two-track or off road on a minimum of 4” of snow cover. Manual herbicide application and ACTIVE SEASON: Three broods between May and mid-August with a possible manual tree removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native fourth brood between early September and early October. Populations in Loess vegetation by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to Hills prairies may have two broods occurring in early May and July. target woody vegetation only. Do not impact yellow wild indigo, blue wild IDENTIFICATION: Wingspan ranges from 1.1-1.7” (2.8-4.3 cm), subapical indigo, white wild indigo, Canada milk vetch, wild lupine, or crown vetch.

Credit: Aaron Carlson Credit: PDCNR Credit: Butterflies and Moths of North America

Credit:Melissa McMasters Credit: Tom Peterson Credit: Iowa DNR

49 | ZABULON SKIPPER | the dark, purple-brown, dorsal forewings. The underside of the hindwing has a violet hued outer edge but is primarily dark tan to brown. Both sexes Poanes zabulon have a wingspan of about 1.38”–1.63” (3.5–4.2 cm). T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. MANAGEMENT: No known management requirements but likely requires both forest and grassland for survival. Woody vegetation should HABITAT: Brushy openings near moist forests and streams. In Iowa, woodland edges, prairies, and remnant savannas. Host plants include lovegrass, bluegrass, be a management priority. Likely susceptible to fire so prescribed burns 67, 71, 6, 150 orchard grass, and wild rye. Adult nectar plants include blackberry, vetch, should be timed carefully with the species life history. milkweed, and non-natives such as Eurasian honeysuckles and red clover. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application ACTIVE SEASON: Males perch in sunlit openings or edges for up to a week and defend their territory. Females lay single eggs under grass host plant leaves. between 5/1 and 9/1. Operate equipment/vehicles on road/two-track or 2-3 broods occur in June, early July, and August in Iowa. off road on a minimum of 4” of snow cover. Manual herbicide application and manual tree removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing IDENTIFICATION: Adult male has black borders around wings and no stigma native vegetation by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide (specialized scales that release pheromones). The underside of the hindwing is directly to target woody vegetation only. Do not impact lovegrass, bluegrass, predominantly yellow with a brown wing-base and outer margins where brown orchard grass, wild rye, and other native prairie grasses. flecking gives a checkered appearance. Adult female has white angular spots on

Credit: Andy Reago & Chrissy McClarren Credit: USFWS Credit: Butterflies and Moths of North America

Credit: Kenneth Dwain Harrelson Credit: Andrew C Credit: Iowa DNR

50 T&E: PLANTS

(inflorescence). The smooth achenes are about 0.07-0.1” (1.8-2.6 mm) in | FIELD SEDGE | length and 0.04-0.05” (1-1.4 mm) in width and the style (stalk that connects Carex conoidea stigma to ovary) falls off at maturity. The peduncles (stems) of the lateral spikes are finely scabrous and the staminate spike (male inflorescence) is T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. on a longer peduncle. A wide variety of open sites, forests, and managed areas, including HABITAT: MANAGEMENT: Prevent woody encroachment and grazing, maintain wet to seasonally wet grasslands, meadows, prairies, shores of waterbodies, natural hydrology, and prevent/manage invasive species. Limit herbicide fens, utility rights-of-way, thickets, and roadsides. In Iowa, found in sandy and pesticide use; apply directly to target species; avoid unintended damage swales, prairie seeps, moist meadows, and along shore lines. Often grows with to desirable plants. Prescribed burns, which also help to limit woody rigid sedge. encroachment and manage most invasive species, might be preferred SURVEY PERIOD: The fruiting period is spring-summer. dependent upon site location and characteristics.67, 143, 125, 144, 94, 35, 40 IDENTIFICATION: A graminoid that can reach up to 2.5’ tall grows in dense PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, clumps. Stems yellow-brown to dark brown at base and roughly triangular vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from in cross-section. Leaf sheaths are green, glabrous, and generally range from 4/1 through 11/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ 0.1-0.15” (3-3.9 mm) wide. There may be some sparse roughness along the removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation main viens on the underside of the leaves. The membrane sacs enclosing the by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody flowers or fruit are essentially beakless and are typically more than 20 per spike vegetation only.

Credit: John Gwaltney Credit: John Gwaltney Credit: USDA

Credit: John Gwaltney Credit: John Gwaltney Credit: IA DNR

51 | FLAT TOP WHITE ASTER | which is glabrous or nearly so). Alternate leaves occur along the entire stem, 3-5” long and 0.5-1” wide except small, scale-like leaves near the Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens, bottom. The leaves taper to a point at each end and are sessile or nearly aka Aster umbellatus var. pubens so. Leaves entire and feel rough. The central stem terminates in a flat, branching cluster (3-12” across) of 0.5-0.75” wide flowers. 0.5-1.5” long, IA Special Concern. T&E STATUS: lanceolate to narrowly elliptic leafy bracts along the inflorescence branches. HABITAT: Shores of lakes and marshes; wet to moist sand prairies; sandy White-tufted nutty fruits replace the flowers in the fall. thickets; soggy meadows; and openings in wooded areas. Flowers attract long MANAGEMENT: Prevent woody encroachment, maintain natural and short-tongued bees, wasps, flies, butterflies, beetles, etc. Swamp sparrows hydrology, and prevent/manage invasive species. Limit herbicide and and eastern goldfinch eat the seeds; white-tailed deer and cottontail rabbits pesticide use and apply directly to the target species to avoid unintended often browse on the foliage. Occurs with Joe-pye weed, blue lobelia, and false damage to desirable plants.67, 53, 54, 21, 114 foxglove. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, Blooms July–October. SURVEY PERIOD: vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from IDENTIFICATION: An herbaceous perennial, 2-5’ tall, lacking basal leaves, 6/1 through 12/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ prefers full to partial sun. The tapering, erect, generally unbranched stems light removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation green, purplish red, or yellowish brown and is pubescent (unlike var. umbellatus by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody

Credit: Peter M. Dziuk Credit: Peter M. Dziuk Credit: USDA

Credit: Peter M. Dziuk Credit: Peter M. Dziuk Credit: IA DNR

52 | GLOMERATE SEDGE | MANAGEMENT: Maintain habitats by preventing woody encroachment Carex aggregata and preventing/managing invasive species. Limit herbicide and pesticide use and apply directly to the target species to avoid unintended damage to T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. desirable plants.67, 124, 46, 31, 78, 95 HABITAT: Moist to dry, open ground; algific talus slopes, meadows, thickets, PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, and open forests, usually on calcareous soils. Associated with common woodland vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from sedge, Bush’s sedge, oval-leaf sedge, Leavenworth’s sedge, greater straw sedge. 4/1 through 11/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation SURVEY PERIOD: Blooms April-May. by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody IDENTIFICATION: A graminoid that can grow 2’ tall with leaf blades measuring vegetation only. from 0.1-0.4” (3-10 mm) wide. The loose leaf sheaths are white with green veins or mottled green and white on back. The flowerhead is composed of dense spikelets with scales that have narrowly pointy or awned tips and stigmas, which when intact and well developed, are elongate and slender. The ventral surface of the leaf sheath is concave and thickened at the tip. The underside structures surrounding the ovary are green at maturity.

Credit: Louisiana State University Herbarium Credit: Digital Atlas of the Virginia Flora Credit: USDA

Credit: D.B Poindexter Credit: Ohio Plants Credit: IA DNR

53 | GOATS-RUE | dense clusters at the tips of the stems. Fruits found in long, narrow hair pods up to 2” (5 cm) in length. Each leaf is pinnately divided into 15–31 Tephrosia virginia narrowly oval-shaped leaflets. T&E STATUS: MN Special Concern. MANAGEMENT: Maintain patches of open ground and prevent canopy HABITAT: Oak and pine woods, oak savannas, pine barrens, sand prairies, closure to ensure enough sunlight reaches the species; it does not grow sand dunes, and open sand barrens in the midwest. Prefers areas with abundant well in shade. Its specific need for acidic soils makes this plant difficult to sunlight, scattered trees, and acidic soils. Associated with black oak, northern propagate. Since this species is drought tolerant and fire adapted (strong, pin oak, bur oak, and occasionally white pine. Herbaceous plants include little woody roots that can grow deep within the soil), prescribed burns may be bluestem, horsemint, wild lupine, and spiderwort species. an appropriate management tool depending on specific site characteristics and location.109, 111 SURVEY PERIOD: Leaves are visible May through September. Blooms from mid-June through July. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application IDENTIFICATION: A perennial legume with one to several stems that branch between 5/1 and 10/1. Manual herbicide application and manual tree from the base of the plant. It’s 7.9-27.6” (20-70 cm) tall with soft, gray-green removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation tones due to the presence of many silky hairs on leaves and stems. Pink and by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody cream flowers that are 0.6-0.75” (1.5-2.0 cm) wide and arrange themselves in vegetation only.

Credit: Fritzflohrreynolds Credit: Ted Bodner Credit: USDA

Credit: Fritzflohrreynolds Credit: Fritzflohrreynolds Credit: Minnesota DNR

54 | GREAT PLAINS LADIES’ - TRESSES | MANAGEMENT: Prescribed fire is important for maintaining the ecosystems in which the plant is found. Additionally, cutting and herbicide Spiranthes magnicamporum may be required to control woody invasives. Monitoring erosion on T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. hillsides and preventing foot and vehicle traffic will help to minimize soil disturbance. Before beginning treatment, all rare species should be HABITAT: Woods, fens pastures, dry bluffs, hill prairies. Associated with white identified and restoration/maintenance plan should carefully consider oak, black oak, little bluestem, big bluestem, Pennsylvania sedge, milkweed potential impacts.67, 104, 140, 187 spp., aster spp., northern blazing star, hoary puccoon. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, SURVEY PERIOD: Blooms September - October. vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from IDENTIFICATION: An erect, 6-12” tall, perennial forb with stems that have 6/1 through 11/15. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ 3-4 scale-like leaves between the main leaves and the inflorescence. Almond removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation scented white flowers are six-parted and have unconnected sepals that curl over by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody the top of the flower like horns. The lip of each flower is smooth, pale yellow, vegetation only. and about 0.5” long. The dense, spike-like flowerhead of 20-40 flowers is a raceme of 3-4 stalks. The 2 or 3 basal leaves have hairy leaf axils and generally wilt when the plant is in bloom.

Credit: Southeastern Flora Credit: USDA

Credit: Southeastern Flora Credit: Southeastern Flora Credit: IA DNR

55 | JACK PINE | the canopy is small and oblong and the trunk is straight. Needles 0.75-1.5” long clustered in groups of two, pale green, divergent, and slightly twisted. pinus banksiana Cones in small clusters near the tips of the branchlets. T&E STATUS: IL Endangered. MANAGEMENT: Colonizes areas with exposed soil due to a disturbance, HABITAT: Dry, acidic mineral-rich sandy or rocky soil, full sunlight. Sandy such as fire. It is well adapted to fire and benefits from a moderate- or high- woodlands, sandy savannas, sand prairies, rocky sandstone cliffs, and stabilized severity fire regime with an estimated interval of 5-30 years to maintain sand dunes along Lake Michigan. Thrives in barren dry areas with a history of open areas and spur seed dispersal. Not native to Iowa, but occasionally 49, 59, 142, 8 fire and found in the northeastern U.S. and Canada. Seeds are eaten by a variety found planted throughout the state. of gamebirds, songbirds, squirrels, mice, etc. In Michigan, Kirtland’s Warbler - PRESCRIPTION: Please contact and obtain approval from Regional an endangered species - nests at the base of Jack pine trees in sandy savannas. Forester/ITC Environmental if planning work in this area--must confirm SURVEY PERIOD: Year round. identification of trees before removal or treatment. Preserve existing native vegetation by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to IDENTIFICATION: A small to medium-sized (30-70’) coniferous tree with target woody vegetation only. crooked crown branches that are ascending-spreading to drooping and gray, scaly trunk bark with reddish-brown patches. In open conditions, canopy is globoid-ovoid in shape and the trunk is crooked and branched. In dense forest,

Credit: Chris M Credit: Fungus Guy Credit: USDA

Credit: Hugo MC Credit: Crusier Credit: USDA

56 | NORTHERN ADDER’S-TONGUE | MANAGEMENT: Maintain habitats by preventing woody encroachment Ophioglossum pusillum, aka O. vulgatum and preventing/managing invasive species. Limit herbicide and pesticide use and apply directly to the target species to avoid unintended damage to 67, 25, 145 T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. desirable plants. HABITAT: Sandy woods, sedge meadows, and calcareous seeps. Found PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, primarily along the Cedar River in Iowa. Associated with sedges. vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from 4/1 through 9/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ SURVEY PERIOD: Becomes fertile in late June and withers by mid-summer. removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation IDENTIFICATION: A small, shade tolerant atypical-looking fern. The undivided by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody and tongue-shaped leaves, approximately 4” long and less than 1” wide, are vegetation only. more akin to those of a plantain than a fern and have distinctive roughly circular venation (areolae). A single, leathery leaf attaches halfway up the smooth, delicate stalk, which bears a fertile spike originating near the leaf base. The spike, which has bead-like spores in two rows, somewhat resembles a snake tongue and inspired the plant’s common name.

Credit: Orchi Credit: USDA

Credit: Orchi Credit: Sten Credit: IA DNR

57 than 1 mm thick and have smooth nodes and relatively small, hairy spikelets | NORTHERN PANIC GRASS | 0.07-0.08” (1.7-2.1 mm) long. The egg-shaped primary spikelets differ Dichanthelium boreale from the ellipsoid secondary spikelets, which are often pointed with a red hue. The glumes, bracts at the base of the spikelet, are not as long as the IA & IL Endangered. T&E STATUS: florets (flowers) and are not awned (a bristle-like appendage). HABITAT: Prairies and meadows, generally drier, sandy soils. Associated MANAGEMENT: Maintain habitats by preventing woody encroachment, with sedges, clasping or sand milkweed, silky prairie clover, whitlow grass, maintaining natural hydrology, and preventing/managing invasive species. buttonweed, and dwarf dandelion. Limit herbicide and pesticide use and apply directly to the target species to SURVEY PERIOD: Two distinct blooming periods: primary flowering heads avoid unintended damage to desirable plants.67, 49, 22, 191, 13, 38 (spikelets) bloom May into June, small secondary spikelets bloom late June into PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, October. vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from IDENTIFICATION: A small, erect to ascending grass that forms dense clumps. 4/1 through 12/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ The leaf blades, 0.2-0.5” (5-13 mm) in width, cut in abruptly at the narrow base removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation and prominent tufts of leaves are found at the base of the flowering stem. The by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody ligule, a collar on the leaf sheath, is characterized by fine hairs. This species is vegetation only. distinguished from close relatives by delicate stems (culms) that are no more

Credit: Marilee Lovit Credit: USDA

Credit: Marilee Lovit Credit: USDA Credit: IA DNR

58 (photographs are not adequate) to ensure proper identification. | PRAIRIE MOONWORT | Botrychium campestre MANAGEMENT: This species is susceptible to fire so prescribed burns should be performed in early spring prior to plant emergence. T&E STATUS:IA & MN Special Concern, MI Threatened, IL Endangered. Encroachment by woody vegetation also threatens prairie habitat.67, 109, 92, 49, 26, 27, 108 HABITAT: Open areas on steep loess hills and gravel prairies. Associated with little bluestem, Big bluestem, Side-oats grama grass. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from Mid-May to mid-July. SURVEY PERIOD: 4/1 through 10/1. Manual herbicide application & manual tree trimming/ IDENTIFICATION: A small, inconspicuous fern manifesting as a single leaf, removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation which is divided into a sterile photosynthetic portion and a fertile spore-bearing by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody portion. The sterile portion is sessile, oblong, longitudinally folded, has a fleshy vegetation only. texture, and a maximum size of about 1.5” (4 cm) in length and 0.5” (1.3 cm) in width. The sterile portion generally has five pairs of linear or linear-spatulate segments that are notched or cleft into additional secondary segments, all with crenate or dentate margins. These characteristics are key to identifying the species; however, this species often requires examination by a specialist

Credit: NPS Credit: Minnesota DNR Credit: Minnesota DNR

Credit: TheAlphaWolf Credit: Minnesota DNR Credit: Iowa DNR

59 in the umbel. Each floret consists of 3 lanceolate sepals, 3 inconspicuous | SOFT RUSH | petals (look like more sepals), a central ovary with a tiny beak at the apex, Juncus effusus 3 stamens, and one style.

T&E STATUS: IA Special Concern. MANAGEMENT: Maintain habitats by preventing woody encroachment

and preventing/managing invasive species. Limit herbicide and pesticide HABITAT: In Iowa, generally found in marsh edges and alluvial woods. use and apply directly to the target species to avoid unintended damage to Associated with sedges, spike-rushes, smartweeds, manna grasses, and common desirable plants.67, 20, 83, 127, 56 arrowhead. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, SURVEY PERIOD: Blooms June - August. vehicular tree removal/trimming, or vehicular herbicide application IDENTIFICATION: A 2-4’ tall perennial rush with erect to ascending stems that between 5/1 and 10/1. Manual herbicide application and manual tree forms vegetative clumps. The soft, hairless, medium green stems are round in removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native vegetation cross-section and taper from approximately 0.2” (4 mm) across at the base to by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to target woody about 0.1” (2 mm) across at the inflorescence, a compound umbel of florets that vegetation only. hangs from one side. A stem-like bract continues up from the inflorescence, giving the impression that the stem continues beyond the flower for about 4-12”. A single floret, 0.1-0.2” (2-3.5 mm) in length, is at the end of each terminal ray

Credit: Meggar Credit: Kristian Peters Credit: USDA

Credit: Pethan Houten Credit: Rasbak Credit: IA DNR

60 | WOODLAND HORSETAIL | (spore cones) are generally 1” long and located at the top of the fertile stems. Extensive rhizome systems means the plant often forms dense Equisetum sylvaticum colonies. T&E STATUS: IA Threatened, IL Endangered. MANAGEMENT: Maintain habitats by preventing woody encroachment HABITAT: Seeps, wooded areas, sandy places and prairie swales. An indicator and preventing/managing invasive species. Limit herbicide and pesticide of cool-temperate climates and very moist to wet, nitrogen-poor soils. In the use and apply directly to the target species to avoid unintended damage to 67, 49, 32, 90, 89 Midwest, associated plants include jack pine, white spruce, black spruce, willow desirable plants. spp., highbush cranberry, gooseberry spp., sedge spp., and prickly rose. PRESCRIPTION: No manual or vehicular mowing/brush removal, SURVEY PERIOD: Throughout the growing season. Fruits in mid- to late spring. vehicular herbicide application, or vehicular tree trimming/removal from 4/1 through 10/1. Manual herbicide application and manual tree IDENTIFICATION: A perennial, deciduous, vascular plant that reproduces and trimming/removal have no seasonal restrictions. Preserve existing native disperses via spores and rhizomes. The sterile stems grow to about 18” in height vegetation by minimizing herbicide use and applying herbicide directly to and are straight, ridged, green, and hollow with distinctively lacey, whorled target woody vegetation only. compound-branches densely populated at the nodes. The main stem sheaths are 0.2-0.4” (5-10mm) long with 3-5 reddish-brown, broad lobes. Fertile stems initially lack chlorophyll and are unbranched until spores are released. Strobili

Credit: James K. Lindsey Credit: Aaron Carlson Credit:USDA

Credit: Rigel7 Credit: Lode Van de Velde Credit: IA DNR

61 NOTES

62 INVASIVE: PLANTS | AMUR HONEYSUCKLE | leaf axils; fragrant. Fruits are red and paired, borne on very short stalks; abundant; persistent; dispersed by birds. Lonicera maackii THREAT: Common in urban areas and also occurs in rural areas where NATIVITY: Asia. it was recommended for wildlife until its invasive traits became apparent; forms dense thickets; reduces tree and shrub regeneration, decreases Relatively shade tolerant; occurs in a variety of soil and moisture HABITAT: overall plant diversity. Reproduce by seeds dispersed by birds. conditions; invades open forests, savannas and prairies; disturbed areas are particularly vulnerable to invasion. MANAGEMENT: Monitor sunny, upland sites and open forests in spring as non-native honeysuckle leafs out before natives. Begin control efforts Leaf out mid-March, bloom May through June, fruit ripen ACTIVE SEASON: in highest quality areas; hand pull or dig small plants, removing all roots; July to August. Identifiable year round. target large, fruit-bearing plants for control/removal; foliar spray may be IDENTIFICATION: Deciduous upright to spreading shrub up to 12-16’ tall. effective for large populations where few natives are present; treat cut Leaves simple, opposite, slightly hairy, elliptical, 1.6-3.5” (4-9cm) long, smooth stumps with herbicide; basal bark treatment is also effective, spray bottom margins and a long distinctive apex or drip tip, long growing season. Multiple 18 inches of all stems. Where fuel is present, prescribed fire may provide stems; numerous arching branches; thick non-exfoliating gray to tan bark with effective control of seedlings in fire adapted communities. noticeable interlacing ridges; older branches often hollow. Flowers small, white to pink in color, tubular, paired on short 0.2” (0.5 cm) stalks arising from the

Credit: MI Flora - A.A. Reznicek Credit: MI Flora - B.S. Walters Credit: USDA

Credit: MI Flora - R. Schipper Credit: MI Flora - A.A. Reznicek Credit: MI Flora - R.W. Smith

63 of 1-8. Fruit a drupe, 0.25”, silvery with brown scales when immature, | AUTUMN-OLIVE | speckled red or yellow when mature; begin to bear fruit at 3-5 years, each Elaeagnus umbellata tree can produce 2-8 lbs. of seed per year.

NATIVITY: Eurasia. THREAT: Invades disturbed areas, can out-compete native species; increases nitrogen levels to the detriment of native communities; had been HABITAT: Shade tolerant; occurs in a variety of soil types (pH range of 4.8-6.5), widely recommended for conservation planting until invasive traits became thrives on infertile soils because of nitrogen-fixing root nodules; found in open apparent. Reproduce by prolific fruit and seed production, seeds widely woods, forest edges, roadsides, fence rows, meadows, sand dunes, and other dispersed by birds. disturbed areas. MANAGEMENT: Hand pull seedlings; focus on newest infestations and ACTIVE SEASON: Leaf out mid-March, bloom April through June, fruit ripen highest quality areas first; cutting, girdling and burning are ineffective September to October. Identifiable year round. without herbicide as they stimulate sprouting; basal bark/stem sprays IDENTIFICATION: Deciduous shrub or small tree growing up to 20’ in height effective in late spring, possibly in fall; basal stem injection of herbicide and 30’ wide. Leaves simple, alternate, oval, 2-4” long, margins entire and wavy, on dormant plants provides excellent control with low concentrations of gray-green above, silvery scaly below. Stems often thorny; silvery or golden herbicide. Difficult to control. brown; brownish scales give stems a speckled appearance. Flowers fragrant, tubular, 4 petals and stamens, cream to light yellow in color, borne in clusters

Credit: MI Flora - L. May Credit: MI Flora - B.S. Walters Credit: USDA

Credit: MI Flora - L. Wallis Credit: MI Flora - A.A. Reznicek Credit: MI Flora - R.W. Smith

64 | BIRD’S-FOOT TREFOIL | THREAT: As part of the pea family (Fabaceae), the root system adds nitrogen to the soil, which can alter nutrient cycling and disrupt the Lotus corniculatus competitive dynamics of vegetative community. Can aggressively outcompete native vegetation by forming thick, shade- producing mats. NATIVITY: Eurasia. Prescribed burns can increase seed germination, so HABITAT: Roadsides, fields, eroded hill sides, clearings, grassy turf. MANAGEMENT: mechanical or chemical control methods are recommended. Frequent ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms midsummer. mowing at a height of less than 2” for several years has been successful; IDENTIFICATION: A perennial, 0.5-2’ tall forb with round, slightly pubescent however, it also stresses native plants. Spot spraying, especially after 93, or hairless stems. Leaves are alternate, compound, and have long petioles. resumed growth following a burn or mowing, is generally recommended. 50, 50, 107 Leaves appear trifoliate, but an additional pair of leaflets occur where the petiole joins the stem. The lanceolate or ovate leaflets are up to 0.75” long with smooth margins and faint, irregular veins. The umbels of 3-12 pea-like, 0.5” long, yellow flowers can be found in the upper part of the plant on long peduncles. Each flower has five petals arranged into a standard, wings, and keel. Following flowering, the 1” long seedpods are arranged in clusters of five and resemble a bird’s foot.

Credit: Christine Cimala Credit: Cornell University Credit: USDA

Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: Ed Ogle Credit: Jerzy Opiola

65 | BLACK LOCUST | THREAT: In the prairie and savanna regions of the Midwest, black locust is considered an invasive species because it can dominate and shade Robinia pseudoacacia desirable species occurring in the naturally open habitats. Additionally, as NATIVITY: Southern Appalachians, the Ozarks, and other portions of the a legume species, nitrogen- fixing bacteria associated with the tree’s root Midsouth; naturalized throughout eastern North America and parts of the west. nodules can, over time, alter the nutrient cycle of the system. HABITAT: A variety of soils, except excessively dry or compact; moist to dry MANAGEMENT: Since black locust can vigorously resprout, cutting and conditions; occurs in woods, along fence rows, ornamental and erosion control burning (which can encourage resprouting) are not advised. Chemical plantings. treatment has had variable success because plants that appear dead can resprout several years later. Preventing establishment through early ACTIVE SEASON: Year-round; blooms late April through June. detection and prevention is recommended, since established trees are very IDENTIFICATION: Deciduous, 40-100’ tall tree with rough, light brown bark difficult to eradicate. that becomes deeply furrowed with age. Pinnately compound leaves, with a pair of long stipular spines at the base, have 7-21 small round leaflets that are each 1.5” long. The showy, fragrant, white to yellow flowers develop in 8” long clusters. A thin seed pod, 2.4” (5-10 cm) in length, develop after flowering.

Credit: J. Kelly Credit: L. Wallis Credit: USDA

Credit: M. Demmon Credit: L. Wallis Credit: R.W. Smith

66 | BOUNCING BET | diversity. Due to saponin content, can be toxic if ingested. Saponaria officinalis MANAGEMENT: Prescribed burning as well as mowing and cutting treatments have shown little success. Hand pulling and tillage have NATIVITY: Eurasia. demonstrated moderate levels of success when infestations are small but are generally not recommended since reproduction is clonal. Chemical HABITAT: Old fields, pastures, fencerows, gardens, roadsides as well as along treatment has generally proven to be more successful, especially when river and stream banks. applied during the bolting to bud growth stage (late spring to mid- ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms June to October. summer).118, 139, 10, 15, 157 IDENTIFICATION: Perennial, 1-3’ tall forb with simple or branched stems and hairless, opposite, elliptical to lance-shaped, 8” long leaves. Often forms large colonies through vigorous rhizomes. Bracts support a long, slender tube- like flower that has five petals, each with one rounded notch. The white or pink colored flowers are arranged in terminal clusters on the main stem and are each 0.75-1” wide with a pleasant fragrance. THREAT: Very competitive, can out-compete native species, reducing species

Credit: Joan Simon Credit: Frank Mayfield Credit: USDA

Credit: Andrew Zharkikh Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: A.A. Reznicek

67 | COMMON BUCKTHORN | is a round, pea-size, blackberry (on female plants only), persistent through the winter. Rhamnus cathartica THREAT: Produces a dense shade that suppresses growth of tree and NATIVITY: Eurasia. shrub seedlings, and native herbaceous groundcover, reduces overall plant diversity; changes nutrient cycling by increasing nitrogen and carbon; HABITAT: Widely planted as an ornamental shrub in hedge rows; now found had been widely recommended for conservation planting until invasive along roadsides, woodland edges, prairies, old fields. characteristics became apparent. Reproduce by prolific fruit and seed ACTIVE SEASON: Leaf out mid-March, bloom May to June, fruit ripen August production, seeds widely dispersed by birds. to October. Identifiable year round. MANAGEMENT: Monitor woodland edges and paths. Buckthorn leafs out IDENTIFICATION: Deciduous woody shrub to small tree ranging from 10- early and retains its leaves late into fall. Begin control efforts in highest 25’ in height and reaching 10” in diameter. Leaves simple, opposite to sub- quality areas; hand pull or dig seedlings or small plants; target large, opposite, oval, dark green in color, smooth and shiny, small teeth along margins, fruit-bearing plants for removal; foliar spraying may be effective for large veins that curve from base towards leaf tip, leaf out early, long growing season. populations where there are few natives present; treat cut stumps with One to several stems from the base; twigs with thorns often found near the tips; herbicide as stumps sprout; basal bark treatment also effective. Where fuel bark brown to gray, peeling with age, dotted with vertical light-colored lenticels. is present, prescribed fire may provide effective control of seedlings.100 Flowers small, green-yellow, four-petaled, clustered in leaf axils, fragrant. Fruit

Credit: Ann Arbor Natural Area Preservation Credit: MI Flora - R. Schipper Credit: USDA

Credit: Ann Arbor Natural Area Preservation Credit: MI Flora - R. Schipper Credit: MI Flora - R.W. Smith

68 | COMMON MULLEIN | branched hairs make foliage look whitish or greyish green. Central stem terminates in a dense spike of 5-petaled pale yellow flowers about 0.5–2’ Verbascum thapsus long. Central stalk and its seed capsules turn brown and persist through the winter. NATIVITY: Eurasia. Tiny wind-dispersed seeds. Root system consists of a stout HABITAT: Limestone glades, rocky slopes and clay banks, pastures and fallow THREAT: fields, areas along railroads and roadsides, vacant lots, and dry waste areas. taproot that runs deep underground. Spreads by prolific seeding. Foliage Disturbed areas preferred. is little bothered by pests and disease, although some of the lower leaves may wither away during drought. Seeds can lie dormant in the soil for ACTIVE SEASON: Bloom in summer for 1.5 months, length of bloom a function several decades and remain capable of germination. A single plant can of stalk height. Longer stalks may flower into early October. produce 100,000-180,000 seeds which remain viable for over 100 years. st IDENTIFICATION: Biennial. 1 year is a rosette of basal leaves 1-2’ across. MANAGEMENT: Germination is dependant on the presence of bare 2nd year becomes 3-7’ tall; usually unbranched. Alternate leaves up to 12” long ground; sow sites with early successional native grasses. Hand pull plants and 4” across, becoming progressively smaller and more narrow as they ascend in small areas, minimizing soil disturbance. Herbicide is effective; apply the central stem, obovate to oblong-ovate, smooth or slightly crenate along during early spring to avoid native plants. Two biological control organisms the margins; covered with fine downy hairs. Lower leaves taper gradually to a specifically target mullein, a European curculinoid weevil, and the mullein narrow winged base, while upper leaves partially decurrent against stem. Dense moth.183

Credit: J. Kelly Credit: USDA

Credit: L. Wallis Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: B.S. Walters

69 | CROWN VETCH | monoculture, which does not support native fauna. Securigera varia MANAGEMENT: For small populations, manual controls, such as: pulling entire plants, mowing in late spring and multiple times throughout the NATIVITY: Europe. growing season for several consecutive years, and prescribed burning conducted in late spring for several consecutive years, can be effective. For HABITAT: Prefers disturbed, open areas with mesic conditions and fertile loamy soil, such as savannas, roadsides, cemeteries, weedy meadows along larger or more established populations, chemical control will also likely rivers, highway rights-of-way, and pastures. be necessary and may be most effective if applied to remaining foliage following mechanical removal.134, 51 ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms July through September. IDENTIFICATION: Herbaceous vine forming sprawling mats and thickets up to three feet tall. Pinnately compound leaves, with 15-25 pairs of leaflets, in an alternate arrangement. The 0.5” long, pea-like flowers can be white, pink, or purple. Each fertile flower produces a seedpod, which consists of 1-7 segments, with constrictions between segments, and tapering ends. THREAT: Outcompetes and displaces native plants, often creating a

Credit: Mike Darlow Credit: Rigel7 Credit: USDA

Credit: USDA Credit: InAweofGod’sCreation Credit: I. Strobilomyces

70 monoculture, which does not support native fauna. | CUT-LEAVED TEASEL | Dipsacus laciniatus MANAGEMENT: In high quality natural communities with small populations, mechanical methods (i.e. digging and pulling) provided by NATIVITY: Europe. volunteers is often effective and least costly. Young rosettes of cut-leaved teasel can be removed using a dandelion digger or trowel and small HABITAT: Prefers disturbed, open areas with mesic conditions and fertile seedlings can be hand pulled when soil is moist. For more mature plants, loamy soil, such as savannas, roadsides, cemeteries, weedy meadows along flowering heads should be cut and removed at flowering time to reduce rivers, highway rights-of-way, and pastures. the likelihood of re-sprouting. For larger or more mature populations, ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms July through September. foliar herbicide application is likely the most cost effective method of control. Spot treatment should be employed to prevent damage to native Grows as a basal rosette for at least one year, sends up tall IDENTIFICATION: species. For lower quality natural communities that are heavily infested, a flowering stalk, then dies after flowering. During the rosette stage, leaves range foliar applied herbicide, such as Glyphosate, 2,4-Damine, and Triclopyr, is from ovoid to oblong and hairy and a large (2’ long) taproot develops. The leaves generally the preferred option. The herbicide should be applied during of flowering plants are form cups to hold water and are large, oblong, sessile, the growing season and preferably before the flowering stalk appears.52, 117 and prickly, especially along the midrib. THREAT: Outcompetes and displaces native plants, often creating a

Credit: Simon Eugster Credit: USDA

Credit: Stefan.lefnaer Credit: Stefan.lefnaer Credit: Jebulon

71 | GARLIC MUSTARD | THREAT: Produces abundant seed; spread by floodwaters, dispersed in soil on boots, vehicles, and equipment. Also spread by animals such as Alliaria petiolata deer. Dominates the ground layer of forests to the exclusion of almost all NATIVITY: Europe. other herbaceous species. Destroys mycorrhizal fungi needed by woody plants for regeneration. HABITAT: Upland and floodplain forests, savannas, open wetlands, parking lots, campgrounds, paths, and roadsides. MANAGEMENT: Monitor forest edges, paths and floodplains. Begin control efforts in highest quality areas; pull seedlings when there only ACTIVE SEASON: Leafs out in spring before natives. Identifiable throughout a few - otherwise, focus on second year plants. Pull plants before seed the growing season. is produced. Remove upper half of root or it may resprout. Tamp soil IDENTIFICATION: Herbaceous biennial, up to 4’ tall. Stem leaves simple, thoroughly to minimize recolonization and germination. Flower/seed heads alternate, triangular with toothed margins. Basal leaves rounded with heart- must burned or placed in a landfill to prevent seed development. Herbicide shaped bases, scalloped edges, and palmate venation arranged in a basal can be used in early spring and fall while native plants are dormant. rosette. Small, white, 4-petaled flowers. Forms round basal rosette the first year, Continue control efforts until the seed bank is depleted. This species is flowers the second year and dies. Fruit a long, narrow capsule with tiny dark difficult to control, research control options thoroughly.99 seeds. Crushed leaves smell like garlic.

Credit: Bruce Patterson Credit: Bruce Patterson Credit: USDA

Credit: Glen Mittelhauser Credit: Glen Mittelhauser Credit: Bruce Patterson

72 | JAPANESE BARBERRY | mature from summer through October, and sometimes persisting through winter. Berberis thunbergii THREAT: The shrub has the ability to displace many native plants through NATIVITY: Asia. its ability to tolerate deep shade, outcompete other vegetation, and change HABITAT: Commonly found in upland and riparian environments, including the chemistry of the local soil to become more basic through its leaf litter. It wetlands, pastures, and meadows. It’s most abundant in post-agricultural is easily spread by birds that eat the berries and widely disperse the seeds. forests and less common in undisturbed wooded areas. It can tolerate full sun MANAGEMENT: There are very few methods for managing Japanese or dense shade.192 barberry. Older shrubs can be uprooted when soil is moist or synthetic ACTIVE SEASON: Year round: conspicuous red fruits mature July through herbicides like glyphosate and triclopyr can be very effective when applied 201, October and persist through the winter. to mowed or cut stumps. There is no known biological control available. 181 IDENTIFICATION: This deciduous shrub grows is typically 3’ tall, but can grow up to 6’. It carries small, sharp, simple spines along brown, deeply grooved branches. Its oval-shaped leaves are between 0.5”–1.5” long and vary in color, ranging from green to a reddish purple. Japanese barberry has pale yellow flowers that bloom in spring and produces bright red berries about 0.3” long that

Credit: Kor!An Credit: Alpsdake Credit: USDA

Credit: Sage Ross Credit: Jerzy Opiola Credit: b:user:SBJohnny

73 | JAPANESE KNOTWEED | THREAT: Out-competes native plant species through the formation of Fallopia japonica thickets that create light limitations, alteration of nutrient cycling, and the suppression of potential plant competitors through allelopathy (releasing NATIVITY: Asia. toxic or inhibiting chemicals). HABITAT: Prefers full sun and can tolerate a wide range of soil and moisture MANAGEMENT: Mechanical methods alone are generally NOT successful conditions. Generally found along roadsides, wetlands, wet depressions, and may exacerbate the problem since the plant vigorously re-sprouts. woodland edges, and along stream and river banks. To be effective, efforts MUST target the underground system of rhizomes. Therefore, cutting in combination with an herbicide application can ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms August through September. be effective, since the plant has to expend energy to regrow its canopy IDENTIFICATION: This large, non-native, invasive perennial is an herbaceous rather than expanding its network of rhizomes. However, the plant can shrub originally introduced in the US an ornamental. It has a deep tap root, also re-sprout from root and stem fragments, so it is essential to remove extensive lateral network of rhizomes, and can reach heights 3-10’. The hallow ALL cuttings (large and small) from the site and dispose of them properly. stalks are round and have a whitish coating that can be rubbed-off. The simple, Monitoring and follow-up treatment, although dependent on the size and alternate leaves can be 6” long and 5” wide with an abruptly pointed tip and a age of the population, is typically required for 4-10 years before removal flat or tapering base. The numerous, small, ivory colored flowers are arranged can be determined a success.42, 76 in spikes and bloom in late summer.

Credit: Frank Vincentz Credit: USDA

Credit: Migas Credit: Anneli Salo Credit: Rob Routledge

74 | KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS | branching cluster of reduced flower clusters, or spikelets, which are 2-6” long. The flowering stalks appear oblong or narrowly pyramidal in shape. Poa pratensis The central axis of the flowering stem has 2-5 lateral, whorled branches which are ascending to widely spreading. Each lateral branch divides and NATIVITY: Europe. subdivides into 0.125-0.25” (4-6 mm) stalked spikelets. Each spikelet is light HABITAT: Full to partial sun, mesic conditions, slightly acid to alkaline pH. green to purplish-green and has a pair of scales at the bottom (glumes) Found in lawns, parks, pastures, roadsides, degraded prairies, weedy meadows, and 2-5 scales above (lemmas), arranged in 2 overlapping ranks. Spikelets vacant lots, waste areas, open woodlands, savannas, limestone glades, gravelly mature to a light tan or light brown color. Plants often form clonal colonies seeps and historically disturbed areas. from rhizomes. ACTIVE SEASON: Growth starts late winter or early spring, flowers in May, THREAT: Very competitive, tends to invade native grasslands, reducing seed matures in June. species diversity. IDENTIFICATION: Perennial grass 1-2.5’ tall, stems light green and cylindrical MANAGEMENT: Repeated spring burns have been shown to control to slightly flattened, glabrous, unbranched and erect with 2-5 alternate leaves. Kentucky bluegrass. Repeated early season grazing or mowing has been Leaves on stem are 2-5” long, medium green, mostly hairless and hull shaped. shown to reduce productivity in the following year. Herbicide in spring.156, Basil leaves are similar to stem leaves though are usually longer and more floppy. 163, 55 Leaf sheaths are medium green and mostly hairless. The stems end in a loose,

Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: Harry Rose Credit: USDA

Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: Forest and Kim Starr

75 | MULTIFLORA ROSE | MANAGEMENT: A long-term management program of mowing or cutting Rosa multiflora and treating stems with systemic herbicide several times during the growing season is recommended. Digging or hand-pulling small shrubs may also NATIVITY: Japan & Korea. be effective. Monitor paths, edges, and open areas in late spring while flowering. Dig out small plants and remove all roots; cutting or mowing HABITAT: Forests, streambanks, pastures, roadsides. several times throughout the growing season for several years may reduce ACTIVE SEASON: Bloom May-June, distinctive fringed stipules visible populations; treat cut stems with herbicide to prevent resprouting. Basal throughout the growing season and distinguish it from native roses. bark treatment effective. Foliar herbicide treatment effective where few natives are present. In fire adapted communities where good fuel is Deciduous, dense, perennial shrub growing up to 10’ IDENTIFICATION: present, prescribed fire top kills well and facilitates follow-up with foliar tall and 10-13’ wide, with long, slender, arching branches and stout, recurved herbicide treatment; repeated late spring fires reduce population if thorns. Alternate, finely toothed, pinnately compound leaves with 5-11 leaflets sufficient fuel is present.100 and a finely fringed stipule at the leaf base. White or slightly pink five-petaled flowers; up to 1” wide; arranged in a panicle. Fruit a hard, smooth red rose hip. THREAT: Reproduces by horizontal stems that root at the node and shoots that root at the tips; hips and seeds dispersed by birds and mammals.

Credit: A.A. Reznicek Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: USDA

Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: A.A. Reznicek Credit: R.W. Smith

76 | REED CANARYGRASS | which is dispersed by water, animals, humans, and machinery. Phalaris arundinacea MANAGEMENT: A combination of burning or mowing with systemic herbicides is the best method of control; grass-specific herbicides applied NATIVITY: Europe. with wick applicators are recommended in areas where native plants HABITAT: Wetlands, lake, stream, and pond banks, wet meadows, and ditches. occur. Monior moist, fertile sites and wetlands; most visible in spring when inflorescences expand to facilitate pollination. Herbicide application ACTIVE SEASON: Seed heads mature June to August, spreading open as they in late summer or fall provides the most effective control, particularly for mature. large populations; reseeding with desired plant species beneficial; burning, IDENTIFICATION: Cool-season, colonial, perennial grass ranging from 2.5-8’ mowing, disking and plowing must be ongoing as root fragments resprout. tall. Forms dense stands with thick, fibrous rhizomes. Flat, rough leaf blades; One-time efforts may increase population. Monitoring and follow-up 0.75-1” wide and up to 1.5’ long, large, clearish membrane attaches leaf blades required for 5-10 years until seed bank is exhausted. Extremely difficult 106, 129 to the stalk; prominent transparent ligule (large, clearish membrane attaches to eradicate. leaf blades to the stalk). Stems bluish green. Inflorescence a panicle that opens in spring for pollination and then closes tightly. THREAT: Spread primarily by dense, mat-forming rhizomes, also by seed,

Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: USDA

Credit: J. Kelly Credit: B.S. Walters Credit: R.W. Smith

77 | SIBERIAN ELM | flowers, occurring in clusters of 2-5, lack petals and appear before leaves develop. The oval-orbicular samaras, each containing a single seed, ripen Ulmus pumila from April to May and are wind distributed. NATIVITY: Eurasia. THREAT: In urban areas, this species can cause infrastructure damage due to its susceptibility to wind, snow, and ice injury. In addition, it can clog HABITAT: Tolerates poor soils (except highly acidic) and low moisture. Often underground water and sewer lines due to its strong, water-seeking roots. found on disturbed sites, including: abandoned fields, rights-of-way, river In native ecosystems, Siberian elm is a very-tolerant pioneer species and banks, roadsides, railroad embankments, fencerows, disturbed woodlands, can out-compete native flora on disturbed sites. Dry to mesic prairies and weedy meadows, and disturbed prairie sites. stream banks are often most vulnerable to invasion. Thickets of seedlings ACTIVE SEASON: After leaves appear in March/April until senescence in form around trees and new colonies can form from wind-dispersed seeds. September/October. It is resistant to Dutch elm disease. IDENTIFICATION: When mature, this species is a large (30-60’ tall), deciduous MANAGEMENT: To avoid re-sprouts, older specimens can be either tree with dark gray, shallowly furrowed bark and a rounded, open crown. The cut or girdled and painted with a systemic herbicide, such as glyphosate slender and spreading branches have silver-gray, zig-zag twigs with a leaf bud or triclopyr. Small seedlings can be hand pulled and small trees can be at each junction. The alternate, small (1-3”) leaves are elliptic, toothed with carefully removed with a grub hoe or weed wench.60, 120, 113, 192 a mildly asymmetrical base and a short-pointed tip. The compact greenish

Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: USDA

Credit: Bruce Marlin Credit: Luis Fernández García Credit: Jeffrey Beall

78 | SMOOTH BROME | panicle has a tendency to lean sideways or droop from the weight of the Bromus inermis spikelets. The branchlets of this panicle are ascending to spreading during the period of bloom, otherwise they are more erect and contracted. The NATIVITY: Eurasia. branchlets occur in whorls along the central stalk of the inflorescence, and they often divide into secondary branchlets. These branchlets are green, HABITAT: Railroad prairies, woodland edges, savannas, pastures, fallow fields, hairless, and somewhat wiry. Each elongated spikelet is about 0.75–1.25” grassy areas along roads, weedy meadows, little-mowed areas of city parks, and (2-3 cm.) in length; it consists of a pair of glumes and 5-10 fertile lemmas waste areas. that are arranged in 2 overlapping ranks. Absence of awns on its spikelets SURVEY PERIOD: Leaf out mid-March, bloom early April to early June, fruit distinguish it from other Brome grasses. ripen July. THREAT: Has the capacity to invade native prairies and savannas. Forms IDENTIFICATION: Perennial grass 2.25–3.5’ tall; usually unbranched. The dense colonies that exclude other plant species. blades of alternate leaves are up to 12” long and 16 mm (0.67”) across; greyish MANAGEMENT: Prescribed burns in late spring will decrease density. blue on the upper side, green on the lower side, hairless, and flat. The leaf Chemical treatment will increase efficacy by mowing and then repeated blades are ascending to spreading and rather floppy. The leaf sheaths are greyish spraying with glyphosate after a flush of growth.88, 158, 110 blue, hairless, and closed, although they usually split open near the ligules. Each culm terminates in a panicle of floral spikelets about 4-8” long; the entire

Credit: B.S. Walters Credit: B.S. Walters Credit: USDA

Credit: R.W. Smith Credit: W. H. Wagner Slide Collection Credit: R.W. Smith

79 | TARTARIAN HONEYSUCKLE | shaped while the tip tapers to a blunt point. Pairs of white to pink, fragrant, Lonicera tatarica asymmetrical, 5-lobed flowers emerge at the axils of the leaves. Following pollination, pairs of 0.25” red berries develop. The flowers and berries are NATIVITY: Asia. on slender pedicels about 0.75-1” long, which is longer than most other honeysuckle species (typically 0.5” or less). HABITAT: Although this species prefers partial sun, mesic conditions, and fertile soil, it can survive in other conditions. Deciduous woodlands, disturbed THREAT: Aggressively invades natural areas and outcompetes native woodlots, woodland borders, thickets, fence rows, and roadsides. species by leafing out earlier and forming monocultures. Seeds are spread widely by a variety of bird species that eat the berries. ACTIVE SEASON: Leaf occurs earlier than most other species and leaves persist until late fall. Blooms appear late spring to early summer. MANAGEMENT: Monitor sunny, upland sites and open forests in spring as non-native honeysuckle leafs out before natives. Begin control efforts A multi-branched, 5-12’ tall shrub with long, arching IDENTIFICATION: in highest quality areas; hand pull or dig small plants, removing all roots; branches that are gray or grayish-brown in coloration and create an irregular target large, fruit-bearing plants for control/removal; foliar spray may be rounded crown. With age, the bark becomes shaggy and the branches hollow effective for large populations where few natives are present; treat cut out making them more fragile. Pairs of opposite, deciduous, hairless, oval-ovate stumps with herbicide; basal bark treatment is also effective, spray bottom shaped leaves with smooth margins occur along the branches. Each leaf is about 18” of all stems. Where fuel is present, prescribed fire may provide effective 1.5 - 2.5” long and 0.75-1.5” in width and the base is rounded or slightly heart- control of seedlings in fire adapted communities.57, 39, 36

Credit: AnRo0002 Credit: Matt Levin Credit: USDA

Credit: Matt Lavin Credit: Berichard Credit: Algirdas

80 | TREE-OF-HEAVEN | MANAGEMENT: Due to vigorous resprouting, systemic herbicides with Ailanthus altissima active ingredients such as glyphosate and triclopyr are generally required and could be applied to the stump following manual cutting or girdling.154 NATIVITY: Northeastern and Central China and Taiwan. HABITAT: Very adaptable to a range of conditions, but prefers full sun. ACTIVE SEASON: Year-round; leafs out in spring, blooms in June. IDENTIFICATION: Deciduous tree with smooth, pale bark and light chestnut brown twigs with large leaf scar. The leaves, stems, and some flowers have an unpleasant odor described as cat urine or rotting peanut butter. Large, showy clusters of yellowish-green flowers bloom in June and flat, twisted single-seeded samaras are produced by female trees. THREAT: Prolific seeder and vigorous grower that uses the chemical ailanthone, which has allelopathic effects, to displace native vegetation. Also causes damage to infrastructure in urban areas.

Credit:Luis Fernández García Credit: USDA

Credit: Zell, H. Credit: Zell, H. Credit: AnRo0002

81 | WHITE MULBERRY | purplish-black. Morus alba THREAT: This species has the potential to exclude native vegetation and research has suggested it may have allelopathic properties. It also NATIVITY: China hybridizes with red mulberry and may lead to local extinctions of the HABITAT: Old fields, urban lots, roadsides, forest edges, floodplains, and other native population. disturbed areas. Occasionally planted in residential areas. Is very pollution and MANAGEMENT: Seedlings can be hand pulled. Older specimens can drought tolerant and will grow in most soils except permanent wet areas. be either cut or girdled and painted with a systemic herbicide.137, 138, 116, 180, 182 ACTIVE SEASON: In the Midwest, generally blooms May into June with fruits forming as early as May and continuing into late July. IDENTIFICATION: A 30-50 ft tall, deciduous tree with distinctive polymorphic leaves that can be entire or have one or multiple lobes. All leaves are alternate, simple, toothed, and have a glossy upper surface and generally glabrous lower surface (unlike native M. rubra). The inner bark is bright orange and can sometimes be seen through bark fissures on older trees or on the roots. The fruits are composed of multiple dupes and ripen to white, pink, dark red, and

Credit: byrev Credit: Jaknouse Credit: Flora of North America

Credit: Jean POl Credit: Abrahami Credit: USDA

82 | WILD PARSNIP | Pastinaca sativa THREAT: Plant contains a chemical, furocoumarins, which can make skin sensitive to light (phytophotodermatitis) causing severe burns and NATIVITY: Eurasia. blisters. Well established native habitats are most susceptible along edges, particularly where corridors, trails, roads, or railways bisect the habitat. HABITAT: Prefers sun and moist to mesic, fertile soils, can tolerate less favorable Once a population of wild parsnip builds up, it can spread rapidly and out conditions. Occurs in disturbed areas, such as rights-of-way, roadsides, and compete native vegetation. railroad embankments. Can also invade prairies and savannas with fertile soil. MANAGEMENT: Due to the plant’s hazardous sap, hand pulling is not ACTIVE SEASON: Blooms typically June to July. recommended, but can be effective. Small patches can be weeded with IDENTIFICATION: Herbaceous biennial/short-lived perennial spends one or a shovel by severing the tap root 1-2” below ground and seeding the area more years around 6” tall as rosette. When conditions favorable, grows into 2-5’ with desired species. The site should be re-checked to ensure re-sprouting plant with glabrous, angular, grooved stem; branches occasionally. Alternate, does not occur and collected plant material should be burned on-site compound leaves up to 18” long and 6” across, 5 to 15 leaflets each. Leaflets or disposed of in a landfill. For larger populations, spot application of up to 3” long and 2” wide, often have lobes or coarse teeth along margins. The glyphosate in late fall may be effective. Any equipment that comes in contact flat-topped flowerhead, a compound umbel of tiny yellow flowers, is 3-8” wide. with the sap should be carefully disinfected following removal. Regardless Individual seeds spread via wind or water dispersal. The long, fleshy taproot of management technique, proper protective equipment should be worn to smells like parsnips. ensure sap does not contact skin or eyes.58, 112, 115, 79

Credit: MI - Flora - A.A. Reznicek Credit: MI Flora - C. Peirce Credit: USDA

Credit: MI Flora - R.W. Smith Credit: MI Flora - C. Peirce Credit: MI Flora - C. Peirce

83 | YELLOW & WHITE SWEET-CLOVER | THREAT: This plant is capable of nitrogen fixation. Reproduce by prolific seed production, up to 350,000 seeds per plant. Melilotus officinalis & Melilotus albus MANAGEMENT: Monitor open, sunny sites; most easily identified while NATIVITY: Eurasia. in bloom. For small infestations, pull first year plants in fall, after the root- HABITAT: Open, disturbed sites such as roadsides and old fields; invades crown buds have developed; pull second year plants before flowering. prairies, savannas and dunes; shade intolerant; tolerates nutrient poor soils. Flowering plants should be removed and disposed of so that seed does not develop. Poorly planned prescribed fire will increase infestations; multiple ACTIVE SEASON: Bloom May through September. hot burns needed, timing critical, dependent on population age structure. A IDENTIFICATION: Herbaceous annual or biennial that can grow up to 3’ single burn may also be combined with herbicide application. tall; deep taproot; extensive lateral roots. Leaves compound, alternate, clover leaves with three finely toothed leaflets. Stems upright; many-branched; often hollow; leafy stems that may be somewhat spreading near the base giving the plant a bushy appearance. Flowers numerous, yellow or white in color, pea- like, fragrant, crowded onto elongated stems. Seed pod, tiny, wrinkled, contains 1-2 small seeds that may remain viable for up to thirty years, seed germination stimulated by burning.

Credit: L. Wallis Credit: MI Flora - B.S. Walters Credit: USDA

Credit: B.S. Walters Credit: MI Flora - R.W. Smith Credit: R.W. Smith

84 NOTES

85 TAKE-HOME MESSAGES FROM THE TRIP

Threatened, endangered, and special concern species are integral parts of landscape ecosystems, so we must conserve and manage the entire system in order to save these species; this will require a movement from bio-centric conservation (species only) to eco-centric preservation (landscape ecosystems and species dependent upon them). An example is controling herbaceous and woody invasive species in rights-of-way rather than focusing only on species that are incompatible with power line transmission. Managing landscapes for diverse native plant species automatically supports a diverse population of native pollinator species and helps maintain functioning ecosystems.

Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. A complete survey of the state has not been conducted; therefore, not all locations/instances of rare species and their habitats are known or recorded in the state natural inventory database. Therefore, it is important to pay attention to the landscape ecosystems we are working in and learn to recognize rare species and their habitats.

The rare species prescriptions you see in the Web Mapper, ROW Keeper, or WPS are not set in stone. They’ve been drafted in a conservative manner to avoid adverse impacts to rare species with minimal effort or correspondence. With further consideration of management activities, field surveys, and/or consultation with agencies and local land managers, they may be modified. Please don’t hesitate to reach out and ask questions as you are planning your work.

Whether or not adverse impacts can be avoided should be assessed as early in the planning and design phase of a project as possible. Securing the appropriate natural resource permits is necessary and can be time-consuming and costly.

Credit: ECT, Inc.

86 REFERENCES

1. Agricultural Research Service (ARS), USDA. “Honey Bee Health and Colony Collapse Disorder”. Site visited February 2016. http://www.ars.usda.gov/News/docs.htm?docid=15572 2. Albert, D.A.; Denton, S.R.; Barnes, B.V. 1986. Regional landscape ecosystems of Michigan. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, School of Natural Resources. 32 p. & map. 3. Arbuckle, Kelly; James L. Pease. “Managing Iowa Habitats: Restoring Iowa Wetlands”. Iowa State University and the Resource Enhancement Protection Conservation Education Board. April 1999. 4. Arbuckle, Kelly; James L. Pease. “Managing Iowa Habitats: Restoring Iowa Wetlands”. Iowa State University and the Resource Enhancement Protection Conservation Education Board. April 1999. 5. Barnes, B.V. Regional Landscape Ecosystems of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin Site visited January 2015. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/gtr/other/gtr-nc178/michmap1.htm 6. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Zabulon Skipper (Poanes zabulon). Site visited May 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/poanes-zabulon 7. Cady, Thomas F. Floristic Inventory of Rock Island State Preserve. Prepared for the Iowa State Preserves Advisory Board. Iowa City, IA. 2003. Personal correspondence with Dennis Goemaat, Linn County Conservation Board. 8. Carey, Jennifer H. 1993. Pinus banksiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 9. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. 2009. Weed US Database of Plants Invading Natural Areas in the United States. Invasive.org (Online) Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasive.org/species/list.cfm?id=76 10. Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health and USDA APHIS PPQ. Invasive.org: bouncingbet (Saponaria officinalis). Site visited June 2015. http://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=6368 11. Chapman, S.S., Omernik, J.M., Griffith, G.E., Schroeder, W.A., Nigh, T.A., and Wilton, T.F., 2002, Ecoregions of Iowa and Missouri (color poster with map, descriptive text, summary tables, and photographs): Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey (map scale 1:1,800,000). Site visited June 2015. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/moia_eco.htm 12. Chapman, S.S., Omernik, J.M., Griffth, G.E., Schroeder, W.A., Nigh, T.A., and Wilton, T.F., 2002, Ecoregions of Iowa and Missouri (color poster with map, descriptive text, summary tables, and photographs): Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey (map scale 1:1,800,000). Site visited February 2016. ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/mo/moia_front.pdf 13. Clark, Lynn. Grasses of Iowa. Iowa State University and Fred Maytag Family Foundation. Site visited April 2016. http://www.eeob.iastate.edu/research/IowaGrasses/speciespages/DichaBorea/DichaBorea.html 14. Cohen, Joshua G. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Site visited May 2015. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/community.cfm?id=10666 15. Colorado Department of Agriculture, Conservation Services Division. Bouncing Bet Identification and Management. Site visited June 2015. http://www.manitouspringsgov.com/library/documents/general/Noxious_Weeds/Bouncingbet.pdf 16. Commission for Environmental Cooperation. “Ecological Regions of North America: Toward a Common Prescriptive.” 1997. Communications and Public Outreach Department of the CEC Secretariat. 17. Commission for Environmental Cooperation. “Ecoregions of North America-Level II (CEC)”. Ed. Mark McGinley. April 2008. The Encyclopedia of Earth. Site visited July 2015. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/152145/ 18. Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. Site visited April 2016. https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Documents/classwet/index.html#contents (Version 04DEC1998). 19. Daniels, Jaret C. Butterflies of Michigan Field Guide. Cambridge, MN: Adventure Publications, 2005. Print. 20. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 04 April. 2016. 21. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 08 April. 2016. 22. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 08 April. 2016. 23. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 08 April. 2016. 24. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/vpi/IowaFlora.aspx>. 25. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 29 March. 2016. 26. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 29 March. 2016. 27. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 29 March. 2016. 28. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. 29 March. 2016. 29. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. Site visited March 2016. http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/vpi/IowaFlora.aspx 30. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. Site visited March 2016. http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/vpi/IowaFlora.aspx. 31. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web. Site visited March 2016. http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/vpi/IowaFlora.aspx>. 32. Eilers, Lawrence J., and Dean M. Roosa. “The Vascular Plants of Iowa: An Annotated Checklist and Natural History.” The Vascular Plants of Iowa. University of Iowa Press Digital Editions, 2010. Web.

87 Site visited March 2016. http://uipress.lib.uiowa.edu/vpi/IowaFlora.aspx>. 33. Encyclopedia of Earth. Ecoregions of North America Level II. Site visited May 2014. http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/152145/ 34. Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge, Richard Nehring, Craig Osteen, Seth Wechsler, Andrew Martin, and Alex Vialou. Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008, EIB-124, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, May 2014. Site visited February 2016. http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib124.aspx 35. Flora of North America. Carex canoidea. Site Visited April 2016. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=242357127 36. Forest Invasive Plants Resource Center. “Eurasian Bush Honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.)”. Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, USDA, U.S. Forest Service. Site visited April 2016. http://na.fs.fed.us/spfo/invasiveplants/factsheets/pdf/bush-honeysuckle.pdf 37. Frederiksen, Shirley, and Paul Tauke. “The Iowa Bur Oak Savanna Project”. United States Forest Service and the Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Site visited April 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/forestry/buroaksavannabrochure.pdf?amp;tabid=653. 38. Go Botany: New England Wildflower Society. Dicanthelium boreale (northern rosette-panicgrass). Site visited April 2016. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/dichanthelium/boreale/ 39. Go Botany: New England Wildflower Society. Lonicera tatarica. Site visited April 2016. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/lonicera/tatarica/ 40. Go Botany: New England Wildflower Society. “Carex conoidea – open field sedge”. Site visited April 2016. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/carex/conoidea/ 41. Goemaat, Dennis. “Pollinators.” The Oak Hickory (Apr. 2016): n. pag. Linn County Conservation Board. Web. 4 May 2016. . 42. Gover, Art, Jon Johnson, and Jim Sellmer. “Managing Japanese Knotweed.” Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program Technical Assistance Series (2012): n. pag. Vegetation Management. USDA, Penn State, 2007. Site visited November 2015. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_017951.pdf. 43. Gowans, Alison. “Master Gardeners, Homeowners and City Come Together for Year of the Pollinator.” The Gazette. The Gazette, 10 Apr. 2016. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://www.thegazette.com/subject/life/home-garden/master-gardeners-homeowners-and-city-come-together-for-year-of-the-pollinator-20160409>. 44. Hastings, A. 2002. “Coluber constrictor” (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Site visited April 2016. http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Coluber_constrictor/ 45. Higman, P. and S. Campbell. 2009. Meeting the Challenge of Invasive Plants: A Framework for Action, prepared for the Michigan Department of Natural Resources Wildlife Division. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Lansing. (Online) Site visited May 2016. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/InvasivesDNREStrategicPlan.pdf 46. Hipp, Andrew. Field Guide to Wisconsin Sedges: An Introduction to the Genus Carex (Cyperaceae). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 2008. Print. 47. Holzheuer, Martha. McLoud Run Interpretive Sign Photo. Personal Communication. Photo Taken 10/21/2015. 48. IDOT, and FHWA. “Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (FHWA-IOWA-EIS-78-04-FS/4(f)).” (2007): n. pag. Iowa Department of Transportation and Federal Highway Administration, 19 Oct. 2007. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.prof-tech-consultant.dot.state.ia.us/uploads/EIS.pdf>. 49. Illinois Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Checklist of Illinois Endangered and Threatened Animals and Plants. http://www.dnr.illinois.gov/ESPB/Documents/2015_ChecklistFINAL_for_webpage_051915.pdf 50. Illinois Wildflowers. Birdsfoot Trefoil. Site visited June 2015. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/bf_trefoil.htm 51. Illinois Wildflowers. Crown vetch (Securigera varia). Site visited February 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/crown_vetch.htm 52. Illinois Wildflowers. Cut-leaved Teasel (Dipsacus laciniatus). Site visited February 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/cutleaf_teasel.htm 53. Illinois Wildflowers. Flat-Topped Aster (Doellingeria umbellata). Site visited April 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/fltp_aster.html 54. Illinois Wildflowers. Flat-Topped Aster (Doellingeria umbellata). Site visited April 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/fltp_aster.html 55. Illinois Wildflowers. Kentucky Bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/grasses/plants/ky_bluegrass.htm 56. Illinois Wildflowers. Soft rush (Juncus effuses). Site visited April 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/grasses/plants/soft_rush.htm Illinois Wildflowers. 57. Tatarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica). Site visited April 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/tt_honeysuckle.htm 58. Illinois Wildflowers. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). Site visited May 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/weeds/plants/wild_parsnip.htm 59. Illinois Wildflowers. “Jack Pine (Pinus banksiana)”. Site visited May 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/jack_pine.htm 60. Illinois Wildflowers. “Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila)”. Site visited May 2016. http://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/trees/plants/sb_elm.html 61. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. “Glaucomys volans”. Site accessed March 2016. http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/9240/0 62. Iowa Association of Naturalists. Iowa’s Community Series: Iowa Prairies. Site visited June 2015. http://www.iowanaturalists.org/resource_booklets.htm 63. Iowa Association of Naturalists. “Iowa Wetlands: Iowa’s Biological Communities Series”. Iowa State University Extension Service. Ames, IA. Site visited April 2016. http://www.msuextension.org/gallatin/documents/naturalresourcesdocuments/IowaWetlands.pdf 64. Iowa Association of Naturalists. “Iowa Wetlands: Iowa’s Biological Communities Series”. Iowa State University Extension Service. Ames, IA. Site visited April 2016. http://www.msuextension.org/gallatin/documents/naturalresourcesdocuments/IowaWetlands.pdf 65. Iowa Association of Naturalists. “Iowa Wetlands: Iowa’s Biological Communities Series”. Iowa State University Extension Service. Ames, IA. Site visited April 2016. http://www.msuextension.org/gallatin/documents/naturalresourcesdocuments/IowaWetlands.pdf 66. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Byssus skipper (Problema byssus). Site visited May 2016. https://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/education/species/butterflies/byssusskipper.pdf

67. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Threatened and Endangered Species. Site visited May 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/Conservation/Threatened-Endangered 68. Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Geological Survey Bureau. “Bedrock Geology: Linn County, Iowa”. IDNR. February, 1998. Site visited February 2016. https://s-iihr34.iihr.uiowa.edu/publications/uploads/ofm-1998-3.pdf

88 REFERENCES

69. Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Watershed Improvement Section. Water Quality Improvement Plan for McLoud Run, Linn County, Iowa: Total Maximum Daily Load for Thermal Modifications. 2007. Site visited January 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/water/watershed/tmdl/files/final/mcloudrun.pdf 70. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata). Site visited May 2016. https://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/education/species/turtle/oboxturtle.pdf 71. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. “Chapter Twelve: Butterfly Monitoring Protocol”. Site visited March 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/poanes-zabulon http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/wildlife/MSIM%20Manual/butterfly_monitoring.pdf 72. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. “Natural Areas Inventory.” Natural Areas Inventory. IDNR, n.d. Web. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/Query.aspx. 73. Iowa Department of Natural Resources. “Southern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys volans)” pdf. Site visited March 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/Conservation/Iowas-Wildlife 74. Iowa Department of Natural Resources: Watershed Improvement Section. Water Quality Improvement Plan for McLoud Run, Linn County, Iowa: Total Maximum Daily Load for Thermal Modifications. 2007. Site visited January 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/water/watershed/tmdl/files/final/mcloudrun.pdf 75. Iowa Department of Natural Resources: Watershed Improvement Section. Water Quality Improvement Plan for McLoud Run, Linn County, Iowa: Total Maximum Daily Load for Thermal Modifications. 2007. Site visited January 2016. http://www.iowadnr.gov/portals/idnr/uploads/water/watershed/tmdl/files/final/mcloudrun.pdf 76. “Japanese Knotweed.” Invasive Species - Best Control Practices. Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Feb. 2012. Web. Site visited May 2016. https://www.michigan.gov/documents/dnr/knotweed_BCP_372280_7.pdf. 77. Johnson, Paul S., Stephen R. Shifley, and Robert Rogers. The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks. Wallingford, Oxon: CABI, 2002. Print. 78. Kansas Native Plants. Plant Guide: Cluster Sedge (Carex aggregata). Webmaster Jeff Hansen, Kansas Native Plant Society. Site visited April 2016. http://www.kansasnativeplants.com/guide/plant_detail.php?plnt_id=212 79. Kennay, Jill, and George Fell. “Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca Sativa L.).” Vegetation Management Guideline. Illinois Natural History Survey: Prairie Research Institute. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://wwx.inhs.illinois.edu/research/vmg/parsnip/. 80. Koh, Insu, Eric V. Lonsdorf, Neal M. Williams, Claire Brittain, Rufus Isaacs, Jason Gibbs, and Taylor H. Ricketts. “Modeling the Status, Trends, and Impacts of Wild Bee Abundance in the United States.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113.1 (2015): 140-45. The University of Vermont. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.uvm.edu/~uvmpr/materials/KohetalPNASfinalproof.pdf>. 81. Konishi, H. 2003. “Reithrodontomys megalotis” (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Site visited April 2016. http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Reithrodontomys_megalotis/ 82. Kost, M.A., D.A. Albert, J.G. Cohen, B.S. Slaughter, R.K. Schillo, C.R. Weber, and K.A. Chapman. 2007. Natural Communities of Michigan: Classification and Description. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Report No. 2007-21, Lansing, MI. Site visited May 2016. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/community.cfm?id=10654 83. Kost, M.A., D.A. Albert, J.G. Cohen, B.S. Slaughter, R.K. Schillo, C.R. Weber, and K.A. Chapman. 2007. Natural Communities of Michigan: Classification and Description. Michigan Natural Features Inventory, Report No. 2007-21, Lansing, MI. Site visited April 2016. https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/mnfi/communities/community.cfm?id=10654 84. Linn County, GIS Division. 1930-2014 Aerial Imagery. Linn County GIS Flexviewer. Site visited April 2016. https://gis.linncounty.org/webapps/auditor/flexviewer/ 85. Linn County Conservation Board. Rock Island Preserve Management Plan. Revised July 2003. Personal correspondence with Dennis Goemaat, Linn County Conservation Board. 86. Linzey, A.V. & NatureServe (Hammerson, G.). 2008. Microtus ochrogaster. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T42631A10736359. Site visited April 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T42631A10736359.en. 87. Lotts, Kelly and Thomas Naberhaus, coordinators. 2015. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Site visited April 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/ (Version04.18.2016). 88. Martincich, Jordan. “Smooth Brome Grass – Control in CRP Fields”. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Site visited May 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/ks/newsroom/?cid=nrcs142p2_033533 89. Matthews, Robin F. 1993. Equisetum sylvaticum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Sites visited April 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/; http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/fern/equsyl/all.html 90. Matthews, Robin F. 1993. Equisetum sylvaticum. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Site visited March 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/fern/equsyl/all.html 91. McDaniel, Paul. “The Twelve Soil Orders: Soil Taxonomy”. University of Idaho, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences. Site visited July 2015. http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/alfisols.htm 92. Michigan Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Protection of Threatened Species. http://www.michigan.gov/documents/dnr/2007-007_NR_Threatened_Endangered_Species__nonstrike__9-12._274586_7.pdf 93. Michigan Flora Online. A. A. Reznicek, E. G. Voss, & B. S. Walters. Bird’s foot trefoil. February 2011. University of Michigan. Web. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/species.aspx?id=1326 94. Michigan Flora Online. A. A. Reznicek, E. G. Voss, & B. S. Walters. February 2011. University of Michigan. Web. Site visited April 2016. http://michiganflora.net/species.aspx?id=936. 95. Michigan Flora Online. A.A. Reznicek, E.G. Voss, & B.S. Walters. Sedge (Carex aggregata). February 2011. University of Michigan. Site visited April 2016. http://michiganflora.net/genus.aspx?id=Carex Web. 96. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii). Site visited May 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/explorer/species.cfm?id=11490 97. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Floodplain Forest. Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/community.cfm?id=10658 98. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis). Site visited May 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/explorer/species.cfm?id=11426 99. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Invasive Species factsheets. Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/factsheets.cfm 100. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Invasive Species factsheets. Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/invasive-species/factsheets.cfm 101. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Michigan State University Extension. Special Plants and Animals Profiles. Site visited May 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/data/ 102. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Michigan State University Extension. Special Plants and Animals Profiles. Site visited May 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/data/

89 103. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Michigan’s Natural Communities. Dry Sand Prairie. Site visited May 2015. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/community.cfm?id=10698 60 104. Michigan Natural Features Inventory (MNFI). Michigan’s Natural Communities: Hillside Prairie. Site visited June 2015. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/community.cfm?id=10709 105. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. 2007. Rare Species Explorer (Web Application). Site visited April 2016. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/explorer https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/explorer/species.cfm?id=11584 106. Michigan State University. Reed canarygrass factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://nativeplants.msu.edu/uploads/files/Reed%20canarygrass.pdf. 107. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). Site visited June 2015. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/herbaceous/birdsfoottrefoil.html 108. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Botrychium campestre. Site visited March 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PPOPH010W0 109. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Minnesota’s Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Species. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/ets/index.html 110. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Smooth brome factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/grasses/smoothbromegrass.html. 111. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Tephrosia virginiana. Site visited April 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PDFAB3X0N0 112. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). Site visited May 2015. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/herbaceous/wildparsnip.html 113. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. “Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila)”. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialplants/woody/siberianelm.html 114. Minnesota Wildflowers. Doellingeria umbellate (Flat-topped White Aster). Site visited April 2016. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/flat-topped-white-aster 115. Minnesota Wildflowers. Pastinaca satvia (Wild Parsnip). Site visited May 2016. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-parsnip 116. Missouri Botanical Garden. “Morus Alba.” Plant Finder. Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d. Web. Site visited April 2016. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=d439. 117. Missouri Department of Conservation. Common and Cut-leaved Teasel Control. Site visited February 2016. http://mdc.mo.gov/your-property/problem-plants-and-animals/invasive-plants/common-and-cut-leaved-teasel-control 118. Missouri Department of Conservation. Soapwort (Bouncing Bet): Saponaria officinalis. Site visited June 2015. http://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/soapwort-bouncing-bet 119. Montana State University Extension. 2011. Weed Seed Dispersal by Vehicles. MontGuide MT2011 5AG New 6/11 (Online). Site visited May 2016. http://store.msuextension.org/publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT201105AG.pdf 120. Moore, Lincoln M., and Kathy Davis. “Siberian Elm (Ulmus Pumila L.).” Plant Fact Sheet. United States Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Conservation Service. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_ulpu.pdf. 121. Morandin, Lora A., and Claire Kremen. “Bee Preference for Native versus Exotic Plants in Restored Agricultural Hedgerows.” Restoration Ecology 21.1 (2012): 26-32. Berkeley Food Institute, 2013. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://food.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Bee-Preference-Rest-Ecol.pdf>. 122. Murphy, Megan. Cedar Rapids Water Restores McLeod Run. City of Cedar Rapids. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 12/4/2013. Site visited February 2016. http://www.cedar-rapids.org/city-news/media-releases/Lists/Releases%20and%20News/DispForm.aspx?ID=2552 123. NASA. “Global Climate Change.” Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 10 Feb. 2016. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://climate.nasa.gov/ 124. Natural Resources Conservation Service. “Iowa Carex Species”. Site visited April 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_007321.pdf 125. Natural Resources Conservation Service. “Iowa Carex Species”. Site visited April 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_007321.pdf 126. Natural Resources Conservation Service. “Restoring Iowa Wetlands: A Snapshot of Iowa’s Wetland Types, Benefits, Restoration Processes and Programs for Land Users”. Des Moines, IA. January 2005. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_006832.pdf Site visited April 18, 2016. 127. Natural Resources Conservation Service. “Restoring Iowa Wetlands: A Snapshot of Iowa’s Wetland Types, Benefits, Restoration Processes and Programs for Land Users”. Des Moines, IA. January 2005. Site visited April 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_006832.pdf 128. Natural Resources Conservation Service and Wildlife Habitat Council. “Native Pollinators.” Fish and Wildlife Habitat Management Leaflet. May 2005. Site visited February 2016. http://www.plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Native_Pollinators.pdf 129. Ohio Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Invasive Species Fact Sheets. Site visited June 2014. http://ohiodnr.gov/invasive-species/terrestrial-plants/list-of-ohios-top-invasive-plants. 130. Olson, L. J. 2006. The economics of terrestrial invasive species: a review of the literature. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 35(1), 178. (Online) http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/10181/1/35010178.pdf 131. PAN. “Bees in Crisis.” Bees in Crisis. Pesticide Action Network, n.d. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.panna.org/food-farming-derailed/bees-crisis. 132. Patterson, Marion, and Rich Patterson. “Wondrous Yards Attract Pollinators and Reduce Flash Floods.” The Gazette. The Gazette, 30 Apr. 2016. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://www.thegazette.com/subject/opinion/guest-columnists/wondrous-yards-attract-pollinators-and-reduce-flash-floods-20160430. 133. Pease, Jim. “The Prairie Vole”. Iowa State University, Wildlife Extension. 9/4/2008. Site Visited April 2016. https://www.extension.iastate.edu/wildlife/CommonQuestions/PrairieVole.htm 134. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Invasive Plants in Pennsylvania: Crown Vetch, Coronilla varia. Site visited February 2016. http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/cs/groups/public/documents/document/dcnr_010284.pdf

135. Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., & Morrison, D. 2005. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological economics, 52(3), 273-288. (Online) Site visited May 2016. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.364.6457&rep=rep1&type=pdf 136. Randall, Jesse A., and Joe Herring. “Management of Floodplain Forests.” ISU Forestry Extension (n.d.): n. pag. ISU Forestry. Iowa State University, Oct. 2012. Web. Site visited March 2016.

90 REFERENCES

https://www.extension.iastate.edu/forestry/publications/PDF_files/F-326%20Management%20of%20Floodplain%20Forests.pdf 137. Rhodus, Tim, comp. “Morus Alba - White or Common Mulberry.” PlantFacts. Ohio State University, Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, 2002. Web. Site visited April 2016. http://plantfacts.osu.edu/pdf/0247-763.pdf. 138. Rhodus, Tim, comp. “Morus Alba - White or Common Mulberry.” PlantFacts. Ohio State University, Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, 2002. Web. Site visited April 2016. http://plantfacts.osu.edu/pdf/0247-763.pdf>. 139. Robert W. Freckmann Herbarium. University of Wisconsin. Bouncing Bet. Site visited June 2015. http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=SAPOFF 140. Robert W. Freckmann Herbarium. University of Wisconsin. Spiranthes magnicamporum. Site visited June 2015. http://wisplants.uwsp.edu/scripts/detail.asp?SpCode=SPIMAG 141. Rock Island Preserve Species List. Personal correspondence with Dennis Goemaat, Linn County Conservation Board. 1989-2002. Raw survey data. Rock Island Preserve, Cedar Rapids. 142. Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Site visited May 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/pinban/all.html 143. Romand-Monnier, F. 2014. Carex conoidea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014. Site visited April 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T44393344A44464480.en. 144. Romand-Monnier, F. 2014. Carex conoidea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2014. Site visited April 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-1.RLTS.T44393344A44464480.en. 145. Runkel, Sylvan T., and Dean M. Roosa. Wildflowers and Other Plants of Iowa Wetlands. 2nd ed. Iowa City: U Of Iowa, 2014. Print. 146. Savanna Oak Foundation, Inc. “Animals of Oak Savannas”. Oak Savannas: Characteristics, Restoration, and Long-term Management. Site visited April 2016. http://oaksavannas.org/savanna-animals.html 147. Savanna Oak Foundation, Inc. “Geography of Oak Savannas”. Oak Savannas: Characteristics, Restoration, and Long-term Management. Site visited April 2016. http://oaksavannas.org/geography.html#top 148. Savanna Oak Foundation, Inc. “Geography of Oak Savannas”. Oak Savannas: Characteristics, Restoration, and Long-term Management. Site visited April 2016. http://oaksavannas.org/geography.html#top 149. Savanna Oak Foundation, Inc. “Managing Fire in Oak Savannas”. Oak Savannas: Characteristics, Restoration, and Long-term Management. Site visited April 2016. http://oaksavannas.org/fire-fuel.html 150. Schlicht, Dennis W., John C. Downey, and Jeffrey C. Nekola. Butterflies of Iowa. N.p.: U of Iowa, 2007. Print. 151. Schlicht, Dennis W., John C. Downey, and Jeffrey C. Nekola. Butterflies of Iowa. N.p.: U of Iowa, 2007. Print. 152. Smith, Rick. “Long-delayed, $200 Million Highway 100 Extension Project Begins.” The Gazette. The Gazette, 1 Apr. 2014. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.thegazette.com/2012/12/18/long-delayed-200-million-highway-100-extension-project-gets-rolling>. 153. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. “North American Mammals: Western Harvest Mouse". Site visited May 2016. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=292 154. Swearingen, J., B. Slattery, K. Reshetiloff, and S. Zwicker. 2010. Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas, 4th ed. National Park Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Washington, DC. 168pp. Site visited February 2016. http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/pubs/midatlantic/ 155. The Nature Conservancy. 2005. Element Stewardship Abstracts. Invasive.org (Online). Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs.html 156. The Nature Conservancy. Kentucky bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. http://wiki.bugwood.org/Poa_pratensis 157. The Nature Conservancy. Saponaria officinalis. Site visited June 2015. http://wiki.bugwood.org/Saponaria_officinalis 158. The Stewardship Network. Smooth Brome factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://www.stewardshipnetwork.org/atf/cf/%7BB4AF8F8B-E671-4661-B91B-D446CE18410D%7D/Awnless%20Brome_Bromus%20Inermis.pdf. 159. United States Army Corps of Engineers. Prairies of the Midwest. Site visited June 2015. http://www.mvr.usace.army.mil/Portals/48/docs/Recreation/ODM/pdf/Prairies%20of%20the%20Midwest.pdf 160. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Farm Service Agency. “Pollinators.” Pollinators. USDA, Farm Service Agency, n.d. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.fsa.usda.gov/programs-and-services/economic-and-policy-analysis/natural-resources-analysis/pollinators/index. 161. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service. What is Pollination? Site visited February 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/What_is_Pollination/index.shtml 162. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Library. 2011. National Invasive Species Information. 2011. (Online) Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/plants/main.shtml 163. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Kentucky bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/poapra/all.html 164. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2010. Field Indicators of Hydric Soils in the United States, Version 7.0. L.M. Vasilas, G.W. Hurt, and C.V. Noble (eds.). USDA, NRCS, in cooperation with the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils. Site visited April 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1046970.pdf 165. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Web Soil Survey. Site visited February 2016. http://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm 166. United States Department of Agriculture. Prescribed Burning: Iowa Job Sheet, Conservation Practice 338. August 2009. Site visited April 2016. http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1077267.pdf

167. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). “Basic Information about Pesticide Ingredients.” Environmental Protection Agency, 5 Nov. 2015. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/basic-information-about-pesticide-ingredients. 168. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Western Ecology Division. Ecoregions of North America. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm

91 169. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Ecological Services. Species of Concern. Site visited May 2014. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/es/soc/ 170. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Endangered Species. Site visited February 2016. http://www.fws.gov/endangered/?s8fid=112761032793&s8fid=112762573903&countyName=Linn+County%2C+IA 171. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Indiana bat factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/inba/ 172. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Indiana Bat Summer Survey Guidelines. Site visited May 2015. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/inba/surveys/pdf/2015IndianaBatSummerSurveyGuidelines01April2015.pdf 173. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Neal Smith National Wildlife Refuge. Site visited May 2014. http://www.fws.gov/refuge/Neal_Smith/about.html 174. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Threatened and Endangered Species. Sited visited May 2016. https://www.fws.gov/endangered/ 175. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). “Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; 4(d) Rule for the Northern Long-Eared Bat”. Federal Register: The Daily Journal of the United States Government. Published 01/14/2016. Site visited February 2016. https://federalregister.gov/a/2016-00617 176. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. “2016 Range-wide Indiana Bat Summer Survey Guidelines.” USFWS, April 2016. Site visited May 2016. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/inba/surveys/pdf/2016IndianaBatSummerSurveyGuidelines11April2016.pdf 177. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. “Northern Long-Eared Bat: Final 4(d) Rule - Questions and Answers.” USFWS: Endangered Species. USFWS, 4 Feb. 2016. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/nleb/FAQsFinal4dRuleNLEB.html. 178. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. “Northern Long-eared Bat: Key to the Northern Long-Eared Bat 4(d) Rule for Non-Federal Activities.” USFWS: Endangered Species. USFWS, 13 Jan. 2016. Web. Site visited May 2016. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/nleb/KeyFinal4dNLEB.html. 179. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. “The Cost of Invasive Species”. January 2012. Site visited May 2016. http://www.fws.gov/home/feature/2012/pdfs/CostofInvasivesFactSheet.pdf 180. United States Forest Service. “Morus Alba.” Fire Effects Information System (FEIS). USDA and Forest Service, 2009. Web. Site visited April 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/moralb/all.html. 181. United States National Park Service. Japanese Barberry (Berberis thunbergii). Plant Invaders of Mid-Atlantic Natural Areas. 11/11/2010. Site visited April 2016. https://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/pubs/midatlantic/beth.htm 182. United States National Park Service. “White Mulberry (Morus Alba).” National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, 11 Nov. 2010. Web. Site visited April 2016. https://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/pubs/midatlantic/moal.htm. 183. United States National Parks Service (NPS). Common Mullein factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/veth1.htm. 184. Unites States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Northern long-eared bat factsheet. Site visited June 2014. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/nlba/ 185. University of Iowa. Iowa Geological Survey. Site visited May 2013. http://www.isgb.uiowa.edu/wqm/Biological/EcoRegions.html . 186. University of Michigan, BioKIDS. “Glaucomys volans” (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Site visited March 2016. http://www.biokids.umich.edu/accounts/Glaucomys_volans/ 187. University of Wiconsin, Department of Botany. Orchids of Wisconsin. Spiranthes magnicamporum: Great plains ladies’-tresses. Site visited June 2015. http://www.botany.wisc.edu/orchids/magnicamporum.html 188. VanderLinden, M. 2002. “Microtus ochrogaster” (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Site visited April 2016. http://www.biokids.umich.edu/accounts/Microtus_ochrogaster/ 189. VanDeWalle, Terry J., and Wendy L. VanDeWalle. Rock Island State Preserve Faunal Survey. Prepared for Iowa Department of Natural Resources. 2003. Personal correspondence with Dennis Goemaat, Linn County Conservation Board. 190. White House Pollinator Health Task Force (U.S.). “National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators”. May 19, 2015. Site visited February 2016. https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/Pollinator%20Health%20Strategy%202015.pdf 191. Widescreen Arkive. Northern panic grass (Dichanthelium boreale). Site visited April 2016. http://www.arkive.org/northern-panic-grass/dichanthelium-boreale/image-G143889.html 192. Wieseler, Susan. “Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila L.)”. Plant Conservation Alliance’s Alien Plant Working Group. Site visited May 2016. https://www.nps.gov/Plants/alien/fact/ulpu1.htm 193. Wiken, Ed, Francisco Jiménez Nava, and Glenn Griffith. 2011. North American Terrestrial Ecoregions—Level III. Site visited June 2015. ftp://ftp.epa.gov/wed/ecoregions/pubs/NA_TerrestrialEcoregionsLevel3_Final-2june11_CEC.pdf 194. Wiken, Ed, Francisco Jiménez Nava, and Glenn Griffith. 2011. “North American Terrestrial Ecoregions—Level III”. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada. Site visited July 2015. http://www3.cec.org/islandora/en/item/10415-north-american-terrestrial-ecoregionslevel-iii-en.pdf 195. Wisconsin Council on Forestry. 2009. Wisconsin’s Urban Forestry: Best Management Practices for Preventing the Introduction and Spreading of Invasive Species. (Online) Site visited May 2015. http://www.wisconsinforestry.org/36-initiatives/other-initiatives/invasive-species-bmps 196. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Sand Prairie. Site visited June 2015. http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/EndangeredResources/Communities.asp?mode=detail&Code=CTHER073WI 197. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. “Best Management Practices for Preventing the Spread of Invasive Species in Wetlands”. Site visited April 2016. http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Wetlands/documents/WetlandInvasiveBMP.pdf 198. World Wildlife Fund. Farming: Habitat Conversion and Loss. Site visited February 2016. http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/agriculture/impacts/habitat_loss/ 199. Wratten, Stephen D., Mark Gillespie, Axel Decourtye, Eric Mader, and Nicolas Desneux. “Pollinator Habitat Enhancement: Benefits to Other Ecosystem Services.” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 159 (2012): 112-22. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, 2012. Web. Site visited February 2016. http://www.xerces.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/2012_AGEE_lr_sec.pdf>. 200. Xerces Society. Native Bee Biology. Site visited February 2016. http://www.xerces.org/pollinator-conservation/native-bees/ 201. Zouhar, Kris. 2008. Berberis thunbergii. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Site visited April 2016. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/berthu/all.html#HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

92 IMAGE CREDITS

1. Abrahami. White mulberry (Morus alba) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morus_alba_bark.jpg 2. AG Web. Western Corn Belt Plains photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.agweb.com/assets/1/6/MainFCKEditorDimension/somegood.jpg 3. Algirdas. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonicera_tatarica 4. Alpsdake. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berberis_thunbergii_fruits.JPG 5. Andrew C. Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zabulon_Skipper_(Poanes_zabulon)_(14743056297).jpg 6. Ann Arbor Natural Area Preservation. Michigan Flora. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2414 7. Ann Arbor Natural Area Preservation. Michigan Flora. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) photograph 2. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2414 8. AnRo0002. (Ailanthus altissima) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AAilanthus_altissima_001.JPG 9. AnRo0002. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:20140408Lonicera_tatarica.jpg 10. Arndt, Ingo. Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.arkive.org/ornate-box-turtle/terrapene-ornata/ 11. b:user: SBJohnny. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berberis_thunbergii_purple_hedge.JPG 12. Barnes, Burton V; Zak, Donald R; Denton, Shirley R; Spurr, Stephen H. Forest Ecology. River Floodplain Diagram. John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1998. 13. Beall, Jeffrey. Siberian elm (Ulmis pumila) photograph.Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/denverjeffrey/4840694518 14. Belanger, Laurent. Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Petit_polatouche_(%C3%89cureuil_volant)_(Glaucomys_volans)_(2).jpg 15. Berichard. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lonicera_tatarica_(flowers).jpg 16. Bodner, Ted. Goats-rue (Tephrosia virginia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tephrosia_virginiana.jpg 17. Bryson, Charles T. and John R. Byssus skipper (Problema byssus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasive.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=2192005 18. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Acadian hairstreak (Satyrium acadica) distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Satyrium-acadica 19. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Byssus skipper (Problema byssus) distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/problema-byssus 20. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Wild indigo duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae) distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Erynnis-baptisiae 21. Butterflies and Moths of North America. Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/poanes-zabulon 22. byrev. White mulberry (Morus alba) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morus_alba_bark.jpg 23. California Department of Fish and Wildlife Service (CDFWS). North american racer (Coluber constrictor) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/californiadfg/22918500039 24. Carlson, Aaron. Wild indigo duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wild_Indigo_Duskywing_(Erynnis_baptisiae)_(6005592749).jpg 25. Cimala, Christine. Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) image. Flickr. June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/ladydragonflyherworld/5858741423/sizes/l 26. Cohen, Joshua G. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Emergent marsh photograph. EmergentMarsh_1.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/images.cfm?id=10654. 27. Cohen, Joshua G. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Emergent marsh photograph. EmergentMarsh_2.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/images.cfm?id=10654. 28. Cohen, Joshua G. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Floodplain forest photographs (side photographs). Site visited June 2014. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/images.cfm?id=10658 29. Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey. Myotis sodalis photograph. Site visited January 2012. http://www.conservewildlifenj.org/protecting/projects/bat/indiana 30. Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey. Myotis sodalis photograph. Site visited January 2012. http://www.conservewildlifenj.org/protecting/projects/bat/indiana 31. Cornell University, New York State Integrated Pest Management Program. Lotus corniculatus image. Flickr. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/99758165@N06/18872808679/sizes/l 32. Crusier. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_pine#/media/File:Pinus_banksiana.jpg 33. Darekk2. Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans)distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Southern_flying_squirrel_Glaucomys_volans_distribution_map.png 34. Darlow, Mike. Crown vetch (Securigera varia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crown_Vetch_(6628689597).jpg 35. Demmon, M. Michigan Flora. Black locust bark. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=15777&id=1343 36. Digital Atlas of the Virginia Flora. Glomerate sedge (Carex aggregata) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://vaplantatlas.org/index.php?do=plant&plant=1478 37. Dziuk, Peter M. Flat top white aster (Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/flat-topped-white-aster 38. Dziuk, Peter M. Flat top white aster (Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/flat-topped-white-aster 39. Dziuk, Peter M. Flat top white aster (Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/flat-topped-white-aster 40. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Animal passageway under Highway 100. Highway 100 and Rock Island Botanical Presence, Linn County, Iowa. March 2016. 41. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Emergent Wetland. May 2016. 42. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Emergent Wetland. November 2015. 43. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Emergent Wetland. November 2015. 44. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Emergent Wetland. November 2015. 45. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. McLoud Run, Linn County, Iowa. November 2015. 46. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. McLoud Run, Linn County, Iowa. November, 2015.

93 47. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Sand prairie. November 2015. 48. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheuer, Martha. Sand Prairie photographs. Ciha Fen at Ciha Fen Preserve, Johnson Co., Iowa. March, 2015. 49. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Holzheurer, Martha. Eastern tiger swallowtail photograph. ITC headquarters. May, 2016. 50. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Hoffman, Lauren. Invasive species treatment photograph. ITC headquarters. September, 2015. 51. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Hoffman, Lauren. Invasive species treatment photograph. ITC headquarters. June, 2014. 52. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Iowa Indiana Bat Map. Data from USFWS, Iowa DNR and ITC Midwest. May, 2016. 53. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Iowa Nothern long-eared bat map. Data from USFWS and ITC Midwest. May, 2016. 54. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. NLEB bat decision flow chart. Data from USFWS. May, 2016. 55. Environmental Consulting & Technology, Inc. Potential Bat Impacts Flow Chart. Data from USFWS. May, 2016. 56. Eugster, Simon. Cut-leaved teasel (Dipsacus laciniatus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADipsacus_laciniatus_inflorescence.jpg 57. Fidenci, Pierre. North american racer (Coluber constrictor) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coluber_constrictor01.jpg 58. Flora of North America. White mulberry (Morus alba) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=5285&flora_id=1 59. Fritzflohrreynolds. Goats-rue (Tephrosia virginia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tephrosia_virginiana_-_Goat%27s_Rue_2.jpg 60. Fritzflohrreynolds. Goats-rue (Tephrosia virginia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tephrosia_virginiana_-_Goats_Rue.jpg 61. Fritzflohrreynolds. Goats-rue (Tephrosia virginia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/fritzflohrreynolds/16058294071 62. Fungus Guy . Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Jack_pine_cone_(St_Joseph_Twp).JPG 63. García, Luis Fernández. Tree-of-heave (Ailanthus altissima) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ailanthus-altissima.jpg 64. García, Luis Fernández. Siberian elm (Ulmis pumila) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ulmus_pumila_20070415.jpg 65. Google Earth. Area Map. 42º 00’ 45.97” N 91º 40’ 50.34” W. 2016. May 2016. 66. Google Earth. Highway 100 Extension Project and Rock Island Botanical Preserve Map. 42º 01’ 39.57” N 91º 43’ 55.10” W. 2016. May 2016. 67. Google Earth. McLoud Run Map. 42º 00’ 44.45” N 91º 39’ 55.04” W. 2016. May 2016. 68. Gregory, D.R. Ranunculus rhomboideus. (Prairie buttercup). Michigan Flora. Site visited May 2016. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=9577&id=2398 Site visited June 2015. 69. Harrelson, Kenneth Dwain. Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_Zabulon_Skipper.jpg 70. Houten, Pethan. Soft rush (Juncus effusus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Juncus_effusus02.jpg 71. Houten, Pethan. Soft rush (Juncus effusus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Juncus_effusus02.jpg 72. InAweofGod’sCreation. Crown vetch (Securigera varia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/nhoulihan/3750242372 73. Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Myotis sodalis cluster photograph. Site visited January 2012. http://www.in.gov/dnr/kids/5918.htm 74. Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Myotis sodalis cluster photograph. Site visited January 2012. http://www.in.gov/dnr/kids/5918.htm 75. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Blanding’s turtle Iowa distribution map. Site visited June 2014. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=561&type=County 76. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Botrychium campestre distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=3182&type=County 77. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Carex aggregata Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=2641&type=County 78. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Carex canoidea Iowadistribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=2665&type=County 79. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Dicanthelium boreale distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=2955&type=County 80. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens Iowa Distribution Map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=1603&type=County 81. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Erynnis baptisiae Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=748&type=County 82. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Glaucomys volans Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=513&type=County 83. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Indiana bat Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2014. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=494&type=County Site visited June 2014. 84. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Pituophis catenifer sayi distribution map. Site visited May 2014. https://www.iowadnr.gov/Portals/idnr/uploads/education/Species/snake/bullsnake.pdf Site visited 2014. 85. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Poanes zabulon Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=780&type=County 86. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Problema byssus Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=777&type=County 87. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Satyrium acadica Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=815&type=County

94 IMAGE CREDITS

88. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Spiranthes magnicamporum Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=2900&type=County Site visited July 2015. 89. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Terrapene ornata Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=566&type=County Site visited May 2014. 90. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Equisetum sylvaticum distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=3166&type=County 91. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Juncus effusus distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=2821&type=County 92. Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Ophioglossum pusillum distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://programs.iowadnr.gov/naturalareasinventory/pages/RepSpeciesByCounty.aspx?elementID=3183&type=County 93. Iowa National Heritage Foundation (INHF). Chichaqua wetlands photograph. Site visited January 2014. http://inhfblog.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/photo2.jpg\ 94. Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation (INHF). Oak savanna photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.inhf.org/ec11-oak-savannas.cfm 95. Jebulon. Cut-leaved teasel (Dipsacus laciniatus) photograph. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADipsacus_laciniatus_L._Card%C3%A8re_d%C3%A9coup%C3%A9e_JdP.jpg 96. Jaknouse. White mulberry (Morus alba) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_alba 97. POI, Jean. White mulberry (Morus alba) photograph. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Morus_alba_(Mariemont)_JPG1a.jpg 98. Kelly, J. Michigan Flora. Black locust thorns. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=11322&id=1343 99. Kelly, J. Michigan Flora. Phalaris arundinacea photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2180 100. Kelly, J. Michigan Flora. Verbascus thapsus photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2682. 101. Kor!An. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berberis_thunbergii_01.JPG 102. KQED Science. Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) roost tree photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://science.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/blogs.dir/31/files/2013/08/FWS-roost-tree.jpg 103. KQED Science. Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) roost tree photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://science.kqed.org/quest/wp-content/blogs.dir/31/files/2013/08/FWS-roost-tree.jpg 104. Lasley, Greg. Rainbow over Prairie photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.greglasley.net/nonBirds/pawneestorm.html 105. LASZLO ILYES. Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) photograph. Site visited April 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glaucomys_volans_peanut_feeder.jpg 106. Lavin, Matt. Kentucky bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/plant_diversity/ 107. Lavin, Matt. Lotus corniculatus image. Flickr. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/plant_diversity/5181805067/sizes/l 108. Lavin, Matt. Siberian elm (Ulmis pumila) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ulmus_pumila_(5107823814).jpg 109. Levin, Matt. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lonicera_tatarica_(3621856475).jpg 110. Levin, Matt. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lonicera_tatarica_(5259268728).jpg 111. Lindsey, James K. Woodland horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Equisetum.sylvaticum.jpg 112. Louisiana State University Herbarium. Glomerate sedge (Carex aggregata) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.herbarium.lsu.edu/keys/species-pages/cyperaceae/carex/carex-aggregata/ 113. Lovit, Marilee. Northern panic-grass (Dichanthelium boreale) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/dichanthelium/boreale/ 114. M., Chris. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jack_Pine_Barren.jpg 115. M.C., Hugo. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_pine#/media/File:Jackpine.jpg 116. Marlin, Bruce. Siberian elm (Ulmis pumila) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ulmus_pumila.jpg 117. May, L. Michigan Flora. Autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellata) photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1193 118. Mayer, Joshua. Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) photograph. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Glaucomys_volans_Birdfeeder.jpg 119. Mayer, Joshua. “Woodman Lake Sand Prairie and Dead Lake” image. Wisconsin State Natural Area #251, Grant County. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/wackybadger/5821554000/sizes/l 120. Mayfield, Frank. Bouncing bet photo. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/gmayfield10/4703914267/sizes/l 121. McCarty, Megan. Acadian hairstreak (Satyrium acadica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray_Hairstreak_Megan_McCarty20.jpg#mw-jump-to-license 122. McCarty, Megan. Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Male_Zabulon_Skipper,_Megan_McCarty.jpg 123. McClarren, Chrissy & Reago, Andy. Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zabulon_Skipper_(Poanes_zabulon)_(14662814577).jpg 124. McMasters, Melissa. Wild indigo duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/cricketsblog/21893775496/in/photolist-a9K1KL-a9Geuz-6SQpgM-8ounr2-8exDsQ-zmFjFS 125. Meggar. Soft rush (Juncus effusus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juncus_effusus 126. Melburnian. Siberian elm (Ulmis pumila) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ulmus_pumila_leaves.jpg 127. Migas. Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFallopia-japonica(Blaetter).jpg 128. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Emydoidea blandingii United States distribution map. Site visited June 2014. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=ARAAD04010 129. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Pituophis catenifer sayi United States distribution map. Site visited May 2014. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=ARADB26020

95 130. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Coluber constrictor distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=ARADB07010 131. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Northern Long Eared Bat United States distribution map. Site visited June 2014. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=AMACC01150 132. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Pituophis melanoleucus distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=ARADB26020 133. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Prairie moonwart (Botrychium campestre) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PPOPH010W0 134. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) photographs. Site visited May, 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=AMAFF11140# 135. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Reithrodontomys megalotis distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=AMAFF02030 136. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR). Tephrosia virginia distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/rsg/profile.html?action=elementDetail&selectedElement=PDFAB3X0N0 137. Mittelhauser, Glen. Alliaria petiolata photographs. Site visited June 2014. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/alliaria/petiolata/ 138. Ninnescah Field Station. Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata) photograph. Site visited May, 2016. http://ninnescahlife.wichita.edu/node/614 139. National Park Service (NPS). Prairie moonwart (Botrychium campestre) photograph. Site visited May, 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Botrychium_campestre_-_NPS_Photo.jpg 140. NatureServe in collaboration with Bruce Patterson, Wes Sechrest, Marcelo Tognelli, Gerardo Ceballos, The Nature Conservancy — Migratory Bird Program, Conservation International — CABS, World Wildlife Fund — US, and Environment Canada — WILDSPACE. Site visited May 2016. https://naturalhistory.si.edu/mna/full_image.cfm?image_id=1130 141. Oak Savannas. Oak savanna photographs Site visited May 2014.http://oaksavannas.org/ Ogle, Ed. Birds Foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) image. Flickr. July 2014. https://www.flickr.com/photos/20980483@N04/14678198622/sizes/l 142. Ohio Plants. Glomerate sedge (Carex aggregata) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://ohioplants.org/ 143. Opiola, Jerzy. Bird’s foot trefoil image. Site visited July 2015. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lotus_corniculatus_T69.1.jpg 144. Opiola, Jerzy. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berberis_thunbergii.jpg 145. Orchi. Northern adder’s-tongue (Ophioglossum pusillum, aka O. vulgatum) photograph. May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ophioglossum_vulgatum_Saarland_02.jpg 146. Orchi. Northern adder’s-tongue (Ophioglossum pusillum, aka O. vulgatum) photograph. May 2016. https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADgy%C3%B3nyelv_(n%C3%B6v%C3%A9nynemzets%C3%A9g) 147. Patterson, Bruce. Alliaria petiolata photographs. Site visited June 2014. https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/alliaria/petiolata/ Peirce, C. 148. Michigan Flora. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=134 149. Peirce, C. Michigan Flora. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) photograph 2. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=134 150. Peirce, C. Michigan Flora. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) photograph 3. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=134 151. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (PDCNR). Wild indigo duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erynnis_baptisiae_5020002.jpg 152. Peters, Kristian. Soft rush (Juncus effusus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Juncus_effusus.jpeg 153. Peterson, Bob. Eastern bumble bee (Bombus impatiens) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AEastern_Bumble_Bee_(Bombus_impatiens)_(6489709385).jpg 154. Peterson, Bob. Syrphid fly (Toxomerus marginatus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Syrphid_Fly_on_Water_Hyssop_(Brahmi)_(6427943391).jpg 155. Peterson, Tom. Acadian hairstreak (Satyrium acadica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Satyrium_acadica.jpg 156. Peterson, Tom. Wild indigo duskywing (Erynnis baptisiae) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erynnis_baptisiae2.jpg 157. Poindexter, D.B. Glomerate sedgee (Carex aggregata) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://vascularflora.appstate.edu/vps/861 158. Pondhawk. Byssus skipper (Problema byssus) photograph. Site visited May 2016.https://www.flickr.com/photos/38686613@N08/4747745866/in/photolist-8exr2j-8expLE-8exrrm-8expHs 159. Rasbak. Soft rush (Juncus effusus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pitrus_plant_(Juncus_effusus).jpg 160. Reznicek, A.A. Michigan Flora. Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) photographs. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=722 161. Reznicek, A.A. Michigan Flora. Autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellata) photograph 5. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1193 162. Reznicek, A.A. Michigan Flora. Bouncing bet image. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=2491&id=771 163. Reznicek, A.A. Michigan Flora. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) photographs. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2543 164. Reznicek, A.A. Michigan Flora. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=134 165. Rigel7. Crown vetch (Securigera varia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PP_Na_Popovickem_kopci_019_cf_Securigera_varia.jpg 166. Rigel7. Woodland horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum) photograph. Site visited May 2016.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PR_Vresova_stran_035_Equisetum_sylvaticum.jpg 167. Rose, Harry. Kentucky bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/macleaygrassman/7398749720/sizes/l . 168. Ross, Sage. Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Berberis_thunbergii_in_Pennwood_State_Park_-_2.jpg 169. Routledge, Rob. Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasive.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=5472099

96 IMAGE CREDITS

170. Salo, Anneli. Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFallopia_japonica_-_Japanese_knotweed%2C_Japanintatar%2C_Parkslide_C_IMG_6997.JPG 171. Salomon, Revital. Red admiral butterfly ( Vanessa atalanta) pollinator photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Admiral_Butterfly_(Vanessa_atalanta).JPG 172. Schipper, R. Michigan Flora. Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=722 173. Schipper, R. Michigan Flora. Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=722 174. Schipper, R. Michigan Flora. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2414 175. Schipper, R. Michigan Flora. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) photograph 2. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2414 176. Schmierer, Alan. North american racer (Coluber constrictor) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/sloalan/3705973326/in/photolist-6Du5KQ-sUwPgb-9FT1VS-bBw6yb-8ePEhU-6DpXnt-AVeiAp-6Ldq5f-9Uk93G-bnW1ce-i47caA-2D45aA-9UhkwB-eTeE7d- 9Uhm56-9Uhky4-8ePECE-9Uhkst-bZduqo-eD8VS-8ePEzL-8eLnbP-2CYDye-2D45Y9-9FT1ch-7WRJR1-6sXZDU-7WNvJP-7yJcEY-nG6hmX-9Uhm3v-7Tj6Dt-4wuD3E-9Uk9Cj-7Tnmym-nG6hkz- 7YWPGm-m4THv8-7YTAGK-rDSA36-xeRBoT-8eLmW8-8ePEph-9U3e25-CD7Khp-9Uhm6e-7WRJQ1-7WRJNN-9Uk9af-9Uk9wq 177. Schmoker, Bill. Bullsnake photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.schmoker.org/BirdPics/BullSnake.html 178. Sheldon, Allen Blake. Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) photographs. Site visited May 2014. http://www.arkive.org/blandings-turtle/emydoidea-blandingii/ 179. Simon, Joan. Bouncing bet (Saponaria officinalis) photo. Site visited June 2015. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saponaria_officinalis_01.jpg 180. Slaughter, Brad. Sand Prairie image. Michigan Natural Features Inventory. Site visited June 2015. http://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/communities/images.cfm?id=10698 181. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=722 182. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellata) photograph 3. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1193 183. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Black locust image. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=6575&id=1343 184. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Bouncing bet (Saponaria officinalis) photograph. Site visted June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=7552&id=771 185. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Bromus inermis photograph. BromusInermis_3.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2033. 186. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Bromus inermis photograph. BromusInermis_4.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2033. 187. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2414 188. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) photographs. Site visited May 2016. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2543 189. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Phalaris arundinacea photographs. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2180. 190. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Verbascus thapsus photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2682. 191. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. White sweet clover (Melilotus albus) photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1333 192. Smith, R.W. Michigan Flora. Wild parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=134 193. Snelling, Gordon C. Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.inaturalist.org/observations/2503846 194. Southeastern Flora. Spiranthes magnicamporum images. Site visited June 2015. http://www.southeasternflora.com/view_flora.asp?plantid=1917 195. South Shore Conservancy. Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) photograph. Site visited May 2014. https://southshoreconservancy.wordpress.com/page/5/ 196. Starr, Forest and Starr, Kim. Kentucky bluegrass. Site visited June 2015. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starr_001026-8001_Poa_pratensis.jpg 197. Stefan.lefnaer. Cut-leaved teasel (Dipsacus laciniatus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADipsacus_laciniatus_sl10.jpg 198. Stefan.lefnaer. Cut-leaved teasel (Dipsacus laciniatus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ADipsacus_laciniatus_sl_1.jpg 199. Sten. Northern adder’s-tongue (Ophioglossum pusllum, aka O. vulgatuum) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ophioglossum-vulgatum-habitat.jpg 200. Stone, Lynn M. Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.arkive.org/ornate-box-turtle/terrapene-ornata/ 201. Strobilomyces, I. Crown vetch (Securigera varia) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASecurigera_varia_20070630w.JPG 202. Sullivan, John. Iridescent green sweat bee (Agapostemon texanus) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iridescent.green.sweat.bee1.jpg 203. Swanson, Phil. Nature Search. Northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) photographs. Site visited June 2015. http://www.fnanaturesearch.org/index.php?option=com_naturesearch&task=view&id=1198 204. Tapatio. Bullsnake (Pituophis catenifer) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bullsnake-juvenile.JPG 205. The AlphaWolf. Prairie moonwart (Botrychium campestre) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botrychium#/media/File:Botrychium_virginianum.JPG 206. theNerdPatrol. Prairie vole (microtus ochragaster) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prairie_vole.gif 207. Thomas, Ken. Southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_flying_squirrel#/media/File:Southern_Flying_Squirrel-27527-1.jpg 208. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Botrychium campestre distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=BOCA5 209. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Carex aggregata distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=caag2 210. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Equisetum sylvaticum distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=EQSY 211. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Juncus effusus distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=JUEFE2 212. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dicanthelium boreale distribution map. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dichanthelium_boreale_(as_Panicum_boreale)_BB-1913.png 213. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Ophioglossum pusillum distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=OPPU3 214. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Pinus banksiana distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=piba2

97 215. United Department of Agriculture (USDA). Tephrosia virginia distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=TEVI 216. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Ailanthus altissima distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=aial 217. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Alliaria petiolata distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=alpe4 218. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Berberis thunbergii distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=beth 219. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Bromus inermis distribution map.Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=BRIN2 220. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Carex canoidea distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CACO14 221. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dicanthelium boreale distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=DIBO 222. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dipsacus laciniatus distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=DILA4 223. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Doellingeria umbellata var. pubens distribution map.Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=CACO14 224. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Elaeagnus umbellata distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=rhca3 225. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Fallopia japonica distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=pocu6 226. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Glomerate sedge (Carex aggregata) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carex_aggregata_BB-1913.png 227. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Lonicera maackii distribution map. Site visited May 2014.http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=LOMA6 228. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Lonicera tatarica distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=lota 229. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Lotus corniculatus distribution map. Site visited June 2015. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=loco6 230. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Melilotus officinalis & Melilotus albus’ distribution map. Site visited May 2016.http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=MEOF 231. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Morus alba Iowa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.html?sub=6050#maps 232. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Pinus banksiana distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/data/il/ilpin/list/?LETTER=P 233. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Ophioglossum pusillum (aka O. vulgatum) distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=OPPU3 234. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Pastinaca sativa distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=PASA2 235. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Phalaris arundinacea distribution map. Site visited June 2014. http://plants.usda.gov/java/ 236. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Ophioglossum pusillum distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=OPPU3 237. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Pituophis catenifer sayi distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=BOCA5 238. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Poa pratensis distribution map. Site visited June 2015. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=POPR 239. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Robinia pseudoacacia distribution map. Site visited June 2015. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=rops 240. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Rosa Multiflora distribution map. Site visited June 2014. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ROMU 241. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Saponaria officinalis distribution map. Site visited June 2015. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=SAOF4 242. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Securigera varia distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=seva4. 243. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Spiranthes magnicamporum distribution map. Site visited June 2015. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=RUST2 244. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Ulmis pumila distribution map. Site visited May 2016. http://www.plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ULPU 245. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Verbascum thapsus distribution map. Site visited June 2014. http://plants.usda.gov/java/ 246. United States Department of Agriculture, (USDA). Securigera varia photograph. Site visited May 2016. http://www.invasive.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=1211041 247. United States Department of Agriculture, (USDA). Elaeagnus umbellata distribution map. Site visited May 2014. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ELUM 248. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level I Ecoregions Map. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm 249. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level I Ecoregions Map edited by ECT, Inc. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm 250. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level II Ecoregions Map. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level II 251. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level II Ecoregions Map edited by ECT, Inc. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm# Level II 252. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level III Ecoregions Map edited by ECT, Inc. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/na_eco.htm#Level III . 253. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Level IV Ecoregions Map edited by ECT, Inc. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions/level_iii_iv.htm#Level IV III 254. United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Oak savanna historical distribution map. Site visited May 2014. http://www.epa.gov/ecopage/upland/oak/oak95/call.htm 255. United States Fish and Wildlife (USFW) Pacific Southwest Region. Martarano, Steve. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfws_pacificsw/20442224406/in/photostream/ 256. United States Fish and Wildlife (USFW) Pacific Southwest Region. Martarano, Steve. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfws_pacificsw/20474584961 257. United States Fish and Wildlife (USFW. Erickson, Bjorn. Western harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys megalotis) bottom photographs. Site visited May 2016. http://baynature.org/article/genes-rescue-salt-marsh-harvest-mice/ 258. United States Fish and Wildlife (USFWS). Invasive species management protocols (top photo). Site visited May 2016. http://www.fws.gov/uploadedImages/Region_3/NWRS/Zone_2/Detroit_River_International_Wildlife_Refuge/Sections/What_We_Do/Resouce_Management/Greg_wicking_cattails. JPG 259. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) photograph. Site visted May 2014. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/inba/ 260. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) photograph. Site visted May 2014. http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/mammals/inba/

98 IMAGE CREDITS

261. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). North american racer (Coluber constrictor) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwsmidwest/11193222776/in/photolist-i47caA-2D45aA-9UhkwB-eTeE7d-9Uhm56-9Uhky4-8ePECE-9Uhkst-bZduqo-eD8VS-8ePEzL-8eLnbP-2CYDye- 2D45Y9-9FT1ch-7WRJR1-6sXZDU-7WNvJP-7yJcEY-nG6hmX-9Uhm3v-7Tj6Dt-4wuD3E-9Uk9Cj-7Tnmym-nG6hkz-7YWPGm-m4THv8-7YTAGK-rDSA36-xeRBoT-8eLmW8-8ePEph-9U3e2 5-CD7Khp-9Uhm6e-7WRJQ1-7WRJNN-9Uk9af-9Uk9wq-9HdFhn-7Tj6Bt-7Tnmvj-9HdFbz-7TnmtE-bt5hXq-aurUKw-9Hgzgo-6oyz3X-9HdFkn 262. United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Zabulon skipper (Poanes zabulon) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zabulon_Skipper_(5796900464).jpg 263. United States Geological Society (USGS). Mark Vanderer. 2004. Emergent wetland image. Site visited April 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/plainsandprairie/9620760125 264. United States Geological Society (USGS). “Cedar River North of Vinton, Iowa”. Site visited June 2015. http://ia.water.usgs.gov/projects/crp/images/basin_pics/CedarR_NofVinton.jpg 265. United States National Parks Service. Indiana bat roost tree photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.nps.gov/neri/parknews/images/MYLU-2_17_2011_1.jpg 266. Van de Velde, Lode. Woodland horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum) photo. Site visited May 2016. http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=77689&picture=horsetail-close-up 267. Van de Velde, Lode. Woodland horsetail (Equisetum sylvaticum) photo. Site visited May 2016.http://www.publicdomainpictures.net/view-image.php?image=77689&picture=horsetail-close-up 268. Vincentz, Frank. Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFallopia_japonica_09_ies.jpg 269. Wagner, W.H. Slide Collection. Michigan Flora. Bromus inermis photograph. BromusInermis_5.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2033. 270. Wallis, L. Michigan Flora. Autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellata) photograph 4. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1193 271. Wallis, L. Michigan Flora. Black locust images. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=7003&id=1343 272. Wallis, L. Michigan Flora. Verbascum thapsus photograph (Common mullein). Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2682. 273. Wallis, L. Michigan Flora. Yellow sweet clover photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1335 274. Wallis, L. Michigan Flora. Yellow sweet clover photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1335 275. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Autumn-olive (Eleagnus umbellata) photograph 2. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1193 276. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Bromus inermis photograph. BromusInermis_1.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2033. 277. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Bromus inermis photograph. BromusInermis_2.jpg Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2033. 278. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Honey locust trunk. Site visited June 2015. http://michiganflora.net/image.aspx?img=1804&id=1302 279. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Phalaris arundinacea photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2180. 280. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Verbascus thapsus photograph. Site visited June 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=2682. 281. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. White sweet clover (Melilotus albus) photograph 2. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1333 282. Walters, B.S. Michigan Flora. Yellow sweet clover photograph 1. Site visited May 2014. http://michiganflora.net/images.aspx?id=1335 283. Wet Canvas. Bullsnake photographs. Site visited May 2014. http://www.wetcanvas.com/forums/showthread.php?t=563663 284. Whittle Ecological. Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://whittleecological.com/ 285. Whittle Ecological. Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://whittleecological.com/ 286. Wilson, James. Nature Search. Northern long eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) photographs. Site visited June 2015. http://www.fnanaturesearch.org/index.php?option=com_naturesearch&task=view&id=1198 287. Wisconsin Parc. Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://wiparc.org/dnr-proposes-emergency-rule-to-prevent-blandings-turtle-harvest-upon-delisting/ 288. Withers, Martin. Ornate box turtle (Terrapene ornata) photograph. Site visited May 2014. http://www.arkive.org/ornate-box-turtle/terrapene-ornata/ 289. Yankech, Gary. Acadian hairstreak (Satyrium acadica) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/49663413@N08/19927406316 290. Zell, H. Tree-of-heave (Ailanthus altissima) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AAilanthus_altissima_001.JPG 291. Zell, H. Tree-of-heave (Ailanthus altissima) photograph. Site visited May 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ailanthus#/media/File:Ailanthus_altissima_002.JPG 292. Zharkikh, Andrey. Bouncing bet image. Site visited June 2015. https://www.flickr.com/photos/zharkikh/14926559240/sizes/l

99